9.7 Seizures and Epilepsy
A seizure is abnormal transient discharges of neurons within the brain that are sudden, excessive, and uncontrolled. During a seizure, many neurons send signals at the same time, much faster than normal. This surge of excessive electrical activity may cause involuntary movements, sensations, emotions, and/or behaviors. The disturbance of normal nerve cell activity may cause a loss of awareness. Some people recover immediately after a seizure, while others may take minutes to hours to feel like themselves again. During this time, they may feel tired, sleepy, weak, or confused.[1]
Most seizures are idiopathic, with no known cause. Seizures can also be caused by other medical conditions, such as a brain tumor, high fever, or hyponatremia. Epilepsy is a chronic disorder that is defined by at least two unprovoked seizures occurring at least 24 hours apart and in which groups of nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain sometimes send the wrong signals and cause recurrent, unpredictable, and unprovoked seizures.
Status epilepticus refers to a seizure lasting more than five minutes or two more sequential seizures without full recovery of consciousness between the seizures. Seizures lasting more than five minutes damage neurons and are unlikely to end on their own, requiring immediate emergency medical care.[2]
Pathophysiology
Seizures are caused by an abnormality in electrical neuron activity, an imbalance of the neurotransmitter GABA, or a combination of both conditions. When there is an imbalance between inhibition and excitatory conditions within the CNS, a seizure occurs.
View a supplementary YouTube video[3] on epilepsy from the Mayo Clinic: What is epilepsy? A Mayo Clinic expert explains.
Types of Seizures
Seizures are divided into three broad categories called partial (focal), generalized, and unclassified seizures. See an illustration of partial (focal) and generalized seizures in Figure 9.20.[4] Each of these categories will be further discussed in the following subsections.
Partial Seizures
Partial seizures, also known as focal seizures, occur within one cerebral hemisphere of the brain. Partial seizures are further subdivided into two main classes called complex partial seizures and simple partial seizures. In some instances, a partial seizure can develop into a generalized tonic, clonic, or tonic-clonic seizure. Partial seizures are more common in adult clients and are generally less responsive to medical treatment than other types of seizures.
- Complex partial seizures: These seizures often occur in the temporal lobe and may be called psychomotor seizures due to the function of this part of the brain. Semi-coordinated, repetitive motor movements occur, and loss of consciousness may occur for one to three minutes. Clients are unaware of their environment and may wander at the beginning of the seizures. In the postictal period (time after the seizure), clients may have amnesia.
- Simple partial seizures: The client remains conscious throughout a simple partial seizure. An aura (unusual sensation) occurs before the seizure and is often described as a “deja vu” feeling, a perceived offensive smell, or sudden onset of pain. The client may also experience one-sided movement of an extremity or usual sensations. Autonomic changes in heart, skin flushing, or epigastric pain may also occur.
Generalized Seizures
Generalized seizures involve abnormal electrical activity in both cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Generalized seizures are classified as tonic, clonic, tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic:
- Tonic: Usually lasts for 30 seconds to several minutes and involves an abrupt increase in muscle tone, loss of consciousness, and possible changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and respirations.
- Clonic: Muscle contractions and relaxation last several minutes.
- Tonic-clonic: Last approximately two to five minutes; begins with a tonic phase with stiffening and rigidity of the muscles (typically of arms and legs) and then followed by immediate loss of consciousness and rhythmic jerking of all extremities. The client may bite their tongue and become incontinent of urine and feces.
- Myoclonic: A brief episode of jerking or stiffening of the extremities, either in muscle groups or isolated; contractions can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
- Atonic (akinetic): A sudden loss of muscle tone for a few seconds and followed by postictal (period after seizure) confusion. Often, this type of seizure causes the person to fall, causing injury. This type of seizure is most resistant to drug therapy.
View a supplementary YouTube video[5] of tonic-clonic seizure: Tonic clonic seizure.
Unclassified Seizures
Unclassified seizures occur for no known reason so are also known as idiopathic. They compromise about half of all seizure activity and may have symptoms of both generalized or partial seizures. Primary epilepsy is not associated with any specific cause, but genetic factors seem to play a role. Secondary seizures are caused by other conditions, such as a brain tumor or trauma. Other potential causes of unclassified seizures include the following:
- Alcohol withdrawal
- Alzheimer’s disease
- Strokes, heart attacks, and other cardiovascular conditions that deprive the brain of oxygen or cause bleeding in the brain
- Brain inflammation or swelling
- Infections such as meningitis, HIV-related infections, and viral encephalitis
- High fever
- Metabolic disorders
- Electrolyte disturbances (e.g., hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia)
Phases of Seizures
Depending on the seizure category, it may occur in multiple phases:
- Prodromal or preictal phase: Sensations or behavior changes that precede a seizure
- Aural phase: A sensory warning that is similar each time a seizure occurs
- Ictal phase: The phase from the first symptoms to the end of seizure activity
- Postictal phase: The recovery period after the seizure
Seizure Triggers
Seizure triggers are conditions that can provoke seizures in people diagnosed with epilepsy and taking medications. Triggers include the following conditions[6]:
- Stress
- Increased physical activity
- Excessive fatigue
- Alcohol or caffeine consumption
- Dehydration or missing meals
- Exposure to toxins or poisons, including lead, carbon monoxide, illicit drugs, and very large doses of prescription medications
- Hormonal changes associated with the menstrual cycle
- Sleep deprivation
- Visual stimulation such as flashing lights or moving patterns
Assessment
Interviewing the client and/or family and obtaining a thorough history are essential for management of care, including data such as how many seizures has the person had; how long they lasted; any pattern of occurrence; signs and symptoms before, during, and after a seizure; the presence of an aura; and if there was loss of consciousness. Ask if the client is currently taking any prescription drugs, herbal supplements, or using alcohol or drugs. Inquire if the client has any other medical conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, stroke, or history of head injury.
Common Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests
Diagnosis of seizure activity is made through a complete history and physical examination, as well as diagnostic testing. Diagnostic tests are ordered by health care providers to rule out possible causes of seizure activity and/or confirm a diagnosis of epilepsy. Common diagnostic tests include an electroencephalogram (EEG), CT scan, MRI, or a SPECT/PET scan. EEG monitoring can help determine the intrinsic cause of the seizure.
If a seizure occurs, blood tests, such as serum electrolyte levels, blood cell count, glucose, toxicology/drug screen, and levels of prescribed drugs such as phenytoin or phenobarbital, are typically performed to assess for possible causes. Review information about these tests under the “General Assessment of the Nervous System” section.
Nursing Diagnosis
Common nursing diagnoses for clients with seizures include the following[7]:
- Risk for Injury
- Risk for Impaired Swallowing
- Risk for Ineffective Airway Clearance
- Fear
- Anxiety
- Ineffective Coping
- Deficient Knowledge
Outcome Identification
Overall goals for clients with seizures and epilepsy focus on preventing seizures and injuries, as well as promoting effective coping and self-management of this chronic disease.
Examples of outcome criteria for clients with seizures include the following[8]:
- After the teaching session, the client and their caregiver(s) will identify actions to take when a seizure occurs to maintain safety and prevent injury.
- After the teaching session, the client and their caregiver(s) will list three possible triggers that may cause a seizure to occur.
- After the teaching session, the client and their caregiver(s) will verbalize understanding of the treatment regimen to prevent seizure activity.
- After the teaching session, the client will list three preferred coping strategies to maintain emotional wellness.
- During a seizure, the client will maintain a patent airway.
Interventions
Medical Interventions
The goals of medical treatment are to stop seizures when they occur as quickly as possible, ensure adequate cerebral oxygenation during seizure activity, and maintain a seizure-free state.
When a seizure occurs that requires medical treatment, medications such as IV lorazepam, diazepam, or midazolam may be administered as prescribed. Ongoing cardiac and respiratory monitoring (including continuous pulse oximetry) is performed to monitor for side effects of medications administered to stop the seizure. Additional information about medications is provided under the “Medication Therapy” subsection. If the airway is patent, oxygen may be administered via a nasal cannula or mask. However, if the client is exhibiting signs of airway obstruction, intubation may be performed with oxygen administered via the artificial airway. Suction is implemented, as needed, to remove excess secretions and maintain a patent airway. After a seizure occurs, antiepileptic medications such as levetiracetam, phenytoin, and phenobarbital may be prescribed to maintain a seizure-free state. IV infusion of fluids is usually prescribed to replace fluids and provide appropriate electrolyte replacement.
Medication Therapy
Current evidence does not support starting anti-seizure medications following a first-time seizure because it does not change the quality of life. However, clients who experience a seizure should see a neurologist within 15 days. Following a new onset seizure, clients are counseled about risk factors related to starting an anticonvulsant. Medication does not cure the disorder, so the objective of pharmacologic treatment is to achieve seizure control with minimal side effects.[9]
There are several medications available to control seizures. A single medication is typically prescribed to prevent seizure activity and then the dose is titrated until symptoms are resolved, the maximal dose is reached, or signs of drug toxicity occur. Phenytoin is one of the oldest anti-seizure medications that can also be administered IV for status epilepticus, but it must be administered slowly while the client is on cardiac monitoring due to its potential for arrhythmias.
For some anti-seizure medications, blood levels are routinely monitored to prevent toxicity. Changing to another medication may be required if seizure activity is not controlled or drug toxicity occurs. Additionally, medication dosage and/or frequency of administration may require adjustment to meet the body’s needs in times of illness, weight changes, or increased stress. A client should be educated to never stop taking the medication without consulting with the provider because doing so could cause increased frequency of seizures or status epilepticus.
The type of medication prescribed is based on the type of seizure and the safety/effectiveness of the medication(s). If prescribed medications are taken as directed, seizure activity can often be controlled. However, some clients with epilepsy do not respond to drug management and require surgery to reduce seizure frequency or provide complete seizure control. Table 9.7 summarizes common anticonvulsants, their side effects, and potential toxic effects.
Table 9.7. Common Anticonvulsants[10]
| Medication | Dose-Related Side Effects | Toxic Effects |
|---|---|---|
| Carbamazepine | Drowsiness, unsteadiness, drowsiness, blurred vision, nausea/vomiting, or mild leukopenia. | Stevens-Johnson syndrome (a rare, serious disorder of the skin and mucous membranes), toxic epidermal necrolysis (extensive exfoliation of the epidermis and mucous membrane, which may result in sepsis and death), severe leukopenia, aplastic anemia, pancytopenia, and hepatitis |
| Oxcarbazepine | Dizziness, headache, ataxia, nausea, rash, double vision, tremor, somnolence, and/or hyponatremia. The latter effect is thought to be secondary to the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) and may occur in 25-75% of clients. | Hepatotoxicity |
| Phenytoin | Arrhythmias, visual problems, gum enlargement, unclear articulation of speech, nystagmus (rapid, uncontrollable eye movements), abnormal hair growth, or decreased bone density. | Severe skin reaction, drowsiness, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, and blood or bone marrow disorders. |
| Phenobarbital | Sedation, diplopia, irritability, or ataxia. | Anemia and skin rash |
| Lamotrigine | Drowsiness, somnolence, fatigue, weight gain, ataxia, or nausea. | Stevens-Johnson syndrome |
| Levetiracetam | Somnolence, fatigue, or dizziness. | Stevens-Johnson syndrome |
| Gabapentin | Fatigue, ataxia, weight gain, drowsiness, or dizziness. | Leukopenia and hepatotoxicity |
| Valproate | Nausea, vomiting, weight gain, tremor, hair loss, or menstrual irregularities. | Hepatotoxicity, skin rash, and nephritis |
| Topiramate | Fatigue, confusion, ataxia, anorexia, weight loss, depression, or somnolence. | Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) and metabolic acidosis |
| Ethosuximide | Nausea, vomiting, headache, or gastric upset. | Skin rash, hepatitis, and systemic lupus erythematosus |
| Clonazepam | Behavior changes, alopecia, palpitations, or drowsiness. | Hepatotoxicity, thrombocytopenia, bone marrow failure, and ataxia |
Surgical Interventions
Surgery may be required for clients with epilepsy from intracranial tumors, cysts, abscesses, or vascular anomalies, or their seizures are unresponsive to medication therapy. If the seizure can be located to a specific, well-defined area of the brain, the area may be excised without producing significant neurologic deficits. This type of surgery is called a lobectomy.
As adjunct treatment to medications, a vagal nerve stimulator may be implanted below the clavicle. The device is connected to the vagus nerve in the cervical area and delivers electrical signals to the brain to reduce and/or control seizure activity.
Nursing Interventions
Nursing interventions for clients experiencing seizures focus on improving safety and preventing injury, monitoring for potential complications, providing health teaching, and providing psychosocial support to enhancing coping mechanisms. The following box summarizes nursing interventions during and after a seizure.
Nursing Interventions During a Seizure[11]
- If a client experiences an aura prior to a seizure, attempt to get the client to a safe, private place.
- Provide privacy during a seizure.
- Ease the client to the floor if not currently in bed.
- If the client is in bed, remove extra pillows and raise the side rails.
- If the client is on the floor, protect the client’s head with a pad and prevent it from hitting the floor.
- Loosen constrictive clothing and remove any eyeglasses.
- Push aside any furniture or objects that could cause client injury during the seizure.
- Do not attempt to open or pry the client’s jaws if they are clenched in a spasm. Do not insert anything into the mouth because this may cause broken teeth and/or injury to mouth/tongue.
- Do not restrain the client during the seizure, and do not attempt to stop the client’s movements.
- Record the start and end times of the seizure.
- If a client experiences status epilepticus, call for emergency assistance and notify the health care provider. Administer oxygen per agency policy until help arrives.
- Observe for these items during the seizure:
- Presence of aura
- Changes in pupil size and any eye deviation
- Level of consciousness
- Presence of apnea, cyanosis, and drooling
- Incontinence
- Eye flutter or blinking
- Tongue or lip biting
- Lip smacking
Nursing Interventions After a Seizure
- Keep the client on their side to prevent aspiration.
- Ensure the airway is open and patent.
- Assess vital signs.
- Perform neurological checks.
- Allow the client to rest.
- Document observations made while the seizure was occurring.
- Monitor for increased frequency or duration due to potential of apneic periods that may occur during or immediately following a generalized seizure.
- Because there is often a period of confusion after a tonic-clonic seizure, maintain a safe environment.
- On awakening, reorient the client to the environment.
- If a client becomes agitated upon awakening, use calm, nonthreatening communication.
- Document the length of time it takes the client to return to a preseizure state.
When caring for a client with a history of seizures in an inpatient setting, the nurse implements seizure precautions. Oxygen and suction equipment should be readily accessible at the bedside. Padded side rails may be implemented, based on agency policy. The bed should be kept in the lowest position.
Health Teaching
Providing health teaching to the client and their family members/caregivers promotes positive coping and self-care management. Health teaching should include the following topics:
- Reinforcing medication therapy information and the importance of not stopping medication without talking to the health care provider. Include written instructions for what to do if a dose is missed and to contact their health care provider if side effects occur. Reinforce the importance of routinely having therapeutic blood levels drawn as prescribed. Advise them to not take over-the-counter medications or supplements without first consulting with the health care provider.
- Wearing a medical alert bracelet or necklace to identify the presence of a seizure disorder.
- Attending follow-up appointments with their health care provider/neurologist as directed.
- Ensuring the family member or significant other knows how to respond in the event of seizure, including when to call emergency services and when to notify the health care provider.
- Following state laws concerning driving and operating machinery.
- Avoiding alcohol and excessive fatigue because these factors can trigger seizures.
- Eating a healthy, balanced diet; getting proper rest; and using stress management techniques to minimize risk of breakthrough seizures.
- Keeping a seizure diary and bringing it to follow-up medical appointments.
- Providing community resources and support for clients and their family members, such as the Epilepsy Foundation.
Evaluation
Evaluation of client outcomes refers to the process of determining whether or not client outcomes were met by the indicated time frame. This is done by reevaluating the client as a whole and determining if their outcomes have been met, partially met, or not met. If the client outcomes were not met in their entirety, the care plan should be revised and reimplemented. Evaluation of outcomes should occur each time the nurse assesses the client, examines new laboratory or diagnostic data, or interacts with a family member or other member of the client’s interdisciplinary team.
RN Recap: Seizures and Epilepsy
View a brief YouTube video overview of seizures and epilepsy[12]:
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (n.d.). Epilepsy and seizures. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures ↵
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (n.d.). Epilepsy and seizures. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures ↵
- Mayo Clinic. (2021, November 18). What is epilepsy? A Mayo Clinic expert explains [Video] YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjRIzsy97hk ↵
- “Informative poster of epilepsy” by brgfx, via Freepik is licensed under CC0 ↵
- Epilepsy Toronto. (2016, January 19). Tonic clonic seizure [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBEj9H42fa4 ↵
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (n.d.). Epilepsy and seizures. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures ↵
- Herdman, T. H., Kamitsuru, S., & Lopes, C. T. (Eds.). (2020). Nursing diagnoses: Definitions and classification, 2021-2023 (12th ed.). Thieme. ↵
- Epsy. (2023). Nursing interventions for seizures. https://www.epsyhealth.com/seizure-epilepsy-blog/nursing-interventions-for-seizures ↵
- Al Sawaf. A., Arya, K., Murr, N. I. (2023). Seizure Precautions. StatPearls [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536958/ ↵
- Subbarao, B. S., Silverman, A., Eapen, B. C. (2023). Seizure Medications. StatPearls [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482269/ ↵
- Al Sawaf. A., Arya, K., Murr, N. I. (2023). Seizure Precautions. StatPearls [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536958/ ↵
- Open RN Project. (2024, June 23). Health Alterations - Chapter 9 - Seizures and epilepsy [Video]. You Tube. CC BY-NC 4.0 https://youtu.be/N3HxkFsgABw?si=gsM6uA3okBxFuiNX ↵
Abnormal transient discharges of neurons within the brain that are sudden, excessive, and uncontrolled.
A chronic disorder that is defined by at least two unprovoked seizures occurring at least 24 hours apart and in which groups of nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain sometimes send the wrong signals and cause recurrent, unpredictable, and unprovoked seizures.
Refers to a seizure lasting more than five minutes or two more sequential seizures without full recovery of consciousness between the seizures.
Also known as focal seizures, occur within one cerebral hemisphere of the brain.
These seizures often occur in the temporal lobe and may be called psychomotor seizures due to the function of this part of the brain.
Time after the seizure.
A seizure in which the client remains conscious throughout.
Unusual sensation occurs before the seizure and is often described as a “deja vu” feeling, a perceived offensive smell, or sudden onset of pain.
Involve abnormal electrical activity in both cerebral hemispheres of the brain.
Usually lasts for 30 seconds to several minutes and involves an abrupt increase in muscle tone, loss of consciousness, and possible changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and respirations.
Muscle contractions and relaxation last several minutes.
Last approximately 2-5 minutes; begins with a tonic phase with stiffening and rigidity of the muscles (typically of arms and legs) and then followed by immediate loss of consciousness and rhythmic jerking of all extremities.
A brief episode of jerking or stiffening of the extremities, either in muscle groups or isolated; contractions can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
A sudden loss of muscle tone for a few seconds and followed by postictal (period after seizure) confusion.
Seizures occur for no known reason so are also known as idiopathic.
Sensations or behavior changes that precede a seizure.
A sensory warning that is similar each time a seizure occurs.
The phase from the first symptoms to the end of seizure activity.
The recovery period after the seizure.
Conditions that can provoke seizures in people diagnosed with epilepsy and taking medications.
A rare, serious disorder of the skin and mucous membranes.
Extensive exfoliation of the epidermis and mucous membrane, which may result in sepsis and death.


47
Biography of Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an English philosopher and political theorist known for his influential works on social and political philosophy. Born in Westport, Wiltshire, Hobbes lived during a tumultuous period in English history marked by political and religious conflicts, including the English Civil War. His experiences during this time profoundly influenced his philosophical views on human nature and the necessity of a strong central authority.
Hobbes is best known for his seminal work Leviathan (1651), in which he presents his social contract theory and advocates for absolute monarchy as the most effective form of government. According to Hobbes, humans are driven by self-interest and live in a state of nature characterized by perpetual conflict. In order to escape the chaos and ensure their security, individuals voluntarily surrender their rights to a sovereign ruler who maintains order and enforces the law. Hobbes’s political philosophy emphasizes the need for a strong central authority to prevent anarchy and protect the interests of society.
Hobbes’s ideas were highly controversial during his time and continue to provoke debates in modern political thought. While his theory of an all-powerful sovereign has been criticized for its authoritarian implications, his work laid the foundation for modern political science and influenced subsequent philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Thomas Hobbes remains a significant figure in the history of political philosophy, recognized for his profound insights into human nature and the nature of political authority.
Thomas Hobbes – On the Social Contract
Leviathan
The First Part: Of Man
Chapter XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as Concerning Their Felicity and Misery
Nature hath made men so equal in the faculties of body and mind as that, though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body or of quicker mind than another, yet when all is reckoned together the difference between man and man is not so considerable as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit to which another may not pretend as well as he. For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination or by confederacy with others that are in the same danger with himself.
And as to the faculties of the mind, setting aside the arts grounded upon words, and especially that skill of proceeding upon general and infallible rules, called science, which very few have and but in few things, as being not a native faculty born with us, nor attained, as prudence, while we look after somewhat else, I find yet a greater equality amongst men than that of strength. For prudence is but experience, which equal time equally bestows on all men in those things they equally apply themselves unto. That which may perhaps make such equality incredible is but a vain conceit of one’s own wisdom, which almost all men think they have in a greater degree than the vulgar; that is, than all men but themselves, and a few others, whom by fame, or for concurring with themselves, they approve. For such is the nature of men that howsoever they may acknowledge many others to be more witty, or more eloquent or more learned, yet they will hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves; for they see their own wit at hand, and other men’s at a distance. But this proveth rather that men are in that point equal, than unequal. For there is not ordinarily a greater sign of the equal distribution of anything than that every man is contented with his share.
From this equality of ability ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to their end (which is principally their own conservation, and sometimes their delectation only) endeavour to destroy or subdue one another. And from hence it comes to pass that where an invader hath no more to fear than another man’s single power, if one plant, sow, build, or possess a convenient seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with forces united to dispossess and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his life or liberty. And the invader again is in the like danger of another.
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to secure himself so reasonable as anticipation; that is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of all men he can so long till he see no other power great enough to endanger him: and this is no more than his own conservation requireth, and is generally allowed. Also, because there be some that, taking pleasure in contemplating their own power in the acts of conquest, which they pursue farther than their security requires, if others, that otherwise would be glad to be at ease within modest bounds, should not by invasion increase their power, they would not be able, long time, by standing only on their defence, to subsist. And by consequence, such augmentation of dominion over men being necessary to a man’s conservation, it ought to be allowed him.
Again, men have no pleasure (but on the contrary a great deal of grief) in keeping company where there is no power able to overawe them all. For every man looketh that his companion should value him at the same rate he sets upon himself, and upon all signs of contempt or undervaluing naturally endeavours, as far as he dares (which amongst them that have no common power to keep them in quiet is far enough to make them destroy each other), to extort a greater value from his contemners, by damage; and from others, by the example.
So that in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of quarrel. First, competition; secondly, diffidence; thirdly, glory.
The first maketh men invade for gain; the second, for safety; and the third, for reputation. The first use violence, to make themselves masters of other men’s persons, wives, children, and cattle; the second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, a smile, a different opinion, and any other sign of undervalue, either direct in their persons or by reflection in their kindred, their friends, their nation, their profession, or their name.
Hereby it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war as is of every man against every man. For war consisteth not in battle only, or the act of fighting, but in a tract of time, wherein the will to contend by battle is sufficiently known: and therefore the notion of time is to be considered in the nature of war, as it is in the nature of weather. For as the nature of foul weather lieth not in a shower or two of rain, but in an inclination thereto of many days together: so the nature of war consisteth not in actual fighting, but in the known disposition thereto during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. All other time is peace.
Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man is enemy to every man, the same consequent to the time wherein men live without other security than what their own strength and their own invention shall furnish them withal. In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
It may seem strange to some man that has not well weighed these things that Nature should thus dissociate and render men apt to invade and destroy one another: and he may therefore, not trusting to this inference, made from the passions, desire perhaps to have the same confirmed by experience. Let him therefore consider with himself: when taking a journey, he arms himself and seeks to go well accompanied; when going to sleep, he locks his doors; when even in his house he locks his chests; and this when he knows there be laws and public officers, armed, to revenge all injuries shall be done him; what opinion he has of his fellow subjects, when he rides armed; of his fellow citizens, when he locks his doors; and of his children, and servants, when he locks his chests. Does he not there as much accuse mankind by his actions as I do by my words? But neither of us accuse man’s nature in it. The desires, and other passions of man, are in themselves no sin. No more are the actions that proceed from those passions till they know a law that forbids them; which till laws be made they cannot know, nor can any law be made till they have agreed upon the person that shall make it.
It may peradventure be thought there was never such a time nor condition of war as this; and I believe it was never generally so, over all the world: but there are many places where they live so now. For the savage people in many places of America, except the government of small families, the concord whereof dependeth on natural lust, have no government at all, and live at this day in that brutish manner, as I said before. Howsoever, it may be perceived what manner of life there would be, where there were no common power to fear, by the manner of life which men that have formerly lived under a peaceful government use to degenerate into a civil war.
But though there had never been any time wherein particular men were in a condition of war one against another, yet in all times kings and persons of sovereign authority, because of their independency, are in continual jealousies, and in the state and posture of gladiators, having their weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one another; that is, their forts, garrisons, and guns upon the frontiers of their kingdoms, and continual spies upon their neighbours, which is a posture of war. But because they uphold thereby the industry of their subjects, there does not follow from it that misery which accompanies the liberty of particular men.
To this war of every man against every man, this also is consequent; that nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice, have there no place. Where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues. Justice and injustice are none of the faculties neither of the body nor mind. If they were, they might be in a man that were alone in the world, as well as his senses and passions. They are qualities that relate to men in society, not in solitude. It is consequent also to the same condition that there be no propriety, no dominion, no mine and thine distinct; but only that to be every man’s that he can get, and for so long as he can keep it. And thus much for the ill condition which man by mere nature is actually placed in; though with a possibility to come out of it, consisting partly in the passions, partly in his reason.
The passions that incline men to peace are: fear of death; desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them. And reason suggesteth convenient articles of peace upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles are they which otherwise are called the laws of nature, whereof I shall speak more particularly in the two following chapters.
Chapter XIV: Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts
The right of nature, which writers commonly call jus naturale, is the liberty each man hath to use his own power as he will himself for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life; and consequently, of doing anything which, in his own judgement and reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto.
By liberty is understood, according to the proper signification of the word, the absence of external impediments; which impediments may oft take away part of a man’s power to do what he would, but cannot hinder him from using the power left him according as his judgement and reason shall dictate to him.
A law of nature, lex naturalis, is a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same, and to omit that by which he thinketh it may be best preserved. For though they that speak of this subject use to confound jus and lex, right and law, yet they ought to be distinguished, because right consisteth in liberty to do, or to forbear; whereas law determineth and bindeth to one of them: so that law and right differ as much as obligation and liberty, which in one and the same matter are inconsistent.
And because the condition of man (as hath been declared in the precedent chapter) is a condition of war of every one against every one, in which case every one is governed by his own reason, and there is nothing he can make use of that may not be a help unto him in preserving his life against his enemies; it followeth that in such a condition every man has a right to every thing, even to one another’s body. And therefore, as long as this natural right of every man to every thing endureth, there can be no security to any man, how strong or wise soever he be, of living out the time which nature ordinarily alloweth men to live.
And consequently it is a precept, or general rule of reason: that every man ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war. The first branch of which rule containeth the first and fundamental law of nature, which is: to seek peace and follow it. The second, the sum of the right of nature, which is: by all means we can to defend ourselves.
From this fundamental law of nature, by which men are commanded to endeavour peace, is derived this second law: that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far forth as for peace and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men as he would allow other men against himself. For as long as every man holdeth this right, of doing anything he liketh; so long are all men in the condition of war. But if other men will not lay down their right, as well as he, then there is no reason for anyone to divest himself of his: for that were to expose himself to prey, which no man is bound to, rather than to dispose himself to peace. This is that law of the gospel: Whatsoever you require that others should do to you, that do ye to them. And that law of all men, quod tibi fieri non vis, alteri ne feceris.
To lay down a man’s right to anything is to divest himself of the liberty of hindering another of the benefit of his own right to the same. For he that renounceth or passeth away his right giveth not to any other man a right which he had not before, because there is nothing to which every man had not right by nature, but only standeth out of his way that he may enjoy his own original right without hindrance from him, not without hindrance from another. So that the effect which redoundeth to one man by another man’s defect of right is but so much diminution of impediments to the use of his own right original.
Right is laid aside, either by simply renouncing it, or by transferring it to another. By simply renouncing, when he cares not to whom the benefit thereof redoundeth. By transferring, when he intendeth the benefit thereof to some certain person or persons. And when a man hath in either manner abandoned or granted away his right, then is he said to be obliged, or bound, not to hinder those to whom such right is granted, or abandoned, from the benefit of it: and that he ought, and it is duty, not to make void that voluntary act of his own: and that such hindrance is injustice, and injury, as being sine jure; the right being before renounced or transferred. So that injury or injustice, in the controversies of the world, is somewhat like to that which in the disputations of scholars is called absurdity. For as it is there called an absurdity to contradict what one maintained in the beginning; so in the world it is called injustice, and injury voluntarily to undo that which from the beginning he had voluntarily done. The way by which a man either simply renounceth or transferreth his right is a declaration, or signification, by some voluntary and sufficient sign, or signs, that he doth so renounce or transfer, or hath so renounced or transferred the same, to him that accepteth it. And these signs are either words only, or actions only; or, as it happeneth most often, both words and actions. And the same are the bonds, by which men are bound and obliged: bonds that have their strength, not from their own nature (for nothing is more easily broken than a man’s word), but from fear of some evil consequence upon the rupture.
Whensoever a man transferreth his right, or renounceth it, it is either in consideration of some right reciprocally transferred to himself, or for some other good he hopeth for thereby. For it is a voluntary act: and of the voluntary acts of every man, the object is some good to himself. And therefore there be some rights which no man can be understood by any words, or other signs, to have abandoned or transferred. As first a man cannot lay down the right of resisting them that assault him by force to take away his life, because he cannot be understood to aim thereby at any good to himself. The same may be said of wounds, and chains, and imprisonment, both because there is no benefit consequent to such patience, as there is to the patience of suffering another to be wounded or imprisoned, as also because a man cannot tell when he seeth men proceed against him by violence whether they intend his death or not. And lastly the motive and end for which this renouncing and transferring of right is introduced is nothing else but the security of a man’s person, in his life, and in the means of so preserving life as not to be weary of it. And therefore if a man by words, or other signs, seem to despoil himself of the end for which those signs were intended, he is not to be understood as if he meant it, or that it was his will, but that he was ignorant of how such words and actions were to be interpreted.
The mutual transferring of right is that which men call contract.
There is difference between transferring of right to the thing, and transferring or tradition, that is, delivery of the thing itself. For the thing may be delivered together with the translation of the right, as in buying and selling with ready money, or exchange of goods or lands, and it may be delivered some time after.
Again, one of the contractors may deliver the thing contracted for on his part, and leave the other to perform his part at some determinate time after, and in the meantime be trusted; and then the contract on his part is called pact, or covenant: or both parts may contract now to perform hereafter, in which cases he that is to perform in time to come, being trusted, his performance is called keeping of promise, or faith, and the failing of performance, if it be voluntary, violation of faith.
When the transferring of right is not mutual, but one of the parties transferreth in hope to gain thereby friendship or service from another, or from his friends; or in hope to gain the reputation of charity, or magnanimity; or to deliver his mind from the pain of compassion; or in hope of reward in heaven; this is not contract, but gift, free gift, grace: which words signify one and the same thing.
Signs of contract are either express or by inference. Express are words spoken with understanding of what they signify: and such words are either of the time present or past; as, I give, I grant, I have given, I have granted, I will that this be yours: or of the future; as, I will give, I will grant, which words of the future are called promise.
Signs by inference are sometimes the consequence of words; sometimes the consequence of silence; sometimes the consequence of actions; sometimes the consequence of forbearing an action: and generally a sign by inference, of any contract, is whatsoever sufficiently argues the will of the contractor.
Words alone, if they be of the time to come, and contain a bare promise, are an insufficient sign of a free gift and therefore not obligatory. For if they be of the time to come, as, tomorrow I will give, they are a sign I have not given yet, and consequently that my right is not transferred, but remaineth till I transfer it by some other act. But if the words be of the time present, or past, as, I have given, or do give to be delivered tomorrow, then is my tomorrow’s right given away today; and that by the virtue of the words, though there were no other argument of my will. And there is a great difference in the signification of these words, volo hoc tuum esse cras, and cras dabo; that is, between I will that this be thine tomorrow, and, I will give it thee tomorrow: for the word I will, in the former manner of speech, signifies an act of the will present; but in the latter, it signifies a promise of an act of the will to come: and therefore the former words, being of the present, transfer a future right; the latter, that be of the future, transfer nothing. But if there be other signs of the will to transfer a right besides words; then, though the gift be free, yet may the right be understood to pass by words of the future: as if a man propound a prize to him that comes first to the end of a race, the gift is free; and though the words be of the future, yet the right passeth: for if he would not have his words so be understood, he should not have let them run.
In contracts the right passeth, not only where the words are of the time present or past, but also where they are of the future, because all contract is mutual translation, or change of right; and therefore he that promiseth only, because he hath already received the benefit for which he promiseth, is to be understood as if he intended the right should pass: for unless he had been content to have his words so understood, the other would not have performed his part first. And for that cause, in buying, and selling, and other acts of contract, a promise is equivalent to a covenant, and therefore obligatory.
He that performeth first in the case of a contract is said to merit that which he is to receive by the performance of the other, and he hath it as due. Also when a prize is propounded to many, which is to be given to him only that winneth, or money is thrown amongst many to be enjoyed by them that catch it; though this be a free gift, yet so to win, or so to catch, is to merit, and to have it as due. For the right is transferred in the propounding of the prize, and in throwing down the money, though it be not determined to whom, but by the event of the contention. But there is between these two sorts of merit this difference, that in contract I merit by virtue of my own power and the contractor’s need, but in this case of free gift I am enabled to merit only by the benignity of the giver: in contract I merit at the contractor’s hand that he should depart with his right; in this case of gift, I merit not that the giver should part with his right, but that when he has parted with it, it should be mine rather than another’s. And this I think to be the meaning of that distinction of the Schools between meritum congrui and meritum condigni. For God Almighty, having promised paradise to those men, hoodwinked with carnal desires, that can walk through this world according to the precepts and limits prescribed by him, they say he that shall so walk shall merit paradise ex congruo. But because no man can demand a right to it by his own righteousness, or any other power in himself, but by the free grace of God only, they say no man can merit paradise ex condigno. This, I say, I think is the meaning of that distinction; but because disputers do not agree upon the signification of their own terms of art longer than it serves their turn, I will not affirm anything of their meaning: only this I say; when a gift is given indefinitely, as a prize to be contended for, he that winneth meriteth, and may claim the prize as due.
If a covenant be made wherein neither of the parties perform presently, but trust one another, in the condition of mere nature (which is a condition of war of every man against every man) upon any reasonable suspicion, it is void: but if there be a common power set over them both, with right and force sufficient to compel performance, it is not void. For he that performeth first has no assurance the other will perform after, because the bonds of words are too weak to bridle men’s ambition, avarice, anger, and other passions, without the fear of some coercive power; which in the condition of mere nature, where all men are equal, and judges of the justness of their own fears, cannot possibly be supposed. And therefore he which performeth first does but betray himself to his enemy, contrary to the right he can never abandon of defending his life and means of living.
But in a civil estate, where there is a power set up to constrain those that would otherwise violate their faith, that fear is no more reasonable; and for that cause, he which by the covenant is to perform first is obliged so to do.
The cause of fear, which maketh such a covenant invalid, must be always something arising after the covenant made, as some new fact or other sign of the will not to perform, else it cannot make the covenant void. For that which could not hinder a man from promising ought not to be admitted as a hindrance of performing.
He that transferreth any right transferreth the means of enjoying it, as far as lieth in his power. As he that selleth land is understood to transfer the herbage and whatsoever grows upon it; nor can he that sells a mill turn away the stream that drives it. And they that give to a man the right of government in sovereignty are understood to give him the right of levying money to maintain soldiers, and of appointing magistrates for the administration of justice.
To make covenants with brute beasts is impossible, because not understanding our speech, they understand not, nor accept of any translation of right, nor can translate any right to another: and without mutual acceptation, there is no covenant.
To make covenant with God is impossible but by mediation of such as God speaketh to, either by revelation supernatural or by His lieutenants that govern under Him and in His name: for otherwise we know not whether our covenants be accepted or not. And therefore they that vow anything contrary to any law of nature, vow in vain, as being a thing unjust to pay such vow. And if it be a thing commanded by the law of nature, it is not the vow, but the law that binds them.
The matter or subject of a covenant is always something that falleth under deliberation, for to covenant is an act of the will; that is to say, an act, and the last act, of deliberation; and is therefore always understood to be something to come, and which judged possible for him that covenanteth to perform.
And therefore, to promise that which is known to be impossible is no covenant. But if that prove impossible afterwards, which before was thought possible, the covenant is valid and bindeth, though not to the thing itself, yet to the value; or, if that also be impossible, to the unfeigned endeavour of performing as much as is possible, for to more no man can be obliged.
Men are freed of their covenants two ways; by performing, or by being forgiven. For performance is the natural end of obligation, and forgiveness the restitution of liberty, as being a retransferring of that right in which the obligation consisted.
Covenants entered into by fear, in the condition of mere nature, are obligatory. For example, if I covenant to pay a ransom, or service for my life, to an enemy, I am bound by it. For it is a contract, wherein one receiveth the benefit of life; the other is to receive money, or service for it, and consequently, where no other law (as in the condition of mere nature) forbiddeth the performance, the covenant is valid. Therefore prisoners of war, if trusted with the payment of their ransom, are obliged to pay it: and if a weaker prince make a disadvantageous peace with a stronger, for fear, he is bound to keep it; unless (as hath been said before) there ariseth some new and just cause of fear to renew the war. And even in Commonwealths, if I be forced to redeem myself from a thief by promising him money, I am bound to pay it, till the civil law discharge me. For whatsoever I may lawfully do without obligation, the same I may lawfully covenant to do through fear: and what I lawfully covenant, I cannot lawfully break.
A former covenant makes void a later. For a man that hath passed away his right to one man today hath it not to pass tomorrow to another: and therefore the later promise passeth no right, but is null.
A covenant not to defend myself from force, by force, is always void. For (as I have shown before) no man can transfer or lay down his right to save himself from death, wounds, and imprisonment, the avoiding whereof is the only end of laying down any right; and therefore the promise of not resisting force, in no covenant transferreth any right, nor is obliging. For though a man may covenant thus, unless I do so, or so, kill me; he cannot covenant thus, unless I do so, or so, I will not resist you when you come to kill me. For man by nature chooseth the lesser evil, which is danger of death in resisting, rather than the greater, which is certain and present death in not resisting. And this is granted to be true by all men, in that they lead criminals to execution, and prison, with armed men, notwithstanding that such criminals have consented to the law by which they are condemned.
A covenant to accuse oneself, without assurance of pardon, is likewise invalid. For in the condition of nature where every man is judge, there is no place for accusation: and in the civil state the accusation is followed with punishment, which, being force, a man is not obliged not to resist. The same is also true of the accusation of those by whose condemnation a man falls into misery; as of a father, wife, or benefactor. For the testimony of such an accuser, if it be not willingly given, is presumed to be corrupted by nature, and therefore not to be received: and where a man’s testimony is not to be credited, he is not bound to give it. Also accusations upon torture are not to be reputed as testimonies. For torture is to be used but as means of conjecture, and light, in the further examination and search of truth: and what is in that case confessed tendeth to the ease of him that is tortured, not to the informing of the torturers, and therefore ought not to have the credit of a sufficient testimony: for whether he deliver himself by true or false accusation, he does it by the right of preserving his own life.
The force of words being (as I have formerly noted) too weak to hold men to the performance of their covenants, there are in man’s nature but two imaginable helps to strengthen it. And those are either a fear of the consequence of breaking their word, or a glory or pride in appearing not to need to break it. This latter is a generosity too rarely found to be presumed on, especially in the pursuers of wealth, command, or sensual pleasure, which are the greatest part of mankind. The passion to be reckoned upon is fear; whereof there be two very general objects: one, the power of spirits invisible; the other, the power of those men they shall therein offend. Of these two, though the former be the greater power, yet the fear of the latter is commonly the greater fear. The fear of the former is in every man his own religion, which hath place in the nature of man before civil society. The latter hath not so; at least not place enough to keep men to their promises, because in the condition of mere nature, the inequality of power is not discerned, but by the event of battle. So that before the time of civil society, or in the interruption thereof by war, there is nothing can strengthen a covenant of peace agreed on against the temptations of avarice, ambition, lust, or other strong desire, but the fear of that invisible power which they every one worship as God, and fear as a revenger of their perfidy. All therefore that can be done between two men not subject to civil power is to put one another to swear by the God he feareth: which swearing, or oath, is a form of speech, added to a promise, by which he that promiseth signifieth that unless he perform he renounceth the mercy of his God, or calleth to him for vengeance on himself.  So is our form, I shall do thus, and thus, so help me God. And this, with the rites and ceremonies which every one useth in his own religion, that the fear of breaking faith might be the greater.
By this it appears that an oath taken according to any other form, or rite, than his that sweareth is in vain and no oath, and that there is no swearing by anything which the swearer thinks not God. For though men have sometimes used to swear by their kings, for fear, or flattery; yet they would have it thereby understood they attributed to them divine honour. And that swearing unnecessarily by God is but profaning of his name: and swearing by other things, as men do in common discourse, is not swearing, but an impious custom, gotten by too much vehemence of talking.
It appears also that the oath adds nothing to the obligation. For a covenant, if lawful, binds in the sight of God, without the oath, as much as with it; if unlawful, bindeth not at all, though it be confirmed with an oath.
Chapter XV: Of Other Laws of Nature
From that law of nature by which we are obliged to transfer to another such rights as, being retained, hinder the peace of mankind, there followeth a third; which is this: that men perform their covenants made; without which covenants are in vain, and but empty words; and the right of all men to all things remaining, we are still in the condition of war.
And in this law of nature consisteth the fountain and original of justice. For where no covenant hath preceded, there hath no right been transferred, and every man has right to everything and consequently, no action can be unjust. But when a covenant is made, then to break it is unjust and the definition of injustice is no other than the not performance of covenant. And whatsoever is not unjust is just.
But because covenants of mutual trust, where there is a fear of not performance on either part (as hath been said in the former chapter), are invalid, though the original of justice be the making of covenants, yet injustice actually there can be none till the cause of such fear be taken away; which, while men are in the natural condition of war, cannot be done. Therefore before the names of just and unjust can have place, there must be some coercive power to compel men equally to the performance of their covenants, by the terror of some punishment greater than the benefit they expect by the breach of their covenant, and to make good that propriety which by mutual contract men acquire in recompense of the universal right they abandon: and such power there is none before the erection of a Commonwealth. And this is also to be gathered out of the ordinary definition of justice in the Schools, for they say that justice is the constant will of giving to every man his own. And therefore where there is no own, that is, no propriety, there is no injustice; and where there is no coercive power erected, that is, where there is no Commonwealth, there is no propriety, all men having right to all things: therefore where there is no Commonwealth, there nothing is unjust. So that the nature of justice consisteth in keeping of valid covenants, but the validity of covenants begins not but with the constitution of a civil power sufficient to compel men to keep them: and then it is also that propriety begins.
The fool hath said in his heart, there is no such thing as justice, and sometimes also with his tongue, seriously alleging that every man’s conservation and contentment being committed to his own care, there could be no reason why every man might not do what he thought conduced thereunto: and therefore also to make, or not make; keep, or not keep, covenants was not against reason when it conduced to one’s benefit. He does not therein deny that there be covenants; and that they are sometimes broken, sometimes kept; and that such breach of them may be called injustice, and the observance of them justice: but he questioneth whether injustice, taking away the fear of God (for the same fool hath said in his heart there is no God), may not sometimes stand with that reason which dictateth to every man his own good; and particularly then, when it conduceth to such a benefit as shall put a man in a condition to neglect not only the dispraise and revilings, but also the power of other men. The kingdom of God is gotten by violence: but what if it could be gotten by unjust violence? Were it against reason so to get it, when it is impossible to receive hurt by it? And if it be not against reason, it is not against justice: or else justice is not to be approved for good. From such reasoning as this, successful wickedness hath obtained the name of virtue: and some that in all other things have disallowed the violation of faith, yet have allowed it when it is for the getting of a kingdom. And the heathen that believed that Saturn was deposed by his son Jupiter believed nevertheless the same Jupiter to be the avenger of injustice, somewhat like to a piece of law in Coke’s Commentaries on Littleton; where he says if the right heir of the crown be attainted of treason, yet the crown shall descend to him, and eo instante the attainder be void: from which instances a man will be very prone to infer that when the heir apparent of a kingdom shall kill him that is in possession, though his father, you may call it injustice, or by what other name you will; yet it can never be against reason, seeing all the voluntary actions of men tend to the benefit of themselves; and those actions are most reasonable that conduce most to their ends. This specious reasoning is nevertheless false.
For the question is not of promises mutual, where there is no security of performance on either side, as when there is no civil power erected over the parties promising; for such promises are no covenants: but either where one of the parties has performed already, or where there is a power to make him perform, there is the question whether it be against reason; that is, against the benefit of the other to perform, or not. And I say it is not against reason. For the manifestation whereof we are to consider; first, that when a man doth a thing, which notwithstanding anything can be foreseen and reckoned on tendeth to his own destruction, howsoever some accident, which he could not expect, arriving may turn it to his benefit; yet such events do not make it reasonably or wisely done. Secondly, that in a condition of war, wherein every man to every man, for want of a common power to keep them all in awe, is an enemy, there is no man can hope by his own strength, or wit, to himself from destruction without the help of confederates; where every one expects the same defence by the confederation that any one else does: and therefore he which declares he thinks it reason to deceive those that help him can in reason expect no other means of safety than what can be had from his own single power. He, therefore, that breaketh his covenant, and consequently declareth that he thinks he may with reason do so, cannot be received into any society that unite themselves for peace and defence but by the error of them that receive him; nor when he is received be retained in it without seeing the danger of their error; which errors a man cannot reasonably reckon upon as the means of his security: and therefore if he be left, or cast out of society, he perisheth; and if he live in society, it is by the errors of other men, which he could not foresee nor reckon upon, and consequently against the reason of his preservation; and so, as all men that contribute not to his destruction forbear him only out of ignorance of what is good for themselves.
As for the instance of gaining the secure and perpetual felicity of heaven by any way, it is frivolous; there being but one way imaginable, and that is not breaking, but keeping of covenant.
And for the other instance of attaining sovereignty by rebellion; it is manifest that, though the event follow, yet because it cannot reasonably be expected, but rather the contrary, and because by gaining it so, others are taught to gain the same in like manner, the attempt thereof is against reason. Justice therefore, that is to say, keeping of covenant, is a rule of reason by which we are forbidden to do anything destructive to our life, and consequently a law of nature.
There be some that proceed further and will not have the law of nature to be those rules which conduce to the preservation of man’s life on earth, but to the attaining of an eternal felicity after death; to which they think the breach of covenant may conduce, and consequently be just and reasonable; such are they that think it a work of merit to kill, or depose, or rebel against the sovereign power constituted over them by their own consent. But because there is no natural knowledge of man’s estate after death, much less of the reward that is then to be given to breach of faith, but only a belief grounded upon other men’s saying that they know it supernaturally or that they know those that knew them that knew others that knew it supernaturally, breach of faith cannot be called a precept of reason or nature.
Others, that allow for a law of nature the keeping of faith, do nevertheless make exception of certain persons; as heretics, and such as use not to perform their covenant to others; and this also is against reason. For if any fault of a man be sufficient to discharge our covenant made, the same ought in reason to have been sufficient to have hindered the making of it.
The names of just and unjust when they are attributed to men, signify one thing, and when they are attributed to actions, another. When they are attributed to men, they signify conformity, or inconformity of manners, to reason. But when they are attributed to action they signify the conformity, or inconformity to reason, not of manners, or manner of life, but of particular actions. A just man therefore is he that taketh all the care he can that his actions may be all just; and an unjust man is he that neglecteth it. And such men are more often in our language styled by the names of righteous and unrighteous than just and unjust though the meaning be the same. Therefore a righteous man does not lose that title by one or a few unjust actions that proceed from sudden passion, or mistake of things or persons, nor does an unrighteous man lose his character for such actions as he does, or forbears to do, for fear: because his will is not framed by the justice, but by the apparent benefit of what he is to do. That which gives to human actions the relish of justice is a certain nobleness or gallantness of courage, rarely found, by which a man scorns to be beholding for the contentment of his life to fraud, or breach of promise. This justice of the manners is that which is meant where justice is called a virtue; and injustice, a vice.
But the justice of actions denominates men, not just, but guiltless: and the injustice of the same (which is also called injury) gives them but the name of guilty.
Again, the injustice of manners is the disposition or aptitude to do injury, and is injustice before it proceed to act, and without supposing any individual person injured. But the injustice of an action (that is to say, injury) supposeth an individual person injured; namely him to whom the covenant was made: and therefore many times the injury is received by one man when the damage redoundeth to another. As when the master commandeth his servant to give money to stranger; if it be not done, the injury is done to the master, whom he had before covenanted to obey; but the damage redoundeth to the stranger, to whom he had no obligation, and therefore could not injure him. And so also in Commonwealths private men may remit to one another their debts, but not robberies or other violences, whereby they are endamaged; because the detaining of debt is an injury to themselves, but robbery and violence are injuries to the person of the Commonwealth.
Whatsoever is done to a man, conformable to his own will signified to the doer, is not injury to him. For if he that doeth it hath not passed away his original right to do what he please by some antecedent covenant, there is no breach of covenant, and therefore no injury done him. And if he have, then his will to have it done, being signified, is a release of that covenant, and so again there is no injury done him.
Justice of actions is by writers divided into commutative and distributive: and the former they say consisteth in proportion arithmetical; the latter in proportion geometrical. Commutative, therefore, they place in the equality of value of the things contracted for; and distributive, in the distribution of equal benefit to men of equal merit. As if it were injustice to sell dearer than we buy, or to give more to a man than he merits. The value of all things contracted for is measured by the appetite of the contractors, and therefore the just value is that which they be contented to give. And merit (besides that which is by covenant, where the performance on one part meriteth the performance of the other part, and falls under justice commutative, not distributive) is not due by justice, but is rewarded of grace only. And therefore this distinction, in the sense wherein it useth to be expounded, is not right. To speak properly, commutative justice is the justice of a contractor; that is, a performance of covenant in buying and selling, hiring and letting to hire, lending and borrowing, exchanging, bartering, and other acts of contract.
And distributive justice, the justice of an arbitrator; that is to say, the act of defining what is just. Wherein, being trusted by them that make him arbitrator, if he perform his trust, he is said to distribute to every man his own: and this is indeed just distribution, and may be called, though improperly, distributive justice, but more properly equity, which also is a law of nature, as shall be shown in due place.
As justice dependeth on antecedent covenant; so does gratitude depend on antecedent grace; that is to say, antecedent free gift; and is the fourth law of nature, which may be conceived in this form: that a man which receiveth benefit from another of mere grace endeavour that he which giveth it have no reasonable cause to repent him of his good will. For no man giveth but with intention of good to himself, because gift is voluntary; and of all voluntary acts, the object is to every man his own good; of which if men see they shall be frustrated, there will be no beginning of benevolence or trust, nor consequently of mutual help, nor of reconciliation of one man to another; and therefore they are to remain still in the condition of war, which is contrary to the first and fundamental law of nature which commandeth men to seek peace. The breach of this law is called ingratitude, and hath the same relation to grace that injustice hath to obligation by covenant.
A fifth law of nature is complaisance; that is to say, that every man strive to accommodate himself to the rest. For the understanding whereof we may consider that there is in men’s aptness to society a diversity of nature, rising from their diversity of affections, not unlike to that we see in stones brought together for building of an edifice. For as that stone which by the asperity and irregularity of figure takes more room from others than itself fills, and for hardness cannot be easily made plain, and thereby hindereth the building, is by the builders cast away as unprofitable and troublesome: so also, a man that by asperity of nature will strive to retain those things which to himself are superfluous, and to others necessary, and for the stubbornness of his passions cannot be corrected, is to be left or cast out of society as cumbersome thereunto. For seeing every man, not only by right, but also by necessity of nature, is supposed to endeavour all he can to obtain that which is necessary for his conservation, he that shall oppose himself against it for things superfluous is guilty of the war that thereupon is to follow, and therefore doth that which is contrary to the fundamental law of nature, which commandeth to seek peace. The observers of this law may be called sociable (the Latins call them commodi); the contrary, stubborn, insociable, forward, intractable.
A sixth law of nature is this: that upon caution of the future time, a man ought to pardon the offences past of them that, repenting, desire it. For pardon is nothing but granting of peace; which though granted to them that persevere in their hostility, be not peace, but fear; yet not granted to them that give caution of the future time is sign of an aversion to peace, and therefore contrary to the law of nature.
A seventh is: that in revenges (that is, retribution of evil for evil), men look not at the greatness of the evil past, but the greatness of the good to follow. Whereby we are forbidden to inflict punishment with any other design than for correction of the offender, or direction of others. For this law is consequent to the next before it, that commandeth pardon upon security of the future time. Besides, revenge without respect to the example and profit to come is a triumph, or glorying in the hurt of another, tending to no end (for the end is always somewhat to come); and glorying to no end is vain-glory, and contrary to reason; and to hurt without reason tendeth to the introduction of war, which is against the law of nature, and is commonly styled by the name of cruelty.
And because all signs of hatred, or contempt, provoke to fight; insomuch as most men choose rather to hazard their life than not to be revenged, we may in the eighth place, for a law of nature, set down this precept: that no man by deed, word, countenance, or gesture, declare hatred or contempt of another. The breach of which law is commonly called contumely.
The question who is the better man has no place in the condition of mere nature, where (as has been shown before) all men are equal. The inequality that now is has been introduced by the laws civil. I know that Aristotle in the first book of his Politics, for a foundation of his doctrine, maketh men by nature, some more worthy to command, meaning the wiser sort, such as he thought himself to be for his philosophy; others to serve, meaning those that had strong bodies, but were not philosophers as he; as master and servant were not introduced by consent of men, but by difference of wit: which is not only against reason, but also against experience. For there are very few so foolish that had not rather govern themselves than be governed by others: nor when the wise, in their own conceit, contend by force with them who distrust their own wisdom, do they always, or often, or almost at any time, get the victory. If nature therefore have made men equal, that equality is to be acknowledged: or if nature have made men unequal, yet because men that think themselves equal will not enter into conditions of peace, but upon equal terms, such equality must be admitted. And therefore for the ninth law of nature, I put this: that every man acknowledge another for his equal by nature. The breach of this precept is pride.
On this law dependeth another: that at the entrance into conditions of peace, no man require to reserve to himself any right which he is not content should he reserved to every one of the rest. As it is necessary for all men that seek peace to lay down certain rights of nature; that is to say, not to have liberty to do all they list, so is it necessary for man’s life to retain some: as right to govern their own bodies; enjoy air, water, motion, ways to go from place to place; and all things else without which a man cannot live, or not live well. If in this case, at the making of peace, men require for themselves that which they would not have to be granted to others, they do contrary to the precedent law that commandeth the acknowledgement of natural equality, and therefore also against the law of nature. The observers of this law are those we call modest, and the breakers arrogant men. The Greeks call the violation of this law pleonexia; that is, a desire of more than their share.
Also, if a man he trusted to judge between man and man, it is a precept of the law of nature that he deal equally between them. For without that, the controversies of men cannot be determined but by war. He therefore that is partial in judgement, doth what in him lies to deter men from the use of judges and arbitrators, and consequently, against the fundamental law of nature, is the cause of war.
The observance of this law, from the equal distribution to each man of that which in reason belonged to him, is called equity, and (as I have said before) distributive justice: the violation, acception of persons, prosopolepsia.
And from this followeth another law: that such things as cannot he divided be enjoyed in common, if it can be; and if the quantity of the thing permit, without stint; otherwise proportionably to the number of them that have right. For otherwise the distribution is unequal, and contrary to equity.
But some things there be that can neither be divided nor enjoyed in common. Then, the law of nature which prescribeth equity requireth: that the entire right, or else (making the use alternate) the first possession, be determined by lot. For equal distribution is of the law of nature; and other means of equal distribution cannot be imagined.
Of lots there be two sorts, arbitrary and natural. Arbitrary is that which is agreed on by the competitors; natural is either primogeniture (which the Greek calls kleronomia, which signifies, given by lot), or first seizure.
And therefore those things which cannot be enjoyed in common, nor divided, ought to be adjudged to the first possessor; and in some cases to the first born, as acquired by lot.
It is also a law of nature: that all men that mediate peace he allowed safe conduct. For the law that commandeth peace, as the end, commandeth intercession, as the means; and to intercession the means is safe conduct.
And because, though men be never so willing to observe these laws, there may nevertheless arise questions concerning a man’s action; first, whether it were done, or not done; secondly, if done, whether against the law, or not against the law; the former whereof is called a question of fact, the latter a question of right; therefore unless the parties to the question covenant mutually to stand to the sentence of another, they are as far from peace as ever. This other, to whose sentence they submit, is called an arbitrator. And therefore it is of the law of nature that they that are at controversy submit their right to the judgement of an arbitrator.
And seeing every man is presumed to do all things in order to his own benefit, no man is a fit arbitrator in his own cause: and if he were never so fit, yet equity allowing to each party equal benefit, if one be admitted to be judge, the other is to be admitted also; and so the controversy, that is, the cause of war, remains, against the law of nature.
For the same reason no man in any cause ought to be received for arbitrator to whom greater profit, or honour, or pleasure apparently ariseth out of the victory of one party than of the other: for he hath taken, though an unavoidable bribe, yet a bribe; and no man can be obliged to trust him. And thus also the controversy and the condition of war remaineth, contrary to the law of nature.
And in a controversy of fact, the judge being to give no more credit to one than to the other, if there be no other arguments, must give credit to a third; or to a third and fourth; or more: for else the question is undecided, and left to force, contrary to the law of nature.
These are the laws of nature, dictating peace, for a means of the conservation of men in multitudes; and which only concern the doctrine of civil society. There be other things tending to the destruction of particular men; as drunkenness, and all other parts of intemperance, which may therefore also be reckoned amongst those things which the law of nature hath forbidden, but are not necessary to be mentioned, nor are pertinent enough to this place.
And though this may seem too subtle a deduction of the laws of nature to be taken notice of by all men, whereof the most part are too busy in getting food, and the rest too negligent to understand; yet to leave all men inexcusable, they have been contracted into one easy sum, intelligible even to the meanest capacity; and that is: Do not that to another which thou wouldest not have done to thyself, which showeth him that he has no more to do in learning the laws of nature but, when weighing the actions of other men with his own they seem too heavy, to put them into the other part of the balance, and his own into their place, that his own passions and self-love may add nothing to the weight; and then there is none of these laws of nature that will not appear unto him very reasonable.


II B. Copyright, Public Domain, and Fair Use
Open Educational Resources (OER) work with copyright law using tools such as Creative Commons (CC) licenses to enable frictionless sharing and collaboration that would otherwise be difficult to manage from an intellectual property perspective. Open licenses tell others how they can use your work by explicitly granting them copyright permissions to share and adapt your work, with CC licenses being the gold standard in interoperable open licenses for content.
Why is this important?
The copyright status of a work will (along with other factors) determine what you can and cannot do with the creative work of someone else. U.S. Copyright law has changed over time, creative works are usually put into three buckets in terms of their copyright status. Knowing how to identify and differentiate between common types of copyright status will be useful when determining which content you may reuse, and how.
As you search for OER, you will become familiar with the markings of each copyright type, and that there often is no marking that indicates the copyright status of a work.
Copyright
The rights to fully copyrighted works a.k.a. All Rights Reserved (ARR) are held by the creator(s) of the work. It can be unlawful to use copyrighted works of others without their permission, and no permissions are granted in the case of ARR works. Activities such as copying, modifying, publicly displaying, publicly performing, and distributing copies of ARR work may be illegal unless legal permission is granted by the creator.
Copyright in the U.S. is automatically assigned to creators of work, with no registration necessary. You may have seen copyright marks or statements at the beginning of books or in the credits of a film, often in the format of “Copyright [creator name] [year]”. Due to the automatic nature of copyright, work that has no marking should be seen as having all rights reserved — no permissions granted until you are granted them specifically from the owner of the rights.
More Resources
Public Domain (PD)
Work in the public domain can be reused freely for any purpose by anyone, without giving credit or attribution to the author or creator. With few exceptions such as being unable to claim the PD work of others as your own, works in this category can be used with great confidence as copyright has either expired or the works were produced by the U.S. Federal Government, and so entered the U.S. PD immediately after creation or publication.
Currently in the U.S. creative works will enter the public domain 70 years after the death of the creator. Creative Commons (the organization) created a legal tool called CC0 (see-see-zero) to help creators place their work as close as possible to the public domain by releasing all rights to it.
More Resources
- Public Domain (Wikipedia)
- The Public Domain (Stanford University Libraries)
- Improving Access to the Public Domain: the Public Domain Mark (Creative Commons blog)
Fair Use
Fair use is not a copyright status, but is actually a copyright principle that suggests that the public can make certain uses of copyrighted works without permission. Whether or not a specific use falls under Fair Use is determined by four factors:
- the purpose and character of your use
- the nature of the copyrighted work
- the amount and substantiality of the portion taken, and
- the effect of the use upon the potential market.
There are additional exceptions and limitations to Copyright, but for the purpose of streamlining sharing and remixing, explicit permission to reuse and adapt work (such as through a CC license) is preferable to seeking defense under Fair Use or related exceptions.
More Resources
- Fair use (Wikipedia)
- Fair Use (Stanford University Libraries)
- Limitations and Exceptions (World Intellectual Property Organization – WIPO)
License and Attribution
Copyright is adapted from “Copyright, Creative Commons, and Public Domain” in the UH OER Training Copyright © 2018 by William Meinke and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.


4.9 Job Search Strategies
The following comes from Chapter 12.1 “Preparation” in Technical Writing by Susan Last at Portland Community College:
Finding A Job
Finding a suitable job opening itself can be a time-consuming process. Here are a few resources to get you started:
-
- Job boards: browse sites like Indeed, CareerBuilder, Glassdoor and Monster to search for jobs in your field.
- Specialty job lists: look for lists of jobs in specific industries such as food service (Poached), nonprofits (Idealist), or media (MediaBistro)
- Company, organization and government web sites: visit the employment section on websites of companies you admire; search federal, state, county, and city websites for job government job postings.
- Your own network: talk to friends, past employers, and professors or visit LinkedIn to search for openings at companies in your network.
- Your college: visit your college or university placement office/career center and attend job fairs hosted at your college.
Many job seekers also use craigslist to look for work; just be aware that craigslist postings often lack detail and may come from headhunters or placement agencies, rather than from the direct employer.
Once you have found a job, make sure to print and/or save a copy of the job posting or job description. You will use this document to help you tailor your application materials. Because companies often delete the job posting once they have received sufficient applicants, it is important that you save your own copy of the document by copying the text and pasting it into a new document, or by saving the webpage.
Conducting A Self-Inventory
As you work on your resume, you may worry that you have nothing valuable to include, or you may worry that you are “bragging.” One way to get over these hurdles is to allocate pre-writing time to a self-inventory. Brainstorm your skills, accomplishments and knowledge. What did you accomplish at work, school, or a volunteer position? What skills have you learned? What would you tell a friend or family member you were proud of having achieved there? Start writing down key terms and action verbs that describe your experiences and accomplishments, and don’t worry yet about putting them into a résumé format.
As you gather information about your work history and skills, double check that your information is accurate and current – gather dates of employment, dates of trainings, lists of activities you have been involved in, academic awards, achievements and special projects. Job descriptions or performance reviews from previous jobs can also include key terms to include on your resume. Finally, ask former coworkers or managers about your significant workplace contributions.
Researching Your Potential Employer
It is important that you research your potential employer as well as the job for which you’re applying. The easiest way to research a potential employer is to visit the company’s website. Look for an “about us” page or a “mission statement,” and observe how the company describes its goals and values.
Try to answer the following questions about the company or organization:
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- Whom does this company serve?
- Who are this company’s partners or competitors?
- What technologies would I use at this company?
- What is the tone of this company’s materials (formal, conservative, humorous, “cutting edge,” etc.)?
- How would you describe this company’s brand?
Here are a few more ways to research a company: search for its name on LinkedIn and other social media sites, browse for news articles about the company or press releases written by the company, speak with friends or colleagues who work for the company, or call the company to request an informational interview.
As you research, look for ways to connect with the company:
-
- What do you admire about the company?
- Where do your values and interests overlap with those of the company?
- What makes this company a good fit for you?
Try to summarize your connection to the company in one sentence. Remember that your potential employer is also your audience, and adapt your tone, examples, and level of technicality accordingly.
Researching the Potential Job
To research the job itself, take advantage of the job description you have found. The job description is your secret weapon; in this document, you are told what the employer is looking for in a candidate.
Print out the job description and annotate it; get into a conversation with it:
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- Highlight or underline any qualifications that you hold — any skills you have, technologies you’ve used, etc.
- Make note of any past achievements that relate to any of the preferred qualifications. For example, if the job description seeks a candidate who can diagnose and solve technical problems, write down an example of a specific time in which you did so in a professional or academic setting.
- Circle any key terms you might use in your own materials. Using the same terms as a potential employer demonstrates to that employer that you are able to “speak their language.”
- Note any questions/uncertainties and any qualifications you do not have in order to decide what to highlight and what to downplay in your materials (as well as what you need to learn more about).
CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"12.1 Preparation." Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0] |


Ranking Strategies
After students have watched the video, ask them which of the strategies in the video the think would be most helpful to them in managing their use of digital devices. Have them complete the activity Defeating Distraction: Strategies by ranking the strategies in the order of how useful they think they would be.
When students have finished, ask them to share their ranking:
- Which strategies did they think would be more and less useful? Why?
- Is there a general agreement in the class about the ranking?
- If so, why do they think their peers agree with them?
- If not, are there any patterns in who ranks the different strategies differently?


Part 2 Plant Requirements and Use
22 Plant Hardiness
Learning Objectives
- Explain plant hardiness zones.
Over the course of their evolution, plant species adapt to the climate variations of a region. Therefore, the ultimate deciding factor in whether a plant will survive in a given location (with adequate supplies of light, moisture, and nutrients) is quite simply the lowest temperature it will have to endure. Although several factors such as length of frost free period, rainfall, snow cover, wind, and soil type affect the hardiness of a plant, in temperate climates the minimum temperature during the winter is the most important element in plant survival.
Plant Hardiness Zones
Average annual minimum temperatures are determined for locations throughout North America. Plotting areas with similar average minimum temperatures yields a temperature zone map. Zones numbered 0 to 9 relate to the average annual minimum temperature calculated for that zone. The zones are divided into “a” and “b,” the “b” area representing the mildest part of the zone. Plants designated “a” with the zone number are hardy in the colder part of that zone; those designated “b” in only the milder section.
Plant hardiness ratings are determined by testing over several years at agricultural research and testing stations as well as private nurseries and gardens. A plant which is hardy to a particular zone can be expected to survive in all regions on the map which have an average annual minimum temperature equal to or greater than the hardiness zone rating for that plant.
Currently, two hardiness zone maps are widely used in North America:
- Agriculture Canada
- United States Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.)
In Canada, horticulturists often refer to the Agriculture Canada hardiness zone map. It is similar to the U.S.D.A. system except that the temperature range for each of the 9 zones is given in degrees Celsius instead of degrees Fahrenheit. Table 22.1 lists examples of hardiness zones for some Canadian communities.
| Location | Zone |
|---|---|
| Edmonton, Alta. | 2 |
| Prince George, B.C. | 3 |
| Ottawa, Ont. | 3 |
| Fredericton, N.B. | 5 |
| Langley, B.C. | 7 |
| Vancouver, B.C. | 8 |
A map that outlines all of the different zones is available at this link to Canada’s Plant Hardiness Zones [New Tab].[1]
Horticulturists in the United States most commonly use the U.S.D.A. map. It divides the United States into 13 zones based on the average annual extreme minimum temperature with zone 1 being the coldest (-60 F.) and zone 13 being the warmest (above 60 F.). It is included in many books and catalogs, and is available at this link to the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map [New Tab].[2]
Changing Climate Means Changing Hardiness Zones
Natural Resources Canada updated the plant hardiness zones map to include, among other factors, the effects of elevation on plant hardiness. The update provided evidence that there have been marked changes in hardiness zones in Western Canada. While the map expanded the factors affecting plant hardiness, local variability in topography, shelter, and snow cover were not captured. In an effort to increase knowledge about the effect of changing climate climate on the range of species growth in different locales, Natural Resources Canada created an interactive zone map where experts and gardeners contribute information about plant survival at this link to Canada’s Plant Hardiness Site [New Tab].[3]
Review
Identify the hardiness zone for each plant available at this link to the KPU Plant Database [New Tab].[4]
- https://landscapetrades.com/thumbnailer.php?image=/assets/1420488717.New-hardiness-zone-map.png&imgWH=800 ↵
- https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/ ↵
- http://planthardiness.gc.ca/?m=2d ↵
- https://plantdatabase.kpu.ca/#gsc.tab=0 ↵