3 General Engineering
Computer Science 20 – Saskatoon
Through its text and videos, this resource provides an interactive experience on learning to write and execute Python code. In addition to simply executing code, there is a unique feature called codelens that allows control of the flow of execution in order to gain a better understanding of how the program works.
Includes: Videos, quizzes, and exercises.
May suit: COMPSCI 1MD3/1TA3.
Dot Net Perls
Dot Net Perls is an open resource with many example pages for many languages, including C#, F#, GoJava, JS, Python, Ruby, Scala, Swift, VB.Net, Windows and WPF with explanations and code side by side (for easy understanding).
May suit: COMPSCI 1JC3/1MD3/1TA3/1XC3/1XD3.
Mechanics
This is a calculus-based open textbook meant for the first semester of a first year survey course taken by engineering and physical science majors. It has a traditional order of topics whereby force is discussed before energy.
Includes: Student resources (tutorials, problems and solutions), and instructor resources (learning evaluation and learning logs).
May suit: ENGTECH 1ME3 and PHYSICS 1D03.
Chem1 virtual textbook
This textbook was created by a retired professor from Simon Fraser University. It comprehensively covers the topics for general chemistry. Topics include atomic structure, gases, solids, and liquids, chemical bonding, acid & bases, kinetics, electrochemistry, and thermodynamics.
Includes: Online resources, images, flowchart, and practice questions.
May suit: CHEM 1E03.
Introduction to Drafting and Autodesk Inventor
This book contains self-paced learning modules that were written as a tool to guide and teach you to master Inventor. No two students learn at the same pace, therefore, the modules were written as competency-based bite-size pieces to allow you to work at your own pace. They can be used in correspondence courses, online courses, instructor-lead classes or by individuals teaching themselves to use Inventor in their own home or office.
Includes: Must know’s, user tips, workalongs, drafting lessons, geometry lessons, lab exercises, key principles, author’s comments, and competency tests.
May suit: ENGINEER 1PA3/1P13/2PX3/3PX3 and MECHENG 2C04.
Introduction to Drafting and AutoCAD 2D
Introduction to Drafting and AutoCAD 2D was written as a tool to guide and teach you to master AutoCAD. No two students learn at the same pace, therefore the ebook was written with competency-based modules. The competency-based modules are bite-size pieces that allow you to work at your own pace. They can be used to learn by distance education, correspondence, online, instructor-lead classes, or by individuals teaching themselves to use AutoCAD in their own home or office.
Includes: Must know’s, user tips, workalongs, drafting lessons, geometry lessons, lab exercises (with key), key principles, author’s comments, and competency tests.
May suit: ENGINEER 1PA3/1P13/2PX3/3PX3, MECHENG 2C04 and AUTOTECH 2AC3/2CD3.
Introduction to Drafting and AutoCAD 3D
This book is a tool to guide and teach you to master AutoCAD 3D. No two students learn at the same pace, therefore the book was written with competency-based modules. The competency-based modules are bite-size pieces that allows you to work at your own pace. They can be used to learn by distance education, correspondence, online, instructor-lead classes, or by individuals teaching themselves to use AutoCAD in their own home or office.
Includes: Must know’s, user tips, workalongs, drafting lessons, geometry lessons, lab exercises (with key), key principles, author’s comments, and competency tests.
May suit: ENGINEER 1PA3/1P13/2PX3/3PX3 and MECHENG 2C04.
Notes on Diffy Qs: Differential Equations for Engineers
A first course on differential equations, aimed at engineering students. The prerequisite for the course is the basic calculus sequence. This OER is usable as a standalone textbook or as a companion to a course using another book, such as Edwards and Penney, Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems: Computing and Modeling or Boyce and DiPrima, Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems (section correspondence to these two is given). There is enough material to run a two-quarter course, and even a two-semester sequence, depending on lecturer speed.
Includes: Examples, and exercises (with answers).
May suit: MATH 1ZB3/1ZC3/2Z03/2ZZ3.
Engineering Systems Dynamics, Modelling, Simulation, and Design
This open educational resource presents effective system modelling methods, including Lagrangian and bond graph, and the application of a relevant engineering software tool, 20-sim. The content is designed for engineering students and professionals in the field to support their understanding and application of these methods for modelling, simulation, and design of engineering systems.
Includes: Examples (with screen-recorded solutions), and exercise problems.
May suit: ENGPHYS 2CD4 and PHYSICS 3C03.
Introduction to Linear, Time-Invariant, Dynamic Systems for Students of Engineering
This is a complete college textbook that introduces students to liner, time-invariant and dynamic systems. A major focus of the book is computer calculation of system characteristics and responses and graphical display of results, with use of basic (not advanced) MATLAB commands and programs. The book includes many examples and homework problems relevant to aerospace engineering, among which are rolling dynamics of flight vehicles, spacecraft actuators, aerospace motion sensors, and aeroelasticity. The book contains somewhat more material than can be covered during a single standard college semester, so an instructor who wishes to use this as a one-semester course textbook should not attempt to cover the entire book, but instead should cover only those parts that are most relevant to the course objectives.
Includes: Examples, MATLAB script, and homework problems.
May suit: CIVENG 2Q03, ENGTECH 2MA3 and MECHENG 2QA3/2Q03.
Technical Writing
This open textbook offers students of technical writing an introduction to the processes and products involved in professional, workplace, and technical writing. The text is broken up into sections reflecting key components of researching, developing, and producing a technical report. Readers will also learn about other professional communication, designing documents, and creating and integrating graphics. Written especially for an academic setting, this book provides readers with guidance on information literacy and documenting sources.
Includes: Samples, and activities.
May suit: ENGINEER 1EE0/1PA3/1P13/2PX3/3PX3.
Technical Writing Essentials
This open textbook is designed to introduce readers to the basics of technical communication: audience and task analysis in workplace contexts, clear and concise communications style, effective document design, teamwork and collaboration, and fundamental research skills.
Includes: Exercises, case studies, and samples.
May suit: ENGINEER 1EE0/1PA3/1P13/2PX3/3PX3.
Technical Project Management in Living and Geometric Order (Third Edition)
By recognizing the dynamic nature of projects and applying the living order approach, this publication gives both the novice and expert project manager a fresh perspective on dealing with the complex challenges that emerge over the life of a project. This philosophy will help you plan effective projects, and will serve as a pilot through the choppy seas of real-world projects. Combining a thorough review of the latest methods in project planning and execution, the authors have created a complete guide to the skills required to be successful in your engineering projects.
Includes: Videos, practical tips, summaries, and further resources.
May suit: GENTECH 3MT3/4PM3 and SFGNTECH 4PM3.
Project Management – 2nd Edition
This book covers the basics of project management. This includes the process of initiation, planning, execution, control, and closeout that all projects share.
Engineering LibreTexts
TU Delft OPEN Textbooks
TU Delft Open Textbooks is a platform that contains freely accessible textbooks produced by TU Delft teachers and used in bachelor and master courses at TU Delft. The open resources look at energy, environment, health, infrastructure and mobility, sustainability and water as it relates to engineering. There are Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) with lectures, readings, exams and exercises.
Numerical Methods with Applications
This book entitled Numerical Methods with Applications is written primarily for engineering and science undergraduates taking a course in Numerical Methods. The textbook offers a unique treatise to numerical methods which is based on a holistic approach and short chapters.
Includes: Examples (with solutions), and instructor resources (PowerPoint presentations and worksheets).
May suit: ENGPHYS 3NM4, CHEMENG 2E03, CIVENG 2E03, MECHENG 3F04, COMPSCI 4X03, MECHTRON 3X03 and SFWRENG 4X03.
Vector Calculus
This is a text on elementary multivariable calculus, designed for students who have completed courses in single-variable calculus. The traditional topics are covered, alongside a discussion of numerical methods.
Includes: Examples (with solutions), and exercises (with hints and answers to select exercises).
May suit: MATH 1ZC3 and ENGTECH 3MA3.
Project Management: A Strategic Approach
Project management is becoming a core competence and not just about managing processes to ensure that the strategic goals of a business are delivered on time, within budget and specification. These days, project management is more about managing strategic goals while adapting to change and responding to ongoing disruptions. The pandemic, rapid urbanisation, digital transformation and environmental challenges are only some of the types of disruption faced by contemporary businesses. It is up to the project manager to ensure that the project management processes, as well as the projects and/or services themselves, are part of the readjustment required for business to survive these new challenges. This freely available ebook introduces some of the core values, concepts and tools as recognised by the Project Management Institute (PMI). This book will be of value to both students and practitioners in Australia and overseas seeking professional development in the field of project management.
Includes: Examples, key takeaways, review your knowledge, activities, videos, and exercises.
May suit: GENTECH 3MT3/4PM3 and SFGNTECH 4PM3.
Fundamentals of Building Construction Management
This book provides an overview of the building industry, the projects performed within the industry, and methods to plan and manage the delivery of a construction project.
Includes: Interactive review questions (with answers).
May suit: ENGINEER 2B03, CHEMENG 4N04, SFGNTECH 3EE3 and GENTECH 2EE3/3EE3.
Engineering and Information: Research Skill for Engineers
Engineering and Information: Research Skills for Engineers is intended to expand experiential learning course offerings for undergraduate students through a series of interactive modules. The developed resource includes seven independent modules that focus on essential skills for engineering including how to find, understand, evaluate, and document information sources that are commonly used by engineers such as journal articles, patents, standards/guidelines, books, and webpages. The resource has been created as a series of self-learning modules to support all undergraduate engineering students, regardless of their level of study. The resource can also serve as supplementary training modules for instructors to ensure that there is proper assessment and evaluation of student assignments. Since each online module focuses on building different skills, they can be used in combination or individually. Educators can incorporate the modules at different points in their programs.
Includes: Videos, interactive quizzes, summaries, and additional resources.
Engineering Reflection Guidebook
This Engineering Reflection Guidebook is intended to expand experiential learning course offerings through a series of interactive modules for students as well as instructional teams. The developed resource includes two interactive modules: one for training undergraduate students on writing a reflection based on the “What? So what? Now what?” model, and another to guide instructional teams with evaluating and providing feedback on a reflection essay. This book also provides an instructor toolkit to help teaching teams create their own reflection assignments based on the learning outcomes of their courses.
Includes: Videos, interactive quizzes, reflection activities, examples, and instructor resources (reflection toolkit, slides, handouts, and sample rubrics).
Engineering Improvisation: New Approach to Design Thinking Mindset
A new engineering design mindset that provides an opportunity for students to delay the decision making so they can understand the challenge better and explore more options, requires the development of new training resources. Active observation, deep listening, taking risks, idea generation, and embracing failures are key components of this new engineering design mindset that students have not been formally trained on. These skills that industry partners also expect new engineering graduates to have, are the basis of improvisation; however, to date, they have been mainly introduced and practiced in Arts-based studies and activities. In response to these training gaps in experiential learning curriculum, our team started this project to design and create online multi-component modules to guide undergraduate engineering students in developing their skills in the main area of Improvisation in Engineering. These skills that are connected to main steps of Engineering Design Process, will guide students through developing new design thinking mindsets.
Includes: Videos, ice-breaker activities, main activities with reflection questions, audio recordings with key points and reflection questions, virtual reality practice, and instructor resources (slides).
New Approaches to Engineering Design Thinking Mindset: Idea Generation
This book, New Approaches to Engineering Design Thinking Mindset: Idea Generation, provides tools and techniques for different ways of generating ideas. Although teamwork is a huge portion of engineering work, without individual training, often a few people do most of the group work. Therefore, the focus of these modules is training individuals in selected design thinking skills so they can contribute more when they join their team. The developed resource includes two independent chapters that focus on some brainstorming techniques as well as biomimicry as new mindsets for idea generation. The resource has been created as a series of self-learning modules to support all undergraduate engineering students, regardless of their level of study. It can also serve as supplementary training modules for instructors. Since each online module focuses on building different skills, they can be used in combination or individually. Educators can incorporate the modules at different points in their programs.
Includes: Videos, activities, interactive quizzes, and instructor resources (toolkit).


11.3 Obtaining Your Nursing License
Licensure is the process by which a State Board of Nursing (SBON) grants permission to an individual to engage in nursing practice after verifying the applicant has attained the competency necessary to perform the scope of practice of a registered nurse (RN).[1] The SBON verifies these three components:
- Verification of graduation from an approved prelicensure RN nursing education program
- Verification of successful completion of NCLEX-RN examination
- A criminal background check (in some states)[2]
In the United States there are three common types of prelicensure educational programs that prepare a student to become an RN, including a two-year associate degree of nursing (ADN), a hospital-based diploma program, or a four-year baccalaureate degree (BSN). Some universities offer an “Entry Level Master of Science in Nursing Track” for non-nurses holding a baccalaureate or master’s degree in another field who wish to become a nurse. All graduates must pass the same NCLEX-RN to obtain their RN license from their SBON (or other nursing regulatory body).
Requirements for licensure renewal vary from state to state. Some states require continued education credits (CEUs), along with the payment of fees. In Wisconsin the nursing license is renewed every two years. See Figure 11.2[3] for an image of a simulated nursing license.
Use this map for contact information for the State Boards of Nursing.
Read more details on obtaining a Wisconsin RN license at https://dsps.wi.gov/Pages/Professions/RN/Default.aspx.
Nurse Licensure Compact
When applying for your nursing license from your State Board of Nursing (SBON), you may also be eligible to apply for a multistate license. The Nurse Licensure Compact (NLC) allows nurses to practice in other NLC states with their original state’s nursing license without having to obtain additional licenses, contingent upon remaining a resident of that state. Currently, 38 states have enacted the NLC. Read more information about the NLC using the information in the following box.
View the current Nurse Licensure Compact Map.
Read this algorithm on how to Navigate the Nurse Licensure Compact.
Read more information about the Nurse Licensure Compact Rules.
Watch a video for nursing students on the Nurse Licensure Compact.
Temporary Permit
In some states before taking the NCLEX, an applicant may apply to receive a temporary permit from their State Board of Nursing (SBON). A temporary permit allows the applicant to practice practical nursing under the direct supervision of a registered nurse until the RN license is granted. A temporary permit is typically valid for a period of three months or until the holder receives failing NCLEX results, whichever is shorter.
Read about the temporary permit available in Wisconsin.
- NCSBN. (2025). NCLEX. https://www.ncsbn.org/nclex.htm ↵
- NCSBN. (2025). NCLEX. https://www.ncsbn.org/nclex.htm ↵
- “3277658479_86d3d7d61c_o.jpg” by Vernon Dutton is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 ↵
The process by which a State Board of Nursing (SBON) grants permission to an individual to engage in nursing practice after verifying the applicant has attained the competency necessary to perform the scope of practice of a registered nurse (RN).
State legislation that allows nurses to practice in other NLC states with their original state’s nursing license without having to obtain additional licenses, contingent upon remaining a resident of that state.
A permit issued by the State Board of Nursing (SBON) that allows the applicant to practice practical nursing under the direct supervision of a registered nurse until their RN license is granted.


- You can determine an object’s velocity by the amount the spectrum is shifted.
- The amount of the shift is the source’s velocity relative to the observer. This major clue tells astronomers if an object is moving towards us or away from us, and at what speed.
- The largest red shift recorded, that of one specific Quasar, is close to the speed of light.
Spectral Blueshift, Redshift, and At Rest
In light, this is referred to as the Spectral Red or Blueshift . For objects coming towards us, a blueshift; the entire object’s spectrum shifts towards the blue end of the spectral scale. For objects moving away from us, a redshift; the entire object’s spectrum shifts towards the red end of the scale. So, how can we tell if an object is moving towards or away from us? By comparing an object’s spectrum to the spectrum of an object that is at rest (an object that is not moving). What is called its rest wavelength?
What are The Astronomical Implications and Importance of Spectra?

- From the star’s spectra
- How do we know if an object, star, galaxy, etc., is moving towards or away from us?
- Look for a red or blue shift in the object’s spectra
- Can we tell how fast an object is moving towards or away from us?
- Yes, by the extent of red or blue shift
Consider this…
For most of history, visible light was the single most recognized portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, EMS. The ancient Greeks noted that light traveled in straight lines and studied its properties. Over the years the study of light continued. During the 16th and 17th centuries there were conflicting theories which regarded light as either a wave or a particle. In 1800, astronomer Frederick William Herschel discovered infrared radiation while using a thermometer to measure temperatures of visible light frequencies. A year later Johann Ritter discovered ultraviolet radiation.


Overview of Plate Tectonics
Types of Plate Boundaries
Lithospheric plates move around the globe in different directions and come in many different shapes and sizes. Their rate of movement is millimeters to a few centimeters per year, similar to the rate that your fingernails grow. Motion between tectonic plates can be divergent, convergent, or transform.
- On divergent boundaries plates are moving away from each other.
- On convergent boundaries plates are moving toward each other.
- Along transform boundaries, plates are sliding past each other.
Earth’s crust comes in two different types: oceanic crust, and continental crust (Table 2.1). The type of crust on each plate determines the geologic behavior where the plates interact because of differences in the density of the two types. The density difference is especially important when plates collide. When denser plates of oceanic lithosphere (i.e., plates with oceanic crust on top) collide with another plate, the denser plate gets jammed under the other, and forced into the mantle along a subduction zone. Plates of continental lithosphere (with continental crust on top) are not dense enough to slide down into the mantle (imagine trying to force a cork under water), so when they smash together, the result is a mountain belt formed from a broad zone of broken and folded rocks
| Table 2.1 Properties of Oceanic and Continental Crust |
||
| Property | Oceanic Crust |
Continental Crust |
| Thickness | 7-10 km | 25-80 km |
| Density | 3.0g/ cm3 | 2.7g/ cm3 |
| Silica (SiO2) content | 50% | 60% |
| Composition | Fe, Mg, and Ca silicates | K, Na, and Al silicates |
| Colour | Dark | Light |
Taking into account the type of lithosphere (oceanic or continental) and the interaction between the plates results in six different plate tectonic boundary scenarios with characteristic landforms (Table 2.2). These landforms can be spotted on satellite photos and maps.
| Table 2.2 Types of Plate Tectonic Boundaries |
||
| Motion | Boundary Name |
Common Landforms |
| Convergent (collision) | Ocean-Ocean Convergent | Trench, volcanic island arc. A subduction zone is present. |
| Ocean-Continent Convergent | Trench, continental volcanic arc. A subduction zone is present. | |
| Continent-Continent Convergent | Non-volcanic mountain belt. No subduction. | |
| Divergent (separating) | Ocean-Ocean Divergent
Also called a seafloor spreading center or mid-ocean ridge |
Underwater mountain chain, possibly with a valley |
| Continent-Continent Divergent
Also called a continental rift zone |
Valley, volcanoes may develop as spreading continues | |
| Transform (sliding past, parallel to Earth’s surface) | Transform | Offset structures, landforms (e.g., streams with a jog in them) |
Test Your Understanding: Plate Boundary Types
The image below shows the six types of plate boundary scenarios described in Table 2.2. For each scenario, see if you can:
- Give the boundary name. (Hint: Notice the legend for the types of lithosphere, and the direction of arrows on the diagrams.)
- Spot the location of the boundary. (i.e., Where would you draw a line showing where one plate ends and another begins?)
- Spot the common landforms.
Click the purple “+” symbol on each diagram to check your answer.
Click to launch the activity in a new window.
Figure 2.3 | Types of plate boundaries. Images modified by Karla Panchuk (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) after Wikipedia user Domdomegg. All base images used are accessible here.
Finding Plate Boundaries
Earthquakes
All plate tectonic boundaries are associated with earthquakes. The earthquakes happen because rocks along the boundary are slowly deformed as the plates move, but rocks on either side of the boundary are also locked together for much of the time. Up to a point, rocks can deform elastically, meaning that they change shape due to being squashed or stretched, but once the forces squashing or stretching them are removed, they snap back to their original shape, just like a rubber band. Along plate tectonic boundaries, rocks are being continuously deformed until the forces locking them together are suddenly overcome, causing the rocks to snap back into shape. The snapping, like plucking a guitar string, is what generates the shaking during an earthquake. The rocks then become locked together again, and the whole process repeats itself.
The geographic locations of earthquakes mark plate tectonic boundaries, but they can also tell us about the type of boundary if we look at how deep the earthquakes are. For the snapping action to happen, rocks have to be relatively cold and stiff. These conditions are present in the lithosphere, but not in mantle rocks. That means earthquakes tend to be at depths shallower than 30 km, except along subduction zones, where lithosphere is being driven into the mantle. In those regions, earthquakes have been measured all the way to nearly 800 km depth. The deep earthquakes occur within subducted lithosphere because it bends and flexes as it is forced into the mantle. This means that we can use the depth and geographic locations of earthquakes to map out the shape of slabs of lithosphere that that have long since disappeared into the mantle.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are present where melted rock reaches Earth’s surface. In spite of diagrams you might see depicting the mantle as a red-hot lava colour, Earth’s mantle is almost entirely solid rock. The mantle is much hotter than would normally be necessary to melt rocks, but the rocks remain solid because they are under immense pressure. For volcanoes to happen, special conditions are necessary, and those conditions can be present along some types of plate tectonic boundaries.
One way to melt rocks that are very hot, but under too much pressure to become liquid, is simply to decrease the pressure. Along divergent margins where Earth’s lithosphere is being stretched and thinned, the thinning reduces the weight of overlying rocks pressing down on the mantle. This reduces the pressure enough that some of the minerals in the mantle will begin to melt, eventually leading to volcanic eruptions.
The other way to melt rocks that are very hot but under too much pressure is to change how they respond to pressure. By adding water, rocks can be made to melt even at high pressures. (The temperature must still be high enough, which is why you don’t have to worry about rocks turning to lava in the rain.)
Water is part of the atomic structure of some minerals, and when those minerals are under high pressures, they transform and release the water. Water-rich minerals are present in oceanic lithosphere, and forcing it deep enough into the mantle will trigger the transitions that release water into surrounding mantle rocks, causing them to melt. The melt rises and pools, eventually leading to volcanoes forming on the overriding plate.
Volcanoes do not form by these means (decreasing pressure or adding water) along transform margins or continent-continent convergence zones. Neither type of boundary has a mechanism for subducting oceanic lithosphere, and neither decreases the pressure on the mantle beneath. In fact, the thick mountain belts that build up in continent-continent convergence zones actually increase the pressure on the mantle beneath.
| Table 2.3 Earthquakes and Volcanoes |
|||
| Motion | Boundary Name |
Earthquake Depth | Volcanoes? |
| Convergent (collision) | Ocean-Ocean Convergent | Shallow to deep | Yes |
| Ocean-Continent Convergent | Shallow to deep | Yes | |
| Continent-Continent Convergent | Shallow | No | |
| Divergent (separating) | Ocean-Ocean Divergent | Shallow | Yes |
| Continent-Continent Divergent | Shallow | Yes (after sufficient thinning of the lithosphere) | |
| Transform (sliding past, parallel to Earth’s surface) | Transform | Shallow | No |
Landforms and Topography
The activity along plate tectonic boundaries generates structures like chains of volcanic mountains on land or underwater, broad non-volcanic mountain belts, and rift valleys. Some of these can be spotted in a satellite photo because of a change in vegetation, evidence of higher elevation (e.g., ice, snow), the presence of a long trough-like lake, or offsets in other geographic features. We can also use topographic data—measurements of the elevation of Earth’s surface—to detect these features.
Topographic information (or bathymetric information, when we’re talking about water depths) can be conveyed on a graph as a profile (i.e., a line showing the “landscape” of hills and valleys along a specific stretch of terrain). But they can also be shown on maps as a series of lines marking different elevations, or as gradients of colour. Maps of the ocean floor often use darker shades of blue where the ocean is deeper, and lighter shades where it is shallower.
Test Your Understanding: Spotting Plate Boundaries Using Bathymetry
Figure 2.2 shows the Scotia Plate located within the Drake Passage between South America and Antarctica. The Scotia Plate and its surroundings include a variety of plate boundary types, many of which can be spotted based on bathymetry alone. In other words, you can tell where boundaries are by looking at the water depth.
See how many boundaries you can spot, then click the arrow on the right (or use the right cursor arrow on your keyboard) to show a map with boundaries marked in. Not all of the boundaries will be immediately obvious, but you might be able to find them if you click back and forth between the images.
Click to launch the activity in a new window.
Figure 2.4 | Plate boundaries in the Drake Passage. Source: Karla Panchuk (2020) CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Base map: Google (2016). Data: SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO. Image U. S. Geological Survey, Landsat/Copernicus, PGC/NASA.
References
Martos, Yasmina & Catalán, Manuel & Galindo-Zaldivar, Jesus & Maldonado, Andrés & Bohoyo, Fernando. (2014). Insights about the structure and evolution of the Scotia Arc from a new magnetic data compilation. Global and Planetary Change. 123. 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.07.022.


86 Propagation of the Signal
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- Explain how the binding of a ligand initiates signal transduction throughout a cell
- Recognize the role of phosphorylation in the transmission of intracellular signals
- Evaluate the role of second messengers in signal transmission
Once a ligand binds to a receptor, the signal is transmitted through the membrane and into the cytoplasm. Continuation of a signal in this manner is called signal transduction. Signal transduction only occurs with cell-surface receptors, which cannot interact with most components of the cell such as DNA. Only internal receptors are able to interact directly with DNA in the nucleus to initiate protein synthesis.
When a ligand binds to its receptor, conformational changes occur that affect the receptor’s intracellular domain. Conformational changes of the extracellular domain upon ligand binding can propagate through the membrane region of the receptor and lead to activation of the intracellular domain or its associated proteins. In some cases, binding of the ligand causes dimerization of the receptor, which means that two receptors bind to each other to form a stable complex called a dimer. A dimer is a chemical compound formed when two molecules (often identical) join together. The binding of the receptors in this manner enables their intracellular domains to come into close contact and activate each other.
Binding Initiates a Signaling Pathway
After the ligand binds to the cell-surface receptor, the activation of the receptor’s intracellular components sets off a chain of events that is called a signaling pathway, sometimes called a signaling cascade. In a signaling pathway, second messengers—enzymes—and activated proteins interact with specific proteins, which are in turn activated in a chain reaction that eventually leads to a change in the cell’s environment (Figure 9.10), such as an increase in metabolism or specific gene expression. The events in the cascade occur in a series, much like a current flows in a river. Interactions that occur before a certain point are defined as upstream events, and events after that point are called downstream events.
Visual Connection
You can see that signaling pathways can get very complicated very quickly because most cellular proteins can affect different downstream events, depending on the conditions within the cell. A single pathway can branch off toward different endpoints based on the interplay between two or more signaling pathways, and the same ligands are often used to initiate different signals in different cell types. This variation in response is due to differences in protein expression in different cell types. Another complicating element is signal integration of the pathways, in which signals from two or more different cell-surface receptors merge to activate the same response in the cell. This process can ensure that multiple external requirements are met before a cell commits to a specific response.
The effects of extracellular signals can also be amplified by enzymatic cascades. At the initiation of the signal, a single ligand binds to a single receptor. However, activation of a receptor-linked enzyme can activate many copies of a component of the signaling cascade, which amplifies the signal.
Link to Learning
Observe an animation of cell signaling at this site.
Explore videos on cell signaling at this site and this site.
Methods of Intracellular Signaling
The induction of a signaling pathway depends on the modification of a cellular component by an enzyme. There are numerous enzymatic modifications that can occur, and they are recognized in turn by the next component downstream. The following are some of the more common events in intracellular signaling.
Phosphorylation
One of the most common chemical modifications that occurs in signaling pathways is the addition of a phosphate group (PO4–3) to a molecule such as a protein in a process called phosphorylation. The phosphate can be added to a nucleotide such as GMP to form GDP or GTP. Phosphates are also often added to serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues of proteins, where they replace the hydroxyl group of the amino acid (Figure 9.11). The transfer of the phosphate is catalyzed by an enzyme called a kinase. Various kinases are named for the substrate they phosphorylate. Phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues often activates enzymes. Phosphorylation of tyrosine residues can either affect the activity of an enzyme or create a binding site that interacts with downstream components in the signaling cascade. Phosphorylation may activate or inactivate enzymes, and the reversal of phosphorylation, dephosphorylation by a phosphatase, will reverse the effect.
Second Messengers
Second messengers are small molecules that propagate a signal after it has been initiated by the binding of the signaling molecule to the receptor. These molecules help to spread a signal through the cytoplasm by altering the behavior of certain cellular proteins.
Calcium ion is a widely used second messenger. The free concentration of calcium ions (Ca2+) within a cell is very low because ion pumps in the plasma membrane continuously remove it by using adenosine-5′-triphosphate (ATP). For signaling purposes, Ca2+ is stored in cytoplasmic vesicles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, or accessed from outside the cell. When signaling occurs, ligand-gated calcium ion channels allow the higher levels of Ca2+ that are present outside the cell (or in intracellular storage compartments) to flow into the cytoplasm, which raises the concentration of cytoplasmic Ca2+. The response to the increase in Ca2+ varies and depends on the cell type involved. For example, in the β-cells of the pancreas, Ca2+ signaling leads to the release of insulin, and in muscle cells, an increase in Ca2+ leads to muscle contractions.
Another second messenger utilized in many different cell types is cyclic AMP (cAMP). Cyclic AMP is synthesized by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase from ATP (Figure 9.12). The main role of cAMP in cells is to bind to and activate an enzyme called cAMP-dependent kinase (A-kinase). A-kinase regulates many vital metabolic pathways: It phosphorylates serine and threonine residues of its target proteins, activating them in the process. A-kinase is found in many different types of cells, and the target proteins in each kind of cell are different. Differences give rise to the variation of the responses to cAMP in different cells.
The enzyme phospholipase C cleaves PIP2 to form diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) (Figure 9.13). These products of the cleavage of PIP2 serve as second messengers. Diacylglycerol (DAG) remains in the plasma membrane and activates protein kinase C (PKC), which then phosphorylates serine and threonine residues in its target proteins. IP3 diffuses into the cytoplasm and binds to ligand-gated calcium channels in the endoplasmic reticulum to release Ca2+ that continues the signal cascade.


The Creative Project
7
Outlining Where the Money Goes
Overview
In this chapter, you learn how to…
- Review the fundamental requirements of grant budgets
- Identify best practices for formatting budgets
- Construct a budget that reflect details and logistics to support your project narrative
In this chapter you will build your project budget. Your budget supports the narrative created by your proposal through a detailed account of how you plan to use the funds you are requesting.
This can feel overwhelming at first. Keep in mind that the budgets helps you tell the story of your project from a different perspective. The function of the budget is to show the reviewer that you’ve thought through every detail, including what resources it takes to move forward with your proposal. They want to determine if what you are proposing is feasible in terms of time, talent, and resources.
Building A Budget
We are going to address what it will cost to make your project happen. This will include identifying what you are going to pay yourself. If you haven’t done this before, or become frazzled when trying to put a dollar amount on the value of your time, this is a moment to pause and take a breath—here is your cue:
DEEP breath in.
DEEP breath out.
DEEP breath in.
DEEP breath out.
Repeat as needed.
While figuring out these elements can be challenging, paying yourself, any collaborators, and your project partners is critical to the success of your proposal and the work itself. So roll up your sleeves and let’s dig in.
The process of building a budget helps you create a complete and thorough financial plan for your project. This financial plan is critical to broadly outlining your project management, understanding where you’ll need to invest cost and effort, and demonstrating to your funder that you don’t just have the vision, you have the know-how to make it reality (Creative Capital, 2018).
You might be asking yourself—how can I know what this is really going to cost when I haven’t even begun this project?
Welcome to the wonderful world of building something from nothing, my friend. All joking aside, you find the answers to this question by working through your project income and expenses step by step:
- Gather project expenses and income sources
- Organize expenses and income into categories
- Assign dollar amounts to each item and category
Identifying and Organizing Project Expenses and Income
Let’s take the first step towards tackling the budget for your project. Any project budget contains two categories that are fundamental from a financial perspective:
- Project expenses
- Project income
Project expenses are what you need to spend money on to make the work you’re creating happen. This includes equipment, tools, collaborators, and other costs we’ll get to in a moment. Project income refers to anything you receive to support your project, most often in the form of money. This can include grant funding, personal funds, crowdfunding, in-kind donations, and other possibilities which depend on the specific type of project.
Let’s start with the cash that must leave your pockets to make the project “go.”
Artist in Action
I learned very quickly when I’m making a budget for a grant to make sure that not only are all of my collaborators that are involved in the grant, that they’re paid well for their time, but then that I’m also paid well for my time too. It’s something I learned, very quickly, that actually grant panels want to see that you’re also taking care of yourself as well and that you’re not just going to put yourself into debt by funding this project.
–Adam Rosenblatt
Identifying the Expenses
Here’s the bottom line. You need money to bring your project to life. By carefully outlining what you need to spend and how it fits into the larger scope of your project, funders can better understand how your project works beyond the narrative of the project description. Ultimately, you want to use your budget to prove to funders that your project is a strong investment of their resources and demonstrate concrete elements that support its proposed impact. The first step to accomplish this is to break down the answer to this fundamental question: What will the money be used for?
What Will the Money Be Used For?
There are a few categories to consider to successfully answer the above question.
Personnel. For collaborators, you need to know and calculate their hourly rates.
- Are you working with other artists or institutions?
- How will they be compensated?
Marketing. Most projects require some marketing and communications to be successful. This can include both physical materials and digital marketing.
- How do you plan to market your project?
- Where do you plan to market your project?
- Which social media platforms and audiences best suite your project?
Facilities. You need to know what it costs to use any space or facility necessary for your project, including performance venue and practice space.
- Does your project require space to be presented to the public, like a recital hall, studio, or gallery?
- What about space required for the creation of the project, like a recording studio, rehearsal space, or filming location?
- If appropriate, where will you store oversized project-related materials such as lighting, sets, or backdrops?
Travel. Be sure to include both travel and lodging costs for personnel and shipping costs for any necessary equipment.
- Will travel be required to complete the project?
- Will you need to ship project-related equipment or materials?
Materials and Equipment. If you are using your own equipment, you can include that as a cost. You can add to your project income by listing it as an in-kind donation from yourself.
Administration. Administrative efforts require compensation as well. While some grants cover grantee administrative costs, not all grants do.  Whether or not a grant covers these specific costs, it is important to have a clear understanding of the time and cost of the administrative work involved in a project. It is often this work that makes or breaks the success of a project reaching the finish line.
Before we leave this section, some items are non-allowable expenses. Examples include the repayment of personal debt, along with routine overhead costs like regularly rented housing, studio space, or office space, are generally not allowable expenses.
Don’t worry about any expenses you may forget the first time you draft your budget. You can always come back to this and adjust things. Right now, we’re sculpting in clay and it is malleable. The most important thing is to start breaking these cost areas down and defining them for first yourself and, ultimately, your reader.
Artists in Action
“One of the things that I learned that day is, me needing money is like saying nothing. That’s what everybody says, ‘I need funds!’ What would those funds go to? Be specific.”
– CJay Philip
“Because not only do you write the grants, but you’ve got to practice and you’ve got to do the marketing. You’ve got to rent the halls and load the truck and all of the things that go into all that too, right? You don’t have the luxury to not be strategic about how you do your funding.”
– Andrew Kipe
Identifying the Income
Next, let’s outline the funding sources that will support your project. While the grant you are applying for may make up most of the funding for your project, listing other sources of funding and in-kind donations shows that your project will maximize the investment of grant funds. Just as we had to explain what the money is used for, now we need to share with potential funders the other available sources of financial support for the project. We now explore where the money comes from.
Where Is the Money Coming From?
Once again, if we break this down into a few categories, things will quickly fall into place.
Grants or Foundation Funds. This includes all grant funding. This can come from a variety of organizations, including non-profits, foundations, and governments, among others.
Business or Organization Donations. Some businesses and organizations will offer funds or donate space, advertising services, or products, often in exchange for listing and promoting the business as a sponsor.
Crowdfunding or Individual Donations. Funding can include money from a GoFundMe or other crowdfunding campaign, or a personal contribution from a patron, family, or community member.
Personal Contributions. Ask most artists about a project they developed and you will almost always find that part of their journey includes a personal contribution to overcome a funding gap and show an investment in their work. Putting forth some of your own money to create a proof of concept to share with potential funders is not uncommon. It is, in fact, often what helps an artist take the first steps towards realizing the project and building the necessary momentum to go from “nothing” to “something.”
Sale of Services or Products. Depending on the type of project you are developing, you may need to include ticket sales, merchandise, CDs, or anything else that would generate earned income.
In-kind Donations. In-kind donations refer to non-monetary contributions of goods and services for which you would have otherwise had to have paid. For a typical arts grant, this often includes performance space, loaned equipment, or individuals donating their time and expertise. They are important for a couple of reasons:
- Help make the project (or aspects of the project) viable, as financial resources can be limited.
- Show buy-in or support for you and your project from collaborators, organizations, and partners.
This in-kind support can, when used strategically, create additional credibility for your project. This is especially important because some funders may be more inclined to fund projects that show evidence of existing support from other organizations, groups, or individuals. Hopefully it also creates a bit of FOMO (fear of missing out) for the grant panelist and helps convince them to move your application forward in the review process.
Artists in Action
“You now have your artists fees and that’s the one thing I do love about grants. It allows me to do one of my favorite things, which is pay artists– pay my friends.”
– CJay Philip
Categorizing Expenses and Income
The next step is to group your expenses and income into categories that make sense for your project. Categories help tell the story of how your project will work. They also provide an opportunity to include contextual details about equipment, personnel, space needs, and the related financial implications that can be challenging to summarize concisely in a project description.
Expenses
- Personnel
- Marketing
- Travel
- Administration
- Materials
- Value of in-kind contributions
Income
- Crowdfunding
- Grants
- Business donations
- Personal
- Sales
- In-kind contributions
Length and Detail of a Budget
Now that you have your project expenses and income grouped in categories that support your project description, it is time to think about the length and detail of your budget. Take a moment and review the requirements for your grant. Many granting organizations ask for budgets to be no more than one page. Use the whole page to fill in funding details about your project. Keep in mind that correct formatting of your budget and all other submitted materials for your specific grant is a critical first step in the review process.
Too Much Detail to Fit on One Page?
As mentioned above, most funding providers for individual or independent artists require a one-page budget. With that in mind, many of the examples in this section will be structured around a one-page budget model.
Depending on the scope of your project, there may not be enough space on the page to capture all the expenses or income sources that you identified. One solution you can use to meet a single-page budget requirement is to determine which items could be combined without losing detail. For example, rather than listing performer fees by concert, combine them into one budget line item called “performer fees.”
Not Enough Detail to Fill One Page?
Conversely, your project might not have that many elements regarding expenses and income. One approach that can be helpful is to consider ways to break down your costs into more specific items. Rather than one line item for the category of “marketing,” list the different ways you want to market your project, such as using social media, distributing physical posters, or attending similar events to talk with patrons.
Assign Dollar Amounts to Each Item and Category
If you are reading these words, then woo-hoo! You have reached the final part of this process and that can only mean one thing—it is time to start assigning dollar amounts to each expense and contribution. These individual expenses and income sources are called line items. Each line item typically includes a category, specific service, cost breakdown or description, and total cost. For example, if you need to rent a performance space, you could list the line item this way.
This process requires two distinct skills:
- Research. This means searching the web for everything about your project like it’s your job (because it is). This includes costs of physical materials related to your project, rehearsal spaces, venues, recording studios, artist fees for co-creators, etc.
- Informed guesswork. Think of this like packing for a long trip with a single bag—you don’t know exactly what the weather is going to be like, but the future you needs to be warm enough, dry enough, and comfortable with whatever the world tosses at you. Now take that metaphor and apply it to dollar amounts.
Ultimately, wherever possible, assign a specific number amount along with a source for your cost. This shows the reviewer that you have a firm idea of the projected costs, and they can count on your ability to complete the project on the proposed budget. It also shows that you did your homework. Sometimes it is impossible to know the exact cost. In those cases, do your best to make an estimate by researching a similar product, space, or service with a known price. In this scenario, it is a research/informed guesswork combination.
Once you have dollar amounts assigned to each of your line items, you can finish assembling your budget. Keep it looking clean by rounding off amounts to the nearest whole dollar. Add up the subtotals for your budget categories and include them as well.
You can continue to modify your budget as your project changes, but the three-step process of identifying expenses and income sources, organizing them into categories, and assigning dollar amounts provides a solid starting point.
Artists in Action
“The best advice that I ever got about fundraising was from Dean Fred Bronstein. He said, ‘Jessica, money follows leadership.’ That was so encouraging to me because it reminded me that if I’m just doing my job well and building relationships in the community and serving, staying focused on the service part of my work, that the fundraising will fall in line.”
– Jessica Satava
Telling the Story through Numbers: Successful Models
In this section, you can review an example budget that needs improvement. Then, you evaluate the revised version to compare the difference. Proposed costs must make sense for the project (or be reasonable), fit acceptable costs established by the guidelines (allowable), and have a specific and definite use (allocable).
Original Budget
Read through the original budget below to determine if you can catch any issues with the line items or format.
| Description | Amount | Details | ||
| PRODUCTION EXPENSES |
||||
| Administrative & Commission Fees | ||||
| Production coordination fees | 2,000 | 40 hours at $50/hour | ||
| *Composer fees | 3,000 | 6 composers at $500 each | ||
| *Audio/Visual support for concert | 600 | 12 hours at $50/hour (6 hrs meeting, 4 hrs editing, and 2 concerts) | ||
| Student Performer Fees | 2 concerts at $200 per concert per musician | |||
| *Strings | 1,200 | Violin, Viola, Cello at $400 each | ||
| *Piano | 400 | |||
| Percussion | 400 | Marimba, Vibraphone, Portable Accessories | ||
| Winds | 800 | Flute and Clarinet/Oboe at $400 each | ||
| Venues and Transportation | ||||
| ABC Retirement Community venue | 0 | In-kind contribution | ||
| Peabody venue | 0 | In-kind contribution | ||
| Transportation | 100 | Ride shares and percussion transport | ||
| Marketing/Promotion | 200 | Facebook ads, fliers, programs | ||
| Entertainment/Reception | 100 | Post-concert reception at Peabody (ABC venue has no fee) | ||
| Rehearsal snacks | 100 | |||
| EXPENSE TOTAL | $ 8,900 | |||
| Funding Sources | ||||
| Peabody Launch Grant | 5,000 | *Items covered by grant | ||
| ABC Retirement Community | 300 | |||
| Personal Contribution | 400 | |||
| Crowdfunding campaign (GoFundMe) | 1,000 | |||
| Private donations | 2,300 | Solicit donations from retirement community residents | ||
| REVENUE TOTAL | $ 8,900 |
Room for Improvement
Let’s take a critical look at the original budget above.
Format and Organization
- It is easier to read a budget when the total cost is in the far right column.
- The performer costs are similar—combine them to make space for more granular detail elsewhere.
- Using categories is a great way to structure your budget, but make sure to include subtotals for the income or expense of each section.
Specificity
- Be more specific about the administrative needs.
- Be more specific about the compensation for composers. What are they creating?
- Some line items are unclear, such as the Entertainment/Reception line—are the funds already secured? How are they being used?
- When project expenses exceed the total possible grant, many applications require that you indicate what the grant will fund. This could be done more clearly.
Details Matter
- For items with costs that can be reasonably estimated, round numbers like the Transportation line item indicate that the grant writer has not estimated the actual expense.
- Although the Marketing/Promotion budget is small, these expenses would be clearer as separate line items.
- A successful crowdfunding campaign requires active marketing and promotion, which is not indicated in the Marketing/Promotion category.
Fundraising and Donations
- Even when receiving a service or product as an in-kind donation, always list the estimated cost. The in-kind support can then be listed under income or funding sources.
- A personal contribution communicates that the artist has some “skin in the game” and can help reviewers take the artist more seriously. Don’t overcommit yourself. You can also make in-kind contributions to your project.
- A large gap in funding could create concern for a funding committee if not secured.
Revised Budget
The updated budget below includes revisions based on the critiques we just went over. Review how it has changed.
| EXPENSES | Details | Amount | |
| Personnel Costs | Subtotal $ 8,500 | ||
| Production coordination fees | 40 hours at $50/hour for coordinating performances and rehearsals, coordinating meetings, and creating promotional materials | 2,000 | |
| *Composer fees | 6 approx. ten-minute compositions at $500/each | 3,000 | |
| *Audio/Visual support for concert | 12 hours at $50/hour (2 hours meetings, 6 hours editing, and 4 hours setup & recording for 2 concerts) | 600 | |
| *Performer Fees | 7 Peabody student performers at $200/performance | 2,800 | |
| Rehearsal snacks | 100 | ||
| Venues and Transportation | Subtotal $ 402 | ||
| Retirement Community venue | 75 | ||
| Peabody venue | Goodwin Hall at $75/day rental | 75 | |
| Transportation | 3 Ride shares from Baltimore to Towson at $84/round trip | 252 | |
| Marketing and Promotion | Subtotal $ 347 | ||
| Entertainment/Reception | Post-concert refreshments at $75/concert | 150 | |
| Advertising | 10 days of targeted Facebook ads at $10/day | 100 | |
| Printing | Staples, 50 fliers at $20, 250 programs at $77 | 97 | |
| EXPENSE TOTAL | Expense Total $ 9,249 |
*Items covered in part by Peabody Launch Grant
| FUNDING | Details | Amount | |
| Peabody Launch Grant | 5,000 | ||
| Peabody Institute | In-kind venue donation of Goodwin Hall | 75 | |
| ABC Retirement Community | Includes general funds and in-kind venue and reception donation | 450 | |
| Private donations | Personally solicited contributions from retirement community members | 2,324 | |
| Crowdfunding campaign | GoFundMe donors gain early access to recordings, as well as process updates and sneak peeks | 1,000 | |
| Personal contribution | 8 hours of production coordination at $50/hour | 400 | |
| REVENUE TOTAL | Total $ 9,249 |
Budgets clarify the financial narrative of a project. After reading this example, do you have a clear idea of where the money will come from and how it will be used? Do the costs seem reasonable? Are all the uses specific and clear? Where would you ask this artist for more details, and where do you feel they could save some space?
Exercise 7-1. Project Expenses Brainstorming Activity
In this activity, you’ll brainstorm potential expenses related to your project.
- Find your favorite note taking materials.
- Set a timer for five minutes.
- List out any possible expenses you can think of that you might need to execute your project.
This is just a draft, so no need to be concerned about the order or organization for now. If you get stuck, imagine the project happening in your head and walk through the processes, people, and materials you’ll need to create the final product. Keep adding to the list if you think of things as you advance through this chapter.
Exercise 7-2. Project Income Brainstorming Activity
Just like you did for the expenses, take a few minutes to brainstorm about sources of income for your project. Set your timer for another five minutes. Add a new section to your notes for income. Try to think outside of the box and challenge yourself to be as specific as possible. For example, instead of just writing “individual donors” as a funding source, brainstorm where you might find these donors and how you can connect with them.
As with expenses, appropriate sources of income will depend heavily on the content and goals of your project. If your project is interdisciplinary, consider grants related to all the disciplines that make an appearance. If your project has a social justice theme, research local nonprofit organizations whose missions align that might be able to provide in-kind support. If you are proposing a project that is more ongoing in nature, consider revenue sources that can make your project financially sustainable beyond the original grant funding. Again, this is a work in progress that will continue to evolve along with your project.
Exercise 7-3. Categorize Expenses and Income
Access your notes with your draft list of expenses and income sources from Exercises 7-1 and 7-2. Using the categories in the chapter as a starting place, begin to organize your items into the appropriate groups. Create new groups as needed and remove the ones that don’t fit for your project. The goal is for the categories and individual items in your budget to create a clear picture that helps reviewers visualize how the project will work. More importantly, it shows how the grant funds will be allocated to achieve the intended impact(s).
Exercise 7-4. Pay Rate Resources
One challenge in building a budget can be setting your own rates, or establishing reasonable rates for other artists. The American Federation of Musicians publishes recommended pay scales, shared below.
- American Federation of Musicians[1]
- AFM Los Angeles chapter pay scales[2]
- Nashville Musicians pay scales[3]
Other artistic labor unions (AGMA,[4] SAG,[5] Equity,[6] to name a few) also create pay scale agreements with organizations which you can use to assign values within your budget.
Exercise 7-5. Assign Expense Values
Review the categorized list of expenses you created in Exercise 7-3. Consider the following questions:
- What are the expenses to which you can easily assign precise dollar values?
- Which ones are leaving you stumped?
- Who can you ask or where can go you for more information for those items that you’re less sure about?
Exercise 7-6. Budget Resources
For more information about creating a budget, review these resources:
- Budget Basics for Artist Fundraising[7] provides a detailed overview on building a budget from The Creative Independent.
- Making a Project or Annual Budget[8] provides a detailed process for creating line items for an artistic project from Creative Capital.
- Budget Tips and Samples[9] includes budget tips and samples from Creative Capital.
Key Takeaways
Creating a detailed budget that thoughtfully and creatively reflect your project narrative is imperative to writing a strong grant proposal.
- Your budget is a tool that tells the story of how you will develop your project in terms of resources
- There are three steps to creating a budget:
- Gather project expenses and income sources.
- Categorize expenses and income.
- Assign specific dollar amounts.
- Your budget should support the narrative created by your proposal.
As you go through the budget creation process, keep these points in mind:
- Your budget should support the narrative created by your proposal. Tell your project’s financial story through your categories, the order of your line items, and details in your descriptions.
- Refer to the grant instructions and guidelines frequently, as they provide the formatting details and expected budget categories.
- Expenses are evaluated on being reasonable, allowable, and allocable. Proposed costs must make sense for the project (or be reasonable), fit acceptable costs established by the guidelines (allowable), and have a specific and definite use (allocable).
Artist Interviews
Below are excerpts from artist interviews conducted by Zane Forshee. Full artist bios and interviews are available in About the Artists. This section includes the following artists and topics:
- Jessica Satava on After the Initial Success, What She Wish She Knew Earlier, and the Day in the Life of an Orchestra Director
- Brad Balliett on Iterative Improvements and the Most Difficult Part of the Process
Jessica Satava on After the Initial Success
What did you learn after your first successful grant proposal?
ZF: Now after your first successful grant proposal, what did you learn? What were your takeaways and then how did that impact or affect the way you went after the next one or the next project?
JS: Yeah, that’s a really good question. I think when you’re a musician or when you’re an administrator, we know that time is a limitation. There’s so many things that we could be doing with our time, practicing, paying the bills, talking to donors, like there’s so many things we could be doing. Sometimes it feels really difficult to devote the time that we need to sit down and write a grant.
But when you get one and it comes through, it gives you that confidence. It’s so renewing and fulfilling to feel like somebody out there sees that I can solve a problem in my community and believes that I have the tools to do that. That is an incredible feeling to know that somebody has confidence, that the work we’re doing is meaningful and is willing to support it with a significant chunk of money. That really means something.
Then it propels you forward to be that much more tenacious and that much more focused on your goals. Then you start thinking creatively. Okay, well, if they would fund that, then what about if we did this next cool thing that we’ve been thinking about and let’s plan for next year and let’s start like setting all of this up so that we can be in a really good position to ask again next year from this foundation. Or this foundation has a different, a slightly different spin on it and we can take it in a different direction. It just feels good. It builds your confidence, and you know that you’re not wasting your time.
ZF: I love that. And so, you become more daring and more creative with each step?
JS: Absolutely. The more that you feel like people are getting on board with your mission and your project goals, the more you feel empowered to think more creatively, more innovatively and collaborate with more people.
ZF: Does this tie back to that piece of advice you shared from Dean Bronstein around money follows leadership?
JS: Absolutely. Like business as usual doesn’t excite funders and innovation requires leadership. So, that is 100% a Dean Bronstein advice moment.
Jessica Satava on What She Wish She Knew Earlier
What do you wish you knew when you started?
ZF: So, I want to ask a question then, knowing where you are now in that process, if you could talk to yourself at the beginning of that journey, what would you do differently or what do you wish you knew when you started?
JS: So, as a classical musician and kind of as a result of the training and the formality of the environment of classical music, at least up till the last couple of years, there’s this barrier, right? Like if somebody gives you a set of guidelines for something, you don’t ask questions, you do everything they say when you’re submitting, like for a competition or something, you follow it to the letter and you hope for the best. You turn it in by the deadline and you hope that all went well and that you’re going to get it. You’re going to get into the competition. And there’s just really no conversation. It’s just, I do what I’m supposed to do and hope that that gets me where I want to go.
What I’ve learned is that the key to all of this is asking questions. So, just kind of working to break down that barrier in our minds, that we can’t have a conversation about these things. The people at these foundations and these granting organizations are there because they care about solving problems and supporting innovation and they want to talk to us. So when I learned that I could call and ask questions, it really was awesome because it did two things:
-
It kept me from wasting my time if it wasn’t an opportunity that really was applicable for my organization.
-
It helped me build relationships within the foundations and the organizations that were giving, you know, distributing the funding that led to me having an increased opportunity to get some grant money from them.
ZF: That’s a great discovery. So, really going to the source and not being afraid to ask the question.
JS: Absolutely.
Jessica Satava on the Day of An Orchestra Director
What does the day of an orchestra director look like?
ZF: You’ve shared with us the moment where it kind of really clicked for you where like, I want to work in this environment, building this orchestra, this collective sound. If you were to talk about what the job and what the work is, and break it down into categories of what your day looks like, what is it that you’re doing behind, because some of the work you’re doing is being in front of the orchestra and you’re out in the community representing the orchestra, but then there’s behind the scenes work. And I was wondering if you can talk about some of that world for us.
JS: Absolutely. So, the number one most important part of my job is raising money to ensure that our programs and our orchestra and our artists can be sustained by the organization. I love that because I have to say the best advice that I ever got about fundraising was from Dean Fred Bronstein. I was embarking on my new career and I was kind of transitioning away from Peabody and moving to Johnstown to come and do this work, he said, “Jessica, money follows leadership.”
That was so encouraging to me because it reminded me that if I’m just doing my job well and building relationships in the community and serving, staying focused on the service part of my work, that the fundraising will fall in line, will fall in lock step with all of that.
So fundraising is a major part of it. Of course, then there’s the production side, the artistic operations side. There’s the programming planning, which is super fun. I love the artistic programming side of my work, collaborating with a conductor to bring all of these ideas and this vision that he has for our community to life. That’s incredible.
Of course, there’s lots of logistics. I spend a lot of time writing checks, paying bills, providing financial statements to the board, I spend lots and lots of time working with them to support their leadership in our community and to make sure they have the information they need to make decisions for all of us. I’m a manager. I manage a lot of staff. I manage 70 employees of the orchestra, so I spend a lot of time hearing from people, listening, solving problems. It’s just, it’s such a fascinating job because I honestly get to do everything you could possibly imagine doing. I’ve really learned a lot.
Let’s see. The other thing that I’ve really had a chance to focus on that I never did before coming to this job is marketing and communications, promotional work and PR for the orchestra, setting the tone for the organization in the community through that work has been incredible. I’ve enjoyed that so much. Learning how to use data to drive decisions has been really fun for me.
So yeah, I just talked for a really long time. What am I missing? I feel like there’s a lot of things that I didn’t tell you, but… oh, oh yeah! The collective bargaining agreement. So, I get to bargain with the union for the terms of our agreement with them, with the orchestra. So, that’s been a really interesting part of my work. I feel like I’m this close to having a labor law degree, or I could, but that’s been really fascinating for me too.
Brad Balliett on Iterative Improvements
Have you ever tweaked an idea from a rejected submission?
 And then you learned in the process of that, how to tweak it a bit more and resubmitted it for another opportunity? Has that ever happened?
BB: Definitely, yes. There’s almost always a grant out there that seems tailor made for whatever project you’re doing. Each grant is almost like a draft for a better version of that same grant, because even the act of typing out what you want to do, how you’re going to spend your money, what you’re going to do the third week versus the fourth week, and how you’re going to assess your success. It helps to organize your thoughts.
Sometimes it’s just the act of writing a grant that makes you organize some things that you realize, I didn’t have a plan for that! And it’s a darn good thing that I had to write this out, or else I would have been improvising in the moment and thank goodness that didn’t happen.
Honestly, I think if you’re improvising on a grant application, that comes through a little bit. But the next time you write the grant, when you say, well, I thought this through last time I wrote this grant. Then it’s actually your plan and then it turns from improvising into confidence and that confidence comes through. So it’s well worth taking a couple stabs at something.
Besides the fact that there’s no grant I know that does not like to see repeat applicants. A dismissal is really an invitation to try again. And probably most people that ultimately get those big, pie in the sky grants (you know, like National Endowment for the Arts or something), they’ve probably been trying a bunch of times. The people on the committees are probably saying, this is the person or this is the group that’s doing the kind of sustained work that we want to support. How do they know you’re doing the sustained work? Because they’ve seen you applying seven years in a row. They say, well, this has legs, they’re supporting themselves. Now we want to give you some support.
Brad Balliett on the Most Difficult Part of the Process
What part of the grant proposal process do you still find difficult today?
ZF: What part of the grant proposal process do you still find difficult today?
BB: The part that I still find really difficult is probably finding the right words. Because after enough time with a group or as an individual, you have certain work samples that you’ve really stand behind. You feel really personally connected to and you feel like really represent the best of you. That’s a gift because those are kind of untouchable. You’ve got your recordings, your videos, whatever.
It’s that trying to unlock what’s the combination of words that expresses what we’re trying to do? It’s going to get right at the heart of it in a way that the person that’s reading this says, “I understand. And I’m right there with you!” The difficulty is that you just don’t know who’s reading your words. You can have an idea of the set of values that the institution that’s giving the grant stands for and the type of projects they’ve funded in the past, but it is a person that’s reading your words.
There must be a way to still be professional and polished and still feel like you’re talking directly to the person that’s reading these words, that’s going to put it, not in this (no) stack, but in this (yes) stack. That’s something that I’m not sure there’s ever going to be an answer for. We have to just do our best every time and kind of throw it up in the air.
References
Creative Capital. (2018, July 19). Applying for grants: Creating a realistic budget. https://creative-capital.org/2018/07/19/applying-for-grants-presenting-a-realistic-budget/
Yudkowsky, E. (2015). “Planning fallacy.” In Rationality: From AI to zombies. Machine Intelligence Research Institute.
- www.afm.org/departments/freelance-membership-development ↵
- https://afm47.org/allscales.html ↵
- www.nashvillemusicians.org/scales-forms-agreements ↵
- https://www.musicalartists.org/ ↵
- https://www.musicalartists.org/ ↵
- https://www.musicalartists.org/ ↵
- https://thecreativeindependent.com/tips/budget-basics-for-artist-fundraising/ ↵
- https://creative-capital.org/2015/02/12/page-handbook-goes-project-annual-budget/ ↵
- https://creative-capital.org/content/docs/Budget-Tips-Examples-2017.pdf ↵
an overview of all expenses and expected sources of income for a project
the process to help define the goals and objectives of the project, determine when the various project components are to be completed and by whom, and create quality control checks
all costs of the project, including funds for marketing, administration, personnel, or facilities; includes planned and actual expenses
the specific funding sources of the project, including grant funds, individual and personal contributions, and in-kind donations; includes planned and actual income
the use of small amounts of money from a large number of individuals to finance a new venture; often uses social media and websites to bring people together, with the potential to increase entrepreneurship by expanding the pool of investors beyond the traditional circle of owners, relatives, and venture capitalists
a non-monetary contribution of goods and services; see in-kind support
a grant document which describes your project in detail, sharing what the project is, why it is important, who is involved, and how it will be accomplished; sometimes called a statement of grant purpose, executive summary, or project summary
the generally indirect expense like personal debt repayment, housing rental, or rental of studio space
an item listed in a budget, such as the cost of electricity
the proposed costs that make sense for the project
any acceptable costs established by the guidelines
any costs with a specific and definite use
any non-monetary support, such a contribution of a venue, equipment, time, labor, or supplies; see in-kind donation


109 APA Abstract Page
Placement
The abstract acts as the second major section of the document and typically begins on the second page of the paper. It follows directly after the title page and precedes the main body of the paper.
The abstract is a succinct, single-paragraph summary of your paper’s purpose, main points, method, findings, and conclusions, and is often recommended to be written after the rest of your paper has been completed.
General Format
How should the abstract page be formatted?
The abstract’s length should be a minimum of 150 words and a maximum of 250 words; it should be confined within a single paragraph. Unlike in other paragraphs in the paper, the first line of the abstract should not be indented five spaces from the left margin.
Like the rest of the paper, the pages of the abstract should be double-spaced and typed in Times New Roman, 12 pt. The margins are set at 1” on all sides. While the running head is flush with the upper left-hand corner of every page, the page number is flush with the upper right-hand corner of every page. Note that all letters of the running head should be capitalized and should not exceed 50 characters, including punctuation, letters, and spaces.
The title of the abstract is centered at the top of the page; there is no extra space between the title and the paragraph. Avoid formatting the title with bold, italics, underlining, or quotation marks, or mislabeling the abstract with the title of the research paper.
When writing the abstract, note that the APA recommends using two spaces after sentences that end in a period; however, sentences that end in other punctuation marks may be followed by a single space. Additionally, the APA recommends using the active voice and past tense in the abstract, but the present tense may be used to describe conclusions and implications. Acronyms or abbreviated words should be defined in the abstract.
How should the list of keywords be formatted?
According to your professor’s directives, you may be required to include a short list of keywords to enable researchers and databases to locate your paper more effectively. The list of keywords should follow after the abstract paragraph, and the word Keywords should be italicized, indented five spaces from the left margin, and followed by a colon. There is no period at the end of the list of keywords.


Critical Thinking Questions
12. Given that the Japanese war against China began in 1937 and German aggression began in Europe in 1936, why was it not until 1941 that the United States joined the war against the Axis powers? Was the decision to stay out of the war until 1941 a wise one on the part of the United States?
13. Should the United States have done more to help European Jews during the 1930s? What could it have done?
14. In what ways did World War II improve the status of women and African Americans in the United States?
15. Should the U.S. government have ordered the internment of Japanese Americans? Does the fear of espionage or sabotage justify depriving American citizens of their rights?
16. Did the United States make the right decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan?


Language Proficiency
Presentational Writing
(Remove these instructions after reading)
Instructions: Replace the placeholder artifacts and the descriptions with your own content.
What is Presentational Communication?
- Creation of messages to inform, explain, persuade, or narrate
- One-way communication intended to facilitate interpretation by members of the other culture where no direct opportunity for the active negotiation of meaning between members of the two cultures exists
- To ensure the intended audience is successful in its interpretation, the “presenter” needs knowledge of the audience’s language and culture
– ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines
My Presentational Writing Proficiency Rating
Date of Completion:
Assessment Results:
Artifacts Demonstrating My Presentational Writing Proficiency
Artifact Name, Course
2-3 sentence description in English that explains what you did for the assignment and a reflection that focuses on the growth, skills or perspective you gained.
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Artifact Name, Course
2-3 sentence description in English that explains what you did for the assignment and a reflection that focuses on the growth, skills or perspective you gained.
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Artifact Name, Course
2-3 sentence description in English that explains what you did for the assignment and a reflection that focuses on the growth, skills or perspective you gained.
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52 Ecosystem and Eutrophication Lab (Instructor Materials Preparation)
Lab Materials
This is the prep for one section of 24 students.
Activity I
Students will do this part in table teams (groups of 4).
| Materials | Quantity | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| colorimeter | 1 per bench | |
| cuvettes | 2 per bench | |
| live Daphnia | 1-2 vials can be shared by all lab sections | |
| Chlorella algae | 1-2 vials can be shared by all lab sections |
Activity II
Students will do this part in table teams (groups of 4).
| Materials | Quantity | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| laptop computers | 1 per pair of students | |
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
Instructor Materials Preparation. Authored by: Lynette Hauser. Provided by: Tidewater Community College. Located at: https://www.tcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution


§114. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
To a greater extent than in the 1st and 2nd declensions, the Greek 3rd declension contains many words that appear in English in exact or conventional transliteration. Some of these are proper names from religion and mythology: Ζευς, Προμηθευς, ’Οδυσσευς, ’Ατλας, Τιταν, Καλυψω, Κυκλωψ, Στυξ = Zeus, Prometheus, Odysseus, Atlas, Titan, Calypso, Cyclops, Styx. Many 3rd declension common nouns have also entered English without adaptation: μαρτυρ, νεκταρ, λαρυγξ, κλιμαξ, ἀρωμα, κωμα, πολις, μητροπολις, πυλων, κυδος, ὑβρις = martyr, nectar, larynx, climax, aroma, coma, polis, metropolis, pylon, kudos, hubris. (Both these lists could be extended substantially.)
What follows is a fairly daunting word-list; perhaps you can subdivide it into two or three instalments for learning purposes. If only one Greek word is listed, that will be the nominative (vocabulary) form, which provides an obvious base or combining form. If two Greek words are given, the second will be the genitive singular (= base + -ος).
First, a few comments on English spelling. You have learned that the Greek diphthong αι became regularly adapted in Latin as ae. That convention is reflected in the derivatives of γυναικ- (gynaik– “woman”), παιδ- (paid– “child”), and αἱμ- (haim-, “blood”). What can be confusing is that this ae may be either maintained in English or reduced further to e. The full development is illustrated in the progression from G δαιμων to L daemon to E demon.[1] Thus there are two correct spellings for the medical specialist who treats children—paediatrician or pediatrician. If you look under “Physicians and Surgeons” in the Victoria Yellow Pages, you will find both spellings used (probably revealing the geographical or educational origin of the specialist). The same is true of gynaecology or gynecology, haemorrhage or hemorrhage. In Canadian usage, there is an overwhelming trend towards the simpler e spelling. The only problem with this simplification is that it can sometimes create minor confusion. A perfect example is the Greek root παιδ- (paid-, “child”). If it is kept as paed-, the etymology of its derivatives will be abundantly clear; if, however, it is reduced to ped– (as is customary in North America), it becomes identical in form to the unrelated Latin root for “foot.” Because of Latin derivatives like pedal and pedicure—and the hybrid pedometer (an instrument to measure walking speed)—one may run the risk of associating orthopedic (orthopaedic) with feet, or of wrongly viewing pedophilia as some kind of foot fetish. Other derivatives of παιδ- include pedagogue (G παιδ-αγωγος, “child-leader” > L paedagogus), pedagogy, encyclopedia,[2] pederast (“child-lover,” now almost completely supplanted by pedophile, a word that dates only from 1951), and pedodontist (< παιδ-οδοντ-ιστης,[3] a dentist who works on children’s teeth). Notice, by the way, that the first -o- of ped-odont-ist is not a connecting vowel, since it begins the base form that means “tooth”; we should similarly divide the words orth-odont-ist and peri-odont-ist.
The first noun in Table 18.1, ἀηρ, became the Latin loan-word aēr, after exact transliteration; this was the source (through Old French) of English air. To make it clear that this Latin word has two syllables, we may wish to use the diaeresis[4] mark, spelling the form as aër. When the word aerial first entered the English language, it was pronounced “a-er-i-al.” If the initial two letters had evolved from the Latin diphthong ae, the modern English spelling would likely have become “erial.” Our word airplane was originally (1866) adapted from French as aeroplane, and may still be spelled that way; the form was apparently intended to mean “air wanderer” (cf. planet), though its second element soon became associated in usage with the more obvious plane (< L planus).
The alternative bases of γυνη, γυναικος (gun- and gunaik- ) are apparent in the contrast between mis-o-gyn-y or andr-o-gyn-ous, on the one hand, and gynec-o-logy, on the other. Words like σωμα and χρωμα may have two combining forms; see English chrom-o-some, as opposed to chromat-ic and pysch-o-somat-ic. Again, phos-phorus (< φωσφορος, “light-bearing”) can be contrasted with phot-o-graph. Greek was unlike Latin in this capacity to use two different forms of the same noun in forming derivatives or compounds. The phenomenon does represent a complication in English word analysis.
If your physician is a foot specialist, (s)he is perhaps a podiatrist (“foot healer”). However, if the medical practice is concerned with hands and feet, the doctor will be a chiropodist (< χειρ-ο-ποδ-ιστης). Some other medical specialties from Table 18.1 are gynecology, gerontology, dermatology, and haematology.
- In the semantic area, this word is a fine example of PEJORATION or deterioration of meaning (§15), since the original Greek word had a very positive denotation—a divinity or spirit (Socrates’ inner voice). ↵
- The word encyclopedia (still often spelled encyclopaedia in the U.K.), is derived from G παιδεια (paideia < παις), “education” (of children). The compound meant “circular (i.e., complete) education.” ↵
- We'll be meeting the suffix -ιστης many times. A 1st declension masculine ending, it may be viewed as the Greek counterpart of the Latin AGENT SUFFIX -or. Occasionally a Greek noun in -ιστης was adapted as a 1st declension Latin noun in -ista. Whether or not there was an intermediate Latin form, the suffix appears in English as -ist. ↵
- The word diaeresis looks as if it might have been derived from ἀηρ. That is not the case; however it is a Greek derivative, from δια + αἱρειν (“to take apart”). ↵


Vectors
Polar vs. Rectangular Form
Polar form
When dealing with vectors, there are two ways of expressing them. Up to this point, we have used a magnitude and a direction such as 30 V @ 67°. This is what is known as the polar form. It is more often the form that we like to express vectors in.
Rectangular form
Rectangular form breaks a vector down into X and Y coordinates. In the example below, we have a vector that, when expressed as polar, is 50 V @ 55 degrees. The first step to finding this expression is using the 50 V as the hypotenuse and the direction as the angle. Next, we draw a line straight down from the arrowhead to the X axis. What does this look like to you? If you said right triangle, give yourself a pat on the back. We then can use the angle and the hypotenuse to determine the X axis with these equations:
- cos 55°×50 = 28.7 for the X axis
- sin 55°×50 = 41 for the Y axis
This is accomplished just by transposing the ratios from what we learned previously in trigonometry.
We then can express the same vector as 28.7, j 41.
Where did that j come from?
The letter j is put in front of the y component to indicate the difference between the X and the Y. The reason j is used is this.
As a way of telling the difference between X and Y, it was decided that a letter should be put in front of the Y. The X and Y components don’t really exist, and are referred to as imaginary numbers. Because each is an imaginary number, the letter i was suggested. However, the letter i is also used as a symbol for current, so it was decided to go with the letter j instead.
Why polarity is important
Let’s look at another example. The polar form is 60 V @ 140 degrees. This puts the vector in the second quadrant.
In the second quadrant, X is – (negative) and Y is + (positive). The angle of 140 degrees is used from the 0-degree point. To use trigonometry, we need to determine what the angle is in reference to the X axis. In this example, it is 40 degrees (the supplement of 140 degrees). After that, we can use trigonometry to determine the X and Y components.
- cos 40°×60 = 46 for the X axis
- sin 40°×60 = 39 for the Y axis
If we are going to express it in rectangular form, use -46, j39. Remember that the X component is negative and the Y component is positive as they are in the second quadrant.
Video!
This video walks through how to convert from polar form to rectangular form.
Rectangular to polar
Up to this point, we have been converting the polar form to rectangular. It is possible–and even important–to convert from rectangular to the polar form. If you have been given the rectangular coordinates, the best thing you can do is chart them out.
For instance, if you are given the coordinates 50, j80, then:
Step 1. Draw them out on an X-Y chart.
Step 2. Draw in the resultant and use Pythagoras’ theorem to determine its size.
Step 3. Use trigonometry to determine the angle.
Step 4. Using the resultant and the angle, go ahead and express it in polar form: 94 @ 58°
Congrats, you did it!
Video!
This video walks through how to convert from rectangular form to polar form.
Heed the quadrant!
There is one thing you need to watch. You need to be aware of what quadrant you are in. This is especially important when dealing with the direction (angle). When we work out the angle using the Pythagoras’ theorem, we use the angle in relation to the X axis but not the direction of the vector. Confused? Look at the example below where the coordinates -36, j29 are given.
Using Pythagoras and trigonometry, we worked out that the resultant was 46 and the angle, in reference to the X axis, was 38.4 degrees. However, the polar form would not be 46 @ 38.4 degrees. We have to take into account that it is in the second quadrant. That means the direction must be somewhere between 90 and 180 degrees. In order to work out the actual direction in this example, we take 180 degrees and subtract 38.4 degrees from it to get 141.6 degrees.
In the third quadrant, we calculate the angle in reference to the X axis and add 180 degrees to it. In the fourth quadrant, we calculate the angle and subtract it from 360 degrees.
Something cool about the fourth quadrant
When we are dealing with the fourth quadrant, there are two ways we can express the direction. We can work out the angle relative to the X axis and subtract it from 360 degrees as previously stated. Or, another way to express it is to work out the angle and then throw a negative sign in front of it. Mathematically it is the same thing. In this example, it can be expressed as 80 V @ 340° or 80 V @ −20°.
Didn’t someone mention something about adding vectors?
Attributions
Converting Polar to Rectangular. video by The Electric Academy is under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence.
Converting Rectangular to Polar form. video by The Electric Academy is under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence.


A Dime a Dozen
When you were younger did you babysit, deliver papers, or mow the lawn for money? If so, you faced stiff competition from a lot of other competitors who offered identical services. There was nothing to stop others from offering their services too.
All of you charged the “going rate.” If you tried to charge more, your customers would simply buy from someone else. These conditions are very similar to the conditions agricultural growers face.
Growing a crop may be more difficult to start than a babysitting or lawn mowing service, but growers face the same fierce competition. In the grand scale of world agriculture, farmers face competition from thousands of others because they sell an identical product. After all, winter wheat is winter wheat. But it is relatively easy for farmers to leave the marketplace for another crop. In this case, they do not sell the family farm, they switch crops.
Take the case of the upper Midwest region of the United States—for many generations the area was called “King Wheat.” According to the United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, statistics by state, in 1997, 11.6 million acres of wheat and 780,000 acres of corn were planted in North Dakota. In the intervening 15 or so years has the mix of crops changed? Since it is relatively easy to switch crops, did farmers change what was planted as the relative crop prices changed? We will find out at chapter’s end.
In the meantime, let’s consider the topic of this chapter—the perfectly competitive market. This is a market in which entry and exit are relatively easy and competitors are “a dime a dozen.”
Chapter Objectives
Introduction to Perfect Competition
In this chapter, you will learn about:
- Perfect Competition and Why It Matters
- How Perfectly Competitive Firms Make Output Decisions
- Entry and Exit Decisions in the Long Run
- Efficiency in Perfectly Competitive Markets
All businesses face two realities: no one is required to buy their products, and even customers who might want those products may buy from other businesses instead. Firms that operate in perfectly competitive markets face this reality. In this chapter, you will learn how such firms make decisions about how much to produce, how much profit they make, whether to stay in business or not, and many others. Industries differ from one another in terms of how many sellers there are in a specific market, how easy or difficult it is for a new firm to enter, and the type of products that are sold. This is referred to as the market structure of the industry. In this chapter, we focus on perfect competition. However, in other chapters we will examine other industry types: Monopoly and Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly.