Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus)
Patricia Henderson
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
Corresponding author<EMAIL_ADDRESS><EMAIL_ADDRESS>OUTLINE
- Overview
- History
- Production and use
- Conservation and breeding
- Neurolathyrism
- References
- Chapter information
1. OVERVIEW
Lathyrus sativus, commonly referred to as grass pea, is a hardy legume with significant nutritional and stress-adaptive traits. Grass peas are well suited to a range of climate and soil types and can thrive in both dry and waterlogged conditions. While underutilized, this species has gained attention recently due to its tolerance of a variety of abiotic stresses. Lathyrus sativus plants are short, bushy diploid annuals (2n=14), with blue, pink, or white flowers and green seedpods. Their seedpods are curved and flat and contain 3 to 5 white or grey-brown seeds (Kumar et al., 2013).
To learn more about the importance of grass pea, check out this article and short video from Crop Trust.
2. HISTORY
As one of the earliest domesticated crops, grass peas unsurprisingly have a long history of cultivation. Seeds have been identified in Balkan excavations as early as 8000 BCE (Lambein et al., 2019). There are nearly 160 annual and perennial species within the genus Lathyrus that are distributed throughout temperate climates around the globe (Lambein et al., 2019). Kumar et al. (2013) provide a review of phylogenetic relationships among Lathyrus species.
Grass peas are most commonly found in Europe, South and West Asia, North Africa, and Ethiopia (Soren et al., 2015). There is some debate on the crop’s origin, some arguing that it stems from Central Asia, others indicating the Mediterranean region (Kumar et al., 2013). The exact origin of this plant is uncertain due to its long history of cultivation and the lack of marked differences in morphology between wild and domesticated populations. Likely, this overlap of wild and domestic types is due to the use of grass peas as both forage and grain legume crops within areas where it is native (Kumar et al., 2013). The crop’s spread across Europe, Africa, and South Asia occurred through migration and merchant trading primarily during the Bronze Age (roughly 3300 to 1200 BCE) (Kumar et al., 2013). Grass pea germplasm falls broadly into two groups, Asian and Mediterranean, having small and large seeds, respectively (Lambein et al., 2019).
3. PRODUCTION AND USE
While used mainly as food, forage, and livestock feed, grass pea can also be grown as an ornamental and used medicinally (Wiraguna et al., 2020). The most prominent grass pea production regions are in South Asia and East Africa, specifically Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Ethiopia (Lambein et al., 2019). Total production of grass pea is estimated at 1.2 million tons on 1.5 million hectares. Ethiopian production recently increased in total land area as well as amount harvested (Lambein et al., 2019). Bangladesh also followed this trend through the expansion of its total planted area in dry and flooded fields (Lambein et al., 2019). While still a production center, Europe has mostly de-emphasized grass peas in favor of better-known crops like chickpeas (Grela et al., 2010).
Grass peas are versatile in many ways through their ability to thrive in an extensive range of soil conditions, elevations, water levels, and other abiotic stresses (Lambein et al., 2019; Wiraguna et al., 2020). They are often grown as a summer crop in high altitudes as well as a winter crop at lower elevations (Lambein et al., 2019).
Grass peas are most prominent in arid and semiarid regions where more common legumes are not as well suited. Their ability to do well in low water conditions and their adaptability to poor-quality soils makes them extremely attractive to impoverished farmers. Their morphological adaptative mechanisms to drought conditions include narrow leaves, winged stems, and a deep root system (Lambein et al., 2019). Physiological adaptations include an elevated ability to adjust the plant’s osmotic potential and the upregulation of antioxidant enzyme genes (Lambein et al., 2019).
Waterlogging can be a problem in locations with monsoon climates. The influx of water into the soil blocks a root’s access to oxygen and can lead to a crop doing poorly if left in stagnant water for too long before the field can drain (Smartt et al., 1994). Farmers in Ethiopia use grass peas’ tolerance of this stress to their advantage, commonly growing it during their monsoon season in high clay-content soil prone to waterlogging (Wiraguna et al., 2020). This practice extends their growing season by several months on land that likely would not be used otherwise until after the monsoon season ends.
In terms of soil, grass peas are relatively undemanding and are good nitrogen fixers (Smartt et al., 1994). Grass peas have a high yield potential at low fertilization levels and hardy root systems that help them thrive in a broad range of soil types, from volcanic soils in Ethiopia to heavy clay soils in Bangladesh (Lambein et al., 2019; Grela et al., 2010). They are commonly used as an intercrop with wheat and rice, staple crops in the same regions (Lambein et al., 2019). They do very well in crop rotations due to their ability to improve soil conditions, reduce disease incidence, and lessen weed growth (Grela et al., 2010). All these qualities reduce its cost of production.
Grass peas are a popular food across several continents in a wide range of dishes. Many countries in Europe, Africa, and South Asia have numerous ways to prepare and eat them. Cooking, boiling, roasting, making them into drinks or sauces, and even eating uncooked seeds are all common ways for them to be consumed (Lambein et al., 2019). Grass pea seeds are remarkably high in protein, at a content level of about 27%, compared to chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), which commonly have only about 18% protein content (Wiraguna et al., 2020). They are also strong sources of starch, fiber, and secondary metabolites. (Soren et al., 2015). Because of this, a substantial portion of grass peas’ major production regions uses them as a primary protein supplement in their diets (Kumar et al., 2013). However, as in many grain legumes, grass pea is deficient in the sulfur-containing amino acids cystine and methionine (Lambein et al., 2019).
Grass peas are one of the hardiest but also most underutilized crops (Kumar et al., 2013). There are several reasons that help contribute to this underutilization, one of the main ones being an issue that can arise if grass peas are a population’s major source of protein for an extended period of time (Wiraguna et al., 2020). If grass peas are more than 20% of a diet’s protein content over a period of three consecutive months, it can lead to the development of a neurological disorder called ‘neurolathyrism’, due to the presence of the neuroexcitatory amino acid β-ODAP acid (Wiraguna et al., 2020). A stigma against grass peas has developed because of this, despite their significant dietary advantages and tolerance to abiotic stress.
4. CONSERVATION AND BREEDING
There are only limited grass pea resources in genebanks worldwide, and the genus Lathyrus is believed to have experienced serious genetic erosion in traditional growing areas in the past 50 years (Kumar et al., 2013). The largest collections of L. sativus accessions are in France (2382), the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (1627), Australia (572), and the USA (222) (Kumar et al., 2013). Overemphasis on the belief that excessive consumption of grass peas can lead to neurolathyrism has discouraged more collection, research, and use of this crop (Kumar et al., 2013). Another factor that explains the low level of scientific attention is its importance in resource-poor regions rather than primary agricultural areas (Soren et al., 2015). There is some genetic and genomic data available for this understudied crop, but the amount of data is low relative to other crops, partly because of its large, complex genome (8.2 Gb) (Lambein et al., 2019).
While grass peas have recently attracted interest due to their potential genetic role in addressing issues related to climate change, they still receive less attention than more prominent staple crops (Kumar et al., 2013). The conservation and continued sustainable use of its available genetic resources provide the best chance of improving our understanding of grass peas (Kumar et al., 2013). Breeding and evaluation objectives have included lower levels of β-ODAP, higher yield, appropriate phenology, and improved biotic and abiotic stress tolerance (Kumar et al., 2013; Lambein et al., 2019).
Even though it is not widely used, this crop remains attractive for its adaptability in the face of climate change and the growing severity and variability of growing seasons. Being tolerant to both a deficit and an excess of rainfall gives it the ability to grow in a variety of climates and helps ensure a food supply at locations with harsh environments (Soren et al., 2015). Because of these traits, it is a promising source of genes related to disease and abiotic stress tolerance that could be applied to breeding programs (Soren et al., 2015).
5. NEUROLATHYRISM
The overemphasis of grass peas’ toxic properties stems from ancient Greece and India, where the overconsumption of its seeds and the neurological disorder were linked (Lambein et al., 2019). This has led to it being disregarded and underutilized despite its very positive tolerances and nutritional advantages (Lambein et al., 2019). There are several studies looking into reducing the concentration of β-ODAP acid to make grass peas safer to eat. Neurolathyrism is usually inflicted only on those who are unable to secure other sources of protein (Smartt et al., 1994). In most current socioeconomic situations, when grass peas are eaten as part of a balanced diet, the development of this disorder is virtually non-existent (Lambein et al., 2019).
6. REFERENCES
Grela ER, Rybiński W, Klebaniuk R, Matras J. 2010. Morphological characteristics of some accessions of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) grown in Europe and nutritional traits of their seeds. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 57:693-701. DOI: 10.1007/s10722-009-9505-4
Kumar S, Gupta P, Barpete S, Sarker A, Amri A, Mathur PN, Baum M. 2013. 11 – Grass pea. In Singh M, Upadhyaya HD, Bisht IS (eds.), Genetic and genomic resources of grain legume improvement. Elsevier Ltd. p. 269-292. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-397935-3.00011-6
Lambein F, Travella S, Kuo YH, Van Montagu M, Heijde M. 2019. Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.): orphan crop, nutraceutical, or just plain food? Planta 250:821-838. DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-03084-0
Smartt J, Kaul A, Amlak Araya W, Rahman MM, Kearney J. 1994. Grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L.) as a potentially safe legume food crop. In Expanding the Production and Use of Cool Season Food Legumes. Springer Netherlands. p. 144-155. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-011-0798-3_7
Soren KR, Yadav A, Pandey G, Gangwar P, Parihar AK, Bohra A, Dixit GP, Datta S, Singh NP. 2015. EST-SSR analysis provides insights about genetic relatedness, population structure and gene flow in grass pea (Lathyrus sativus). Plant Breeding 134:338-344. DOI: 10.1111/pbr.12268
Wiraguna E, Malik AI, Colmer TD, Erskine W. 2020. Waterlogging tolerance of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) at germination related to country of origin. Experimental Agriculture 56:837-850. DOI: 10.1017/S0014479720000356
7. CHAPTER INFORMATION
Chapter citation: Henderson P. 2023. Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus). In: Chen K, Byrne P (Eds.) Understudied Indigenous Crops. Fort Collins, Colorado: Colorado State University. Date accessed. Available from https://colostate.pressbooks.pub/understudiedindigenouscrops/chapter/grass-pea/
Chapter editor: Patrick Byrne


8.6 Key Takeaways and Discussion Questions
Included in this section are tools for the reader to refresh and retain the knowledge. A Key Takeaway serves one of three purposes:
- highlighting an especially complex aspect of the chapter;
- summarizing an overarching idea; or
- emphasizing an idea that invites the reader to think about it more deeply, to connect to life experiences, and/or additional learnings.
Discussion Questions are recommended for individual reflection or class discussion.
Key Takeaways
- There are many kinds of structures that produce healthy families and children. It is important not to judge one kind of family structure as being “better than the other.”
- Child welfare programs are implemented at times when the children’s needs are not being met by the family environment.
- Schools and human services make strong partnerships. Each school district will have programs that are tailored to that community’s needs.
Discussion Questions
- Of the family structures described in the chapter, which ones are you familiar with? What other family structures have you observed?
- Spend some time reviewing the website of your own local public school and your own school district. Identify and discuss programs related to human services that are available.
Comprehension Check
Licenses and Attributions
“Key Takeaways and Discussion Questions” by Elizabeth B. Pearce is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Revised by Martha Ochoa-Leyva.
definition
well-being
a professional field focused on helping people solve their problems.


The Awakening
Chapter XI
“What are you doing out here, Edna? I thought I should find you in bed,” said her husband, when he discovered her lying there. He had walked up with Madame Lebrun and left her at the house. His wife did not reply.
“Are you asleep?” he asked, bending down close to look at her.
“No.” Her eyes gleamed bright and intense, with no sleepy shadows, as they looked into his.
“Do you know it is past one o’clock? Come on,” and he mounted the steps and went into their room.
“Edna!” called Mr. Pontellier from within, after a few moments had gone by.
“Don’t wait for me,” she answered. He thrust his head through the door.
“You will take cold out there,” he said, irritably. “What folly is this? Why don’t you come in?”
“It isn’t cold; I have my shawl.”
“The mosquitoes will devour you.”
“There are no mosquitoes.”
She heard him moving about the room; every sound indicating impatience and irritation. Another time she would have gone in at his request. She would, through habit, have yielded to his desire; not with any sense of submission or obedience to his compelling wishes, but unthinkingly, as we walk, move, sit, stand, go through the daily treadmill of the life which has been portioned out to us.
“Edna, dear, are you not coming in soon?” he asked again, this time fondly, with a note of entreaty.
“No; I am going to stay out here.”
“This is more than folly,” he blurted out.  You must come in the house instantly.”
With a writhing motion she settled herself more securely in the hammock. She perceived that her will had blazed up, stubborn and resistant. She could not at that moment have done other than denied and resisted. She wondered if her husband had ever spoken to her like that before, and if she had submitted to his command. Of course she had; she remembered that she had. But she could not realize why or how she should have yielded, feeling as she then did.
“Léonce, go to bed,” she said, “I mean to stay out here. I don’t wish to go in, and I don’t intend to. Don’t speak to me like that again; I shall not answer you.”
Mr. Pontellier had prepared for bed, but he slipped on an extra garment. He opened a bottle of wine, of which he kept a small and select supply in a buffet of his own. He drank a glass of the wine and went out on the gallery and offered a glass to his wife. She did not wish any. He drew up the rocker, hoisted his slippered feet on the rail, and proceeded to smoke a cigar. He smoked two cigars; then he went inside and drank another glass of wine. Mrs. Pontellier again declined to accept a glass when it was offered to her. Mr. Pontellier once more seated himself with elevated feet, and after a reasonable interval of time smoked some more cigars.
Edna began to feel like one who awakens gradually out of a dream, a delicious, grotesque, impossible dream, to feel again the realities pressing into her soul. The physical need for sleep began to overtake her; the exuberance which had sustained and exalted her spirit left her helpless and yielding to the conditions which crowded her in.
The stillest hour of the night had come, the hour before dawn, when the world seems to hold its breath. The moon hung low, and had turned from silver to copper in the sleeping sky. The old owl no longer hooted, and the water-oaks had ceased to moan as they bent their heads.
Edna arose, cramped from lying so long and still in the hammock. She tottered up the steps, clutching feebly at the post before passing into the house.

“Yes, dear,” he answered, with a glance following a misty puff of smoke. “Just as soon as I have finished my cigar.”


47 Aerobic Respiration: The Citric Acid Cycle
In eukaryotic cells, if there is oxygen available, the pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria. Mitochondria are sites of the next two stages in cellular respiration: the citric acid cycle (also sometimes called the Krebs Cycle) and oxidative phosphorylation. In the presence of oxygen, these two stages will proceed. If oxygen is not present, cells do not perform the citric acid cycle or oxidative phosphorylation after glycolysis, instead they perform fermentation.
When oxygen is present, pyruvate that has been transported into the mitochondria is transformed into a two-carbon acetyl group by removing a molecule of carbon dioxide (“acetyl” means “two-carbons” in chemistry). This acetyl group is picked up by a carrier compound called coenzyme A (CoA), which is made from vitamin B5. The resulting compound is called acetyl CoA. (Figure 1). Acetyl CoA can be used in a variety of ways by the cell, but its major function is to deliver the acetyl group derived from pyruvate to the next pathway in glucose catabolism.
Like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, the citric acid cycle in eukaryotic cells takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. Unlike glycolysis, the citric acid cycle is a closed loop: The last part of the pathway regenerates the compound used in the first step. The eight steps of the cycle are a series of chemical reactions that produces the following from each molecule of pyruvate (remember that there are 2 molecules of pyruvate produced per molecule of glucose that originally went into glycolysis):
- 2 carbon dioxide molecules
- 1 ATP molecule (or an equivalent)
- 3 NADH and 1 FADH2, which carry energy to the last part of the aerobic respiration pathway.
Part of this is considered an aerobic pathway (oxygen-requiring) because the NADH and FADH2 produced must transfer their electrons to the next pathway in the system, which will use oxygen. If oxygen is not present, this transfer does not occur. The citric acid cycle does NOT occur in anaerobic respiration.
More Details
Two carbon atoms come into the citric acid cycle from each acetyl group. Two carbon dioxide molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not contain the same carbon atoms contributed by the acetyl group on that turn of the pathway. The two acetyl-carbon atoms will eventually be released on later turns of the cycle; in this way, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule will be eventually released as carbon dioxide. It takes two turns of the cycle to process the equivalent of one glucose molecule. Each turn of the cycle forms three high-energy NADH molecules and one high-energy FADH2 molecule. These high-energy carriers will connect with the last portion of aerobic respiration to produce ATP molecules. One ATP (or an equivalent) is also made in each cycle. Several of the intermediate compounds in the citric acid cycle can be used in synthesizing non-essential amino acids; therefore, the cycle is both anabolic and catabolic.
References
Unless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.
Text adapted from: OpenStax, Concepts of Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 18, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@9.10


Artifacts
Artifact 1: Acceptance Letter into Trent Nursing
This letter was the culmination of all the work I put into highschool. All the course planning, homework and tests resulted into my acceptance into trent university as a nursing student, inspired by my mother who attended two decades prior. This letter locked in my career choice and future plans, and reminded me that I am growing up and my decisions from now own are more important than ever before. Whenever I feel disappointed in myself, I remind myself that I was accepted into a university I was stressing over for months after I sent out applications.
Artifact 2: CPR certificate (one of many!)
Getting my CPR certificate this semester was one of the earliest completed NARs for me. I have gotten CPR trained many times now, starting at the age of 12. This, however, was the first time my certification was important to my development as a nurse. I believe that if my 12-year-old self knew that his first certificate would eventually lead to this, he’d be very happy.
Artifact 3: High School Diploma
In high school, I strove for my best possible work to ensure I got into a nursing program of my choice, and I aimed to receive additional scholarships. I wound up graduating with honours, meaning I achieved the forspoken goals. This diploma I worked so hard for was the final triumph of my highschool days, and the stepstool for my journey into my time as a nursing student
Artifact 4: Virtual Hope Kit Assignment
This assignment was the first major assignment that I feel is directly valuable to my practice next semester. While the theory paper wrote earlier was useful for understanding nursing theories and their applicability to care, the hope kit offers genuine and relevant tools to reduce stress and burnout in practice. This assignment is yet another stepping stool for my entry into nursing practice next semester, where I can utilize it to maintain proper health when things get difficult.


The Anglo-Saxon period, also called the Early Medieval Literary Period, part of the Middle Ages
12
XII
The Prince of earls would not at all let go alive the murderous comer, nor did he count his life as of use to any of the peoples. And many an earl of Beowulf’s brandished the old heirloom, and were wishful to defend the life of their far-famed liege-lord, if they might do so. And they knew not, when they entered the battle, they the hard-thinking ones, the battle-men, and they thought to hew on all sides seeking out his spirit, that not any choice iron over the earth nor any battle weapon could be greeting the foe, but that he had forsworn all victorious weapons and swords. And miserable should be his passing on the day of this life, and the hostile sprite should journey far into the power of devils. Then he found out that, he who did crimes long before this with mirthful mind to human kind, he who was a foe to God, that his body would not last out; but the proud kinsman of Hygelac had him in his hands. And each was loathsome to the other while he lived. The terrible monster, sore with wounds was waiting. The gaping wound was seen on his shoulder. His sinews sprang open; and the bone-lockers burst. And great victory was given to Beowulf. Thence would Grendel, mortally wounded, flee under the fen-slopes to seek out a joyless dwelling. The more surely he knew he had reached the end of his life, the number of his days. Joy befell all the Danes after the slaughter-rush. So he had cleansed the hall of Hrothgar—he who had come from far, the proud and stout-hearted one, and saved them from strife. He rejoiced in the night-work and in the glorious deeds. His boast he had fulfilled, this leader of the Geats, which he made to the East Danes, and likewise made good all the distresses and the sorrows which they suffered of yore from the foe, and which through dire need they had to endure, of distresses not a few. And when the battle-brave man laid down the hand, the arm and shoulder under the wide roof, that was the manifest token.


Reading
The material on the following site is important and should be read either before or after the text in this section.
Bit Lit
Brian Hayes
American Scientist, Vol. 99 No. 3, 2011, p. 190.
This article, written in non-technical language, summarizes the research and results presented in (Michel et al., 2011) on constructing a large corpus from over five million books to quantitatively analyze cultural trends. The work was performed by a collaborative team of researchers from Harvard University, Google, and elsewhere.
Read: Brit Hayes
Mapping the Republic of Letters
Mapping the Republic of Letters is a large scale digital humanities project for visualizing the connections between correspondents in the intellectual world of early modern Europe. Voltaire, John Locke, and Benjamin Franklin are among some of the members of this network. The website for the project, hosted at Stanford University, features many research projects that comprise the larger Mapping the Republic of Letters initiative, and provides several interactive visualizations associated with these projects.
View: Mapping the Republic of Letters
View: Mapping the Republic of Letters
Institutional Models for Digital Humanities
Claire Warwick
This weblog article, based on Chapter 9 in Warwick et al., 2012, discusses small and large scale digital humanities projects within the context of academic institutions. Two case studies are presented. Educational aspects of these projects are discussed.
Source: Warwick, C., Terras, M., & Nyhan, J. (Eds.). (2012). Digital humanities in practice. Facet Publishing
Read: Institutional Models for Digital Humanities
Center for Digital Research in the Humanities (CDRH)
A large number of projects in diverse areas in the digital humanities are associated with the Center. Among the wide-ranging topic are “Birds of Nebraska: Newspaper Accounts, 1854-1923”, “The Archaic Sanctuary at Mon Repos, Corfu”, “The History Harvest”, and “The Great Plains During World War II”.
View: Center for Digital Research in the Humanities (CDRH) and List of Projects
Culturomics
Although the research on this topic was published in 2011, the website for the project is still online and maintained (as of October, 2021), although it does not appear to be updated frequently. The Google n-gram viewer is featured.
View: Culturomics
Six Degrees of Francis Bacon
Six Degrees of Francis Bacon is a large project in digital scholarship devoted to the featuring advanced interactive network visualizations. Graphical user interfaces facilitate navigation through Bacon’s professional and social networks. Connections can be filtered by many different categories, such as “Judges”, “Diplomats”, “Composers”, and “Historians.” The site is hosted by Carnegie Mello University Libraries. Datasets are also available for download.
View: Six Degrees of Francis Bacon
Linguistic Atlas Project
This is the web site for the Linguistic Atlas Project, an early digital humanities initiative. Although most of the site appears to be from 2011 based on the News link, users can gain valuable knowledge about English as it is spoken in the United States, and how its usage varies across different geographical regions and how it evolved over time. The site features both interactive textual and visual content, including map visualizations, with a user interface, named “LICHEN”, to facilitate navigation. Many datasets are available for download as CSV (comma-separated values) format.
View: Linguistic Atlas Project
Python Code
The figures in this section were generated with the Python code: EpidemicSimulation_FigureSizeSimulation.py


5.14 Learning Activities
Learning Activities
Chest Pain Case Study (Case Study answers are located in the Answer Key at the end of the book.)[1]
Mrs. Fatima Khan is a 58-year-old female who presents to the emergency department complaining of severe chest pain that started approximately 30 minutes ago. She describes the pain as a crushing sensation located in the center of her chest, radiating to her left arm. She rates the pain as 9/10 on the pain scale and reports associated symptoms of diaphoresis, nausea, and shortness of breath. She has a medical history of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and type 2 diabetes mellitus and no known allergies. Current medications include lisinopril 10 mg daily, metformin 1000 mg twice daily, and atorvastatin 40 mg daily.
Vital Signs: BP 180/100mmHg, HR 110 bpm, RR 24 bpm, O2 sat 92% on room air, Temperature 37.0 C (98.6 F).
Physical Examination: Client is diaphoretic with a S3 gallop, shallow respirations, and audible crackles bilaterally. Skin is cool, clammy, and pale.
Laboratory and Diagnostic Results:
-
- Troponin: Elevated (> 0.04 ng/mL)
- CK-MB: Elevated
- Blood Glucose: 220 mg/dL
- Total Cholesterol: 240 mg/dL
- ECG: ST-segment elevation in leads II, III, aVF, and V1-V6
- Echocardiogram: Left ventricular dysfunction with decreased ejection fraction (EF 30%)
Questions:
- What is the significance of elevated troponin levels in a client with suspected MI?
- How do elevated CK-MB levels contribute to the diagnosis of MI, and how do they differ from troponin levels in timing and specificity?
- Why is it important to monitor blood glucose levels in a client with acute MI, and what impact can elevated levels have on the client’s prognosis?
- Describe the role of total cholesterol levels in the assessment of cardiovascular risk and their relevance in the management of MI.
“Cardiology Glossary Cards” by Open RN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
“Cardiology Question Set 1” by Open RN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
“Cardiology Question Set 2” by Open RN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
Test your knowledge on pediatric cardiovascular conditions using this NCLEX Next Generation-style bowtie question. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[3]
Test your knowledge on heart failure using this NCLEX Next Generation-style multiple response question. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[4]
Test your knowledge on heart failure using this NCLEX Next Generation-style case study. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[5]
Test your knowledge using this NCLEX Next Generation-style question. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[6]
Test your knowledge on peripheral arterial disease using this NCLEX Next Generation-style case study. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[7]
Test your knowledge on venous insufficiency using this NCLEX Next Generation-style case study. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[8]
Test your knowledge on myocardial infarction using this NCLEX Next Generation-style case study. You may reset and resubmit your answers to this question an unlimited number of times.[9]
Telehealth Scenarios
Telehealth is an innovative technology that can bridge the gap between health care professionals and clients, especially for clients who live in remote areas. Telehealth makes health care not only more accessible but can also provide continuity of care and prevent unnecessary hospitalizations. Nurses who provide telehealth services become digital communicators and educators, clinical expertise with empathy and effective online communication.
Practice using effective telehealth communication in the following three scenarios with an 80-year-old Hispanic male who has chronic heart failure and is self-managing his condition at home[10]
Alejandro Hernandez, Telehealth Visit 1: Post-hospitalization Follow-Up
Alejandro Hernandez, Telehealth Visit 2: Identifying Learning Needs
Alejandro Hernandez, Telehealth Visit 3: Evaluating Effectiveness of Health Teaching
- “Chest Pain Case Study” by Open RN is licensed by CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Case Study: Peripheral Arterial Disease” by Open RN and Codaptive Labs is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Pediatric Cardiovascular Bowtie" by Jennifer Hinz and OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Heart Failure Multiple Response" by Kellea Ewen and OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Heart Failure - Level 2” by Angela Landry for OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “PAD” by Kellea Ewen for OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Peripheral Arterial Disease” by Carrie Abrahamson for OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Venous Insufficiency” by Carrie Abrahamson for OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- “Cardiac Case Study” by Travis Christman for OpenRN is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵
- Telehealth Scenarios by Open RN and Codaptive Labs are licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 ↵


4 Academic Integrity
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you’ll learn
- What academic integrity is
- How to cite and reference properly as an important part of avoiding plagiarism
- About supports and resources available in the Library to support academic integrity
What is Academic Integrity?
Academic Integrity is fundamental to learning. The International Center for Academic Integrity (ICAI) (2020) defines academic integrity as “a commitment to six fundamental values: honesty, trust, fairness, respect, responsibility, and courage” (p. 4).
How does the Library support Academic Integrity?
A key element of undertaking an academic course is to gain knowledge and skills that can be taken into the workplace. The Library supports students in developing information literacy skills which are fundamental in the demonstration of academic integrity. The ACRL (2015) defines information literacy as “the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning” (p. 8). During term time we offer drop-in classes and workshops on finding, using and managing information.
Citing and Referencing
Citing and referencing are two words for the same process: of documenting where you have found your information from when that information is not your own. You must refer to all sources you quote or paraphrase within your document. You should always briefly cite the sources you use in your work within the text of your paper as this will refer your reader to your reference list or bibliography where you will provide the full details of the source.
| Citing & Referencing | |
|
Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2022) Cite them right: the essential referencing guide. 12th ed. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Cite them right provides clear and comprehensive coverage of citing and referencing. This 12th edition continues to provide detailed examples for all print and electronic sources, business, government, technical and legal publications, and works of art and images. This book is available in print and also as an eBook. |
References
International Center for Academic Integrity (ICAI) (2021) The fundamental values of academic integrity. 3rd edn. Available at: www.academicintegrity.org/the-fundamental-valuesof-academic-integrity (Accessed: 16 November 2023).


Calcium
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program and Human Nutrition Program
Calcium’s Functional Roles
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and greater than 99 percent of it is stored in . Although only 1 percent of the calcium in the human body is found in the blood and soft tissues, it is here that it performs the most critical functions. Blood calcium levels are rigorously controlled so that if blood levels drop the body will rapidly respond by stimulating , thereby releasing stored calcium into the blood. Thus, bone tissue sacrifices its stored calcium to maintain blood calcium levels. This is why bone health is dependent on the intake of dietary calcium and also why blood levels of calcium do not always correspond to dietary intake.
Calcium plays a role in a number of different functions in the body like bone and tooth formation. The most well-known calcium function is to build and strengthen bones and teeth. Recall that when bone tissue first forms during the modeling or remodeling process, it is unhardened, protein-rich osteoid tissue. In the osteoblast-directed process of bone mineralization, calcium phosphates (salts) are deposited on the protein matrix. The calcium salts typically make up about 65 percent of bone tissue. When your diet is calcium deficient, the mineral content of bone decreases causing it to become brittle and weak. Thus, increased calcium intake helps to increase the mineralized content of bone tissue. Greater mineralized bone tissue corresponds to a greater BMD, and to greater bone strength. The remaining calcium plays a role in nerve impulse transmission by facilitating electrical impulse transmission from one nerve cell to another. Calcium in muscle cells is essential for muscle contraction because the flow of calcium ions are needed for the muscle proteins (actin and myosin) to interact. Calcium is also essential in blood clotting by activating clotting factors to fix damaged tissue.
In addition to calcium’s four primary functions calcium has several other minor functions that are also critical for maintaining normal physiology. For example, without calcium, the hormone could not be released from cells in the pancreas and glycogen could not be broken down in muscle cells and used to provide energy for muscle contraction.
Maintaining Calcium Levels
Because calcium performs such vital functions in the body, blood calcium level is closely regulated by the hormones (), calcitriol, and . When blood calcium levels are low, PTH is secreted to increase blood calcium levels via three different mechanisms. First, PTH stimulates the release of calcium stored in the bone. Second, PTH acts on kidney cells to increase calcium reabsorption and decrease its excretion in the urine. Third, PTH stimulates in the kidney that activate to calcitriol. Calcitriol is the active hormone that acts on the intestinal cells and increases dietary calcium absorption. When blood calcium levels become too high, the hormone calcitonin is secreted by certain cells in the and PTH secretion stops. At higher nonphysiological concentrations, calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by increasing calcium excretion in the urine, preventing further absorption of calcium in the gut and by directly inhibiting bone resorption.
Figure 10.2 Maintaining Blood Calcium Levels
Other Health Benefits of Calcium in the Body
Besides forming and maintaining strong bones and teeth, calcium has been shown to have other health benefits for the body, including:
- Cancer. The National Cancer Institute reports that there is enough scientific evidence to conclude that higher intakes of calcium decrease colon cancer risk and may suppress the growth of polyps that often precipitate cancer. Although higher calcium consumption protects against colon cancer, some studies have looked at the relationship between calcium and prostate cancer and found higher intakes may increase the risk for prostate cancer; however the data is inconsistent and more studies are needed to confirm any negative association.
- Blood pressure. Multiple studies provide clear evidence that higher calcium consumption reduces blood pressure. A review of twenty-three observational studies concluded that for every 100 milligrams of calcium consumed daily, systolic blood pressure is reduced 0.34 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and diastolic blood pressure is decreased by 0.15 mmHg.[1]
- Cardiovascular health. There is emerging evidence that higher calcium intakes prevent against other risk factors for cardiovascular disease, such as high cholesterol and obesity, but the scientific evidence is weak or inconclusive.
- Kidney stones. Another health benefit of a high-calcium diet is that it blocks kidney stone formation. Calcium inhibits the absorption of oxalate, a chemical in plants such as parsley and spinach, which is associated with an increased risk for developing kidney stones. Calcium’s protective effects on kidney stone formation occur only when you obtain calcium from dietary sources. Calcium supplements may actually increase the risk for kidney stones in susceptible people.
Figure 10. 3 Calcium’s Effect on Aging
Calcium inadequacy is most prevalent in adolescent girls and the elderly. Proper dietary intake of calcium is critical for proper bone health.
Despite the wealth of evidence supporting the many health benefits of calcium (particularly bone health), the average American diet falls short of achieving the recommended dietary intakes of calcium. In fact, in females older than nine years of age, the average daily intake of calcium is only about 70 percent of the recommended intake. Here we will take a closer look at particular groups of people who may require extra calcium intake.
- Adolescent teens. A calcium-deficient diet is common in teenage girls as their dairy consumption often considerably drops during adolescence.
- Amenorrheic women and the ““. Amenorrhea refers to the absence of a menstrual cycle. Women who fail to menstruate suffer from reduced estrogen levels, which can disrupt and have a negative impact on the calcium balance in their bodies. The “female athlete triad” is a combination of three conditions characterized by amenorrhea, disrupted eating patterns, and . Exercise-induced amenorrhea and anorexia nervosa-related amenorrhea can decrease bone mass.[2][3] In female athletes, as well as active women in the military, low BMD, menstrual irregularities, and individual dietary habits together with a history of previous stress issues are related to an increased susceptibility to future stress fractures.[4][5]
- The elderly. As people age, calcium is reduced, the kidneys lose their capacity to convert vitamin D to its most active form, the kidneys are no longer efficient in retaining calcium, the skin is less effective at synthesizing vitamin D, there are changes in overall dietary patterns, and older people tend to get less exposure to sunlight. Thus the risk for calcium inadequacy is great.[6]
- Postmenopausal women. Estrogen enhances calcium absorption. The decline in this hormone during and after puts postmenopausal women especially at risk for calcium deficiency. Decreases in estrogen production are responsible for an increase in bone resorption and a decrease in calcium absorption. During the first years of menopause, annual decreases in bone mass range from 3–5 percent. After age sixty-five, decreases are typically less than 1 percent.[7]
- Lactose-intolerant people. Groups of people, such as those who are lactose intolerant, or who adhere to diets that avoid dairy products, may not have an adequate calcium intake.
- Vegans. Vegans typically absorb reduced amounts of calcium because their diets favor plant-based foods that contain oxalates and phytates.[8]
In addition, because vegans avoid dairy products, their overall consumption of calcium-rich foods may be less.
If you are lactose intolerant, have a milk allergy, are a vegan, or you simply do not like dairy products, remember that there are many plant-based foods that have a good amount of calcium and there are also some low-lactose and lactose-free dairy products on the market.
Calcium Supplements: Which One to Buy?
Many people choose to fulfill their daily calcium requirements by taking calcium supplements. Calcium supplements are sold primarily as calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium lactate, and calcium phosphate, with elemental calcium contents of about 200 milligrams per pill. It is important to note that calcium carbonate requires an acidic environment in the stomach to be used effectively. Although this is not a problem for most people, it may be for those on medication to reduce stomach-acid production or for the elderly who may have a reduced ability to secrete acid in the stomach. For these people, calcium citrate may be a better choice. Otherwise, calcium carbonate is the cheapest. The body is capable of absorbing approximately 30 percent of the calcium from these forms.
Beware of Lead
There is public health concern about the lead content of some brands of calcium supplements, as supplements derived from natural sources such as oyster shell, bone meal, and dolomite (a type of rock containing calcium magnesium carbonate) are known to contain high amounts of lead. In one study conducted on twenty-two brands of calcium supplements, it was proven that eight of the brands exceeded the acceptable limit for lead content. This was found to be the case in supplements derived from oyster shell and refined calcium carbonate. The same study also found that brands claiming to be lead-free did, in fact, show very low lead levels. Because lead levels in supplements are not disclosed on labels, it is important to know that products not derived from oyster shell or other natural substances are generally low in lead content. In addition, it was also found that one brand did not disintegrate as is necessary for absorption, and one brand contained only 77 percent of the stated calcium content.[9]
Diet, Supplements, and Chelated Supplements
In general, calcium supplements perform to a lesser degree than dietary sources of calcium in providing many of the health benefits linked to higher calcium intake. This is partly attributed to the fact that dietary sources of calcium supply additional nutrients with health-promoting activities. It is reported that chelated forms of calcium supplements are easier to absorb as the chelation process protects the calcium from oxalates and phytates that may bind with the calcium in the intestines. However, these are more expensive supplements and only increase calcium absorption up to 10 percent. In people with low dietary intakes of calcium, calcium supplements have a negligible benefit on bone health in the absence of a vitamin D supplement. However, when calcium supplements are taken along with vitamin D, there are many benefits to bone health: is increased in early adulthood, BMD is maintained throughout adulthood, the risk of developing osteoporosis is reduced, and the incidence of fractures is decreased in those who already had osteoporosis. Calcium and vitamin D pills do not have to be taken at the same time for effectiveness. But remember that vitamin D has to be activated and in the bloodstream to promote calcium absorption. Thus, it is important to maintain an adequate intake of vitamin D.
The Calcium Debate
A recent study published in the British Medical Journal reported that people who take calcium supplements at doses equal to or greater than 500 milligrams per day in the absence of a vitamin D supplement had a 30 percent greater risk for having a heart attack.[10]
Does this mean that calcium supplements are bad for you? If you look more closely at the study, you will find that 5.8 percent of people (143 people) who took calcium supplements had a heart attack, but so did 5.5 percent of the people (111) people who took the placebo. While this is one study, several other large studies have not shown that calcium supplementation increases the risk for cardiovascular disease. While the debate over this continues in the realm of science, we should focus on the things we do know:
- There is overwhelming evidence that diets sufficient in calcium prevent osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease.
- People with risk factors for osteoporosis are advised to take calcium supplements if they are unable to get enough calcium in their diet. The National Osteoporosis Foundation advises that adults age fifty and above consume 1,200 milligrams of calcium per day. This includes calcium both from dietary sources and supplements.
- Consuming more calcium than is recommended is not better for your health and can prove to be detrimental. Consuming too much calcium at any one time, be it from diet or supplements, impairs not only the absorption of calcium itself, but also the absorption of other essential , such as iron and zinc. Since the GI tract can only handle about 500 milligrams of calcium at one time, it is recommended to have split doses of calcium supplements rather than taking a few all at once to get the of calcium.
Dietary Reference Intake for Calcium
The recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for calcium are listed in Table 10.1 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium”. The RDA is elevated to 1,300 milligrams per day during adolescence because this is the life stage with accelerated bone growth. Studies have shown that a higher intake of calcium during increases the total amount of bone tissue that accumulates in a person. For women above age fifty and men older than seventy-one, the RDAs are also a bit higher for several reasons including that as we age, calcium absorption in the gut decreases, vitamin D3 activation is reduced, and maintaining adequate blood levels of calcium is important to prevent an acceleration of bone tissue loss (especially during menopause). Currently, the dietary intake of calcium for females above age nine is, on average, below the RDA for calcium. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommends that people do not consume over 2,500 milligrams per day of calcium as it may cause adverse effects in some people.
Table 10.1 Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium
| Age Group | RDA (mg/day) | UL (mg/day) |
| Infants (0–6 months) | 200* | – |
| Infants (6–12 months) | 260* | – |
| Children (1–3 years) | 700 | 2,500 |
| Children (4–8 years) | 1,000 | 2,500 |
| Children (9–13 years) | 1,300 | 2,500 |
| Adolescents (14–18 years) | 1,300 | 2,500 |
| Adults (19–50 years) | 1,000 | 2,500 |
| Adult females (50–71 years) | 1,200 | 2,500 |
| Adults, male & female (> 71 years) | 1,200 | 2,500 |
| * denotes Adequate Intake |
Source: Ross AC, Manson JE, et al. The 2011 Report on Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: What Clinicians Need to Know. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011; 96(1), 53–8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21118827. Accessed October 10, 2017.
Dietary Sources of Calcium
In the typical American diet, calcium is obtained mostly from dairy products, primarily cheese. A slice of cheddar or Swiss cheese contains just over 200 milligrams of calcium. One cup of nonfat milk contains approximately 300 milligrams of calcium, which is about a third of the RDA for calcium for most adults. Foods fortified with calcium such as cereals, soy milk, and orange juice also provide one third or greater of the calcium RDA. Although the typical American diet relies mostly on dairy products for obtaining calcium, there are other good non-dairy sources of calcium.
Tools for Change
If you need to increase calcium intake, are a vegan, or have a to dairy products, it is helpful to know that there are some plant-based foods that are high in calcium. Tofu (made with calcium sulfate), turnip greens, mustard greens, and chinese cabbage are good sources. For a list of non-dairy sources you can find the calcium content for thousands of foods by visiting the USDA National Nutrient Database (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/). When obtaining your calcium from a vegan diet, it is important to know that some plant-based foods significantly impair the absorption of calcium. These include spinach, Swiss chard, rhubarb, beets, cashews, and peanuts. With careful planning and good selections, you can ensure that you are getting enough calcium in your diet even if you do not drink milk or consume other dairy products.
Calcium Bioavailability
In the small intestine, calcium absorption primarily takes place in the duodenum (first section of the small intestine) when intakes are low, but calcium is also absorbed passively in the jejunum and ileum (second and third sections of the small intestine), especially when intakes are higher. The body doesn’t completely absorb all the calcium in food. Interestingly, the calcium in some vegetables such as kale, brussel sprouts, and bok choy is better absorbed by the body than are dairy products. About 30 percent of calcium is absorbed from milk and other dairy products.
The greatest positive influence on calcium absorption comes from having an adequate intake of vitamin D. People deficient in vitamin D absorb less than 15 percent of calcium from the foods they eat. The hormone estrogen is another factor that enhances calcium bioavailability. Thus, as a woman ages and goes through menopause, during which estrogen levels fall, the amount of calcium absorbed decreases and the risk for bone disease increases. Some fibers, such as inulin, found in jicama, onions, and garlic, also promote calcium intestinal uptake.
Chemicals that bind to calcium decrease its bioavailability. These negative effectors of calcium absorption include the oxalates in certain plants, the tannins in tea, phytates in nuts, seeds, and grains, and some fibers. Oxalates are found in high concentrations in spinach, parsley, cocoa, and beets. In general, the calcium bioavailability is inversely correlated to the oxalate content in foods. High-fiber, low-fat diets also decrease the amount of calcium absorbed, an effect likely related to how fiber and fat influence the amount of time food stays in the gut. Anything that causes diarrhea, including sickness, medications, and certain symptoms related to old age, decreases the transit time of calcium in the gut and therefore decreases calcium absorption. As we get older, stomach acidity sometimes decreases, diarrhea occurs more often, kidney function is impaired, and vitamin D absorption and activation is compromised, all of which contribute to a decrease in calcium bioavailability.
Table 10.2 Calcium Content and Bioavailability of Various Foods
| Food | Serving | Calcium (mg) | Absorption (%) | Estimated Calcium Absorbed (mg) | % Daily Value1 | % Daily Value2 |
| Yogurt, low fat | 8.5 oz. | 300 | 32 | 96 | 7.4 | 9.6 |
| Mozzarella, part skim | 1.5 oz. | 333 | 32 | 107 | 8.2 | 10.7 |
| Sardines, canned with bones | 3 oz. | 325 | 27 | 88 | 6.8 | 8.8 |
| Cheddar Cheese | 1.5 oz. | 303 | 32 | 97 | 7.5 | 9.7 |
| Milk, nonfat | 8.5 oz. | 300 | 32 | 96 | 7.4 | 9.6 |
| Soymilk, calcium fortified | 8.5 oz. | 300 | 24 | 72 | 5.5 | 7.2 |
| Orange juice, calcium fortified | 8.5 oz. | 300 | 36 | 109 | 8.4 | 10.9 |
| Tofu, firm, made with calcium sulfate | ½ c. | 258 | 31 | 80 | 6.2 | 8.0 |
| Salmon, canned with bones | 3 oz. | 181 | 27 | 49 | 3.8 | 4.9 |
| Turnip Greens | ½ c. | 99 | 52 | 51 | 4.0 | 5.1 |
| Kale, cooked | 1 c. | 94 | 49 | 30 | 2.3 | 3.0 |
| Vanilla Ice Cream, light | ½ c. | 84 | 32 | 27 | 2.1 | 2.7 |
| Broccoli, cooked | 1 c. | 35 | 61 | 19 | 1.5 | 1.9 |
| Cauliflower, cooked | 1 c. | 10 | 69 | 6.9 | 0.5 | 0.7 |
| Red Beans, cooked | 1 c. | 41 | 24 | 9.84 | 0.8 | 1.0 |
1Based on DV = 1000 mg
2Based on DV = 1300 mg
Source:
Office of Dietary Supplements. (2020, March 26). Calcium. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/
Titchenal, C. A., & Dobbs, J. (2007). A system to assess the quality of food sources of calcium. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 20(8), 717–724. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2006.04.013
Learning Activities
Technology Note: The second edition of the Human Nutrition Open Educational Resource (OER) textbook features interactive learning activities. These activities are available in the web-based textbook and not available in the downloadable versions (EPUB, Digital PDF, Print_PDF, or Open Document).
Learning activities may be used across various mobile devices, however, for the best user experience it is strongly recommended that users complete these activities using a desktop or laptop computer and in Google Chrome.
- Birkett NJ. (1998). Comments on a Meta-Analysis of the Relation between Dietary Calcium Intake and Blood Pressure. American Journal of Epidemiology, 148(3), 223–28. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/148/3/223.long. Accessed October 10, 2017. ↵
- Drinkwater B, Bruemner B, Chesnut C. (1990). Menstrual History As a Determinant of Current Bone Density in Young Athletes. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 263(4), 545–8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2294327?dopt=Abstract. . Accessed November 22, 2017. ↵
- Marcus R. et al. (1985). Menstrual Function and Bone Mass in Elite Women Distance Runners: Endocrine and Metabolic Features. The Annuals of Internal Medicine, 102(2), 58–63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3966752?dopt=Abstract. Accessed November 22, 2017. ↵
- Nattiv A. Stress (2000). Fractures and Bone Health in Track and Field Athletes. The Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport, 3(3), 268–79. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11101266?dopt=Abstract.,.Accessed November 22, 2017. ↵
- Johnson AO, et al. (1993). Correlation of Lactose Maldigestion, Lactose Intolerance, and Milk Intolerance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(3), 399–401. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8438774?dopt=Abstract. Accessed November 22, 2017. ↵
- Calcium and Vitamin D in the Elderly. International Osteoporosis Foundation. http://www.iofbonehealth.org/patients-public/about-osteoporosis/prevention /nutrition/calcium-and-vitamin-d-in-the-elderly.html. Published 2012. Accessed November 22, 2017. ↵
- Daniels CE. (2000). Estrogen Therapy for Osteoporosis Prevention in Postmenopausal Women. National Institute of Health: Pharmacy. Update March/April 2000. ↵
- Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D.Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 2010. ↵
- Ross EA, Szabo NJ, Tebbett IR. (2000). Lead Content of Calcium Supplements. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 1425–33. ↵
- Bolland MJ. et al. (2010). Effect of Calcium Supplements on Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Cardiovascular Events: Meta-Analysis. British Medical Journal, 341(c3691). ↵
The major structural and supportive connective tissue of the body.
The process where bone is broken down and releases calcium into the blood.
A hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to elevated blood glucose levels to transport glucose into the muscle or fat cells.
A hormone that acts to increase blood calcium levels and is released from the parathyroid gland.
(Parathyroid Hormone) A hormone that acts to increase blood calcium levels and is released from the parathyroid gland.
A hormone that stimulates bone mineralization and inhibits bone breakdown which is produced in the thyroid gland.
A protein molecule that speeds up or accelerates specific chemical reactions without changing itself.
A fat-soluble vitamin that can be made in the body when there is exposure to sunlight and is needed for the absorption of calcium.
A gland located in the neck that produces both thyroid hormone and calcitonin.
The combination of energy restrictive diet, changes in hormone levels which affect menstruation, and low bone mineral density that may occur in female athletes.
A disorder affecting the bones that is characterized as a loss in bone mass, increased bone fragility, and increased risk of fractures.
The amount of a dietary nutrient that is absorbed and utilized by the body.
The time in a woman’s life where the menstrual cycle ends.
The maximum bone density attained at any time in life that usually occurs in adulthood.
An element used in the body to promote chemical reactions and help form body structures.
(Recommended Dietary Allowance) The levels of intake of essential nutrients that is based off of scientific knowledge, and it judged by the Food and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs for all healthy people.
A period of sexual maturity where rapid growth and physical changes occur.
An adverse immune response to specific protein.


Infographics can be a useful means of displaying information to key audiences. Although they do not capture the depth of research, they can be a concise way of getting across key findings, particularly to audiences who might not read a full journal article.
If you have the budget to employ a designer, great. If not, it’s easy to create infographics using online tools; free versions of these tend to be basic and limited but they work perfectly fine. At the OER Hub we used Piktochart (piktochart.com) but there is also Canva (canva.com) or Easel.ly (www.easel.ly), for instance.
When creating an infographic, keep it simple; don’t pack too much in. Highlight interesting data, key findings, important messages, then add a link to the full report (if there’s one) for those who want to learn about the research in more detail.
Use a meaningful headline; make it clear to your audience what the infographic is about.
Trust your colleagues to cast their eyes over your first draft and comment on improvements, i.e. is everything sufficiently clear?
Make sure your data is accurate; cite your sources.
If you can, create your infographic in different formats, give it a Creative Commons license and allow others to share it via their social networks.
Here is an example:
All the Infographics the OER Hub created can be found on the website: http://oerhub.net/research-outputs/infographics/


29 October.—This is written in the train from Varna to Galatz.
Last night we all assembled a little before the time of sunset.
Each of us had done his work as well as he could, so far as
thought, and endeavor, and opportunity go, we are prepared for the
whole of our journey, and for our work when we get to Galatz. When
the usual time came round Mrs. Harker prepared herself for her
hypnotic effort, and after a longer and more serious effort on the
part of Van Helsing than has been usually necessary, she sank into
the trance. Usually she speaks on a hint, but this time the
Professor had to ask her questions, and to ask them pretty
resolutely, before we could learn anything. At last her answer
came.
“I can see nothing. We are still. There are no waves lapping,
but only a steady swirl of water softly running against the hawser.
I can hear men’s voices calling, near and far, and the roll and
creak of oars in the rowlocks. A gun is fired somewhere, the echo
of it seems far away. There is tramping of feet overhead, and ropes
and chains are dragged along. What is this? There is a gleam of
light. I can feel the air blowing upon me.”
Here she stopped. She had risen, as if impulsively, from where
she lay on the sofa, and raised both her hands, palms upwards, as
if lifting a weight. Van Helsing and I looked at each other with
understanding. Quincey raised his eyebrows slightly and looked at
her intently, whilst Harker’s hand instinctively closed round the
hilt of his Kukri. There was a long pause. We all knew that the
time when she could speak was passing, but we felt that it was
useless to say anything.
Suddenly she sat up, and as she opened her eyes said sweetly,
“Would none of you like a cup of tea? You must all be so
tired!”
We could only make her happy, and so acqueisced. She bustled off
to get tea. When she had gone Van Helsing said, “You see, my
friends. He is close to land. He has left his earth chest. But he
has yet to get on shore. In the night he may lie hidden somewhere,
but if he be not carried on shore, or if the ship do not touch it,
he cannot achieve the land. In such case he can, if it be in the
night, change his form and jump or fly on shore, then, unless he be
carried he cannot escape. And if he be carried, then the customs
men may discover what the box contain. Thus, in fine, if he escape
not on shore tonight, or before dawn, there will be the whole day
lost to him. We may then arrive in time. For if he escape not at
night we shall come on him in daytime, boxed up and at our mercy.
For he dare not be his true self, awake and visible, lest he be
discovered.”
There was no more to be said, so we waited in patience until the
dawn, at which time we might learn more from Mrs. Harker.
Early this morning we listened, with breathless anxiety, for her
response in her trance. The hypnotic stage was even longer in
coming than before, and when it came the time remaining until full
sunrise was so short that we began to despair. Van Helsing seemed
to throw his whole soul into the effort. At last, in obedience to
his will she made reply.
“All is dark. I hear lapping water, level with me, and some
creaking as of wood on wood.” She paused, and the red sun shot up.
We must wait till tonight.
And so it is that we are travelling towards Galatz in an agony
of expectation. We are due to arrive between two and three in the
morning. But already, at Bucharest, we are three hours late, so we
cannot possibly get in till well after sunup. Thus we shall have
two more hypnotic messages from Mrs. Harker! Either or both may
possibly throw more light on what is happening.
Later.—Sunset has come and gone. Fortunately it came at a time
when there was no distraction. For had it occurred whilst we were
at a station, we might not have secured the necessary calm and
isolation. Mrs. Harker yielded to the hypnotic influence even less
readily than this morning. I am in fear that her power of reading
the Count’s sensations may die away, just when we want it most. It
seems to me that her imagination is beginning to work. Whilst she
has been in the trance hitherto she has confined herself to the
simplest of facts. If this goes on it may ultimately mislead us. If
I thought that the Count’s power over her would die away equally
with her power of knowledge it would be a happy thought. But I am
afraid that it may not be so.
When she did speak, her words were enigmatical,”Something is
going out. I can feel it pass me like a cold wind. I can hear, far
off, confused sounds, as of men talking in strange tongues, fierce
falling water, and the howling of wolves.” She stopped and a
shudder ran through her, increasing in intensity for a few seconds,
till at the end, she shook as though in a palsy. She said no more,
even in answer to the Professor’s imperative questioning. When she
woke from the trance, she was cold, and exhausted, and languid, but
her mind was all alert. She could not remember anything, but asked
what she had said. When she was told, she pondered over it deeply
for a long time and in silence.
30 October, 7 a. m.—We are near Galatz now, and I may not have
time to write later. Sunrise this morning was anxiously looked for
by us all. Knowing of the increasing difficulty of procuring the
hypnotic trance, Van Helsing began his passes earlier than usual.
They produced no effect, however, until the regular time, when she
yielded with a still greater difficulty, only a minute before the
sun rose. The Professor lost no time in his questioning.
Her answer came with equal quickness, “All is dark. I hear water
swirling by, level with my ears, and the creaking of wood on wood.
Cattle low far off. There is another sound, a queer one like …
” She stopped and grew white, and whiter still.
“Go on, go on! Speak, I command you!” said Van Helsing in an
agonized voice. At the same time there was despair in his eyes, for
the risen sun was reddening even Mrs. Harker’s pale face. She
opened her eyes, and we all started as she said, sweetly and
seemingly with the utmost unconcern.
“Oh, Professor, why ask me to do what you know I can’t? I don’t
remember anything.” Then, seeing the look of amazement on our
faces, she said, turning from one to the other with a troubled
look, “What have I said? What have I done? I know nothing, only
that I was lying here, half asleep, and heard you say `go on!
speak, I command you!’ It seemed so funny to hear you order me
about, as if I were a bad child!”
“Oh, Madam Mina,” he said, sadly, “it is proof, if proof be
needed, of how I love and honor you, when a word for your good,
spoken more earnest than ever, can seem so strange because it is to
order her whom I am proud to obey!”
The whistles are sounding. We are nearing Galatz.
MINA HARKER’S JOURNAL
30 October.—Mr. Morris took me to the hotel where our rooms had
been ordered by telegraph, he being the one who could best be
spared, since he does not speak any foreign language. The forces
were distributed much as they had been at Varna, except that Lord
Godalming went to the Vice Consul, as his rank might serve as an
immediate guarantee of some sort to the official, we being in
extreme hurry. Jonathan and the two doctors went to the shipping
agent to learn particulars of the arrival of the Czarina
Catherine.
Later.—Lord Godalming has returned. The Consul is away, and the
Vice Consul sick. So the routine work has been attended to by a
clerk. He was very obliging, and offered to do anything in his
power.
JONATHAN HARKER’S JOURNAL
30 October.—At nine o’clock Dr. Van Helsing, Dr. Seward, and I
called on Messrs. Mackenzie & Steinkoff, the agents of the
London firm of Hapgood. They had received a wire from London, in
answer to Lord Godalming’s telegraphed request, asking them to show
us any civility in their power. They were more than kind and
courteous, and took us at once on board the Czarina Catherine,
which lay at anchor out in the river harbor. There we saw the
Captain, Donelson by name, who told us of his voyage. He said that
in all his life he had never had so favorable a run.
“Man!” he said, “but it made us afeard, for we expect it that we
should have to pay for it wi’ some rare piece o’ ill luck, so as to
keep up the average. It’s no canny to run frae London to the Black
Sea wi’ a wind ahint ye, as though the Deil himself were blawin’ on
yer sail for his ain purpose. An’ a’ the time we could no speer a
thing. Gin we were nigh a ship, or a port, or a headland, a fog
fell on us and travelled wi’ us, till when after it had lifted and
we looked out, the deil a thing could we see. We ran by Gibraltar
wi’ oot bein’ able to signal. An’ til we came to the Dardanelles
and had to wait to get our permit to pass, we never were within
hail o’ aught. At first I inclined to slack off sail and beat about
till the fog was lifted. But whiles, I thocht that if the Deil was
minded to get us into the Black Sea quick, he was like to do it
whether we would or no. If we had a quick voyage it would be no to
our miscredit wi’the owners, or no hurt to our traffic, an’ the Old
Mon who had served his ain purpose wad be decently grateful to us
for no hinderin’ him.”
This mixture of simplicity and cunning, of superstition and
commercial reasoning, aroused Van Helsing, who said,”Mine friend,
that Devil is more clever than he is thought by some, and he know
when he meet his match!”
The skipper was not displeased with the compliment, and went on,
“When we got past the Bosphorus the men began to grumble. Some o’
them, the Roumanians, came and asked me to heave overboard a big
box which had been put on board by a queer lookin’ old man just
before we had started frae London. I had seen them speer at the
fellow, and put out their twa fingers when they saw him, to guard
them against the evil eye. Man! but the supersteetion of foreigners
is pairfectly rideeculous! I sent them aboot their business pretty
quick, but as just after a fog closed in on us I felt a wee bit as
they did anent something, though I wouldn’t say it was again the
big box. Well, on we went, and as the fog didn’t let up for five
days I joost let the wind carry us, for if the Deil wanted to get
somewheres, well, he would fetch it up a’reet. An’ if he didn’t,
well, we’d keep a sharp lookout anyhow. Sure eneuch, we had a fair
way and deep water all the time. And two days ago, when the mornin’
sun came through the fog, we found ourselves just in the river
opposite Galatz. The Roumanians were wild, and wanted me right or
wrong to take out the box and fling it in the river. I had to argy
wi’ them aboot it wi’ a handspike. An’ when the last o’ them rose
off the deck wi’ his head in his hand, I had convinced them that,
evil eye or no evil eye, the property and the trust of my owners
were better in my hands than in the river Danube. They had, mind
ye, taken the box on the deck ready to fling in, and as it was
marked Galatz via Varna, I thocht I’d let it lie till we discharged
in the port an’ get rid o’t althegither. We didn’t do much clearin’
that day, an’ had to remain the nicht at anchor. But in the
mornin’, braw an’ airly, an hour before sunup, a man came aboard
wi’ an order, written to him from England, to receive a box marked
for one Count Dracula. Sure eneuch the matter was one ready to his
hand. He had his papers a’ reet, an’ gla d I was to be rid o’ the
dam’ thing, for I was beginnin’ masel’ to feel uneasy at it. If the
Deil did have any luggage aboord the ship, I’m thinkin’ it was nane
ither than that same!”
“What was the name of the man who took it?” asked Dr. Van
Helsing with restrained eagerness.
“I’ll be tellin’ ye quick!” he answered, and stepping down to
his cabin, produced a receipt signed “Immanuel Hildesheim.”
Burgen-strasse 16 was the address. We found out that this was all
the Captain knew, so with thanks we came away.
We found Hildesheim in his office, a Hebrew of rather the
Adelphi Theatre type, with a nose like a sheep, and a fez. His
arguments were pointed with specie, we doing the punctuation, and
with a little bargaining he told us what he knew. This turned out
to be simple but important. He had received a letter from Mr. de
Ville of London, telling him to receive, if possible before sunrise
so as to avoid customs, a box which would arrive at Galatz in the
Czarina Catherine. This he was to give in charge to a certain
Petrof Skinsky, who dealt with the Slovaks who traded down the
river to the port. He had been paid for his work by an English bank
note, which had been duly cashed for gold at the Danube
International Bank. When Skinsky had come to him, he had taken him
to the ship and handed over the box, so as to save parterage. That
was all he knew.
We then sought for Skinsky, but were unable to find him. One of
his neighbors, who did not seem to bear him any affection, said
that he had gone away two days before,no one knew whither. This was
corroborated by his landlord, who had received by messenger the key
of the house together with the rent due, in English money. This had
been between ten and eleven o’clock last night. We were at a
standstill again.
Whilst we were talking one came running and breathlessly gasped
out that the body of Skinsky had been found inside the wall of the
churchyard of St. Peter, and that the throat had been torn open as
if by some wild animal. Those we had been speaking with ran off to
see the horror, the women crying out. “This is the work of a
Slovak!” We hurried away lest we should have been in some way drawn
into the affair, and so detained.
As we came home we could arrive at no definite conclusion. We
were all convinced that the box was on its way, by water, to
somewhere, but where that might be we would have to discover. With
heavy hearts we came home to the hotel to Mina.
When we met together, the first thing was to consult as to
taking Mina again into our confidence. Things are getting
desperate, and it is at least a chance, though a hazardous one. As
a preliminary step, I was released from my promise to her.
MINA HARKER’S JOURNAL
30 October, evening.—They were so tired and worn out and
dispirited that there was nothing to be done till they had some
rest, so I asked them all to lie down for half an hour whilst I
should enter everything up to the moment. I feel so grateful to the
man who invented the “Traveller’s” typewriter, and to Mr. Morris
for getting this one for me. I should have felt quite astray doing
the work if I had to write with a pen …
It is all done. Poor dear, dear Jonathan, what he must have
suffered, what he must be suffering now. He lies on the sofa hardly
seeming to breathe, and his whole body appears in collapse. His
brows are knit. His face is drawn with pain.  Oh! if I could only help at all. I
shall do what I can.
I have asked Dr. Van Helsing, and he has got me all the papers
that I have not yet seen. Whilst they are resting, I shall go over
all carefully, and perhaps I may arrive at some conclusion. I shall
try to follow the Professor’s example, and think without prejudice
on the facts before me …
I do believe that under God’s providence I have made a
discovery. I shall get the maps and look over them.
I am more than ever sure that I am right. My new conclusion is
ready, so I shall get our party together and read it. They can
judge it. It is well to be accurate, and every minute is
precious.
MINA HARKER’S MEMORANDUM
(ENTERED IN HER JOURNAL)
Ground of inquiry.—Count Dracula’s problem is to get back to his
own place.
(a) He must be brought back by some one. This is evident. For
had he power to move himself as he wished he could go either as
man, or wolf, or bat, or in some other way. He evidently fears
discovery or interference, in the state of helplessness in which he
must be, confined as he is between dawn and sunset in his wooden
box.
(b) How is he to be taken?—Here a process of exclusions may help
us. By road, by rail, by water?
1. By Road.—There are endless difficulties, especially in
leaving the city.
(x) There are people. And people are curious, and investigate. A
hint, a surmise, a doubt as to what might be in the box, would
destroy him.
(y) There are, or there may be, customs and octroi officers to
pass.
(z) His pursuers might follow. This is his highest fear. And in
order to prevent his being betrayed he has repelled, so far as he
can, even his victim, me!
2. By Rail.—There is no one in charge of the box. It would have
to take its chance of being delayed, and delay would be fatal, with
enemies on the track. True, he might escape at night. But what
would he be, if left in a strange place with no refuge that he
could fly to? This is not what he intends, and he does not mean to
risk it.
3. By Water.—Here is the safest way, in one respect, but with
most danger in another. On the water he is powerless except at
night. Even then he can only summon fog and storm and snow and his
wolves. But were he wrecked, the living water would engulf him,
helpless, and he would indeed be lost. He could have the vessel
drive to land, but if it were unfriendly land, wherein he was not
free to move, his position would still be desperate.
We know from the record that he was on the water, so what we
have to do is to ascertain what water.
The first thing is to realize exactly what he has done as yet.
We may, then, get a light on what his task is to be.
Firstly.—We must differentiate between what he did in London as
part of his general plan of action, when he was pressed for moments
and had to arrange as best he could.
Secondly we must see, as well as we can surmise it from the
facts we know of, what he has done here.
As to the first, he evidently intended to arrive at Galatz, and
sent invoice to Varna to deceive us lest we should ascertain his
means of exit from England. His immediate and sole purpose then was
to escape. The proof of this, is the letter of instructions sent to
Immanuel Hildesheim to clear and take away the box before sunrise.
There is also the instruction to Petrof Skinsky. These we must only
guess at, but there must have been some letter or message, since
Skinsky came to Hildesheim.
That, so far, his plans were successful we know. The Czarina
Catherine made a phenomenally quick journey. So much so that
Captain Donelson’s suspicions were aroused. But his superstition
united with his canniness played the Count’s game for him, and he
ran with his favoring wind through fogs and all till he brought up
blindfold at Galatz. That the Count’s arrangements were well made,
has been proved. Hildesheim cleared the box, took it off, and gave
it to Skinsky. Skinsky took it, and here we lose the trail. We only
know that the box is somewhere on the water, moving along. The
customs and the octroi, if there be any, have been avoided.
Now we come to what the Count must have done after his arrival,
on land, at Galatz.
The box was given to Skinsky before sunrise. At sunrise the
Count could appear in his own form. Here, we ask why Skinsky was
chosen at all to aid in the work? In my husband’s diary, Skinsky is
mentioned as dealing with the Slovaks who trade down the river to
the port. And the man’s remark, that the murder was the work of a
Slovak, showed the general feeling against his class. The Count
wanted isolation.
My surmise is this, that in London the Count decided to get back
to his castle by water, as the most safe and secret way. He was
brought from the castle by Szgany, and probably they delivered
their cargo to Slovaks who took the boxes to Varna, for there they
were shipped to London. Thus the Count had knowledge of the persons
who could arrange this service. When the box was on land, before
sunrise or after sunset, he came out from his box, met Skinsky and
instructed him what to do as to arranging the carriage of the box
up some river. When this was done, and he knew that all was in
train, he blotted out his traces, as he thought, by murdering his
agent.
I have examined the map and find that the river most suitable
for the Slovaks to have ascended is either the Pruth or the Sereth.
I read in the typescript that in my trance I heard cows low and
water swirling level with my ears and the creaking of wood. The
Count in his box, then, was on a river in an open boat, propelled
probably either by oars or poles, for the banks are near and it is
working against stream. There would be no such if floating down
stream.
Of course it may not be either the Sereth or the Pruth, but we
may possibly investigate further. Now of these two, the Pruth is
the more easily navigated, but the Sereth is, at Fundu, joined by
the Bistritza which runs up round the Borgo Pass. The loop it makes
is manifestly as close to Dracula’s castle as can be got by
water.
MINA HARKER’S JOURNAL—CONTINUED
When I had done reading, Jonathan took me in his arms and kissed
me. The others kept shaking me by both hands, and Dr. Van Helsing
said, “Our dear Madam Mina is once more our teacher. Her eyes have
been where we were blinded. Now we are on the track once again, and
this time we may succeed. Our enemy is at his most helpless. And if
we can come on him by day, on the water, our task will be over. He
has a start, but he is powerless to hasten, as he may not leave
this box lest those who carry him may suspect. For them to suspect
would be to prompt them to throw him in the stream where he perish.
This he knows, and will not. Now men, to our Council of War, for
here and now, we must plan what each and all shall do.”
“I shall get a steam launch and follow him,” said Lord
Godalming.
“And I, horses to follow on the bank lest by chance he land,”
said Mr. Morris.
“Good!” said the Professor, “both good. But neither must go
alone. There must be force to overcome force if need be. The Slovak
is strong and rough, and he carries rude arms.” All the men smiled,
for amongst them they carried a small arsenal.
Said Mr. Morris, “I have brought some Winchesters. They are
pretty handy in a crowd, and there may be wolves. The Count, if you
remember, took some other precautions. He made some requisitions on
others that Mrs. Harker could not quite hear or understand. We must
be ready at all points.”
Dr. Seward said, “I think I had better go with Quincey. We have
been accustomed to hunt together, and we two, well armed, will be a
match for whatever may come along. You must not be alone, Art. It
may be necessary to fight the Slovaks, and a chance thrust, for I
don’t suppose these fellows carry guns, would undo all our plans.
There must be no chances, this time. We shall not rest until the
Count’s head and body have been separated, and we are sure that he
cannot reincarnate.”
He looked at Jonathan as he spoke, and Jonathan looked at me. I
could see that the poor dear was torn about in his mind. Of course
he wanted to be with me. But then the boat service would, most
likely, be the one which would destroy the … the …
Vampire. (Why did I hesitate to write the word?)
He was silent awhile, and during his silence Dr. Van Helsing
spoke, “Friend Jonathan, this is to you for twice reasons. First,
because you are young and brave and can fight, and all energies may
be needed at the last. And again that it is your right to destroy
him. That, which has wrought such woe to you and yours. Be not
afraid for Madam Mina. She will be my care, if I may. I am old. My
legs are not so quick to run as once. And I am not used to ride so
long or to pursue as need be, or to fight with lethal weapons. But
I can be of other service. I can fight in other way. And I can die,
if need be, as well as younger men. Now let me say that what I
would is this. While you, my Lord Godalming and friend Jonathan go
in your so swift little steamboat up the river, and whilst John and
Quincey guard the bank where perchance he might be landed, I will
take Madam Mina right into the heart of the enemy’s country. Whilst
the old fox is tied in his box, floating on the running stream
whence he cannot escape to land, where he dares not raise the lid
of his coffin box lest his Slovak carriers should in fear leave him
to perish, we shall go in the track where Jonathan went, from
Bistritz over the Borgo, and find our way to the Castle of Dracula.
Here, Madam Mina’s hypnotic power will surely help, and we shall
find our way, all dark and unknown otherwise, after the first
sunrise when we are near that fateful place. There is much to be
done, and other places to be made sanctify, so that that nest of
vipers be obliterated.”
Here Jonathan interrupted him hotly, “Do you mean to say,
Professor Van Helsing, that you would bring Mina, in her sad case
and tainted as she is with that devil’s illness, right into the
jaws of his deathtrap? Not for the world! Not for Heaven or
Hell!”
He became almost speechless for a minute, and then went on, “Do
you know what the place is? Have you seen that awful den of hellish
infamy, with the very moonlight alive with grisly shapes, and ever
speck of dust that whirls in the wind a devouring monster in
embryo?

The Professor’s voice, as he spoke in clear, sweet tones, which
seemed to vibrate in the air, calmed us all.
“Oh, my friend, it is because I would save Madam Mina from that
awful place that I would go. God forbid that I should take her into
that place. There is work, wild work, to be done before that place
can be purify. Remember that we are in terrible straits. If the
Count escape us this time, and he is strong and subtle and cunning,
he may choose to sleep him for a century, and then in time our dear
one,” he took my hand, “would come to him to keep him company, and
would be as those others that you, Jonathan, saw. You have told us
of their gloating lips.  You shudder,
and well may it be. Forgive me that I make you so much pain, but it
is necessary. My friend, is it not a dire need for that which I am
giving, possibly my life? If it, were that any one went into that
place to stay, it is I who would have to go to keep them
company.”
“Do as you will,” said Jonathan, with a sob that shook him all
over, “we are in the hands of God!”
Later.—Oh, it did me good to see the way that these brave men
worked. How can women help loving men when they are so earnest, and
so true, and so brave! And, too, it made me think of the wonderful
power of money! What can it not do when basely used. I felt so
thankful that Lord Godalming is rich, and both he and Mr. Morris,
who also has plenty of money, are willing to spend it so freely.
For if they did not, our little expedition could not start,either
so promptly or so well equipped, as it will within another hour. It
is not three hours since it was arranged what part each of us was
to do. And now Lord Godalming and Jonathan have a lovely steam
launch, with steam up ready to start at a moment’s notice. Dr.
Seward and Mr. Morris have half a dozen good horses, well
appointed. We have all the maps and appliances of various kinds
that can be had. Professor Van Helsing and I are to leave by the
11:40 train tonight for Veresti, where we are to get a carriage to
drive to the Borgo Pass. We are bringing a good deal of ready
money, as we are to buy a carriage and horses. We shall drive
ourselves, for we have no one whom we can trust in the matter. The
Professor knows something of a great many languages, so we shall
get on all right. We have all got arms, even for me a large bore
revolver. Jonathan would not be happy unless I was armed like the
rest. Alas! I cannot carry one arm that the rest do, the scar on my
forehead forbids that. Dear Dr. Van Helsing comforts me by telling
me that I am fully armed as there may be wolves. The weather is
getting colder every hour, and there are snow flurries which come
and go as warnings.
Later.—It took all my courage to say goodby to my darling. We
may never meet again. Courage, Mina! The Professor is looking at
you keenly. His look is a warning. There must be no tears now,
unless it may be that God will let them fall in gladness.
JONATHAN HARKER’S JOURNAL
30 October, night.—I am writing this in the light from the
furnace door of the steam launch. Lord Godalming is firing up. He
is an experienced hand at the work, as he has had for years a
launch of his own on the Thames, and another on the Norfolk Broads.
Regarding our plans, we finally decided that Mina’s guess was
correct, and that if any waterway was chosen for the Count’s escape
back to his Castle, the Sereth and then the Bistritza at its
junction, would be the one. We took it, that somewhere about the
47th degree, north latitude, would be the place chosen for crossing
the country between the river and the Carpathians. We have no fear
in running at good speed up the river at night. There is plenty of
water, and the banks are wide enough apart to make steaming, even
in the dark, easy enough. Lord Godalming tells me to sleep for a
while, as it is enough for the present for one to be on watch. But
I cannot sleep, how can I with the terrible danger hanging over my
darling, and her going out into that awful place …
My only comfort is that we are in the hands of God. Only for
that faith it would be easier to die than to live, and so be quit
of all the trouble. Mr. Morris and Dr. Seward were off on their
long ride before we started. They are to keep up the right bank,
far enough off to get on higher lands where they can see a good
stretch of river and avoid the following of its curves. They have,
for the first stages, two men to ride and lead their spare horses,
four in all, so as not to excite curiosity. When they dismiss the
men, which shall be shortly, they shall themselves look after the
horses. It may be necessary for us to join forces. If so they can
mount our whole party. One of the saddles has a moveable horn, and
can be easily adapted for Mina, if required.
It is a wild adventure we are on. Here, as we are rushing along
through the darkness, with the cold from the river seeming to rise
up and strike us, with all the mysterious voices of the night
around us, it all comes home. We seem to be drifting into unknown
places and unknown ways. Into a whole world of dark and dreadful
things. Godalming is shutting the furnace door …
31 October.—Still hurrying along. The day has come, and
Godalming is sleeping. I am on watch. The morning is bitterly cold,
the furnace heat is grateful, though we have heavy fur coats. As
yet we have passed only a few open boats, but none of them had on
board any box or package of anything like the size of the one we
seek. The men were scared every time we turned our electric lamp on
them, and fell on their knees and prayed.
1 November, evening.—No news all day. We have found nothing of
the kind we seek. We have now passed into the Bistritza, and if we
are wrong in our surmise our chance is gone. We have overhauled
every boat, big and little. Early this morning, one crew took us
for a Government boat, and treated us accordingly. We saw in this a
way of smoothing matters, so at Fundu,where the Bistritza runs into
the Sereth, we got a Roumanian flag which we now fly conspicuously.
With every boat which we have over-hauled since then this trick has
succeeded. We have had every deference shown to us, and not once
any objection to whatever we chose to ask or do. Some of the
Slovaks tell us that a big boat passed them, going at more than
usual speed as she had a double crew on board. This was before they
came to Fundu, so they could not tell us whether the boat turned
into the Bistritza or continued on up the Sereth. At Fundu we could
not hear of any such boat, so she must have passed there in the
night. I am feeling very sleepy. The cold is perhaps beginning to
tell upon me, and nature must have rest some time. Godalming
insists that he shall keep the first watch. God bless him for all
his goodness to poor dear Mina and me.
2 November, morning.—It is broad daylight. That good fellow
would not wake me. He says it would have been a sin to, for I slept
peacefully and was forgetting my trouble. It seems brutally selfish
to me to have slept so long, and let him watch all night, but he
was quite right. I am a new man this morning. And, as I sit here
and watch him sleeping, I can do all that is necessary both as to
minding the engine, steering, and keeping watch. I can feel that my
strength and energy are coming back to me. I wonder where Mina is
now, and Van Helsing. They should have got to Veresti about noon on
Wednesday. It would take them some time to get the carriage and
horses. So if they had started and travelled hard, they would be
about now at the Borgo Pass. God guide and help them! I am afraid
to think what may happen. If we could only go faster. But we
cannot. The engines are throbbing and doing their utmost. I wonder
how Dr. Seward and Mr. Morris are getting on. There seem to be
endless streams running down the mountains into this river, but as
none of them are very large, at present, at all events, though they
are doubtless terrible in winter and when the snow melts, the
horsemen may not have met much obstruction. I hope that before we
get to Strasba we may see them. For if by that time we have not
overtaken the Count, it may be necessary to take counsel together
what to do next.
DR. SEWARD’S DIARY
2 November.—Three days on the road. No news, and no time to
write it if there had been, for every moment is precious. We have
had only the rest needful for the horses. But we are both bearing
it wonderfully. Those adventurous days of ours are turning up
useful. We must push on. We shall never feel happy till we get the
launch in sight again.
3 Novenber.—We heard at Fundu that the launch had gone up the
Bistritza. I wish it wasn’t so cold. There are signs of snow
coming. And if it falls heavy it will stop us. In such case we must
get a sledge and go on, Russian fashion.
4 Novenber.—Today we heard of the launch having been detained by
an accident when trying to force a way up the rapids. The Slovak
boats get up all right, by aid of a rope and steering with
knowledge. Some went up only a few hours before. Godalming is an
amateur fitter himself, and evidently it was he who put the launch
in trim again.
Finally, they got up the rapids all right, with local help, and
are off on the chase afresh. I fear that the boat is not any better
for the accident, the peasantry tell us that after she got upon
smooth water again, she kept stopping every now and again so long
as she was in sight. We must push on harder than ever. Our help may
be wanted soon.
MINA HARKER’S JOURNAL
31 October.—Arrived at Veresti at noon. The Professor tells me
that this morning at dawn he could hardly hypnotize me at all, and
that all I could say was, “dark and quiet.” He is off now buying a
carriage and horses. He says that he will later on try to buy
additional horses, so that we may be able to change them on the
way. We have something more than 70 miles before us. The country is
lovely, and most interesting. If only we were under different
conditions, how delightful it would be to see it all. If Jonathan
and I were driving through it alone what a pleasure it would be. To
stop and see people, and learn something of their life, and to fill
our minds and memories with all the color and picturesqueness of
the whole wild, beautiful country and the quaint people! But,
alas!
Later.—Dr. Van Helsing has returned. He has got the carriage and
horses. We are to have some dinner, and to start in an hour. The
landlady is putting us up a huge basket of provisions. It seems
enough for a company of soldiers. The Professor encourages her, and
whispers to me that it may be a week before we can get any food
again. He has been shopping too, and has sent home such a wonderful
lot of fur coats and wraps, and all sorts of warm things. There
will not be any chance of our being cold.
 I am afraid to think what may happen to
us. We are truly in the hands of God. He alone knows what may be,
and I pray Him, with all the strength of my sad and humble soul,
that He will watch over my beloved husband. That whatever may
happen, Jonathan may know that I loved him and honored him more
than I can say, and that my latest and truest thought will be
always for him.


Hoop house
Amber Anderson
Tomatoes in this hoop house were reported to yield less this year than the last several years. This hoop is located in central Iowa, and has had a hoop (see below) for approximately 6 years.
Soil samples for calcium and magnesium were the following (mehlich extraction):
| Sample Id | Ca Conc (mg/kg) | Mg Conc (mg/kg) | |
| In irrigation line 3-4″ | 1 | 6326 | 95 |
| Edge of row 0-1″ | 2 | 6591 | 139 |
| edge of row 0-4″ | 3 | 6358 | 171 |
| 2-6″ | 4 | 5188 | 80 |
Samples of the water came back with the following results:
| Sample Id | Ca Conc (mg/L) | Mg Conc (mg/L) |
| R-1 | 159 | 104 |
| R-2 | 156 | 10?3 |
- What additional questions do you have for this grower? What additional results would be helpful?
- How might you go about managing soil in this scenario?