“It is with considerable difficulty that I remember the original æra of my being: all the events of that period appear confused and indistinct. A strange multiplicity of sensations seized me, and I saw, felt, heard, and smelt, at the same time; and it was, indeed, a long time before I learned to distinguish between the operations of my various senses.  Darkness then came over me, and troubled me; but hardly had I felt this, when, by opening my eyes, as I now suppose, the light poured in upon me again. I walked, and, I believe, descended; but I presently found a great alteration in my sensations. Before, dark and opaque bodies had surrounded me, impervious to my touch or sight; but I now found that I could wander on at liberty, with no obstacles which I could not either surmount or avoid. The light became more and more oppressive to me; and, the heat wearying me as I walked, I sought a place where I could receive shade. This was the forest near Ingolstadt; and here I lay by the side of a brook resting from my fatigue, until I felt tormented by hunger and thirst. This roused me from my nearly dormant state, and I ate some berries which I found hanging on the trees, or lying on the ground. I slaked my thirst at the brook; and then lying down, was overcome by sleep.
“It was dark when I awoke; I felt cold also, and half-frightened as it were instinctively, finding myself so desolate. Before I had quitted your apartment, on a sensation of cold, I had covered myself with some clothes; but these were insufficient to secure me from the dews of night. I was a poor, helpless, miserable wretch; I knew, and could distinguish, nothing; but, feeling pain invade me on all sides, I sat down and wept.
“Soon a gentle light stole over the heavens, and gave me a sensation of pleasure. I started up, and beheld a radiant form rise from among the trees. I gazed with a kind of wonder. It moved slowly, but it enlightened my path; and I again went out in search of berries. I was still cold, when under one of the trees I found a huge cloak, with which I covered myself, and sat down upon the ground. No distinct ideas occupied my mind; all was confused. I felt light, and hunger, and thirst, and darkness; innumerable sounds rung in my ears, and on all sides various scents saluted me: the only object that I could distinguish was the bright moon, and I fixed my eyes on that with pleasure.
“Several changes of day and night passed, and the orb of night had greatly lessened when I began to distinguish my sensations from each other. I gradually saw plainly the clear stream that supplied me with drink, and the trees that shaded me with their foliage. I was delighted when I first discovered that a pleasant sound, which often saluted my ears, proceeded from the throats of the little winged animals who had often intercepted the light from my eyes. I began also to observe, with greater accuracy, the forms that surrounded me, and to perceive the boundaries of the radiant roof of light which canopied me. Sometimes I tried to imitate the pleasant songs of the birds, but was unable. Sometimes I wished to express my sensations in my own mode, but the uncouth and inarticulate sounds which broke from me frightened me into silence again.
“The moon had disappeared from the night, and again, with a lessened form, shewed itself, while I still remained in the forest. My sensations had, by this time, become distinct, and my mind received every day additional ideas. My eyes became accustomed to the light, and to perceive objects in their right forms; I distinguished the insect from the herb, and, by degrees, one herb from another. I found that the sparrow uttered none but harsh notes, whilst those of the blackbird and thrush were sweet and enticing.
“One day, when I was oppressed by cold, I found a fire which had been left by some wandering beggars, and was overcome with delight at the warmth I experienced from it. In my joy I thrust my hand into the live embers, but quickly drew it out again with a cry of pain. How strange, I thought, that the same cause should produce such opposite effects! I examined the materials of the fire, and to my joy found it to be composed of wood. I quickly collected some branches; but they were wet, and would not burn. I was pained at this, and sat still watching the operation of the fire. The wet wood which I had placed near the heat dried, and itself became inflamed. I reflected on this; and, by touching the various branches, I discovered the cause, and busied myself in collecting a great quantity of wood, that I might dry it, and have a plentiful supply of fire. When night came on, and brought sleep with it, I was in the greatest fear lest my fire should be extinguished. I covered it carefully with dry wood and leaves, and placed wet branches upon it; and then, spreading my cloak, I lay on the ground, and sunk into sleep.
“It was morning when I awoke, and my first care was to visit the fire. I uncovered it, and a gentle breeze quickly fanned it into a flame. I observed this also, and contrived a fan of branches, which roused the embers when they were nearly extinguished. When night came again, I found, with pleasure, that the fire gave light as well as heat; and that the discovery of this element was useful to me in my food; for I found some of the offals that the travellers had left had been roasted, and tasted much more savoury than the berries I gathered from the trees. I tried, therefore, to dress my food in the same manner, placing it on the live embers. I found that the berries were spoiled by this operation, and the nuts and roots much improved.
“Food, however, became scarce; and I often spent the whole day searching in vain for a few acorns to assuage the pangs of hunger. When I found this, I resolved to quit the place that I had hitherto inhabited, to seek for one where the few wants I experienced would be more easily satisfied. In this emigration, I exceedingly lamented the loss of the fire which I had obtained through accident, and knew not how to re-produce it. I gave several hours to the serious consideration of this difficulty; but I was obliged to relinquish all attempt to supply it; and, wrapping myself up in my cloak, I struck across the wood towards the setting sun. I passed three days in these rambles, and at length discovered the open country. A great fall of snow had taken place the night before, and the fields were of one uniform white; the appearance was disconsolate, and I found my feet chilled by the cold damp substance that covered the ground.
“It was about seven in the morning, and I longed to obtain food and shelter; at length I perceived a small hut, on a rising ground, which had doubtless been built for the convenience of some shepherd. This was a new sight to me; and I examined the structure with great curiosity. Finding the door open, I entered. An old man sat in it, near a fire, over which he was preparing his breakfast. He turned on hearing a noise; and, perceiving me, shrieked loudly, and, quitting the hut, ran across the fields with a speed of which his debilitated form hardly appeared capable. His appearance, different from any I had ever before seen, and his flight, somewhat surprised me. But I was enchanted by the appearance of the hut: here the snow and rain could not penetrate; the ground was dry; and it presented to me then as exquisite and divine a retreat as Pandæmonium appeared to the dæmons of hell after their sufferings in the lake of fire. I greedily devoured the remnants of the shepherd’s breakfast, which consisted of bread, cheese, milk, and wine; the latter, however, I did not like. Then overcome by fatigue, I lay down among some straw, and fell asleep.
“It was noon when I awoke; and, allured by the warmth of the sun, which shone brightly on the white ground, I determined to recommence my travels; and, depositing the remains of the peasant’s breakfast in a wallet I found, I proceeded across the fields for several hours, until at sunset I arrived at a village. How miraculous did this appear! the huts, the neater cottages, and stately houses, engaged my admiration by turns. The vegetables in the gardens, the milk and cheese that I saw placed at the windows of some of the cottages, allured my appetite. One of the best of these I entered; but I had hardly placed my foot within the door, before the children shrieked, and one of the women fainted. The whole village was roused; some fled, some attacked me, until, grievously bruised by stones and many other kinds of missile weapons, I escaped to the open country, and fearfully took refuge in a low hovel, quite bare, and making a wretched appearance after the palaces I had beheld in the village. This hovel, however, joined a cottage of a neat and pleasant appearance; but, after my late dearly-bought experience, I dared not enter it. My place of refuge was constructed of wood, but so low, that I could with difficulty sit upright in it. No wood, however, was placed on the earth, which formed the floor, but it was dry; and although the wind entered it by innumerable chinks, I found it an agreeable asylum from the snow and rain.
“Here then I retreated, and lay down, happy to have found a shelter, however miserable, from the inclemency of the season, and still more from the barbarity of man.
“As soon as morning dawned, I crept from my kennel, that I might view the adjacent cottage, and discover if I could remain in the habitation I had found. It was situated against, the back of the cottage, and surrounded on the sides which were exposed by a pig-stye and a clear pool of water. One part was open, and by that I had crept in; but now I covered every crevice by which I might be perceived with stones and wood, yet in such a manner that I might move them on occasion to pass out: all the light I enjoyed came through the stye, and that was sufficient for me.
“Having thus arranged my dwelling, and carpeted it with clean straw, I retired; for I saw the figure of a man at a distance, and I remembered too well my treatment the night before, to trust myself in his power. I had first, however, provided for my sustenance for that day, by a loaf of coarse bread, which I purloined, and a cup with which I could drink, more conveniently than from my hand, of the pure water which flowed by my retreat. The floor was a little raised, so that it was kept perfectly dry, and by its vicinity to the chimney of the cottage it was tolerably warm.
“Being thus provided, I resolved to reside in this hovel, until something should occur which might alter my determination. It was indeed a paradise, compared to the bleak forest, my former residence, the rain-dropping branches, and dank earth. I ate my breakfast with pleasure, and was about to remove a plank to procure myself a little water, when I heard a step, and, looking through a small chink, I beheld a young creature, with a pail on her head, passing before my hovel. The girl was young and of gentle demeanour, unlike what I have since found cottagers and farm-house servants to be. Yet she was meanly dressed, a coarse blue petticoat and a linen jacket being her only garb; her fair hair was plaited, but not adorned; she looked patient, yet sad. I lost sight of her; and in about a quarter of an hour she returned, bearing the pail, which was now partly filled with milk. As she walked along, seemingly incommoded by the burden, a young man met her, whose countenance expressed a deeper despondence. Uttering a few sounds with an air of melancholy, he took the pail from her head, and bore it to the cottage himself. She followed, and they disappeared. Presently I saw the young man again, with some tools in his hand, cross the field behind the cottage; and the girl was also busied, sometimes in the house, and sometimes in the yard.
“On examining my dwelling, I found that one of the windows of the cottage had formerly occupied a part of it, but the panes had been filled up with wood. In one of these was a small and almost imperceptible chink, through which the eye could just penetrate. Through this crevice, a small room was visible, white-washed and clean, but very bare of furniture. In one corner, near a small fire, sat an old man, leaning his head on his hands in a disconsolate attitude. The young girl was occupied in arranging the cottage; but presently she took something out of a drawer, which employed her hands, and she sat down beside the old man, who, taking up an instrument, began to play, and to produce sounds, sweeter than the voice of the thrush or the nightingale. It was a lovely sight, even to me, poor wretch! who had never beheld aught beautiful before. The silver hair and benevolent countenance of the aged cottager, won my reverence; while the gentle manners of the girl enticed my love. He played a sweet mournful air, which I perceived drew tears from the eyes of his amiable companion, of which the old man took no notice, until she sobbed audibly; he then pronounced a few sounds, and the fair creature, leaving her work, knelt at his feet. He raised her, and smiled with such kindness and affection, that I felt sensations of a peculiar and over-powering nature: they were a mixture of pain and pleasure, such as I had never before experienced, either from hunger or cold, warmth or food; and I withdrew from the window, unable to bear these emotions.
 The girl met him at the door, helped to relieve him of his burden, and, taking some of the fuel into the cottage, placed it on the fire; then she and the youth went apart into a nook of the cottage, and he shewed her a large loaf and a piece of cheese. She seemed pleased; and went into the garden for some roots and plants, which she placed in water, and then upon the fire. She afterwards continued her work, whilst the young man went into the garden, and appeared busily employed in digging and pulling up roots. After he had been employed thus about an hour, the young woman joined him, and they entered the cottage together.
“The old man had, in the mean time, been pensive; but, on the appearance of his companions, he assumed a more cheerful air, and they sat down to eat. The meal was quickly dispatched. The young woman was again occupied in arranging the cottage; the old man walked before the cottage in the sun for a few minutes, leaning on the arm of the youth. Nothing could exceed in beauty the contrast between these two excellent creatures. One was old, with silver hairs and a countenance beaming with benevolence and love: the younger was slight and graceful in his figure, and his features were moulded with the finest symmetry; yet his eyes and attitude expressed the utmost sadness and despondency. The old man returned to the cottage; and the youth, with tools different from those he had used in the morning, directed his steps across the fields.
“Night quickly shut in; but, to my extreme wonder, I found that the cottagers had a means of prolonging light, by the use of tapers, and was delighted to find, that the setting of the sun did not put an end to the pleasure I experienced in watching my human neighbours. In the evening, the young girl and her companion were employed in various occupations which I did not understand; and the old man again took up the instrument, which produced the divine sounds that had enchanted me in the morning. So soon as he had finished, the youth began, not to play, but to utter sounds that were monotonous, and neither resembling the harmony of the old man’s instrument or the songs of the birds; I since found that he read aloud, but at that time I knew nothing of the science of words or letters.
“The family, after having been thus occupied for a short time, extinguished their lights, and retired, as I conjectured, to rest.”


21 Mendel’s Experiments
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the scientific reasons for the success of Mendel’s experimental work
- Describe the expected outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles
Johann Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) (Figure 1) was a lifelong learner, teacher, scientist, and man of faith. As a young adult, he joined the Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno in what is now the Czech Republic. Supported by the monastery, he taught physics, botany, and natural science courses at the secondary and university levels. In 1856, he began a decade-long research pursuit involving inheritance patterns in honeybees and plants, ultimately settling on pea plants as his primary model system (a system with convenient characteristics that is used to study a specific biological phenomenon to gain understanding to be applied to other systems). In 1865, Mendel presented the results of his experiments with nearly 30,000 pea plants to the local natural history society. He demonstrated that traits are transmitted faithfully from parents to offspring in specific patterns. In 1866, he published his work, Experiments in Plant Hybridization,1 in the proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brünn.
Mendel’s work went virtually unnoticed by the scientific community, which incorrectly believed that the process of inheritance involved a blending of parental traits that produced an intermediate physical appearance in offspring. This hypothetical process appeared to be correct because of what we know now as continuous variation. Continuous variation is the range of small differences we see among individuals in a characteristic like human height. It does appear that offspring are a “blend” of their parents’ traits when we look at characteristics that exhibit continuous variation. Mendel worked instead with traits that show discontinuous variation. Discontinuous variation is the variation seen among individuals when each individual shows one of two—or a very few—easily distinguishable traits, such as violet or white flowers. Mendel’s choice of these kinds of traits allowed him to see experimentally that the traits were not blended in the offspring as would have been expected at the time, but that they were inherited as distinct traits. In 1868, Mendel became abbot of the monastery and exchanged his scientific pursuits for his pastoral duties. He was not recognized for his extraordinary scientific contributions during his lifetime; in fact, it was not until 1900 that his work was rediscovered, reproduced, and revitalized by scientists on the brink of discovering the chromosomal basis of heredity.
Mendel’s Crosses
Mendel’s seminal work was accomplished using the garden pea, Pisum sativum, to study inheritance. This species naturally self-fertilizes, meaning that pollen encounters ova within the same flower. The flower petals remain sealed tightly until pollination is completed to prevent the pollination of other plants. The result is highly inbred, or “true-breeding,” pea plants. These are plants that always produce offspring that look like the parent. By experimenting with true-breeding pea plants, Mendel avoided the appearance of unexpected traits in offspring that might occur if the plants were not true-breeding. The garden pea also grows to maturity within one season, meaning that several generations could be evaluated over a relatively short time. Finally, large quantities of garden peas could be cultivated simultaneously, allowing Mendel to conclude that his results did not come about simply by chance.
Mendel performed hybridizations, which involve mating two true-breeding individuals that have different traits. In the pea, which is naturally self-pollinating, this is done by manually transferring pollen from the anther of a mature pea plant of one variety to the stigma of a separate mature pea plant of the second variety.
Plants used in first-generation crosses were called P, or parental generation, plants (Figure 2). Mendel collected the seeds produced by the P plants that resulted from each cross and grew them the following season. These offspring were called the F1, or the first filial (filial = daughter or son), generation. Once Mendel examined the characteristics in the F1 generation of plants, he allowed them to self-fertilize naturally. He then collected and grew the seeds from the F1 plants to produce the F2, or second filial, generation. Mendel’s experiments extended beyond the F2 generation to the F3 generation, F4 generation, and so on, but it was the ratio of characteristics in the P, F1, and F2 generations that were the most intriguing and became the basis of Mendel’s postulates.
Garden Pea Characteristics Revealed the Basics of Heredity
In his 1865 publication, Mendel reported the results of his crosses involving seven different characteristics, each with two contrasting traits. A trait is defined as a variation in the physical appearance of a heritable characteristic. The characteristics included plant height, seed texture, seed color, flower color, pea-pod size, pea-pod color, and flower position. For the characteristic of flower color, for example, the two contrasting traits were white versus violet. To fully examine each characteristic, Mendel generated large numbers of F1 and F2 plants and reported results from thousands of F2 plants.
What results did Mendel find in his crosses for flower color? First, Mendel confirmed that he was using plants that bred true for white or violet flower color. Irrespective of the number of generations that Mendel examined, all self-crossed offspring of parents with white flowers had white flowers, and all self-crossed offspring of parents with violet flowers had violet flowers. In addition, Mendel confirmed that, other than flower color, the pea plants were physically identical. This was an important check to make sure that the two varieties of pea plants only differed with respect to one trait, flower color.
Once these validations were complete, Mendel applied the pollen from a plant with violet flowers to the stigma of a plant with white flowers. After gathering and sowing the seeds that resulted from this cross, Mendel found that 100 percent of the F1 hybrid generation had violet flowers. Conventional wisdom at that time would have predicted the hybrid flowers to be pale violet or for hybrid plants to have equal numbers of white and violet flowers. In other words, the contrasting parental traits were expected to blend in the offspring. Instead, Mendel’s results demonstrated that the white flower trait had completely disappeared in the F1 generation.
Importantly, Mendel did not stop his experimentation there. He allowed the F1 plants to self-fertilize and found that 705 plants in the F2 generation had violet flowers and 224 had white flowers. This was a ratio of 3.15 violet flowers to one white flower, or approximately 3:1. When Mendel transferred pollen from a plant with violet flowers to the stigma of a plant with white flowers and vice versa, he obtained approximately the same ratio irrespective of which parent—male or female—contributed which trait. This is called a reciprocal cross—a paired cross in which the respective traits of the male and female in one cross become the respective traits of the female and male in the other cross. For the other six characteristics that Mendel examined, the F1 and F2 generations behaved in the same way that they behaved for flower color. One of the two traits would disappear completely from the F1 generation, only to reappear in the F2 generation at a ratio of roughly 3:1 (Figure 3).
Upon compiling his results for many thousands of plants, Mendel concluded that the characteristics could be divided into expressed and latent traits. He called these dominant and recessive traits, respectively. Dominant traits are those that are inherited unchanged in a hybridization. Recessive traits become latent, or disappear in the offspring of a hybridization. The recessive trait does, however, reappear in the progeny of the hybrid offspring. An example of a dominant trait is the violet-colored flower trait. For this same characteristic (flower color), white-colored flowers are a recessive trait. The fact that the recessive trait reappeared in the F2 generation meant that the traits remained separate (and were not blended) in the plants of the F1 generation. Mendel proposed that this was because the plants possessed two copies of the trait for the flower-color characteristic, and that each parent transmitted one of their two copies to their offspring, where they came together. Moreover, the physical observation of a dominant trait could mean that the genetic composition of the organism included two dominant versions of the characteristic, or that it included one dominant and one recessive version. Conversely, the observation of a recessive trait meant that the organism lacked any dominant versions of this characteristic.
CONCEPTS IN ACTION
For an excellent review of Mendel’s experiments and to perform your own crosses and identify patterns of inheritance, visit the Mendel’s Peas web lab.
Also, check out the following video as review
Footnotes
- Johann Gregor Mendel, “Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden.” Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn, Bd. IV für das Jahr, 1865 Abhandlungen (1866):3–47. [for English translation, see http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.plain.html]
Glossary
- continuous variation
- a variation in a characteristic in which individuals show a range of traits with small differences between them
- discontinuous variation
- a variation in a characteristic in which individuals show two, or a few, traits with large differences between them
- dominant
- describes a trait that masks the expression of another trait when both versions of the gene are present in an individual
- F1
- the first filial generation in a cross; the offspring of the parental generation
- F2
- the second filial generation produced when F1 individuals are self-crossed or fertilized with each other
- hybridization
- the process of mating two individuals that differ, with the goal of achieving a certain characteristic in their offspring
- model system
- a species or biological system used to study a specific biological phenomenon to gain understanding that will be applied to other species
- P
- the parental generation in a cross
- recessive
- describes a trait whose expression is masked by another trait when the alleles for both traits are present in an individual
- reciprocal cross
- a paired cross in which the respective traits of the male and female in one cross become the respective traits of the female and male in the other cross
- trait
- a variation in an inherited characteristic
Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction


4. TEAMWORK AND COMMUNICATION
4.3 Collaborative Writing
Suzan Last and Candice Neveu
You have likely had at least one opportunity to work and write collaboratively with others, as this is an increasingly common way to work, both in school and in the workplace. The engineering design process, at least in part, entails working collaboratively to gather, organize, manage and disseminate information.[1] This information is often carefully analyzed and used to make important decisions, so it is critical that team members collaborate effectively in managing these communications tasks.
Engineers report spending a considerable amount of their time writing, and they frequently engage in collaborative writing (CW). A recent survey asked various professionals what portion of their work week was devoted to writing, collaborative writing, and international communications.[2] The results shown in Table 4.3.1 indicate that collaborative writing makes up a significant portion of overall writing tasks.
| Engineers | Programmers | |
|---|---|---|
| Time spent writing | 35 | 25 |
| Time spent planning and writing documents collaboratively | 19 | 12 |
| Time spent communicating internationally (across national borders) | 14 | 18 |
Research has also shown that “writing in general and CW in particular have been recognized to be fundamental to most professional and academic practices in engineering.”[3] Figure 4.3.1 shows that engineers rate writing skills as extremely important to career advancement.[4]
Like any kind of teamwork, collaborative writing requires the entire team to be focused on a common objective; according to Lowry et al., an effective team “negotiates, coordinates, and communicates during the creation of a common document.”[6] The collaborative writing process, like the Tuckman team formation model, is iterative and social, meaning the team works together and moves back and forth throughout the process.
Successful collaborative writing is made easier when you understand the different strategies you can apply, how best to control the document, and the different roles people can assume. Figure 4.3.2 outlines the various activities involved at various stages of the collaborating writing process.
Collaborative writing strategies are methods a team uses to coordinate the writing of a collaborative document. There are five main strategies (see Table 4.3.2), each with their advantages and disadvantages. Can you think of any other benefits or limitations?
| [Skip Table] |
|||
| Writing Strategy |
When to Use | Pros | Cons |
|---|---|---|---|
| Single-author
One member writes for the entire group |
For simple tasks; when little buy-in is needed; for small groups |
Efficient; consistent style |
May not clearly represent group’s intentions; less consensus produced |
| Sequential
Each member is in charge of writing a specific part and write in sequence |
For asynchronous work with poor coordination; when it’s hard to meet often; for straightforward writing tasks; small groups |
Easy to organize; simplifies planning |
Can lose sense of group; subsequent writers may invalidate previous work; lack of consensus; version control issues |
| Parallel Writing: Horizontal Division
Members are in charge of writing a specific part but write in parallel. Segments are distributed randomly. |
When high volume of rapid output is needed; when software can support this strategy; for easily segmented, mildly complex writing tasks; for groups with good structure and coordination; small to large groups |
Efficient; high volume of output |
Redundant work can be produced; writers can be blind to each other’s work; stylistic differences; doesn’t recognize individual talents well |
| Parallel Writing: Stratified Division
Members are in charge of writing a specific part but write in parallel. Segments are distributed based on talents or skills. |
For high volume rapid output; with supporting software; for complicated, difficult to segment tasks; when people have different talents/skills; for groups with good structure and coordination; small to large groups |
Efficient; high volume of quality output; better use of individual talent |
Redundant work can be produced; writers can be blind to each other’s work; stylistic differences; potential information overload |
| Reactive Writing
Members create a document in real time, while others review, react, and adjust to each other’s changes and addition without much pre-planning or explicit coordination |
Small groups; high levels of creativity; high levels of consensus on process and content |
Can build creativity and consensus |
Very hard to coordinate; version control issues |
Document management reflects the approaches used to maintain version control of the document and describe who is responsible for it. Four main control modes are listed in Table 4.3.3, along with their pros and cons. Can you think of any more, based on your experience?
| Mode | Description | Pros | Cons |
|---|---|---|---|
| Centralized | When one person controls the document throughout the process. | Can be useful for maintaining group focus and when working toward a strict deadline | Non-controlling members may feel a lack of ownership or control of what goes into the document |
| Relay | When one person at a time is in charge but the control changes in the group | Democratic | Less efficient |
| Independent | When person maintains control of his/her assigned portion | Useful for remote teams working on distinct parts | Often requires an editor to pull it together; can reflect a group that lacks agreement. |
| Shared | When everyone has simultaneous and equal privileges | Can be highly effective; non-threatening; good for groups working F2F, who meet frequently, who have high levels of trust | Can lead to conflict, especially in remote or less functional groups |
Roles refer to the different hats participants might wear, depending on the activity. Table 4.3.4 describes several roles within a collaborative writing team. Which role(s) have you had in a group project? Are there ones you always seem to do? Ones that you prefer, dislike, or would like to try?
| Role | Description |
|---|---|
| Writer | A person who is responsible for writing a portion of the content |
| Consultant | A person who is external to the project and has no ownership or responsibility for producing content but who offers content and process-related feedback (peer reviewers outside the team; instructor) |
| Editor | A person who is responsible for the overall content production of the writers, and can make both style and content changes; typically has ownership of the content production |
| Reviewer | A person, internal or external, who provides specific content feedback but is not responsible for making changes |
| Team Leader | A person who is part of the team and may fully participate in authoring and reviewing the content, but who also leads the team through the processes, planning, rewarding, and motivating. |
| Facilitator | A person external to the team who leads the team through processes but doesn’t give content related feedback. |
EXERCISE 4.3 Follow up and reflect
Refer back to the warm-up at the start of this section. Using the tables above, analyze your example to determine the writing strategy and mode that best describes your experience, and what role(s) you took on.
How effective was the strategy that you used? Would another strategy have been more effective?
Image description
Figure 4.3.2 image description:
Four stages of collaborative writing
- Team Formation
- Team introductions, getting to know each others’ skill sets
- Team bonding, building trust
- Operating agreements, setting expectations
- Team Planning
- Review tasks to be done and roles of each team mate, create a work plan
- Set team goals and objectives: milestones, deliverables, due dates
- Determine processes for workflow and decision making
- Document Production
- Plan the document: research, brainstorm, outline the document format and content
- Compose a draft of the document
- Revise: iterative revisions, consider using an outside peer reviewer
- Wind Up
- Final document review to edit and approve content, organization, and style
- Final document processing (proofreading and submitting)
- External approval
- S. McCahan, P. Anderson, M. Kortschot, P. E. Weiss, and K. A. Woodhouse, “Introduction to teamwork,” in Designing Engineers: An Introductory Text, Hoboken, NY: Wiley, 2015, p. 14. ↵
- J. Swartz, S. Pigg, J. Larsen, J. Helo Gonzalez, R. De Haas, and E. Wagner, "Communication in the workplace: What can NC State students expect?" Report from the Professional Writing Program, North Carolina State University, 2018. ↵
- J. Gimenez and J. Thondhlana, “Collaborative writing in Engineering: Perspectives from research and implications for undergraduate education,” European Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 37, no. 5, 2012, 471-487. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2012.714356 ↵
- J. Swartz, et al. ↵
- J. Swartz, et al. CC-BY 4.0. ↵
- P.B. Lowry, A. Curtis, and M.R. Lowry, “Building a taxonomy and nomenclature of collaborative writing to improve interdisciplinary research and practice,” Journal of Business Communication, vol. 41, 2004, pp. 66-97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021943603259363 ↵
- (adapted from Lowry et al. [4]) ↵


34 No more questions. Captions. “All caps.”
In 1981, a Romanian high school student named Mugur Călinescu was found chalking protest slogans on the walls of the local Communist Party office in a town named Botoșani.
Mugur’s slogans called for an end to poverty, scarcity, and bread lines. He also demanded the sort of worker-run trade unions recently permitted in Poland.
Mugur continued his stealth, night-strolling graffiti protests for four weeks before getting caught.
“We want justice and freedom!” Mugur wrote in blue chalk. In capital letters. In ALL CAPS, as we say.
Other texts written on walls by Mugur include:
“In our comrade country, Poland, the workers have gained freedom with free unions, Solidarity and Rural Solidarity, which represent their rights even though they suffer from food shortages as well.”
“We are sick of waiting in immense queues. We cannot accept the filth and injustices in this country!”
“We can’t take the injustice any longer.”
[Already, I am disgusted by the banality of what is to come—by the cliched words in which this scene will be expressed, by the fog glazing over the eyes as one tries to decide which part of this is believable and which part is just a movie. Disgust, here, is imbricated in my mediated socialization and the images of American life, the socialization by sitcom.]
By the 1980’s, no ordinary Romanian dared protest against Ceaușescu’s regime. Most had enough trouble finding a way to procure clean water, shoes, coats, and bread after work. None had chalk—or chalk to spare for graffiti. Graffiti did not exist.
Graffiti was a problem limited to capitalist countries; graffiti was an indictment of capitalist notions of freedom, which allowed citizens to openly disrespect their leaders. Using the wall as an epistolary medium of communication with one’s government was unthinkable. The sheer unthinkability led Securitate and Party officials to believe that foreign spies or powerful dissidents “with foreign contacts” were involved.
The dictator’s censorship sustained his fiction; optimism and faith in the system was required.
The crime of listening to Radio Free Europe was associated with “hooliganism,” which Romanian-Jewish writer Norman Manea defined as the ability “to disrespect everything, to believe only in yourself […] to have so much life in yourself that there is no more room for truths and their intimidations.” This relationship between respect and disbelief hinges on disappearance, or on the dictator’s ability to make both the hooligan and counter-narrative vanish.
“Every photograph of others bears the traces of the meeting between the photographed persons and the photographer, neither of whom can, on their own, determine how this meeting will be inscribed in the resulting image. The photograph exceeds any presumption of ownership or monopoly, and any attempt at being exhaustive.”
-Ariella Azoulay, The Civil Contract of Photography
Mugur Călinescu died in 1985 at the age of 19.
Diagnosed with a particularly rapid form of leukemia, his life was erased from official records and Romanian media. Family members and friends believed Ceaușescu’s regime murdered Mugur by slipping radioactive poison into his coffee during the constant interrogations to which he was subjected.
This tiny (and deadly) protest was forgotten until 2013, when Gianina Cărbunariu wrote a play, Uppercase Print, inspired by the teen’s secret police files.
Seven years later, Radu Jude released Uppercase Print (2020), a film based on the surveillance and interrogation files against Mugur. Leaning on Cărbunariu’s play, Jude’s film reuses Securitate transcripts and alternates them with state-approved television newsreels and cultural programming from the same time period.
The film opens with an architectural view of a Romanian news studio.
Shadows attest to the artifice of the stage set. Rectangular patches of light are bisected by cardboard bars. The fake television and the film reel are surrounded by halos of light—as is the state’s insignia in the center. A holy trinity for the new iconography.
In the margins between sets, a man sweeps the studio floor, the woosh-woosh-woosh of his broom moving in monotone. It is so banal that one begins to wonder if this is a mistake or an outtake.
 Archival footage of airplanes, parades, and festivities is accompanied by frantically joyful music.
Watching the film, I am torn between tenderness and confusion. The continuous flow of Romanian words is comforting—the intonations sound like home—and the visual propaganda evokes a strange nostalgia. There are portions of television shows speaking about national unity, delineating the “we” of good citizenship and emphasizing the importance of ideological hygiene.
On screen, everyone is united. Schoolchildren, adults, laborers—all are scripted and dressed and groomed to emphasize how hygiene is both emotional, intellectual, linguistic, and aesthetic. Smiles are required. Frowns are offenses against national security.
The film reveals how much time and labor was devoted to Mugur’s surveillance. Hundreds of informants were involved, countless phones were bugged, peers at school were required to turn on him. Agents with tracking dogs patrolled the streets of Botoșani in shifts. Securitate officers analyzed over 30,000 tenant association expense sheets and various documents.
Unlike the excerpted propaganda videos from state television, the actors speak without intonation—the language is desiccated, official, and coded.


46 Theodore Roosevelt and American Imperialism
Under the leadership of President Theodore Roosevelt, the United States emerged from the nineteenth century with ambitious designs on global power through military might, territorial expansion, and economic influence. Though the Spanish-American War had begun under the administration of William McKinley, Roosevelt, the hero of San Juan Hill, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Vice-President, and President, was arguably the most visible and influential proponent of American imperialism at the turn of the century. Roosevelt’s emphasis on developing the American navy, and on Latin America as a key strategic area of U.S. foreign policy, would have long-term consequences.
In return for Roosevelt’s support of the Republican nominee, William McKinley, in the 1896 presidential election, McKinley appointed Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. The head of the department, John Long, had a competent but lackadaisical managerial style that allowed Roosevelt a great deal of freedom that Roosevelt used to network with such luminaries as military theorists Alfred Thayer Mahan and naval officer George Dewey and politicians such as Henry Cabot Lodge and William Howard Taft. During his tenure he oversaw the construction of new battleships, the implementation of new technology, and laid the groundwork for new shipyards, all with the goal of projecting America’s power across the oceans. Roosevelt wanted to expand American influence. For instance, he advocated for the annexation of Hawaii for several reasons: it was within the American sphere of influence, it would deny Japanese expansion and limit potential threats to the West Coast, it had an excellent port for battleships at Pearl Harbor, and it would act as a fueling station on the way to pivotal markets in Asia.
Roosevelt, after winning headlines in the war, ran as Vice President under McKinley and rose to the presidency after McKinley’s assassination by the anarchist Leon Czolgosz in 1901. Among his many interventions in American life, Roosevelt acted with vigor to expand the military, naval power especially, to protect and promote American interests abroad. This included the construction of eleven battleships between 1904 and 1907. Alfred Thayer Mahan’s naval theories, described in his The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, influenced Roosevelt a great deal. In contrast to theories that advocated for commerce raiding, coastal defense and small “brown water” ships, the imperative to control the sea required battleships and a “blue water” navy that could engage and win decisive battles with rival fleets. As president, Roosevelt continued the policies he established as Assistant Naval Secretary and expanded the U.S. fleet. The mission of the Great White Fleet, sixteen all-white battleships that sailed around the word between 1907 and 1909, exemplified America’s new power.
Roosevelt insisted that the “big stick” and the persuasive power of the U.S. military could assure U.S. hegemony over strategically important regions in the Western Hemisphere. The United States used military intervention in various circumstances to further its objectives, but it did not have the ability nor the inclination to militarily impose its will on the entirety of South and Central America. The United States therefore more often used informal methods of empire, such as so-called “dollar diplomacy,” to assert dominance over the hemisphere.
The United States actively intervened again and again in Latin America. Throughout his time in office, Roosevelt exerted U.S. control over Cuba (even after it gained formal independence in 1902) and Puerto Rico, and he deployed naval forces to ensure Panama’s independence from Colombia in 1901 in order to acquire a U.S. Canal Zone. Furthermore, Roosevelt pronounced the “Roosevelt Corollary” to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, proclaiming U.S. police power in the Caribbean. As articulated by President James Monroe in his annual address to Congress in 1823, the United States would treat any military intervention in Latin America by a European power as a threat to American security. Roosevelt reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine and expanded it by declaring that the U.S. had the right to preemptive action through intervention in any Latin American nation in order to correct administrative and fiscal deficiencies.
Roosevelt’s policy justified numerous and repeated police actions in “dysfunctional” Caribbean and Latin American countries by U.S. marines and naval forces and enabled the founding of the naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. This approach is sometimes referred to as “gunboat diplomacy,” wherein naval forces and marines land in a national capital to protect American and Western personnel, temporarily seize control of the government, and dictate policies friendly to American business, such as the repayment of foreign loans. For example, in 1905 Roosevelt sent the marines to occupy the Dominican Republic and established financial supervision over the Dominican government. Imperialists often framed such actions as almost humanitarian. They celebrated white Anglo-Saxon societies such as found in the United States and the British Empire as advanced practitioners of nation-building and civilization, helping to uplift debtor nations in Latin America that lacked the manly qualities of discipline and self-control. Roosevelt, for instance, preached that it was the “manly duty” of the United States to exercise an international police power in the Caribbean and to spread the benefits of Anglo-Saxon civilization to inferior states populated by inferior peoples. The president’s language, for instance, contrasted debtor nation’s “impotence” with the United States’ civilizing influence, belying new ideas that associated self-restraint and social stability with Anglo-Saxon manliness.
Dollar diplomacy offered a less costly method of empire and avoided the troubles of military occupation. Washington worked with bankers to provide loans to Latin American nations in exchange for some level of control over their national fiscal affairs. Roosevelt first implemented dollar diplomacy on a vast scale, while Presidents Taft and Wilson continued the practice in various forms during their own administrations. All confronted instability in Latin America. Rising debts to European and American bankers allowed for the inroads of modern life but destabilized much of the region. Bankers, beginning with financial houses in London and New York, saw Latin America as prime opportunities for investment. Lenders took advantage of the region’s newly formed governments’ need for cash and exacted punishing interest rates on massive loans, which were then sold off in pieces on the secondary bond market. American economic interests were now closely aligned with the region, but also further undermined by the chronic instability of the region’s newly formed governments, which were often plagued by mismanagement, civil wars, and military coups in the decades following their independence. Turnover in regimes interfered with the repayment of loans, as new governments would often repudiate the national debt or force a renegotiation with suddenly powerless lenders.
Creditors could not force settlements of loans until they successfully lobbied their own governments to get involved and forcibly collect debts. The Roosevelt administration did not want to deny the Europeans’ rightful demands of repayment of debt, but it also did not want to encourage European policies of conquest in the hemisphere as part of that debt collection. U.S. policy makers and military strategists within the Roosevelt administration determined that this European practice of military intervention posed a serious threat to American interests in the region. Roosevelt reasoned that the U.S. must create and maintain fiscal and political stability within strategically important nations in Latin America, particularly those affecting routes to and from the proposed Panama Canal. As a result, U.S. policy makers considered intervention in places like Cuba and the Dominican Republic a necessity to insure security around the region.
The Monroe Doctrine provided the Roosevelt administration with a diplomatic and international legal tradition through which it could assert a U.S. right and obligation to intervene in the hemisphere. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine asserted that the United States wished to promote stable, prosperous states in Latin America that could live up to their political and financial obligations. Roosevelt declared that “wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may finally require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the United States cannot ignore this duty.” President Monroe declared what Europeans could not do in the Western Hemisphere; Roosevelt inverted his doctrine to legitimize direct U.S. intervention in the region.
Though aggressive and bellicose, Roosevelt did not necessarily advocate expansion by military force. In fact, the president insisted that in dealings with the Latin American nations, he did not seek national glory or expansion of territory and believed that war or intervention should be a last resort when resolving conflicts with problematic governments. According to Roosevelt, such actions were necessary to maintain “order and civilization.” Then again, Roosevelt certainly believed in using military power to protect national interests and spheres of influence when absolutely necessary. He also believed that American sphere included not only Hawaii and the Caribbean, but also much of the Pacific. When Japanese victories over Russia threatened the regional balance of power he sponsored peace talks between Russian and Japanese leaders, earning him a Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.


12.2: Guiding Principles for Supporting History and Social Science
A thoughtfully designed early childhood program includes many activities that contribute to children’s understanding of history and social sciences. Some activities are carefully planned by a teacher to help children learn about weather patterns, bartering for goods and services, responsibilities as a class member, adult occupations, and many other ideas and concepts. Other activities emerge from the opportunities created by children’s spontaneous interests and a teacher’s capacity to build these into teachable moments. Taken together, they reflect the assumption that young children develop knowledge of history and the social sciences as they are encouraged to enact their understanding in everyday interactions with other children and adults. This knowledge helps young children understand themselves in a wonderfully expanding world. Here are some guiding principles on how to help children gain this knowledge.
- Build a cooperative, inclusive preschool community by ensuring that the curriculum maximizes children’s opportunities to work together in ways that require responsible conduct, fairness, and respect for others.
- Create activities that will actively engage children’s social skills and understanding.
- Affirm children’s home cultures, experiences, and values.
- Build on preschool children’s natural interest in their social world, and in the similarities and differences among the people in it.
- Model social behavior and attitudes with explanations.
- Actively teach and practice the essential skills of democratic participation.
- Encourage children to incorporate their knowledge of adult roles and occupations into their dramatic play.
- Observe and converse with children during play in order to learn about their current understanding of time and history.
- Help children deepen their own sense of place.
- Nurture children’s sense of wonder about nature.[1]
- The California Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume 3 by the California Department of Education is used with permission ↵


What is Creative Commons?
2
Introduction
As a set of legal tools, a movement, and a nonprofit, Creative Commons has evolved in many ways over the course of its history.
Learning Objectives
- Differentiate between Creative Commons as a set of licenses, a movement, and a nonprofit organization
- Explain the role of the CC Global Network
- Describe the basic areas of work for CC as a nonprofit organization
Big Question – Why it Matters
Now we know why Creative Commons was started. But what is Creative Commons today?
Today CC licenses are prevalent across the web and are used by creators around the world for every type of content you can imagine. The open movement, which extends beyond just CC licenses, is a global force of people committed to the idea that the world is better when we share and work together. Creative Commons is the nonprofit organization that stewards the CC licenses and helps support the open movement.
Personal Reflection – Why it Matters to You
When you think about Creative Commons, do you think about the licenses? Activists seeking copyright reform? A useful tool for sharing? Symbols in circles? Something else?
Are you involved with Creative Commons as a creator, a reuser, and/or an advocate? Would you like to be?
Acquiring Essential Knowledge
Today, the CC licenses and public domain tools are used on more than 1.4 billion works, from songs to Youtube videos to scientific research. The licenses have helped a global movement come together around openness, collaboration, and shared human creativity. CC the nonprofit organization, once housed within the basement of Stanford Law School, now has a staff working around the world on a host of different projects in various domains.
We’ll take these aspects of Creative Commons—the licenses, the movement, and the organization—and look at each in turn.
CC Licenses
CC legal tools are an alternative for creators who choose to share their works with the public under more permissive terms than the default “all rights reserved” approach under copyright. The legal tools are integrated into user-generated content platforms like YouTube, Flickr, and Jamendo, and they are used by nonprofit open projects like Wikipedia and OpenStax. They are used by formal institutions like the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Europeana, and individual creators.
For a creative take on Creative Commons and copyright, listen to this song by Jonathan “Song-A-Day” Mann about his choice to use CC licenses for his music.
In addition to giving creators more choices for how to share their work, CC legal tools serve important policy goals in fields like scholarly publishing and education. Watch the brief video, Why Open Education Matters, to get a sense for the opportunities Creative Commons licenses create for education. Collectively, the legal tools help create a global commons of diverse types of content—from picture storybooks to comics—that is freely available for anyone to use.
CC licenses may additionally serve a non-copyright function. In communities of shared practices, the licenses act to signal a set of values and a different way of operating.
For some users, this means looking back to the economic model of the commons. As economist David Bollier describes it, “a commons arises whenever a given community decides it wishes to manage a resource in a collective manner, with special regard for equitable access, use and sustainability.” Wikipedia is a good example of a commons-based community around CC licensed content.
For others, the CC legal tools and their buttons express an affinity for a set of core values. CC buttons have become ubiquitous symbols for sharing, openness, and human collaboration. The CC logo and icons are now part of the permanent design collection at The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.
While there is no single motivation for using CC licenses, there is a basic sense that CC licensing is rooted in a fundamental belief that knowledge and creativity are building blocks of our culture rather than simple commodities from which to extract market value. The licenses reflect a belief that everyone has something to contribute, and that no one can own our shared culture. Fundamentally, they reflect a belief in the promise of sharing.
The Movement
Since 2001, a global coalition of people has formed around Creative Commons and open licensing. This includes activists working on copyright reform around the globe, policymakers advancing policies mandating open access to publicly funded educational resources, research and data, and creators who share a core set of values. Most of the people and institutions who are part of the CC movement are not formally connected to Creative Commons.
Creative Commons has a formal CC Global Network, which includes lawyers, activists, scholars, artists, and more, all working on a wide range of projects and issues connected to sharing and collaboration.
The CC Global Network is just one player in the larger open movement, which includes Wikipedians, Mozillians, open access advocates, and many more.
Open source software is cited as the first domain where networked open sharing produced a tangible benefit as a movement that went much further than technology. The Conversation’s Explainer overview of other movements adds other examples, such as Open Innovation in the corporate world, Open Data (see the Open Data Commons) and Crowdsourcing. There is also the Open Access movement, which aims to make research widely available, the Open Science movement, and the growing movement around Open Educational Resources.
Creative Commons the Organization
A small nonprofit organization stewards the Creative Commons legal tools and helps power the open movement. CC is a distributed organization, with CC staff and contractors working around the world. Contact us here.
In 2016, Creative Commons embarked on a new organizational strategy based on building and sustaining a vibrant, usable commons, powered by collaboration and gratitude. This is a shift to focusing not only on the number of works out there under CC licenses and available for reuse, but on the connections and collaborations that happen around that content. This video introduces the new strategy (optional).
Guided by that strategy, organizational work loosely falls into two main buckets:
Licenses, Tools and Technology: The CC licenses and public domain tools are the core legal tools designed and stewarded by CC. While our licenses have been rigorously vetted by legal experts around the globe, our work is not done. We are actively working on technical infrastructure designed to make it easier to find and use content in the digital commons. We are also thinking about ways to better adapt all of CC’s legal and technical tools for today’s web.
Supporting the movement: CC works to help people within open movements collaborate on projects and work toward similar goals. Through CC’s multiple programs, we work directly with our global community—across education, culture, science, copyright reform, government policy, and other sectors—to help train and empower open advocates around the world.
Final Remarks
Creative Commons has grown from a law school basement into a global organization with a wide reach and a powerful name associated with a core set of shared values. It is, at the same time, a set of licenses, a movement, and a nonprofit organization. We hope this unit helped give you a sense for what the organization does and, even more importantly, how you can join us in our work.


Coltsoot: Tussilago farfara
Tussilago farafara is a common herbaceous plant throughout much of North America, occurring in disturbed habitats, usually in relatively moist sites. It is one of the first flowers to be found in the spring, often on roadsides. Like many familiar plants (e.g. milkweed, goldenrod, tulips, dahlias) it is an herbaceous perennial but its phenology is unusual, flowering before leaves are produced.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Colts foot is a flowering seed plant (an angiosperm) in the Aster family (Asteraceae) , one of the largest families of flowering plants. The group is usually easy to recognize when flowering because the ‘flower’ is actually an inflorescence, a cluster of flowers. The flowers are often of two types: flowers with elongate petals radiating outward and flowers with short petals that are vertical. Coltsfoot and many familiar members of the family (sunflowers, asters, daisy) have both types of flowers but other members of the family (dandelion, chicory) may only have one of the two types of flowers.
Structure
Coltsfoot is a perennial that spreads extensively by underground stems (rhizomes) that produce shoots that live for two years. The first year the shoots are vegetative and produce a cluster of large leaves with grayish hairs, especially on the lower side. In the fall, flower buds develop at the base of the leaves while the leaves senesce and fall off. The following spring the flower buds (which are actually branch shoots) develop. These branches bear no true leaves, only rudimentary scales, but produce a dandelion-like inflorescence (‘flower’). The flowering shoots emerge very early in the spring and elongate to produce a gray stem roughly 10 cm long with a yellow ‘flower’ at its end that is the same size and color as dandelion but unlike a dandelion it has both flower types, like an aster. The ‘flower’ develops into a head of fruits, looking again very similar to a dandelion and, like dandelions, the tip of the flowering stalk arches over as the fruit develops and then returns to an erect position after the fruits are mature and ready to be dispersed.
Sex and reproduction
As a typical angiosperm, Coltsfoot reproduces sexually and produces seeds in the ovaries of flowers. The seed contains an embryo that develops from a zygote formed by the union of a male gamete derived from pollen and a female gamete produced in the female gametophytes (embryo sacs) that are present in the ovules of the flower. The center flowers of a head do not have ovules while the outer flowers possess both male and female parts. The plants are self-incompatible and need pollen from another plant in order to set seed. Pollen transfer is accomplished by bees and beetles attracted to the flowers by nectar rewards and scent.
Matter and energy
Coltsfoot is a typical photosynthetic autotroph. Carbohydrates, synthesized in the summer are stored in the rhizomes to provide both matter and energy in the spring when there are no leaves and no photosynthesis. This is an excellent example of plant growth that is accompanied by no increase (actually a decrease) in plant weight. The rhizomes are depleted of carbohydrates, and therefore lose weight, in order to power the growth of the developing flowers.
Interactions
Native to Europe, coltsfoot has established itself in North America. While it generally is found in disturbed (‘weedy’) habitats, it occasionally invades ‘natural’ habitats as well.
Media Attributions
- Mature flowers with seeds © Rosser1954 is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
- An inflorescent flower © Ryan Hodnett is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
- Seedhead of Coltsfoot © Gailhampshire is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
- Leaf of coltsfoot © R.A. Nonenmacher is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license


 Discuss at least three of your own prior sexual beliefs challenged by the content of this module.
- Pretend you are tasked with teaching a group of adolescents about sexual anatomy, but with a twist: You must teach through the lens of pleasure instead of reproduction. What would your talking points be? Be sure to incorporate the role of the brain in evoking sexual pleasure.
- Given how universal and similar the sexual response cycle is for both males and females, why do you think males enter a refractory period during the resolution phase and females do not? Consider potential evolutionary reasons for why this occurs.
- Imagine yourself as a developing human being from conception to birth. Using a first- person point of view, create a commentary that addresses the significant milestones achieved in each trimester.
- Pretend your hypothetical adolescent daughter has expressed interest in birth control. During her appointment with a health care provider, what are some factors that should be considered prior to selecting the best birth control method for her?
- Describe at least three ways you can reduce your chances of contracting a sexually transmitted infection.
- How can practicing safer sex enhance your well-being?
- As discussed within the module, numerous influences contribute to the development and maintenance of a sexual dysfunction, such as, adverse sexual attitudes and beliefs. Which influences, if any, can you relate to? How do you plan on addressing those influences to achieve optimal sexual health?


Julius Kirmse Property
58
Julius Kirmse purchased 60 acres from Peter V. Beauvais and his wife Rachel W. Beauvais for $300 on 8 December 1865.
Documents
Presented below are the deed documents of the 60 acre purchase.
Where
Property description: “the North East quarter of the South East quarter of Section No. Fifteen and the West half of the North West quarter of the South West quarter of Section No. Fourteen In the Township Thirty Five North of Range Twelve East containing sixty acres more or less”.
The following maps show the location of the 60 acre property that Julius Kirmse purchased (Now owned by his granddaughter Helen Kirmse Hacker).
Notes
- The ending of the American Civil War is generally considered to be the surrender of General Lee in April 1865. This was only eight months before the completion of this land purchase on 8 December 1865.
- In 1859, Julius paid $105 for 40 acres ($2.63/acre) and in 1865 he paid $300 dollars for 60 acres ($5/acre).
- This property is known in the family as the “lower fields”.


8 Strategic Goals
Strategic goals for Open Education at KPU between 2018-23:
- Support the adoption of open educational resources across all Faculties and Schools through education, training & support, system & role integration, and recognition
- Support the sustainable development, growth, and effective marketing of additional Zero Textbook Cost (ZTC) programs
- Develop a publishing infrastructure and systems to support the creation and adaptation of open educational resources
- Provide tools, technologies, training, and support for faculty to embrace open pedagogies
- Establish targeted open education initiatives to attract working adults seeking to pursue postsecondary study and provide program completion encouragement and alternatives for mature learners
- Articulate OERu courses and offer an exit credential to the OERu network
- Develop an institutional open education policy
- Embed and enhance e-portfolios that reflect open education strategies and acknowledge the added value of global open education practices
- Collaborate with external partners in support of KPU’s open education initiatives
Note: These strategic goals are mirrored in Goal 6 of KPU’s Academic Plan 2023.
“If emerging Open Educational Practices are to flourish at our university, support for OEP must integrate with and contribute to our broader efforts to clarify and enhance our strategic position.” (Carey, Davis, Ferreras, & Porter, 2015, p. 162)


Rotational motion and angular momentum
66 Introduction to Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
Why do tornadoes spin at all? And why do tornados spin so rapidly? The answer is that air masses that produce tornadoes are themselves rotating, and when the radii of the air masses decrease, their rate of rotation increases. An ice skater increases her spin in an exactly analogous manner as seen in Figure 66.2. The skater starts her rotation with outstretched limbs and increases her spin by pulling them in toward her body. The same physics describes the exhilarating spin of a skater and the wrenching force of a tornado.
Clearly, force, energy, and power are associated with rotational motion. These and other aspects of rotational motion are covered in this chapter. We shall see that all important aspects of rotational motion either have already been defined for linear motion or have exact analogs in linear motion. First, we look at angular acceleration—the rotational analog of linear acceleration.


84 14.1 Introduction
Assistive Technology (AT) is defined as any piece of item or equipment used to increase,
maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability (Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act, 2004). Integrating assistive technology into classrooms is a powerful
approach to creating inclusive and accessible learning environments, particularly for K-12
learners (Torrato et al., 2020). These tools allow students to access learning materials in a format
that aligns with their individual needs, enabling them to participate in activities. Unfortunately,
there are multiple barriers to implementing assistive technology in classrooms. Barriers such as
limited resources, lack of training, and teacher vulnerability can hinder effective AT integration (Hunt,
2021). This chapter examines how professional development can address obstacles by equipping
educators with the skills and knowledge needed to select, adapt, and implement AT effectively
(Schladant et al., 2022). It emphasizes the importance of empowering teachers to navigate
challenges in the classroom through targeted training. Ultimately, the chapter emphasizes the
significance of equipping educators with professional development to overcome barriers and
foster learning environments that enable all students, regardless of their abilities, to succeed.


Unit 1: Exploring the Nature of Light Phenomena
I. Introduction
This course is intended for prospective and practicing elementary and middle school teachers. By exploring physical phenomena in class, you will learn science in ways in which you are expected to teach science in schools or in informal settings such as afterschool programs, youth group meetings, and museum workshops. This course also is appropriate for general science students and others interested in exploring some of the physical phenomena underlying global climate change.
The theme for the course is: What happens when light from the Sun shines on the Earth? The emphasis is on questioning, predicting, exploring, observing, discussing, reading, and writing about what one thinks and why. This first unit focuses on exploring the nature of light phenomena. Among the unit’s many goals are two primary ones: to learn about light phenomena and to learn about ways to foster science learning for yourself and others such as your family, friends, and students.
What does it mean to “explore the nature of light phenomena”? You will be:
- identifying resources such as positive experiences you already have had in learning about light and
- developing central ideas based on evidence that you record while exploring everyday phenomena such as light and shadows.
By central ideas, we mean understandings about physical phenomena that emerge from your discussions with your group members as well as with the instructor. These also are powerful ideas because they form conceptual models useful in:
- explaining an intriguing phenomenon such as what happens when you look through a pinhole camera, something most find surprising, yet even children can understand.
After developing conceptual understandings of the relevant physics principles, you will be:
- developing mathematical representations of this phenomenon and using these when
- estimating a quantity of interest, such as the diameter of the Sun.
Throughout the course you will be reflecting upon ways that are helping you learn science. In reflecting upon this learning process, you will be:
- making connections to educational policy, such as the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013). This document has been adopted by many departments of education as the science standards for grades K-12 in the United States.
Other light phenomena that you will be exploring during this unit include reflection, refraction, and dispersion. You will develop additional central ideas based upon these explorations; then use this expanded conceptual model for light to explain another intriguing but more complex phenomenon: rainbows.
Because K-8 curricula emphasize learning to read and write well, this course also models ways to integrate science and literacy learning. By literacy learning, we mean learning to speak clearly, listen closely, write coherently, read with comprehension, and create and critique media.
The main sections present questions with suggestions for exploring topics and for writing reflections about your findings. The text in gray font indicates that these are suggestions; you may think of better ways to explore the topic. You are encouraged to ask and explore your own questions about light phenomena as well as those posed here. Check with your instructor if you choose to devise an alternative approach.
Keeping track of what one is doing and thinking is important. This course uses a physics notebook page that can organize how you record your notes during class. This physics notebook page can help you remember your thoughts before, during, and after an exploration. An experienced elementary teacher, Adam Devittt, designed this physics notebook page to mirror the structure of before, during, and after reading strategies:
Before starting your exploration, think about and discuss with your group members what you know already about this topic, how you plan to conduct the exploration, and what you think you might find out.
During your exploration, record what is happening, what you are observing, and what you are thinking about what you are observing. Include sketches of equipment and observations. Note any words that are new and their definitions.
After your exploration, record any central ideas that have emerged from your observations and discussions. Also note the evidence on which you have based these ideas. State explicitly how the evidence is relevant and supports the claims you are making in stating the central ideas. Also explain why this result is important. Then write a reflection about whatever you want to remember about this experience. In addition, briefly state what you are still wondering in this context.
After class, use your physics notebook pages and any handouts to write a summary of your exploration and findings. Writing such a summary after every class is a good way to prepare for the midterm and final examinations.
Next, to be sure you have understood the physics involved, read this text and some examples of student work. The student authors first wrote drafts, received feedback for ways to enhance content and clarity, and submitted these final versions. Also read about some nuances to consider when explaining the phenomena explored.
You may also find helpful student reflections about teaching a friend or family member about what they had just learned in class, historical information about ways knowledge about the topic developed, and some relevant aspects of the nature of science in the context of the topic explored. These sections of the text may broaden your understanding of science and of science learning and teaching.


29 Practicing Mindfulness to Become Self-Regulated Learners
Mindfulness is an important component of self-regulation. Mindfulness helps us develop present-time awareness and a means to regulate our thoughts and emotions. Practicing both attributes is important when becoming a self-regulated learner. Practicing mindfulness can help us focus on completing the task at hand by silencing past or future distractions or worries so that we can move forward.
This short series on mindfulness will introduce you to mindfulness and how you can implement daily mindfulness practices to help you become an effective self-regulated learner.
Why Mindfulness is Important to Self-regulation
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Ronnie Collins and Anonymous
Why is this resource needed?- the biggest problem that most students coming in to college, including myself, is how to study for classes. Many students haven’t had to study before and breezes through high school, however this isn’t the case in college. Studying is required for most classes if you want good grades, so we went around to teachers and students and asked for tips on how to study and what the hardest classes to study for are.
Summary of content- in this video there are many different interviews including straight A students and teachers. They will talk about what their best tips on how to study are as well as what they believe the hardest and easiest classes to study for are.


9 Science
It is likely clear to all science instructors using this resource that for our students heading to employment in STEM that their careers will be intertwined with climate change. In addition to the direct impacts on them as citizens, they will be part of teams working on finding solutions to and mitigations for the effects of living on a hotter planet. Understanding the foundations of climate science will be essential for all and many will have entire courses (or degrees) in this.
As importantly, however, are the students in our non-majors courses. Here are the majority of students we teach and they too must be conversant in and competent with the data of climate science. I will be collecting discipline specific lessons in the coming months, and I also encourage you to review and incorporate the material provided under Quantitative Reasoning.
Resources to follow soon…


13.4 Momentum and Radiation Pressure
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
- Describe the relationship of the radiation pressure and the energy density of an electromagnetic wave
- Explain how the radiation pressure of light, while small, can produce observable astronomical effects
Material objects consist of charged particles. An electromagnetic wave incident on the object exerts forces on the charged particles, in accordance with the Lorentz force, Equation 13.1.11. These forces do work on the particles of the object, increasing its energy, as discussed in the previous section. The energy that sunlight carries is a familiar part of every warm sunny day. A much less familiar feature of electromagnetic radiation is the extremely weak pressure that electromagnetic radiation produces by exerting a force in the direction of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum.
To understand the direction of the force for a very specific case, consider a plane electromagnetic wave incident on a metal in which electron motion, as part of a current, is damped by the resistance of the metal, so that the average electron motion is in phase with the force causing it. This is comparable to an object moving against friction and stopping as soon as the force pushing it stops (Figure 13.4.1). When the electric field is in the direction of the positive -axis, electrons move in the negative -direction, with the magnetic field in the direction of the positive -axis. By applying the right-hand rule, and accounting for the negative charge of the electron, we can see that the force on the electron from the magnetic field is in the direction of the positive -axis, which is the direction of wave propagation. When the field reverses, the field does too, and the force is again in the same direction. Maxwell’s equations together with the Lorentz force equation imply the existence of radiation pressure much more generally than this specific example, however.
(Figure 13.4.1)
Maxwell predicted that an electromagnetic wave carries momentum. An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. The force corresponds to radiation pressure exerted on the object by the wave. The force would be twice as great if the radiation were reflected rather than absorbed.
Maxwell’s prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The schematic arrangement is shown in Figure 13.4.2. The mirrors suspended from a fibre were housed inside a glass container. Nichols and Hull were able to obtain a small measurable deflection of the mirrors from shining light on one of them. From the measured deflection, they could calculate the unbalanced force on the mirror, and obtained agreement with the predicted value of the force.
(Figure 13.4.2)
The radiation pressure applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface turns out to be equal to the energy density of the wave:
(13.4.1)
If the material is perfectly reflecting, such as a metal surface, and if the incidence is along the normal to the surface, then the pressure exerted is twice as much because the momentum direction reverses upon reflection:
(13.4.2)
We can confirm that the units are right:
Equation 13.4.1 and Equation 13.4.2 give the instantaneous pressure, but because the energy density oscillates rapidly, we are usually interested in the time-averaged radiation pressure, which can be written in terms of intensity:
Radiation pressure plays a role in explaining many observed astronomical phenomena, including the appearance of comets. Comets are basically chunks of icy material in which frozen gases and particles of rock and dust are embedded. When a comet approaches the Sun, it warms up and its surface begins to evaporate. The coma of the comet is the hazy area around it from the gases and dust. Some of the gases and dust form tails when they leave the comet. Notice in Figure 13.4.3 that a comet has two tails. The ion tail (or gas tail in Figure 13.4.3) is composed mainly of ionized gases. These ions interact electromagnetically with the solar wind, which is a continuous stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun. The force of the solar wind on the ionized gases is strong enough that the ion tail almost always points directly away from the Sun. The second tail is composed of dust particles. Because the dust tail is electrically neutral, it does not interact with the solar wind. However, this tail is affected by the radiation pressure produced by the light from the Sun. Although quite small, this pressure is strong enough to cause the dust tail to be displaced from the path of the comet.
(Figure 13.4.3)
EXAMPLE 13.4.1
Halley’s Comet
On February 9, 1986, Comet Halley was at its closest point to the Sun, about from the centre of the Sun. The average power output of the Sun is
(a) Calculate the radiation pressure on the comet at this point in its orbit. Assume that the comet reflects all the incident light.
(b) Suppose that a -kg chunk of material of cross-sectional area breaks loose from the comet. Calculate the force on this chunk due to the solar radiation. Compare this force with the gravitational force of the Sun.
Strategy
Calculate the intensity of solar radiation at the given distance from the Sun and use that to calculate the radiation pressure. From the pressure and area, calculate the force.
Solution
a. The intensity of the solar radiation is the average solar power per unit area. Hence, at from the center of the Sun, we have
Assuming the comet reflects all the incident radiation, we obtain from Equation 13.4.3
b. The force on the chunk due to the radiation is
whereas the gravitational force of the Sun is
Significance
The gravitational force of the Sun on the chunk is therefore much greater than the force of the radiation.
After Maxwell showed that light carried momentum as well as energy, a novel idea eventually emerged, initially only as science fiction. Perhaps a spacecraft with a large reflecting light sail could use radiation pressure for propulsion. Such a vehicle would not have to carry fuel. It would experience a constant but small force from solar radiation, instead of the short bursts from rocket propulsion. It would accelerate slowly, but by being accelerated continuously, it would eventually reach great speeds. A spacecraft with small total mass and a sail with a large area would be necessary to obtain a usable acceleration.
When the space program began in the 1960s, the idea started to receive serious attention from NASA. The most recent development in light propelled spacecraft has come from a citizen-funded group, the Planetary Society. It is currently testing the use of light sails to propel a small vehicle built from CubeSats, tiny satellites that NASA places in orbit for various research projects during space launches intended mainly for other purposes.
The LightSail spacecraft shown below (Figure 13.4.4) consists of three CubeSats bundled together. It has a total mass of only about and is about the size as a loaf of bread. Its sails are made of very thin Mylar and open after launch to have a surface area of
(Figure 13.4.4)
INTERACTIVE
The first LightSail spacecraft was launched in 2015 to test the sail deployment system. It was placed in low-earth orbit in 2015 by hitching a ride on an Atlas 5 rocket launched for an unrelated mission. The test was successful, but the low-earth orbit allowed too much drag on the spacecraft to accelerate it by sunlight. Eventually, it burned in the atmosphere, as expected. The Planetary Society’s LightSail 2 solar sailing spacecraft will launch aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy as soon as spring 2018, and will attempt the first controlled solar sail flight in Earth orbit. The following animation details the piece-by-piece construction of the LightSail 2 spacecraft as well as its maneuvers in space.
EXAMPLE 13.4.2
LightSail Acceleration
The intensity of energy from sunlight at a distance of from the Sun is The LightSail spacecraft has sails with total area of and a total mass of Calculate the maximum acceleration LightSail spacecraft could achieve from radiation pressure when it is about from the Sun.
Strategy
The maximum acceleration can be expected when the sail is opened directly facing the Sun. Use the light intensity to calculate the radiation pressure and from it, the force on the sails. Then use Newton’s second law to calculate the acceleration.
Solution
The radiation pressure is
The resulting acceleration is
Significance
If this small acceleration continued for a year, the craft would attain a speed of or
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 13.5
How would the speed and acceleration of a radiation-propelled spacecraft be affected as it moved farther from the Sun on an interplanetary space flight?
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