106 Chapter 9 Overview
What You’ll Learn To Do: Examine Ancient Roman art and its impact on art development over the years.
In Chapter 9 we will continue to examine Ancient Roman art. We will look at how this art contributed to the larger development of Western art. It is imperative to understand Ancient Roman art in order to see how it impacted later artistic developments.
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this module include:
- Review: Key Learning Items
The Roman Empire, Continued
- Watch: Arch of Titus (6:34)
- Watch: Hadrian’s Villa (8:03)
- Watch: Maritime Theater, Hadrian’s Villa (5:01)
- Watch: Pair of Centaurs (4:47)
- Watch: Column of Trajan (4:55)
- Watch: Medea Sarcophagus (4:56)
- Watch: Equestrian Sculpture of Marcus Aurelius (3:47)
- Watch: Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (5:33)
- Watch: Tetrarchs (6:07)
- Read: Arch of Constantine (includes a video—10:56)
- Watch: Colossus of Constantine (4:31)
Extra Review
- Review: External Resources
Assignment
- Submit: Module 9 Quiz (5 points)


I’ll Do My Best!
Hyekyung Jo and Nakhari Yoeum
Chloe Lee is my cousin. She is also my best friend. I admire her because she always focuses on her dream even in hard times. Chloe moved to Canada from Korea in 2004 when her parents got divorced. She was depressed, but she took control of her mind and moved on to pursue her dreams.
Her first goal was to learn English. In 2006, she went to high school. She only slept between four and five hours a day and studied hard. Since she is good at persuading and debating, she participated in the debate contest as a representative of the school. I want to learn her confidence. Finally, when she graduated in 2009, she had the highest GPA in her high school.
That same year, she got on academic scholarship to UBC (University of British Columbia). Her second goal was to graduate from university with good grades and work for a Korean company. She studied international business while at UBC. She graduated in 2013 and went back to Korea because Samsung wanted her to work with them.
She always did her best and was responsible. She was the youngest on her team, but she became its leader. Now, she is a team leader in the field of international business, working at Samsung.
She is younger than me, but she always sets a good example for me to follow.
I always want to do my best like her.
By Hyekyung Jo


Chapter 3 – Access and Power in Language Learning
Majoritized and Minoritized Languages
Bibi Halima and Keli Yerian
Preview Questions
- What is the difference between majoritized and minoritized languages?
- Are majoritized languages always spoken by the majority of people?
- Are minoritized languages always spoken by a minority of people?
In modern linguistics, it is widely accepted that all human languages are equally sophisticated systems of communication. However, in many people’s subjective viewpoints some languages are more equal than others. Social attitudes establish hierarchies for languages and their speech communities that cannot be ignored when we are learning languages. For this reason, in the first section of this chapter we want to introduce some key terms that will help us discuss the role of power and access in language learning.
Majority and Minority Languages
Triggs (2021) defines a majority language as one used and spoken by most people in a population. For example, when you think of a language in the U.S., what do you think? It is probably English because it is widely used by the majority of people in the country.
On the other hand, the term minority language originally refers to language(s) used by relatively small populations. For example, American Sign Language (ASL) is used by Deaf/deaf and hard of hearing people in the United States. However, most scholars prefer the term minoritized for a minority language because it highlights the status of speakers. Lane et al. (2017) define speakers of minority languages as “linguistically marginalised social actors” who belong to non-dominant language communities (p. 8). For example, indigenous languages in the U.S. are the minoritized languages of minoritized communities.
Majority is Majori-tized and Minority is Minori-tized!
This is the tricky part that is important to understand – majority and minority languages are not inherently more or less important. It is through social and historical processes that they are made to be majoritized and minoritized, gradually and often strategically. In the case of majority languages, they are often declared to be the standard or official language in a specific context.
“Who declares this?”, you might ask.
The answer is simple. Groups with economic and political power have the ability to majoritize and standardize one language variety over others. The power could be the power of colonizers who used language as a tool to implement their expansion and control of new lands and peoples. For example, the hegemony of English in today’s world is strongly linked to the days of British colonization when colonized people’s speech and cultures in places such as present-day Pakistan, India, Kenya, and South Africa were devalued and suppressed through the imposition of English.
Decolonising the Mind, by universally acclaimed Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, highlights these issues of language and power. wa Thiong’o (1986) explains two important steps colonizers took in the past to majoritize and minoritize languages: demolish an existing system of culture and intentionally replace local languages with new ones.
He says,
For colonialism this involved two aspects of the same process: the destruction or the deliberate undervaluing of a people’s culture, their art, dances, religions, history, geography, education, orature and literature, and conscious elevation of the language of the coloniser. The domination of a people’s language by the languages of the colonising nations was crucial to the domination of the mental universe of the colonised (p. 16).
Therefore, it is crucial to understand that minority languages are not necessarily just defined as the languages of a numerical minority but are rather languages subjected to the active process of minoritization (Tendero, 2017). Let’s dive into this point more deeply below to understand the nuances of this subject.
A majoritized language is not necessarily the language of the majority of people
Here is an important consequence of this power dynamic to understand: a majoritized language is not always the language of the majority. For example, English is often majoritized in former colonies where it is not the first language of the majority of people. It can also be an official language in countries where a very small percentage of the population speaks English yet it still dominates the language landscape.
For more information on where English is spoken around the world, look over this Berlitz article about the 67 countries that have English as an official language. Notice how much of the population actually speaks English in each country.
Stop and reflect
A minoritized language can be the language of the majority of a population
No doubt, this is a paradox but it remains a reality. Just as a majoritized language might be a language spoken by a minority of people, a language with the highest numerical representation in a country might become minoritized if it has lower socio-political status.
At the end of this section, assess your understanding.
Majoritized/Minoritized Languages Comprehension Check
Select the best answer for each question.
References
Haidar, S., Wali, T., Tahir, T., & Parveen, M. (2001). “I Am Not Punjabi, My Parents Are”: Degradation of the language of dominant majority. Acta Linguistica Asiatica, 11(2), 101-127. https://doi.org/10.4312/ala.11.2.101-127
Hussain, F., Khan, M. A., & Khan, H. (2020). Punjabi language perspectives: A comprehensive study on marginalization and advocacy in Pakistan. Journal of Islamic Civilization and Culture, 3(1), 97-113.
Lane, P., Costa, J., & De Korne, H. (Eds.). (2017). Standardizing minority languages: competing ideologies of authroity and authenticity in the global periphery. Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781138125124
Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo. (1986). Decolonizing the mind: The politics of language in African literature. James Currey.
Nordquist, R. (2019, March 09). Majority language. ThoughCo. Retrieved May 10, 2024, from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-majority-language-1691294
Rahman, T. (2006). Language policy, multilingualism, and language vitality in Pakistan. In A. Sexana, & L. Borin (Eds.), Lesser-known languages of South Asia: Status and policies, case studies, and applications of information technology (pp. 73-106). De Gruyter Mouton
Triggs, A. D. (2021). Fostering cross-cultural competence in linguistically and culturally diverse learners. In L. Wellner, & K. Pierce-Friedman (Eds.), Supporting early career teachers with research-based practices (pp. 130–146). IGI Global.
Tendero, P. (2017). From minority languages to minoritized languages. Language on the move. https://www.languageonthemove.com/from-minority-languages-to-minoritized-languages/
A scientific study of language including its structure and use in social groups
Deaf with a 'D' refers to those who identity as culturally Deaf and are usually deaf from birth. On the other hand, deaf with a 'd' simply refers to a profound loss of hearing
Languages that originated and were spoken by the peoples of the Americas prior to colonization
Dominance and authority of one or more groups over others through their influence on shared norms and ideas


79 Introduction to Gases
Gases Outline
- Gas Pressure
- Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
- Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions
- Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
- The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
- Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
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We are surrounded by an ocean of gas—the atmosphere—and many of the properties of gases are familiar to us from our daily activities. Heated gases expand, which can make a hot air balloon rise (Figure 1) or cause a blowout in a bicycle tire left in the sun on a hot day.
Gases have played an important part in the development of chemistry. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many scientists investigated gas behavior, providing the first mathematical descriptions of the behavior of matter.
In this chapter, we will examine the relationships between gas temperature, pressure, amount, and volume. We will study a simple theoretical model and use it to analyze the experimental behavior of gases. The results of these analyses will show us the limitations of the theory and how to improve on it.


Saving a Little Duckling
Caralina Harris
Personal Statement
I wrote this narrative for Rechelle Schimke’s English 101 class. It is about my experience working with a sick duckling. I raised seven ducklings during the pandemic and was amazed by how each duckling impacted me: this is Mr. Gossie’s story.
A small duckling sat alone from his siblings. A huge hand came down from the heavens and scoops up the little duckling. I carefully inspect the little duckling I call Gossie. I notice a swollen toe on his left foot. I immediately sprang into action; I traced his foot on cardboard and made a small brace. After wrapping up Gossie’s pink foot, he was put in his own box in the brooder. The lonely little duckling sat in isolation listening to his siblings on the other side of the wall. Over the next forty-eight hours, Gossie stayed at the same weight-which was extremely concerning.
That night, I slept in the garage waking up every few hours to hand-feed Gossie. I woke to the blaring of my alarm; got up and picked up Gossie; wrapping him in a washcloth and giving him food and water through a pipette. The little duckling did not want to eat. I put a drop of water on his bill, which seemed to make him happy. I did the same with his oatmeal. Slowly, Gossie began to eat. During each of these shifts, I would weigh him and hope that he would continue to grow. By morning I was exhausted; I did my chores-at record low speeds-and began my school day. During my breaks, I would unwrap Gossie’s foot and give him a bath so the muscles in his foot and leg would continue to develop.
I would give him about twenty minutes per day to practice walking. A few steps at a time, little Gossie would walk before laying down again to rest while the rest of his siblings would frolic around him. One day everything seemed to get worse. When giving Gossie food: he refused to eat, and his weight began to decrease slightly. That night I didn’t sleep at all. I spent the night cradling Gossie and offering him food and water. In the morning I had to go to school and had to leave Gossie alone. The whole school day I thought about him and worried-but by the time I returned, one of Gossie’s siblings had jumped into the infirmary. The two ducklings perked up when I walked into the room. Ever since that day, Gossie continued to grow.
 The other ducklings would be rotating spending time with him. I continued to hand feed him and give him physical therapy. Furthermore, the little duckling grew and grew. With support from his other siblings, Gossie continued to develop and when the splints officially came off, he was able to keep up with his siblings. They loved to run around the yard and Gossie would always be very concerned when he was separated from his siblings. He would yell to them from wherever he was until he spotted them then would run full force until he reached them. This bond was unbreakable and amazing to see.
 They really are the best of friends and never get sick of each other. They share each other’s highs and lows and are always willing to hang out. And I am so incredibly grateful to be a part of it. I love so to see the ducks every day and they follow me around wherever I go, they really did imprint on me. But they also taught me something that a true friend will never get bored of you and will never want to leave your side. I am so grateful to be a part of their flock so while I’m hand-feeding Gossie treats every day I think of the little duckling that I stayed up all night with and proved to him that I too could be a good friend.


74 Free Energy
[latexpage]
One of the challenges of using the second law of thermodynamics to determine if a process is spontaneous is that it requires measurements of the entropy change for the system and the entropy change for the surroundings. An alternative approach involving a new thermodynamic property defined in terms of system properties only was introduced in the late nineteenth century by American mathematician Josiah Willard Gibbs. This new property is called the Gibbs free energy (G) (or simply the free energy), and it is defined in terms of a system’s enthalpy and entropy as the following:
Free energy is a state function, and at constant temperature and pressure, the free energy change (ΔG) may be expressed as the following:
(For simplicity’s sake, the subscript “sys” will be omitted henceforth.)
The relationship between this system property and the spontaneity of a process may be understood by recalling the previously derived second law expression:
The first law requires that qsurr = −qsys, and at constant pressure qsys = ΔH, so this expression may be rewritten as:
Multiplying both sides of this equation by −T, and rearranging yields the following:
Comparing this equation to the previous one for free energy change shows the following relation:
The free energy change is therefore a reliable indicator of the spontaneity of a process, being directly related to the previously identified spontaneity indicator, ΔSuniv. (Figure) summarizes the relation between the spontaneity of a process and the arithmetic signs of these indicators.
| Relation between Process Spontaneity and Signs of Thermodynamic Properties | ||
|---|---|---|
| ΔSuniv > 0 | ΔG < 0 | spontaneous |
| ΔSuniv < 0 | ΔG > 0 | nonspontaneous |
| ΔSuniv = 0 | ΔG = 0 | at equilibrium |
What’s “Free” about ΔG?
In addition to indicating spontaneity, the free energy change also provides information regarding the amount of useful work (w) that may be accomplished by a spontaneous process. Although a rigorous treatment of this subject is beyond the scope of an introductory chemistry text, a brief discussion is helpful for gaining a better perspective on this important thermodynamic property.
For this purpose, consider a spontaneous, exothermic process that involves a decrease in entropy. The free energy, as defined by
may be interpreted as representing the difference between the energy produced by the process, ΔH, and the energy lost to the surroundings, TΔS. The difference between the energy produced and the energy lost is the energy available (or “free”) to do useful work by the process, ΔG. If the process somehow could be made to take place under conditions of thermodynamic reversibility, the amount of work that could be done would be maximal:
However, as noted previously in this chapter, such conditions are not realistic. In addition, the technologies used to extract work from a spontaneous process (e.g., automobile engine, steam turbine) are never 100% efficient, and so the work done by these processes is always less than the theoretical maximum. Similar reasoning may be applied to a nonspontaneous process, for which the free energy change represents the minimum amount of work that must be done on the system to carry out the process.
Calculating Free Energy Change
Free energy is a state function, so its value depends only on the conditions of the initial and final states of the system. A convenient and common approach to the calculation of free energy changes for physical and chemical reactions is by use of widely available compilations of standard state thermodynamic data. One method involves the use of standard enthalpies and entropies to compute standard free energy changes, ΔG°, according to the following relation:
Using Standard Enthalpy and Entropy Changes to Calculate ΔG°Use standard enthalpy and entropy data from Appendix G to calculate the standard free energy change for the vaporization of water at room temperature (298 K). What does the computed value for ΔG° say about the spontaneity of this process?
Solution The process of interest is the following:
The standard change in free energy may be calculated using the following equation:
From Appendix G:
| Substance | \(\text{Δ}{H}_{\text{f}}^{°}\text{(kJ/mol)}\) | \(S\text{°}\text{(J/K·mol)}\) |
|---|---|---|
| H2O(l) | −286.83 | 70.0 |
| H2O(g) | −241.82 | 188.8 |
Using the appendix data to calculate the standard enthalpy and entropy changes yields:
Substitution into the standard free energy equation yields:
At 298 K (25 °C) \(\text{Δ}G\text{°}>0,\) so boiling is nonspontaneous (not spontaneous).
Check Your Learning Use standard enthalpy and entropy data from Appendix G to calculate the standard free energy change for the reaction shown here (298 K). What does the computed value for ΔG° say about the spontaneity of this process?
\(\text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{102.0 kJ/mol};\) the reaction is nonspontaneous (not spontaneous) at 25 °C.
The standard free energy change for a reaction may also be calculated from standard free energy of formation ΔG°f values of the reactants and products involved in the reaction. The standard free energy of formation is the free energy change that accompanies the formation of one mole of a substance from its elements in their standard states. Similar to the standard enthalpy of formation, \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°}\) is by definition zero for elemental substances under standard state conditions. The approach used to calculate \(\text{Δ}{G}^{°}\) for a reaction from \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°}\) values is the same as that demonstrated previously for enthalpy and entropy changes. For the reaction
the standard free energy change at room temperature may be calculated as
Using Standard Free Energies of Formation to Calculate ΔG° Consider the decomposition of yellow mercury(II) oxide.
Calculate the standard free energy change at room temperature, \(\text{Δ}G\text{°},\) using (a) standard free energies of formation and (b) standard enthalpies of formation and standard entropies. Do the results indicate the reaction to be spontaneous or nonspontaneous under standard conditions?
Solution The required data are available in Appendix G and are shown here.
| Compound | \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{(kJ/mol)}\) | \(\text{Δ}{H}_{\text{f}}^{°}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{(kJ/mol)}\) | \(S\text{°}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{(J/K·mol)}\) |
|---|---|---|---|
| HgO (s, yellow) | −58.43 | −90.46 | 71.13 |
| Hg(l) | 0 | 0 | 75.9 |
| O2(g) | 0 | 0 | 205.2 |
(a) Using free energies of formation:
(b) Using enthalpies and entropies of formation:
Both ways to calculate the standard free energy change at 25 °C give the same numerical value (to three significant figures), and both predict that the process is nonspontaneous (not spontaneous) at room temperature.
Check Your Learning Calculate ΔG° using (a) free energies of formation and (b) enthalpies of formation and entropies (Appendix G). Do the results indicate the reaction to be spontaneous or nonspontaneous at 25 °C?
141.5 kJ/mol, nonspontaneous
Free Energy Changes for Coupled Reactions
The use of free energies of formation to compute free energy changes for reactions as described above is possible because ΔG is a state function, and the approach is analogous to the use of Hess’ Law in computing enthalpy changes (see the chapter on thermochemistry). Consider the vaporization of water as an example:
An equation representing this process may be derived by adding the formation reactions for the two phases of water (necessarily reversing the reaction for the liquid phase). The free energy change for the sum reaction is the sum of free energy changes for the two added reactions:
This approach may also be used in cases where a nonspontaneous reaction is enabled by coupling it to a spontaneous reaction. For example, the production of elemental zinc from zinc sulfide is thermodynamically unfavorable, as indicated by a positive value for ΔG°:
The industrial process for production of zinc from sulfidic ores involves coupling this decomposition reaction to the thermodynamically favorable oxidation of sulfur:
The coupled reaction exhibits a negative free energy change and is spontaneous:
This process is typically carried out at elevated temperatures, so this result obtained using standard free energy values is just an estimate. The gist of the calculation, however, holds true.
Calculating Free Energy Change for a Coupled Reaction Is a reaction coupling the decomposition of ZnS to the formation of H2S expected to be spontaneous under standard conditions?
SolutionFollowing the approach outlined above and using free energy values from Appendix G:
The coupled reaction exhibits a positive free energy change and is thus nonspontaneous.
Check Your Learning What is the standard free energy change for the reaction below? Is the reaction expected to be spontaneous under standard conditions?
–199.7 kJ; spontaneous
Key Concepts and Summary
Gibbs free energy (G) is a state function defined with regard to system quantities only and may be used to predict the spontaneity of a process. A number of approaches to the computation of free energy changes are possible.
Key Equations
- ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
- ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln Q
- ΔG° = −RT ln K
Chemistry End of Chapter Exercises
What is the difference between ΔG and ΔG° for a chemical change?
A reaction has \(\text{Δ}H\text{°}\) = 100 kJ/mol and \(\text{Δ}S\text{°}=\text{250 J/mol·K.}\) Is the reaction spontaneous at room temperature? If not, under what temperature conditions will it become spontaneous?
The reaction is nonspontaneous at room temperature.
Above 400 K, ΔG will become negative, and the reaction will become spontaneous.
Explain what happens as a reaction starts with ΔG < 0 (negative) and reaches the point where ΔG = 0.
Use the standard free energy of formation data in Appendix G to determine the free energy change for each of the following reactions, which are run under standard state conditions and 25 °C. Identify each as either spontaneous or nonspontaneous at these conditions.
(a) \({\text{MnO}}_{2}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Mn}\left(s\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(b) \({\text{H}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{Br}}_{2}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2HBr}\left(g\right)\)
(c) \(\text{Cu}\left(s\right)+\text{S}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{CuS}\left(s\right)\)
(d) \(\text{2LiOH}\left(s\right)+{\text{CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Li}}_{2}{\text{CO}}_{3}\left(s\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\)
(e) \({\text{CH}}_{4}\left(g\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{C}\left(s,\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{graphite}\right)+{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\)
(f) \({\text{CS}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{3Cl}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CCl}}_{4}\left(g\right)+{\text{S}}_{2}{\text{Cl}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(a) 465.1 kJ nonspontaneous; (b) −106.86 kJ spontaneous; (c) −53.6 kJ spontaneous; (d) −83.4 kJ spontaneous; (e) −406.7 kJ spontaneous; (f) −30.0 kJ spontaneous
Use the standard free energy data in Appendix G to determine the free energy change for each of the following reactions, which are run under standard state conditions and 25 °C. Identify each as either spontaneous or nonspontaneous at these conditions.
(a) \(\text{C}\left(s\text{, graphite}\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(b) \({\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{N}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2NO}\left(g\right)\)
(c) \(\text{2Cu}\left(s\right)+\text{S}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Cu}}_{2}\text{S}\left(s\right)\)
(d) \(\text{CaO}\left(s\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ca}{\left(\text{OH}\right)}_{2}\left(s\right)\)
(e) \({\text{Fe}}_{2}{\text{O}}_{3}\left(s\right)+\text{3CO}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2Fe}\left(s\right)+{\text{3CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(f) \({\text{CaSO}}_{4}\text{·}{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CaSO}}_{4}\left(s\right)+{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\)
Given:
\(\begin{array}{cccc}{\text{P}}_{4}\left(s\right)+{\text{5O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{P}}_{4}{\text{O}}_{10}\left(s\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−2697.0 kJ/mol}\hfill \\ {\text{2H}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−457.18 kJ/mol}\hfill \\ {\text{6H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)+{\text{P}}_{4}{\text{O}}_{10}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{4H}}_{3}{\text{PO}}_{4}\left(l\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−428.66 kJ/mol}\hfill \end{array}\)
(a) Determine the standard free energy of formation, \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°},\) for phosphoric acid.
(b) How does your calculated result compare to the value in Appendix G? Explain.
(a) The standard free energy of formation is –1124.3 kJ/mol. (b) The calculation agrees with the value in Appendix G because free energy is a state function (just like the enthalpy and entropy), so its change depends only on the initial and final states, not the path between them.
Is the formation of ozone (O3(g)) from oxygen (O2(g)) spontaneous at room temperature under standard state conditions?
Consider the decomposition of red mercury(II) oxide under standard state conditions.
\(\text{2HgO}\left(s,\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{red}\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2Hg}\left(l\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(a) Is the decomposition spontaneous under standard state conditions?
(b) Above what temperature does the reaction become spontaneous?
(a) The reaction is nonspontaneous; (b) Above 566 °C the process is spontaneous.
Among other things, an ideal fuel for the control thrusters of a space vehicle should decompose in a spontaneous exothermic reaction when exposed to the appropriate catalyst. Evaluate the following substances under standard state conditions as suitable candidates for fuels.
(a) Ammonia: \({\text{2NH}}_{3}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{N}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{3H}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(b) Diborane: \({\text{B}}_{2}{\text{H}}_{6}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2B}\left(g\right)+{\text{3H}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(c) Hydrazine: \({\text{N}}_{2}{\text{H}}_{4}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{N}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{2H}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(d) Hydrogen peroxide: \({\text{H}}_{2}{\text{O}}_{2}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)+\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{1}{2}{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
Calculate ΔG° for each of the following reactions from the equilibrium constant at the temperature given.
\(\begin{array}{ccccccc}\text{(a)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{N}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2NO}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=2000\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=4.1\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{\text{−4}}\hfill \\ \text{(b)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{I}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2HI}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=400\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=50.0\hfill \\ \text{(c)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{CO}\left(g\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=980\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=1.67\hfill \\ \text{(d)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CaCO}}_{3}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{CaO}\left(s\right)+{\text{CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=900\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=1.04\hfill \\ \text{(e)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{HF}\left(aq\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{3}{\text{O}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{F}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=25\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=7.2\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{\text{−4}}\hfill \\ \text{(f)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{AgBr}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{Br}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=25\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=3.3\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{\text{−13}}\hfill \end{array}\)
(a) 1.5 \(×\) 102 kJ; (b) −21.9 kJ; (c) −5.34 kJ; (d) −0.383 kJ; (e) 18 kJ; (f) 71 kJ
Calculate ΔG° for each of the following reactions from the equilibrium constant at the temperature given.
\(\begin{array}{ccccccc}\text{(a)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Cl}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{Br}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2BrCl}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=25\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=4.7\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{\text{−2}}\hfill \\ \text{(b)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2SO}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⇌\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2SO}}_{3}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=500\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=48.2\hfill \\ \text{(c)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⇌\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=60\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=\text{0.196 atm}\hfill \\ \text{(d)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{CoO}\left(s\right)+\text{CO}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⇌\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Co}\left(s\right)+{\text{CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=550\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=4.90\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{2}\hfill \\ \text{(e)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CH}}_{3}{\text{NH}}_{2}\left(aq\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{CH}}_{3}{\text{NH}}_{3}{}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{OH}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=25\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=4.4\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{\text{−4}}\hfill \\ \text{(f)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{PbI}}_{2}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Pb}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2I}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)\hfill & & & \text{T}=25\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{°C}\hfill & & & {K}_{p}=8.7\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{\text{−9}}\hfill \end{array}\)
Calculate the equilibrium constant at 25 °C for each of the following reactions from the value of ΔG° given.
\(\begin{array}{cccc}\text{(a)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{2F}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2OF}}_{2}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−9.2 kJ}\hfill \\ \text{(b)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{I}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{Br}}_{2}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2IBr}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{7.3 kJ}\hfill \\ \text{(c)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2LiOH}\left(s\right)+{\text{CO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Li}}_{2}{\text{CO}}_{3}\left(s\right)+{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−79 kJ}\hfill \\ \text{(d)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{N}}_{2}{\text{O}}_{3}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{NO}\left(g\right)+{\text{NO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−1.6 kJ}\hfill \\ \text{(e)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{SnCl}}_{4}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{SnCl}}_{4}\left(l\right)\hfill & & & \text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{8.0 kJ}\hfill \end{array}\)
(a) K = 41; (b) K = 0.053; (c) K = 6.9 \(×\) 1013; (d) K = 1.9; (e) K = 0.04
Determine ΔGº for the following reactions.
(a) Antimony pentachloride decomposes at 448 °C. The reaction is:
\({\text{SbCl}}_{5}\left(g\right)⟶{\text{SbCl}}_{3}\left(g\right)+{\text{Cl}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
An equilibrium mixture in a 5.00 L flask at 448 °C contains 3.85 g of SbCl5, 9.14 g of SbCl3, and 2.84 g of Cl2.
(b) Chlorine molecules dissociate according to this reaction:
\({\text{Cl}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}2\text{Cl}\left(g\right)\)
1.00% of Cl2 molecules dissociate at 975 K and a pressure of 1.00 atm.
(a) 22.1 kJ;
(b) 61.6 kJ/mol
Given that the \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°}\) for Pb2+(aq) and Cl−(aq) is −24.3 kJ/mole and −131.2 kJ/mole respectively, determine the solubility product, Ksp, for PbCl2(s).
Determine the standard free energy change, \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°},\) for the formation of S2−(aq) given that the \(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°}\) for Ag+(aq) and Ag2S(s) are 77.1 k/mole and −39.5 kJ/mole respectively, and the solubility product for Ag2S(s) is 8 \(×\) 10−51.
90 kJ/mol
Determine the standard enthalpy change, entropy change, and free energy change for the conversion of diamond to graphite. Discuss the spontaneity of the conversion with respect to the enthalpy and entropy changes. Explain why diamond spontaneously changing into graphite is not observed.
The evaporation of one mole of water at 298 K has a standard free energy change of 8.58 kJ.
\({\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⇌\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{5em}{0ex}}\text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{8.58 kJ}\)
(a) Is the evaporation of water under standard thermodynamic conditions spontaneous?
(b) Determine the equilibrium constant, KP, for this physical process.
(c) By calculating ∆G, determine if the evaporation of water at 298 K is spontaneous when the partial pressure of water, \({P}_{{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}},\) is 0.011 atm.
(d) If the evaporation of water were always nonspontaneous at room temperature, wet laundry would never dry when placed outside. In order for laundry to dry, what must be the value of \({P}_{{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}}\) in the air?
(a) Under standard thermodynamic conditions, the evaporation is nonspontaneous; (b) Kp = 0.031; (c) The evaporation of water is spontaneous; (d) \({P}_{{\text{H}}_{2}\text{O}}\) must always be less than Kp or less than 0.031 atm. 0.031 atm represents air saturated with water vapor at 25 °C, or 100% humidity.
In glycolysis, the reaction of glucose (Glu) to form glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) requires ATP to be present as described by the following equation:
\(\text{Glu}+\text{ATP}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{G6P}+\text{ADP}\phantom{\rule{5em}{0ex}}\text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−17 kJ}\)
In this process, ATP becomes ADP summarized by the following equation:
\(\text{ATP}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{ADP}\phantom{\rule{5em}{0ex}}\text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{−30 kJ}\)
Determine the standard free energy change for the following reaction, and explain why ATP is necessary to drive this process:
\(\text{Glu}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{G6P}\phantom{\rule{5em}{0ex}}\text{Δ}G\text{°}=?\)
One of the important reactions in the biochemical pathway glycolysis is the reaction of glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) to form fructose-6-phosphate (F6P):
\(\text{G6P}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⇌\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{F6P}\phantom{\rule{5em}{0ex}}\text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{1.7 kJ}\)
(a) Is the reaction spontaneous or nonspontaneous under standard thermodynamic conditions?
(b) Standard thermodynamic conditions imply the concentrations of G6P and F6P to be 1 M, however, in a typical cell, they are not even close to these values. Calculate ΔG when the concentrations of G6P and F6P are 120 μM and 28 μM respectively, and discuss the spontaneity of the forward reaction under these conditions. Assume the temperature is 37 °C.
(a) Nonspontaneous as \(\text{Δ}G\text{°}>0;\) (b) \(\text{Δ}G\text{°}=\text{Δ}{G}^{°}\text{+}RT\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{ln}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}Q,\) \(\text{Δ}G=1.7\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{3}+\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\left(8.314\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}335\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{ln}\phantom{\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}\frac{28}{128}\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}=\text{−2.5 kJ}.\) The forward reaction to produce F6P is spontaneous under these conditions.
Without doing a numerical calculation, determine which of the following will reduce the free energy change for the reaction, that is, make it less positive or more negative, when the temperature is increased. Explain.
(a) \({\text{N}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{3H}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2NH}}_{3}\left(g\right)\)
(b) \(\text{HCl}\left(g\right)+{\text{NH}}_{3}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{NH}}_{4}\text{Cl}\left(s\right)\)
(c) \({\left({\text{NH}}_{4}\right)}_{2}{\text{Cr}}_{2}{\text{O}}_{7}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Cr}}_{2}{\text{O}}_{3}\left(s\right)+{\text{4H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(g\right)+{\text{N}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(d) \(\text{2Fe}\left(s\right)+{\text{3O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Fe}}_{2}{\text{O}}_{3}\left(s\right)\)
When ammonium chloride is added to water and stirred, it dissolves spontaneously and the resulting solution feels cold. Without doing any calculations, deduce the signs of ΔG, ΔH, and ΔS for this process, and justify your choices.
ΔG is negative as the process is spontaneous. ΔH is positive as with the solution becoming cold, the dissolving must be endothermic. ΔS must be positive as this drives the process, and it is expected for the dissolution of any soluble ionic compound.
An important source of copper is from the copper ore, chalcocite, a form of copper(I) sulfide. When heated, the Cu2S decomposes to form copper and sulfur described by the following equation:
\({\text{Cu}}_{2}\text{S}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Cu}\left(s\right)+\text{S}\left(s\right)\)
(a) Determine \(\text{Δ}G\text{°}\) for the decomposition of Cu2S(s).
(b) The reaction of sulfur with oxygen yields sulfur dioxide as the only product. Write an equation that describes this reaction, and determine \(\text{Δ}G\text{°}\) for the process.
(c) The production of copper from chalcocite is performed by roasting the Cu2S in air to produce the Cu. By combining the equations from Parts (a) and (b), write the equation that describes the roasting of the chalcocite, and explain why coupling these reactions together makes for a more efficient process for the production of the copper.
What happens to \(\text{Δ}G\text{°}\) (becomes more negative or more positive) for the following chemical reactions when the partial pressure of oxygen is increased?
(a) \(\text{S}\left(s\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{SO}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(b) \({\text{2SO}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{SO}}_{3}\left(g\right)\)
(c) \(\text{HgO}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Hg}\left(l\right)+{\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)\)
(a) Increasing \({P}_{{\text{O}}_{\text{2}}}\) will shift the equilibrium toward the products, which increases the value of K. ΔG° therefore becomes more negative.
(b) Increasing \({P}_{{\text{O}}_{\text{2}}}\) will shift the equilibrium toward the products, which increases the value of K. ΔG° therefore becomes more negative.
(c) Increasing \({P}_{{\text{O}}_{\text{2}}}\) will shift the equilibrium the reactants, which decreases the value of K. ΔG° therefore becomes more positive.
Glossary
- Gibbs free energy change (G)
- thermodynamic property defined in terms of system enthalpy and entropy; all spontaneous processes involve a decrease in G
- standard free energy change (ΔG°)
- change in free energy for a process occurring under standard conditions (1 bar pressure for gases, 1 M concentration for solutions)
- standard free energy of formation \(\left(\text{Δ}{G}_{\text{f}}^{°}\right)\)
- change in free energy accompanying the formation of one mole of substance from its elements in their standard states


Their Eyes Were Watching God
Chapter 18
Since Tea Cake and Janie had friended with the Bahaman workers in the ’Glades, they, the “Saws,” had been gradually drawn into the American crowd. They quit hiding out to hold their dances when they found that their American friends didn’t laugh at them as they feared. Many of the Americans learned to jump and liked it as much as the “Saws.” So they began to hold dances night after night in the quarters, usually behind Tea Cake’s house. Often now, Tea Cake and Janie stayed up so late at the fire dances that Tea Cake would not let her go with him to the field. He wanted her to get her rest.
So she was home by herself one afternoon when she saw a band of Seminoles passing by. The men walking in front and the laden, stolid women following them like burros. She had seen Indians several times in the ’Glades, in twos and threes, but this was a large party. They were headed towards the Palm Beach road and kept moving steadily. About an hour later another party appeared and went the same way. Then another just before sundown. This time she asked where they were all going and at last one of the men answered her.
“Going to high ground. Saw-grass bloom. Hurricane coming.”
Everybody was talking about it that night. But nobody was worried. The fire dance kept up till nearly dawn. The next day, more Indians moved east, unhurried but steady. Still a blue sky and fair weather. Beans running fine and prices good, so the Indians could be, must be, wrong. You couldn’t have a hurricane when you’re making seven and eight dollars a day picking beans.  Another night of Stew Beef making dynamic subtleties with his drum and living, sculptural, grotesques in the dance. Next day, no Indians passed at all. It was hot and sultry and Janie left the field and went home.
Morning came without motion. The winds, to the tiniest, lisping baby breath had left the earth. Even before the sun gave light, dead day was creeping from bush to bush watching man.
Some rabbits scurried through the quarters going east. Some possums slunk by and their route was definite. One or two at a time, then more. By the time the people left the fields the procession was constant. Snakes, rattlesnakes began to cross the quarters. The men killed a few, but they could not be missed from the crawling horde. People stayed indoors until daylight. Several times during the night Janie heard the snort of big animals like deer. Once the muted voice of a panther. Going east and east. That night the palm and banana trees began that long distance talk with rain. Several people took fright and picked up and went in to Palm Beach anyway. A thousand buzzards held a flying-meet and then went above the clouds and stayed.
 Tea Cake came out throwin’ laughter over his shoulder into the house.
“Hello Tea Cake.”
“Hello ’Lias. You leavin’, Ah see.”
“Yeah man. You and Janie wanta go?  But we ’bout decided tuh stay.”
“De crow gahn up, man.”
“Dat ain’t nothin’. You ain’t seen de bossman go up, is yuh? Well all right now. Man, de money’s too good on the muck. It’s liable tuh fair off by tuhmorrer. Ah wouldn’t leave if Ah wuz you.”
“Mah uncle come for me. He say hurricane warning out in Palm Beach. Not so bad dere, but man, dis muck is too low and dat big lake is liable tuh bust.”
“Ah naw, man. Some boys in dere now talkin’ ’bout it. Some of ’em been in de ’Glades fuh years. ’Tain’t nothin’ but uh lil blow. You’ll lose de whole day tuhmorrer tryin’ tuh git back out heah.”
“De Indians gahn east, man. It’s dangerous.”
“Dey don’t always know. Indians don’t know much uh nothin’, tuh tell de truth. Else dey’d own dis country still. De white folks ain’t gone nowhere. Dey oughta know if it’s dangerous. You better stay heah, man. Big jumpin’ dance tuhnight right heah, when it fair off.”
’Lias hesitated and started to climb out, but his uncle wouldn’t let him.  ’Lias waved back to them gaily.
“If Ah never see you no mo’ on earth, Ah’ll meet you in Africa.”
Others hurried east like the Indians and rabbits and snakes and coons. But the majority sat around laughing and waiting for the sun to get friendly again.
Several men collected at Tea Cake’s house and sat around stuffing courage into each other’s ears. Janie baked a big pan of beans and something she called sweet biscuits and they all managed to be happy enough.
Most of the great flame-throwers were there and naturally, handling Big John de Conquer and his works. How he had done everything big on earth, then went up tuh heben without dying atall. Went up there picking a guitar and got all de angels doing the ring-shout round and round de throne. Then everybody but God and Old Peter flew off on a flying race to Jericho and back and John de Conquer won the race; went on down to hell, beat the old devil and passed out ice water to everybody down there. Somebody tried to say that it was a mouth organ harp that John was playing, but the rest of them would not hear that. Don’t care how good anybody could play a harp, God would rather to hear a guitar. That brought them back to Tea Cake.  Well, all right now, make us know it.
When it got good to everybody, Muck-Boy woke up and began to chant with the rhythm and everybody bore down on the last word of the line:
<!– rend=’;’ –>
Yo’ mama don’t wear no Draws
Ah seen her when she took ’em Off
She soaked ’em in alcoHol
She sold ’em tuh de Santy Claus
He told her ’twas aginst de Law
To wear dem dirty Draws
<!– end poetry block –><!– end rend –>
Then Muck-Boy went crazy through the feet and danced himself and everybody else crazy. When he finished he sat back down on the floor and went to sleep again. Then they got to playing Florida flip and coon-can. Then it was dice. Not for money. This was a show-off game. Everybody posing his fancy shots. As always it broiled down to Tea Cake and Motor Boat.  The others forgot the work and the weather watching them throw. It was art. A thousand dollars a throw in Madison Square Garden wouldn’t have gotten any more breathless suspense. It would have just been more people holding in.
After a while somebody looked out and said, “It ain’t gitting no fairer out dere. B’lieve Ah’ll git on over tah mah shack.” Motor Boat and Tea Cake were still playing so everybody left them at it.
Sometime that night the winds came back. Everything in the world had a strong rattle, sharp and short like Stew Beef vibrating the drum head near the edge with his fingers. By morning Gabriel was playing the deep tones in the center of the drum. So when Janie looked out of her door she saw the drifting mists gathered in the west—that cloud field of the sky—to arm themselves with thunders and march forth against the world. Louder and higher and lower and wider the sound and motion spread, mounting, sinking, darking.
It woke up old Okechobee and the monster began to roll in his bed. Began to roll and complain like a peevish world on a grumble. The folks in the quarters and the people in the big houses further around the shore heard the big lake and wondered. The people felt uncomfortable but safe because there were the seawalls to chain the senseless monster in his bed. The folks let the people do the thinking. If the castles thought themselves secure, the cabins needn’t worry. Their decision was already made as always. Chink up your cracks, shiver in your wet beds and wait on the mercy of the Lord. The bossman might have the thing stopped before morning anyway. It is so easy to be hopeful in the day time when you can see the things you wish on. But it was night, it stayed night. Night was striding across nothingness with the whole round world in his hands.
A big burst of thunder and lightning that trampled over the roof of the house. So Tea Cake and Motor stopped playing. Motor looked up in his angel-looking way and said, “Big Massa draw him chair upstairs.”
“Ah’m glad y’all stop dat crap-shootin’ even if it wasn’t for money,” Janie said. “Ole Massa is doin’ His work now. Us oughta keep quiet.”
They huddled closer and stared at the door. They just didn’t use another part of their bodies, and they didn’t look at anything but the door. The time was past for asking the white folks what to look for through that door. Six eyes were questioning God.
Through the screaming wind they heard things crashing and things hurtling and dashing with unbelievable velocity. A baby rabbit, terror ridden, squirmed through a hole in the floor and squatted off there in the shadows against the wall, seeming to know that nobody wanted its flesh at such a time. And the lake got madder and madder with only its dikes between them and him.
In a little wind-lull, Tea Cake touched Janie and said, “Ah reckon you wish now you had of stayed in yo’ big house ’way from such as dis, don’t yuh?”
“Naw.”
“Naw?”
“Yeah, naw.  Ah’m wid mah husband in uh storm, dat’s all.”
“Thanky, Ma’am. But ’sposing you wuz tuh die, now.  We been tuhgether round two years.  It’s so many people never seen de light at all. Ah wuz fumblin’ round and God opened de door.”
He dropped to the floor and put his head in her lap. “Well then, Janie, you meant whut you didn’t say, ’cause Ah never knowed you wuz so satisfied wid me lak dat. Ah kinda thought—”
The wind came back with triple fury, and put out the light for the last time. They sat in company with the others in other shanties, their eyes straining against crude walls and their souls asking if He meant to measure their puny might against His. They seemed to be staring at the dark, but their eyes were watching God.
As soon as Tea Cake went out pushing wind in front of him, he saw that the wind and water had given life to lots of things that folks think of as dead and given death to so much that had been living things. Water everywhere. Stray fish swimming in the yard. Three inches more and the water would be in the house. Already in some. He decided to try to find a car to take them out of the ’Glades before worse things happened. He turned back to tell Janie about it so she could be ready to go.
“Git our insurance papers tuhgether, Janie. Ah’ll tote mah box mahself and things lak dat.”
“You got all de money out de dresser drawer, already?”
“Naw, git it quick and cut up piece off de table-cloth tuh wrap it up in. Us liable tuh git wet tuh our necks. Cut uh piece uh dat oilcloth quick fuh our papers. We got tuh go, if it ain’t too late. De dish can’t bear it out no longer.”
He snatched the oilcloth off the table and took out his knife. Janie held it straight while he slashed off a strip.
“But Tea Cake, it’s too awful out dere. Maybe it’s better tuh stay heah in de wet than it is tuh try tuh—”
He stunned the argument with half a word. “Fix,” he said and fought his way outside. He had seen more than Janie had.
Janie took a big needle and ran up a longish sack. Found some newspaper and wrapped up the paper money and papers and thrust them in and whipped over the open end with her needle. Before she could get it thoroughly hidden in the pocket of her overalls, Tea Cake burst in again.
“ ’Tain’t no cars, Janie.”
“Ah thought not! Whut we gointuh do now?”
“We got tuh walk.”
“In all dis weather, Tea Cake? Ah don’t b’lieve Ah could make it out de quarters.”
“Oh yeah you kin. Me and you and Motor Boat kin all lock arms and hold one ’nother down. Eh, Motor?”
“He’s sleep on de bed in yonder,” Janie said. Tea Cake called without moving.
“Motor Boat! You better git up from dere! Hell done broke loose in Georgy. Dis minute! How kin you sleep at uh time lak dis? Water knee-deep in de yard.”
They stepped out in water almost to their buttocks and managed to turn east. Tea Cake had to throw his box away, and Janie saw how it hurt him. Dodging flying missiles, floating dangers, avoiding stepping in holes and warmed on the wind now at their backs until they gained comparatively dry land. They had to fight to keep from being pushed the wrong way and to hold together. They saw other people like themselves struggling along. A house down, here and there, frightened cattle. But above all the drive of the wind and the water. And the lake. Under its multiplied roar could be heard a mighty sound of grinding rock and timber and a wail. They looked back. Saw people trying to run in raging waters and screaming when they found they couldn’t. A huge barrier of the makings of the dike to which the cabins had been added was rolling and tumbling forward. Ten feet higher and as far as they could see the muttering wall advanced before the braced-up waters like a road crusher on a cosmic scale. The monstropolous beast had left his bed. The two hundred miles an hour wind had loosed his chains. He seized hold of his dikes and ran forward until he met the quarters; uprooted them like grass and rushed on after his supposed-to-be conquerors, rolling the dikes, rolling the houses, rolling the people in the houses along with other timbers. The sea was walking the earth with a heavy heel.
“De lake is comin’!” Tea Cake gasped.
“De lake!” In amazed horror from Motor Boat, “De lake!”
“It’s comin’ behind us!” Janie shuddered. “Us can’t fly.”
“But we still kin run,” Tea Cake shouted and they ran. The gushing water ran faster. The great body was held back, but rivers spouted through fissures in the rolling wall and broke like day. The three fugitives ran past another line of shanties that topped a slight rise and gained a little. They cried out as best they could, “De lake is comin’!” and barred doors flew open and others joined them in flight crying the same as they went. “De lake is comin’!” and the pursuing waters growled and shouted ahead, “Yes, Ah’m comin’!”, and those who could fled on.
They made it to a tall house on a hump of ground and Janie said, “Less stop heah. Ah can’t make it no further. Ah’m done give out.”
“All of us is done give out,” Tea Cake corrected.  He knocked with the handle of his knife, while they leaned their faces and shoulders against the wall. He knocked once more then he and Motor Boat went round to the back and forced a door. Nobody there.
“Dese people had mo’ sense than Ah did,” Tea Cake said as they dropped to the floor and lay there panting. “Us oughta went on wid ’Lias lak he ast me.”
“You didn’t know,” Janie contended. “And when yuh don’t know, yuh just don’t know. De storms might not of come sho nuff.”
They went to sleep promptly but Janie woke up first. She heard the sound of rushing water and sat up.
“Tea Cake! Motor Boat! De lake is comin’!”
The lake was coming on. Slower and wider, but coming. It had trampled on most of its supporting wall and lowered its front by spreading. But it came muttering and grumbling onward like a tired mammoth just the same.
“Dis is uh high tall house. Maybe it won’t reach heah at all,” Janie counseled. “And if it do, maybe it won’t reach tuh de upstairs part.”
“Janie, Lake Okechobee is forty miles wide and sixty miles long. Dat’s uh whole heap uh water. If dis wind is shovin’ dat whole lake disa way, dis house ain’t nothin’ tuh swaller. Us better go.  Listen! You kin hear it way off.”
“It kin jus’ come on. Ah’ll wait right here.”
“Aw, get up, Motor Boat! Less make it tuh de Palm Beach road. Dat’s on uh fill. We’se pretty safe dere.”
“Ah’m safe here, man. Go ahead if yuh wants to. Ah’m sleepy.”
“Whut you gointuh do if de lake reach heah?”
“Go upstairs.”
“S’posing it come up dere?”
“Swim, man. Dat’s all.”
“Well, uh, Good bye, Motor Boat. Everything is pretty bad, yuh know. Us might git missed of one ’nother. You sho is a grand friend fuh uh man tuh have.”
“Good bye, Tea Cake. Y’all oughta stay here and sleep, man. No use in goin’ off and leavin’ me lak dis.”
“We don’t wanta. Come on wid us. It might be night time when de water hem you up in heah. Dat’s how come Ah won’t stay. Come on, man.”
“Tea Cake, Ah got tuh have mah sleep. Definitely.”
“Good bye, then, Motor. Ah wish you all de luck. Goin’ over tuh Nassau fuh dat visit widja when all dis is over.”
“Definitely, Tea Cake. Mah mama’s house is yours.”
Tea Cake and Janie were some distance from the house before they struck serious water. Then they had to swim a distance, and Janie could not hold up more than a few strokes at a time, so Tea Cake bore her up till finally they hit a ridge that led on towards the fill. It seemed to him the wind was weakening a little so he kept looking for a place to rest and catch his breath. His wind was gone. Janie was tired and limping, but she had not had to do that hard swimming in the turbulent waters, so Tea Cake was much worse off. But they couldn’t stop. Gaining the fill was something but it was no guarantee. The lake was coming. They had to reach the six-mile bridge. It was high and safe perhaps.
Everybody was walking the fill. Hurrying, dragging, falling, crying, calling out names hopefully and hopelessly. Wind and rain beating on old folks and beating on babies. Tea Cake stumbled once or twice in his weariness and Janie held him up. So they reached the bridge at Six Mile Bend and thought to rest.
But it was crowded. White people had preempted that point of elevation and there was no more room. They could climb up one of its high sides and down the other, that was all. Miles further on, still no rest.
They passed a dead man in a sitting position on a hummock, entirely surrounded by wild animals and snakes. Common danger made common friends. Nothing sought a conquest over the other.
Another man clung to a cypress tree on a tiny island. A tin roof of a building hung from the branches by electric wires and the wind swung it back and forth like a mighty ax. The man dared not move a step to his right lest this crushing blade split him open. He dared not step left for a large rattlesnake was stretched full length with his head in the wind. There was a strip of water between the island and the fill, and the man clung to the tree and cried for help.
“De snake won’t bite yuh,” Tea Cake yelled to him. “He skeered tuh go intuh uh coil. Skeered he’ll be blowed away. Step round dat side and swim off!”
Soon after that Tea Cake felt he couldn’t walk anymore. Not right away. So he stretched long side of the road to rest. Janie spread herself between him and the wind and he closed his eyes and let the tiredness seep out of his limbs. On each side of the fill was a great expanse of water like lakes—water full of things living and dead. Things that didn’t belong in water. As far as the eye could reach, water and wind playing upon it in fury. A large piece of tar-paper roofing sailed through the air and scudded along the fill until it hung against a tree. Janie saw it with joy. That was the very thing to cover Tea Cake with. She could lean against it and hold it down. The wind wasn’t quite so bad as it was anyway. The very thing. Poor Tea Cake!
She crept on hands and knees to the piece of roofing and caught hold of it by either side. Immediately the wind lifted both of them and she saw herself sailing off the fill to the right, out and out over the lashing water. She screamed terribly and released the roofing which sailed away as she plunged downward into the water.
“Tea Cake!” He heard her and sprang up. Janie was trying to swim but fighting water too hard. He saw a cow swimming slowly towards the fill in an oblique line. A massive built dog was sitting on her shoulders and shivering and growling. The cow was approaching Janie. A few strokes would bring her there.
“Make it tuh de cow and grab hold of her tail! Don’t use yo’ feet. Jus’ yo’ hands is enough. Dat’s right, come on!”
Janie achieved the tail of the cow and lifted her head up along the cow’s rump, as far as she could above water. The cow sunk a little with the added load and thrashed a moment in terror. Thought she was being pulled down by a gator. Then she continued on. The dog stood up and growled like a lion, stiff-standing hackles, stiff muscles, teeth uncovered as he lashed up his fury for the charge. Tea Cake split the water like an otter, opening his knife as he dived. The dog raced down the backbone of the cow to the attack and Janie screamed and slipped far back on the tail of the cow, just out of reach of the dog’s angry jaws. He wanted to plunge in after her but dreaded the water, somehow. Tea Cake rose out of the water at the cow’s rump and seized the dog by the neck. But he was a powerful dog and Tea Cake was over-tired.  But the dog couldn’t free himself either. They fought and somehow he managed to bite Tea Cake high up on his cheek-bone once. Then Tea Cake finished him and sent him to the bottom to stay there. The cow relieved of a great weight was landing on the fill with Janie before Tea Cake stroked in and crawled weakly upon the fill again.
  Yuh can’t buy eyes in de store, yuh know.” He flopped to the edge of the fill as if the storm wasn’t going on at all. “Lemme rest awhile, then us got tuh make it on intuh town somehow.”
It was next day by the sun and the clock when they reached Palm Beach. It was years later by their bodies. Winters and winters of hardship and suffering. The wheel kept turning round and round. Hope, hopelessness and despair. But the storm blew itself out as they approached the city of refuge.
Havoc was there with her mouth wide open. Back in the Everglades the wind had romped among lakes and trees. In the city it had raged among houses and men. Tea Cake and Janie stood on the edge of things and looked over the desolation.
“How kin Ah find uh doctor fuh yo’ face in all dis mess?” Janie wailed.
“Ain’t got de damn doctor tuh study ’bout. Us needs uh place tuh rest.”
A great deal of their money and perseverance and they found a place to sleep. It was just that. No place to live at all. Just sleep. Tea Cake looked all around and sat heavily on the side of the bed.
 But you come ’long and made somethin’ outa me. So Ah’m thankful fuh anything we come through together.”
“Thanky, Ma’am.”
“You was twice noble tuh save me from dat dawg. Tea Cake, Ah don’t speck you seen his eyes lak Ah did. He didn’t aim tuh jus’ bite me, Tea Cake.  Ah’m never tuh fuhgit dem eyes. He wuzn’t nothin’ all over but pure hate. Wonder where he come from?”
“Yeah, Ah did see ’im too. It wuz frightenin’. Ah didn’t mean tuh take his hate neither.  Mah switch-blade said it wuz him.”
“Po’ me, he’d tore me tuh pieces, if it wuzn’t fuh you, honey.”
“You don’t have tuh say, if it wuzn’t fuh me, baby, cause Ah’m heah, and then Ah want yuh tuh know it’s uh man heah.”


Use the Editor
Create and Edit Tables
Displaying content in tables allows you to present complex information in a clear and accessible way. Information structured in a table is shown to enhance understanding and retention.
Pressbooks allows you to create and display information in tabular form, and to choose table styles that display your information in an attractive way in your webbook, ebook, and PDF exports.
Create a Table
- In the visual editor, click > Table.
- Select the number of columns and rows via the grid.
✔ A table is inserted in the visual editor.
Add or Remove Rows and Columns
Once you’ve inserted a table in your book, you can use the Table tool to edit cell, row and column properties; merge and split cells; add and remove rows and columns; and cut, copy, and paste rows.
To add a row:
- Click into the row before or after which you want to add a row.
- Click > Row.
- Click Insert row before or Insert row after.
To add a column:
- Click into the column before or after which you want to add a row.
- Click > Column.
- Click Insert column before or Insert column after.
To remove a row:
- Click into the row you want to remove.
- Click > Row.
- Click Delete row.
To remove a column:
- Click into the column you want to remove.
- Click > Column.
- Click Delete column.
Change the Table’s Appearance
You can change a table’s appearance by editing the table’s properties. You can apply one of several predefined styles (classes) to your table, adjust its width and height, adjust the cell padding and cell spacing, increase or decrease border weights, and add table captions.
Define a Header Row
Defining a header row for your table will make that row distinct from other rows. Should the table take up more than one page in a PDF, the header row will be repeated on the second page.
To designate a row as the table header:
- Click into the row you want to be the header.
- Click > Row > Table row properties.
- In the Row type dropdown, click Header.
- Click OK.
Apply Preset Styles
There are a number of classes (preset styles) available to assign to a table:
- Standard
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- Standard Lanscape*
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- Lines Landscape*
- Shaded Landscape*
- Full Grid Landscape*
Note: Landscape table lasses (denoted with an asterisk *) will only appear landscape in PDF format. They will display in portrait format in the ebook and webbook versions of your book.
| Apple | Banana |
| Carrot | Date |
| Apple | Banana |
| Carrot | Date |
| Apple | Banana |
| Carrot | Date |
| Apple | Banana |
| Carrot | Date |
| Apple | Banana |
| Carrot | Date |
To apply a preset style to your table:
- Click into the table you want format.
- Click > Table properties.
- In the Class dropdown, select the class of your choice.
- Click OK.
Adjust Table Width and Height
The width of your table can be set as a percentage or pixel value. Tables with percentage widths will be responsive to the size of their container, while tables with pixel widths will be will be fixed. By default, the width of your table will be set at 100%. This means that the table will take up the entire width of its parent element (typically, the page) and end at the left and right margins. You can increase or decrease your table’s width by changing the percentage or pixel value.
⚠ Table width and height apply to all formats of your book. If you set your table width in pixels, your table might spill over your PDF page.
Table height can only be expressed in pixels. If you attempt to set a height value that is too small for the number of rows in that table, your value will be replaced by a safe default. If you increase the table height, the height will be distributed equally to all rows, unless row heights have been specified separately.
Add a Table Caption
To add a caption to your table:
- Click into the table you want format.
- Click > Table properties.
- Select Caption.
- Click OK.
✔ A blank space appears above your table. - Click in this space and type your table caption.
Table captions will display below your table in your Pressbooks webbook and above the table in ebook and PDF export files.
Make Your Table Accessible
Tables need a properly defined structure to be accessible.[1] This means adding row and column headers to define the different sections of table contents. Screen readers read tables horizontally—cell by cell, row by row—and row and column headers help give context to the data in each cell.
To create column headers:
- In your table, select all the cells in the first row.
- Click > Cell > Table cell properties.
- In the Cell type dropdown, click Header Cell.
- In the Scope dropdown, click Column.
- Click OK.
If your table has row headers:
- In your table, select all cells that will be row headers.
This should be all cells in the first column of your table, except for the cell in the first row, which has already been marked as a column header. - Click > Cell > Table cell properties.
- In the Cell type dropdown, click Header Cell.
- In the Scope dropdown, click Row.
- Click OK.
Delete a Table
- In the visual editor, click anywhere inside the table
- Click the Table menu in the editor toolbar
- Click Delete table
Create Interactive Tables with TablePress
TablePress is a plugin that allows you to build dynamic, interactive tables which can be sorted, filtered, and searched in the webbook. These tables are exported as static tables in EPUB and PDF exports.
TablePress also allows you to import CSV, HTML, JSON, XLS, or XLSX files and convert their tabular data into TablePress tables and export tables you’ve created to your device as CSV, HTML, or JSON files.
Activate the TablePress plugin
In order to create these tables, the TablePress plugin must be installed on your network and activated in your book. If your network allows book admins to activate installed plugins in their books, you can do so by clicking Plugins from the left sidebar menu, and activating TablePress from the plugins list. If you do not see the Plugins menu item or the TablePress plugin, contact your network manager.
Once TablePress has been activated, you should see a TablePress item in your left sidebar menu.
Create a table with TablePress
To create a table with TablePress:
- Click TablePress > Add New Table from the book dashboard menu.
- Type a table name and (optional) a description of the table, then select the number of rows and columns you’d like your table to have.
- Click Add Table.
The edit page for the newly created table opens. - Add content to the cells of your table.
- Configure your table as desired using the Table Manipulation, Table Options, and Features boxes.
- The Table Manipulation box allows you to insert links and images into cells and to edit cells with the Advanced Editor. You can combine cells or rows (use with caution as this reduces the table’s accessibility). You can choose which rows or columns to hide and you can duplicate, insert or delete rows.
- The Table Options box has options to designate a table head row and/or a table foot row, to display alternating row background colors, to highlight a row the mouse hovers over, to display the table name above or below the table, to show the table description above or below the table, and to add additional CSS classes for the table.
- The Features of the DataTables JavaScript library box offers the option to use the DataTables JavaScript library with the table. If activated, sorting, search/filtering, pagination, information display and horizontal scrolling options become available. The box also allows you to add custom commands.
- Scroll to the bottom and click Save Changes.
Add TablePress Tables to a Chapter
All TablePress tables will be given a shortcode upon creation. These shortcodes follow a predictable pattern: [table id=<ID> /]
where <ID> is the number of a particular table (IDs are assigned to tables in the order of their creation within your book). To insert a TablePress table into a chapter:
- Click TablePress > All Tables and find the table you’d like to place in the chapter.
- Hover over the title of your table, then click Show Shortcode.
A window with the shortcode will pop up. - Copy the shortcode and click OK.
- Navigate to the chapter where you want the table to appear.
- Past the shortcode into the visual editor.
- Click Save.
The table won’t display in your visual editor; you’ll just see the shortcode. However, the table will appear in your webbook when you preview or view the chapter.
- These instructions are adapted from the Accessibility Toolkit - 2nd Edition by Amanda Coolidge; Sue Doner; Tara Robertson; and Josie Gray. In the chapter on Tables you can find additional information on how to improve your table's accessibility. ↵


7.5 Women’s Organizations and Reform
Melanie Buddle, Department of History, Trent University
Beginning in the 1870s, a number of women’s organizations and clubs formed locally, nationally, and internationally. Some, such as the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), which opened a Canadian branch in 1870, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), which opened its first Canadian branch in 1874, and the National Council of Women of Canada (NCWC), which formed in 1893, were Canadian affiliates of international women’s organizations. These and other women’s groups formed during a period of huge social upheaval. At the end of the 19th century, industrialization, urbanization, and increased immigration led some women to take public action against social ills that seemed to threaten traditional family life. They felt that the way to protect women and children was to protest the evils of alcohol and attendant evils, such as prostitution, poverty, and poor working conditions amongst the lower classes. The WCTU campaigned first and foremost for temperance (limiting the use of alcohol and encouraging sobriety) and prohibition (laws to ban alcohol entirely) because they blamed alcohol for social problems, such as poverty, immorality, and prostitution. Other groups had different mandates (education, working conditions for women, and philanthropy), but addressed the same social ills.
Inside meetings of literary clubs, temperance societies, and Christian associations, women critiqued the political and educational limitations of womanhood but were careful to maintain the conventions of their time. Many maintained a mandate to support families, children, and womanly arts, and praised the conventional roles of women. This was an effective strategy, as it was not particularly threatening to Canadian society at the time: men voted and worked, and women were responsible for children and domestic labour — although this was changing as more women were joining the paid labour force.
The WCTU shared features with other women’s groups that formed during this period: a focus on Christian values and on protecting women, children, and the less fortunate. These ideals formed what historians call the “Social Gospel”: a Christian-influenced approach that brought an evangelical fervour to public reform (see Section 7.6).[1] Emerging women’s clubs shared another feature: a growing commitment to a larger public and political role for women, including steps toward women’s voting rights. Some were more tentative than others in moving toward women’s rights to the vote (suffrage) but by the early 1900s many discussed it. These groups provided a discursive space for women to talk about issues ranging from education, temperance, domestic arts and social reform, to arts and crafts and literature — and sometimes, female suffrage.
The NCWC, a national umbrella organization for women’s groups, formed 20 years after the WCTU arrived in Canada, and became an affiliate of the International Council of Women. Led by Lady Aberdeen (1857-1939), wife of the Governor General, its first member was the Women’s Art Association of Canada. Adelaide Hoodless (1857-1910), a prominent social reformer who would be influential in the Canadian YWCA, co-founded the NCWC. The NCWC had a mandate to improve the status of women, and social conditions for women and children, but initially stopped short of supporting female suffrage. Interestingly, the WCTU influenced its formation but refused to join because the NCWC was not religious enough. Yet in 1888, the WCTU was the first large women’s group to specifically support suffrage. The NCWC did not specifically endorse women’s rights to vote until 1910, and many of their member organizations, including some of the local Councils of Women across the country, did not endorse, and even opposed, women’s suffrage.[2] Thus we see a mix of radicalism and conservatism in many early women’s groups.
Other women’s organizations appeared in this fertile period. On the surface, national and local women’s groups such as the Canadian Women’s Press Club (1904), the Women’s Art Association of Canada (1892), the YWCA (1870; Canada-wide in 1893), the Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire (IODE, 1900), and the Toronto Women’s Literary Club (1876) appeared devoted to artistic, educational, and professional or business pursuits. Many promoted service to girls and women, such as the YWCA, which emphasized the temporal, religious, and moral welfare of young women.[3] But even outwardly more conservative groups such as the IODE (which resisted suffrage and focused on patriotism, education and philanthropy) could become vehicles of social and political change. The Toronto Literary Club was the first to publicly move in this direction, changing its name to the Canadian Women’s Suffrage Association, and becoming the first Canadian group with suffrage as its main aim.[4] Clubs could be screens for political action, and supporters of female suffrage were inevitably involved in one or more of the other women’s organizations, even those that did not focus on suffrage. The Canadian Women’s Press Club included female novelists, newspaper editors, and reporters and its early members included Nellie McClung (1873-1951) and Emily Murphy (1868-1933), who were prominent social reformers and suffragists. And the very fact that women were organizing and reaching out in a public way, regardless of the professed mandate or cause, was in itself a radical move for women.
While working-class women also organized and protested the inequity of society, the most prominent female reformers in the late 1800s and early 1900s were white middle- and upper-class women. Their approach to social issues seemed to blame the “fallen women” and less fortunate: reformers attempted to preserve a fading Victorian middle-class family life and their identification of the problem was sometimes the fallen themselves, rather than industrial, economic, and related societal upheavals. Some of the same women supporting female suffrage and social reform also supported eugenics (see Section 7.8), limiting immigration of non-whites, and extending the vote only to white women, due to a fear of “racial degeneration.”[5] Others, like Hoodless, opposed female suffrage; she argued that women should exercise their influence through their sons and husbands.[6]
By association, by marriage, by family status, and by community prominence, these women had time and energy for art associations, moral reform campaigns, temperance groups, and art clubs. We can acknowledge their efforts to provide aid and to give women more power through public life, and we can acknowledge that compared to men, they were treated unequally and were subject to discrimination. But these same women had a degree of privilege not afforded to non-white and lower-class women in Canada. They were also divided in their support for a more political role. Some women, and some groups, opposed suffrage or focused only on moral or spiritual issues. Some focused on domestic science and handicrafts but moved toward suffrage, and others specifically supported suffrage as the key to relieving other social ills.
Early supporters of female suffrage have been called maternal feminists because they argued that their role as mothers and homemakers, as “angels of the house,” was the reason they needed more influence in society — and not, as later feminists would argue, because they ought to be treated as equal to men.[7] Women’s clubs were pivotal in that they were early opportunities for women to discuss the increasingly public roles they could play in society. We cannot dismiss them only as social gatherings for ladies of privilege, because they also led to important conversations about women’s rights in society and in the political and professional realms. These groups were more radical in their context than they might appear to us, looking backward. Despite the grounding of many clubs in a narrow ideology of white women’s rights, mother’s rights, and Social Gospel “purity” arguments, they paved the way for women like Agnes Macphail (1890-1954), Canada’s first female member of parliament. Macphail, in 1925 said: “I do not want to be the angel of any home, I want for myself what I want for other women, absolute equality. After that is secured then men and women can take turns at being angels.”[8]
Key Points
- The 1870s witnessed the creation of important and influential women’s organizations; more followed before 1914.
- Many of these organizations shared a strong Christian orientation and concern regarding social ills, including the social and domestic consequences of alcohol abuse.
- These organizations provided a springboard for female activism, early feminism, and demand for greater female rights (including the right to vote).
- Opposition to the franchise remained an important force in women’s organizations.
- Overwhelmingly, these were middle- and upper-class organizations representing white women with extensive privilege and social and cultural capital. Many were, as well, highly radical in their context.
Attributions
Figure 7.4
Miss Bertha Wright (later Mrs. Carr-Harris, first President of the Canadian Young Women’s Christian Association) (Online MIKAN no.3229086) by William James Topley / Library and Archives Canada / PA-167608 is in the public domain.
Figure 7.5
Have You Any Boys? : Remember September 29, Down with the Liquor Traffic! (Online MIKAN no. 2988523) by Library and Archives Canada, Acc. No. 1984-4-943 W.C.T.U Dominion is in the public domain.
- See Mariana Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap, and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885-1925 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1991). ↵
- Katja Thieme, “Language and Social Change: The Canadian Movement for Women’s Suffrage, 1880-1918” (PhD Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2007), 31. ↵
- Toronto YWCA, Constitution of the Toronto YWCA, 1873, Article II, cited in Mary Quayle Innis, Unfold the Years: A History of the YWCA in Canada (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1949), 13. ↵
- Alison Prentice et. al., Canadian Women: A History, 2nd Edition (Scarborough: Thomson Nelson, 2004), 195-196. ↵
- See Anne-Maria Kinahan, “Transcendent Citizenship: Suffrage, the National Council of Women of Canada, and the Politics of Organized Womanhood,” Journal of Canadian Studies 42, 3 (2008): 5-27. ↵
- Terry Crowley, “HUNTER, ADELAIDE SOPHIA [HOODLESS],” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 13, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed 22 September 2015, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/hunter_adelaide_sophia_13E.html. ↵
- Thieme, “Language and Social Change”, 15-16. ↵
- Canada, House of Commons, Debates, 26 February 1925. ↵


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“An interdisciplinary journal on the engineering and technical issues of building design, technology, energy and environmental performance.” — website
Textbooks
Building Maintenance & Construction: Tools and Maintenance Tasks (Interactive) by Clifford Rutherford (CC BY).
This textbook introduces and develops knowledge of basic building maintenance tools and materials, applied skills and techniques, industry health and safety standards, and preventive maintenance and troubleshooting practices required by employers for entry-level positions in the building trades and facilities maintenance fields.
Construction Contracting: Business and Legal Principles – Second Edition by Stuart H. Bartholomew (CC BY-NC-SA).
This is an introduction to construction contracting as it applies to typical, everyday situations that explains “theoretical” ideas in terms of what really happens in practice. It emphasizes the more common case law holdings and industry customs that help avoid troublesome legal issues during the completion of a project.
Videos
Architecture & Construction: Heating & Plumbing by various (CC BY).
Videos developed by subject matter experts from the Wisconsin Technical College System (WTCS).