Chapter 9: Towards the Well-Researched Paper
Research Types
The opposite of a patchwork research paper—a paper in which the writer sews together other people’s ideas to create a single work—is what we might call a “nominal research paper”: a paper in which secondary sources are shoehorned in, that is, used superficially because research is a requirement, not because they have been incorporated into the writer’s argument. To avoid both the patchwork error and the shoehorn error, you must understand how you are using your research. It is therefore useful to think of research in terms of types.
Think back to our project on Occupy Wall St.’s Facebook page. We already have our primary source: the post and comments we are examining closely in the essay. We have noticed a lot of things by close reading this source, and we have come up with a potentially solid thesis and a detailed outline. Are there any kinds of external information that might help us make our thesis even better?


40 Cancelling lecture
What do you do if you have to cancel lecture?
EG: In the case of the scholar’s strike in September 2020, I posted a really comprehensive summary of the changes to our lecture schedule (dropped readings, moved topics, etc.). I still received a handful of emails, but I think it definitely lessened the confusion. I had to cancel a later lecture at the last minute due to a power outage, and so I shared a recorded lecture a few hours later when my power returned.
Outside of remote teaching, I prefer to respond to unanticipated disruptions in ways that keep the schedule and expectations in place for students as much as possible. If TAs have lecture hours in their HoW forms and agree (in advance) to this contingency plan, I would consider having them lead discussions with small groups in the lecture hall, based on a few questions I offered in lieu of lecture.
ES: As someone with a chronic illness and physical disability, there have been many times when I have had to quickly cancel tutorial or lecture. I always ensure to send out one or two emails to the class, and prepare an information sheet or transcript that stands in place of lecture or tutorial. I also invite the students to email me or schedule a meeting with me at a later date if they feel that they need some extra help with the week’s content.
Ultimately, your health is the most important. At the beginning of the semester, I take care to explain to the students the possibility of lecture/tutorial cancellations for the reasons stated above. Subsequently, I tell them that if they are unable to attend tutorial, or finish an assignment on time due to similar or adjacent reasons, then they will have flexibility from me. A relationship of mutual respect and reciprocity between a teacher and their students is necessary in situations like mine.


2.1 Introduction to Descriptive Statistics and Frequency Tables
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
- Display and interpret categorical data
- Display and interpret quantitative data
- Recognize, describe, and calculate the measures of the center of quantitative data
- Recognize, describe, and calculate the measures of the spread of quantitative data
- Recognize, describe, and calculate the measures of location of quantitative data
- Identify outliers in quantitative data
Descriptive Statistics
Once you have collected data, what will you do with it? Data can be described and presented in many different formats. For example, suppose you are interested in buying a house in a particular area. You may have no clue about the house prices, so you might ask your real estate agent to give you a sample data set of prices. Looking at all the prices in the sample often is overwhelming. A better way might be to look at numerical descriptions such as the average or median house price. Your agent might also provide you with a graph of the data.
 This area of statistics is called descriptive statistics. We will look at both graphical and numerical descriptive methods. You will learn how to construct and calculate, and even more importantly, how to interpret these measurements and graphs.
Numerical descriptors consist of summary statistics, typically calculated from a sample, that represent important aspects such as the central tendency and variability of a distribution, or relative standing of a single observation with regards to the rest of the distribution.
Graphical descriptive methods consist of chart, tables, and graphs. These are tools that help you learn about the distribution, or shape of a sample or a population. A graph can be a more effective way of presenting data than a mass of numbers because we can see where data clusters and where there are only a few data values. Newspapers and the Internet use graphs to show trends and to enable readers to compare facts and figures quickly. Statisticians often graph data first to get a picture of the data. Then, more formal tools may be applied.
The type of graph you choose to use first depends on the type of data you are working with. Some of the types of graphs used to display Categorical data are pie charts and bar charts. Some graphs that are used to summarize and organize Quantitative data are the dot plot, the histogram, the stem-and-leaf plot, the frequency polygon, the box plot, and the time series plot in special cases. The emphasis will be on histograms and box plots.
We will start by looking at a graphical method that can display any type of data, the frequency table.
Frequency Tables
Frequency tables are a great starting place for summarizing and organizing your data. Once you have a set of data, you may first want to organize it to see the frequency, or how often each value occurs in the set.
Frequency tables can be used to show either quantitative or categorical data. Displaying categorical data in a frequency table is fairly straightforward since you already have clearly defined categories. For example if you polled 20 kindergarteners on their favorite colors you could construct the following simple frequency table:
| Color | FREQUENCY |
|---|---|
| Red | 2 |
| Orange | 2 |
| Yellow | 1 |
| Green | 3 |
| Blue | 4 |
| Purple | 3 |
| Pink | 4 |
| Clear with Sparkles | 1 |
| Total = 20 |
Some quantitative data, especially discrete, may only a contain a limited number of values and little thought would be needed in creating the frequency table. Some data may have a natural grouping. For example, if you had ages of adults from 20-69, it might make intuitive sense to group them as follows:
- 20 – 29
- 30 – 39
- 40 – 49
- 50 – 59
- 60 – 69
Consider the 30-39 class. 30 is known as the lower class limit, while 39 is the upper class limit. The class width is defined as the difference between consecutive lower class limits. For the class 30 – 39, the class width = 40 – 30 = 10. The class midpoint is found by adding the lower limit and upper limit, then dividing by 2. For the class 30 – 39, the class midpoint = (30 + 39)/2 = 34.5.
Depending on the format and precision of the data reported, we may have to decide how best to group our data into intervals, sometimes called bins or classes. Grouping data may not always have an intuitive way to do it or work out cleanly. A convenient starting point is a lower value carried out to one more decimal place than the value with the most decimal places. For example, if the value with the most decimal places is 6.1 and this is the smallest value, a convenient starting point is 6.05 (6.1 – 0.05 = 6.05). We say that 6.05 has more precision. If the value with the most decimal places is 2.23 and the lowest value is 1.5, a convenient starting point is 1.495 (1.5 – 0.005 = 1.495). If the value with the most decimal places is 3.234 and the lowest value is 1.0, a convenient starting point is 0.9995 (1.0 – 0.0005 = 0.9995). If all the data happen to be integers and the smallest value is two, then a convenient starting point is 1.5 (2 – 0.5 = 1.5). Also, when the starting point and other boundaries are carried to one additional decimal place, no data value will fall on a boundary. The next two examples go into detail about how to construct a histogram using continuous data and how to create a histogram using discrete data.
The next question may be how many bins should we use? Generally anywhere from 5-20 bins, since too few does not display distribution well, but too many can create strange effects. A good place to start is the square root of your number of observations (n). Some other basic guidelines are bins should not overlap, not have gaps between them, have the same width, and cover the entire range of the data. The class limits and width should be “reasonable” numbers such as whole numbers, 5s, 10s, etc… In the end it really just depends on the format of your data, but following these general guidelines should make sure our table is useful.
Relative Frequencies
A relative frequency is the ratio (fraction or proportion) of the number of times a value of the data occurs in the set of all outcomes to the total number of outcomes. To find the relative frequencies, divide each frequency by the total number of students in the sample–in this case, 20. Relative frequencies can be written as fractions, percents, or decimals. To find the relative frequency:
-
-
- f = frequency
- n = total number of data values (or the sum of the individual frequencies), and
- RF = relative frequency,
-
then:
RF =
For example, if three students in Mr. Ahab’s English class of 40 students received from 90% to 100%, then, f = 3, n = 40, and RF = = = 0.075. 7.5% of the students received 90–100%. 90–100% are quantitative measures.
Cumulative relative frequency is the accumulation of the previous relative frequencies. To find the cumulative relative frequencies, add all the previous relative frequencies to the relative frequency for the current row, as shown in the figure below.
- The sum of all frequencies will add up to n, or your sample size.
- All relative frequencies should add up to one (pending rounding)
- The first entry of the cumulative relative frequency column will be the same as the first entry of the relative frequency column since there is nothing to accumulate.
- The last entry of the cumulative relative frequency column is one, indicating that one hundred percent of the data has been accumulated
Example
The following table represents one way of grouping the heights, in inches, of a sample of 100 male semiprofessional soccer players.
| HEIGHTS (INCHES) |
FREQUENCY | RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
CUMULATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
|---|---|---|---|
| 59.95–61.95 | 5 | = 0.05 | 0.05 |
| 61.95–63.95 | 3 | = 0.03 | 0.05 + 0.03 = 0.08 |
| 63.95–65.95 | 15 | = 0.15 | 0.08 + 0.15 = 0.23 |
| 65.95–67.95 | 40 | = 0.40 | 0.23 + 0.40 = 0.63 |
| 67.95–69.95 | 17 | = 0.17 | 0.63 + 0.17 = 0.80 |
| 69.95–71.95 | 12 | = 0.12 | 0.80 + 0.12 = 0.92 |
| 71.95–73.95 | 7 | = 0.07 | 0.92 + 0.07 = 0.99 |
| 73.95–75.95 | 1 | = 0.01 | 0.99 + 0.01 = 1.00 |
| Total = 100 | Total = 1.00 |
In this sample, there are five players whose heights fall within the interval 59.95–61.95 inches, three players whose heights fall within the interval 61.95–63.95 inches, 15 players whose heights fall within the interval 63.95–65.95 inches, 40 players whose heights fall within the interval 65.95–67.95 inches, 17 players whose heights fall within the interval 67.95–69.95 inches, 12 players whose heights fall within the interval 69.95–71.95, seven players whose heights fall within the interval 71.95–73.95, and one player whose heights fall within the interval 73.95–75.95. All heights fall between the endpoints of an interval and not at the endpoints.
a. From the figure above, find the percentage of heights that are less than 65.95 inches.
b. Find the percentage of heights that fall between 61.95 and 65.95 inches.
d.
e. Describe how you could gather this data (the heights) so that the data are characteristic of all male semiprofessional soccer players.
Remember, you count frequencies. To find the relative frequency, divide the frequency by the total number of data values. To find the cumulative relative frequency, add all of the previous relative frequencies to the relative frequency for the current row.
Your turn!
Twenty students were asked how many hours they worked per day. Their responses, in hours, are as follows: 5, 6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 2, 3, 5, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 5, 2, 5, 3.Construct a bar graph that shows the registered voter population by district.
Construct an appropriate table including frequencies, relative frequencies, and cumulative relative frequencies.
Image Credits
Figure 2.1: U.S. Marine Corps photo by Staff Sgt. William Greeson (2009). “US Navy 090821-M-0440G-043 Voting ballots organized and arranged for counting by Afghan presidential election workers at a local school in the Nawa District.” Public domain. Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_090821-M-0440G-043_Voting_ballots_organized_and_arranged_for_counting_by_Afghan_presidential_election_workers_at_a_local_school_in_the_Nawa_District.jpg
Methods of organizing, summarizing, and presenting data
Organizing, summarizing, or presenting data visually in graphs, figures, or charts
Numbers that summarize some aspect of a dataset, often calculated
The possible values a variable can take on, and how often it does so
The number of times a value of the data occurs
The lower end of a bin or class in a frequency table or histogram
The upper end of a bin or class in a frequency table or histogram
The difference in consecutive lower class limits
Found by adding the lower limit and upper limit, then dividing by 2
The percentage, proportion, or ratio of the frequency of a value of the data to the total number of outcomes
The sum of the relative frequencies for all values that are less than or equal to the given value


Citing Your Sources
When I ask students why we cite sources, they usually tell me two things: so that we don’t get accused of plagiarism and so that we give credit to other people for their work. While the former is true, the latter is much more important.
People who are honest about their intellectual work want to get credit for that work, and they want to give credit to those who have helped shape their ideas. If you write something that makes a difference and is worth quoting, wouldn’t you want to get credit?
In addition, we cite so that others can find our sources. Frequently, as I am reading someone else’s research, I see a source that I want to understand better. The citations help me locate that source for my own use.
The desire to give credit means that we need to acknowledge our sources. The desire to help others locate our sources means that we need to follow style guides. Those guides provide conventions for citing, and if we follow those guides, readers familiar with those conventions should have no trouble locating the sources.
Citation is one of the few places in academic writing where the ideas “right” and “wrong” apply. There are rules, and you should follow them to the best of your ability.
In this section, I’m not going to provide a guide for using any specific style. You can find those guides in lots of places, including on the internet. Instead, I’m going to explain how citation works so that you can apply these principles to your projects.
Understanding Citation Styles
There are many citation styles, usually specific to different disciplines. For example, disciplines like psychology and education use the American Psychological Association (APA) style, while literature uses the Modern Language Association (MLA) style and biology uses the Council of Science Editors (CSE) style. Some disciplines use more than one. Business, for example, might use APA, the Chicago Manual of Style (usually just called “Chicago”), or Harvard Business School style (usually just called “Harvard”). You can find a number of guides for choosing styles online, like this one from the American University Library.
You won’t need to learn all of these, even when you are taking classes in those fields. You should plan to learn the primary style (or styles) for your discipline, but for specific classes, your professor can tell you which style you should use. And many professors of general education courses will just tell you that you need to follow a style guide, but they are indifferent about which one.
There are so many different styles in part because different disciplines have need for different information about sources. For example, many styles include the year of publication of the source in the in-text citation, but MLA doesn’t. That’s because for the disciplines that use MLA, the date of the research is not terribly important. As another example, many sources in the sciences use a note numbering system and highly abbreviated reference list entries because publishing in the sciences can be expensive, and no one wants this kind of information to take up much space.
Starting with Reference Lists
Most citation styles require two parts: (1) the list of references at the end of your text and (2) the in-text citations. These two parts must work together in order for citations to do the work they need to.
The list of references goes by a few different titles. MLA uses “Works Cited” (or “Work Cited” when there is only one source). Styles like APA use “References.” Some, like Chicago, use either “References” or “Bibliography,” depending on whether you are using the note version of the style or not. You can find specific information about the style you are using online at sites like the Excelsior OWL or through your university library website. You can also often buy guides for specific styles designed for students, but I wouldn’t bother purchasing these unless you know that you will need them for your major.
Until you are familiar with how a style works, you should plan to do your list of references first because the in-text citations for those styles depend on your reference list entries. Many styles, including MLA and APA (two very common styles in college-level work), rely on the author’s names or an abbreviated version of the first words of the reference list entry.  Once you become comfortable using that citation style, you may be able to draft your in-text citations without the reference list entries.
For styles that rely on numbering, like the American Medical Association (AMA) style or some versions of the Council of Science Editors (CSE) style, your citations appear in the list in the order that they appear in your paper. In these cases, it may be better to order your reference list as you draft and revise—and work on finalizing your list later.
Your complete list of references includes all of the bibliographic information necessary to allow your reader to find your source. The style guide you are following tells you what information to include and how to arrange it.
To help your reader locate the proper source in your list, style guides that use a references list following one of two organizational strategies:
- Alphabetical order by whatever is first in the entry. While this is usually an author’s name, sometimes you may be using sources written by institutions or other organizations and you don’t have a person’s name. For the purposes of alphabetization, you treat the first words in the entry just like an author’s name. This is the most common strategy, and the one you are almost certainly going to be asked to use in the course where you are using this textbook.
- Numerical order according to the order in which the sources appear in your project. This ordering appears mostly in scholarly articles in the natural sciences, but you may see it in other places.
The organizational method you use will be dictated by the style guide that your professor requires. And you should follow it, even if you only have two or three sources.
Creating In-Text Citations
The other half of a complete citation is the in-text citation. There are three kinds of in-text citations:
- The first, often called parenthetical citation, provides information inside of parentheses that indicates the corresponding source from your reference list. This is the most common form in both the humanities and the social sciences.
- The second kind is a superscript number. This is only used in styles that use a numbering system, and just like a parenthetical citation, the number indicates a corresponding reference. You will see this more frequently in the natural sciences.
- The final kind is a reference in the sentence itself, usually as part of an introductory phrase or other attributive tag. Like the other kinds of in-text citation, you must include enough information that your reader can locate the source in your list of references. This kind is sometimes used in conjunction with the first two kinds. It is most common in the humanities and relatively rare in the natural sciences.
You will use parenthetical in-text citation in most of early college coursework, so I am focusing on it here. Keep in mind that you should check on the rules if you are being asked to use a style that you aren’t familiar with.
Both quotations and paraphrases require in-text citation, though the specifics vary depending on the style guide you are using:
- Most styles want the author’s name or names when there is more than one, though they have some differences about how to refer to multiple authors. You will sometimes see “et al.” following an author’s last name. This indicates that there is more than one author, and almost always it means that there are more than two.
- Many styles ask you to include the year of the source in the parentheses. This is so that readers can know immediately how current the source is.
- Most style guides require page numbers for every quotation, even a partial quotation.
- Some style guides, such as MLA, require page numbers for paraphrases as well as quotations. Even when a style doesn’t require page numbers for paraphrases (e.g., APA), your professor may want them anyway. Be sure to check.
For details about what should go in the parenthetical citations, head for a reference like the Excelsior OWL’s Citation and Documentation section. And be sure to check with your instructor and/or a writing tutor if you have any questions.
The Jobs of In-Text Citation
All three kinds of in-text citation have three primary jobs in your text:
The first job is technical: It must lead your reader to the correct complete citation that appears in your list of references. This is why, for example, a parenthetical citation must start with the same information as the full reference list entry. If your reference list entry starts with an author’s name, your in-text citation for that source must start with the same name so that your reader can find it in your alphabetical list of entries.
The second job of an in-text citation is to acknowledge your sources at the moment you are using them. Knowledgeable readers—which probably include your professors—may recognize the source you have chosen just from the citation. But even if a reader doesn’t recognize the source, your citations make clear that what you have just presented is someone else’s idea and may give a little information (such as the year) to contextualize that source.
The final job of an in-text citation is to clarify which ideas are yours and which belong to someone else. This is why you must be careful with your placement of citations. If you have a sentence begins with a paraphrase from a source followed by your own idea, you cannot put the citation at the end of the sentence. That placement would indicate that your idea is actually an idea from the source. This need for clarification is why most sentences only contain ideas from sources or ideas from the writer, but not both. Citation placement is much simpler and, more importantly, the meaning is clearer when a sentence only contains one or the other.
Checking Citations
Arguably, checking citations could be considered part of proofreading as much as editing because citations are highly technical. However, I decided to put this section in this part of Reading and Writing Successfully in College instead of in the process section because it is too easy to make mistakes in citation. Those mistakes can get in the way of a successful project—and even end up in accusations of plagiarism. Here, I focus on some trouble areas and some tricks for checking citations.
Checking the List of References
Start with the entries themselves. Pay attention to things like the following:
- How authors’ names are spelled
- Where italics are used—and where they aren’t
- Where periods and commas go—and where they don’t
- Whether you have included all of the required information, including things like publication dates and accessed dates (where required)
If at all possible, you want to look at a sample list of references for that style (or from your professor) and make that your list looks as much as possible like that one. Here are some specific areas to check in the formatting:
- Have you given your list a heading (e.g., “Works Cited” or “References”)?
- Have you used a hanging indent? If you don’t know how to do this, Bibliography.com has pretty clear instructions for both Word and Google Docs (Mathewson).
- Are the sources in alphabetical order by the first word in the entry?
- Is this list double-spaced without extra spaces between the entries?
- Does this list start on a new page if that is what your style requires?
- Does the list appear in the same fonts and type size as the rest of your paper? Sometimes, if you copy and paste all or part of an entry, you’ll end up with different fonts.
Checking Your In-Text Citations
Keeping in mind that your in-text citations must match your reference list entries, you will want to check every in-text citation to make sure that it’s accurate. Do the following to check your in-text citations:
- Use the search feature to find all of your in-text citations. Highlight the citations as you find them so that you can more easily see them as you work.
- Search for “(“ to find all of them that appear in parentheses.
- Search for the names of authors to locate any that appear only in introductory phrases or attributive tags.
- Search for quotation marks to find any quotations (all of which should have a citation).
- Scan your text to find anything you missed. Look, in particular, for the following:
- References to authors that don’t appear in your list of references
- Paraphrases that you did not cite
As you go, make corrections if you find mistakes.
Once you have located and highlighted all of your in-text citations, you can look for these specific problem areas:
- Every source that appears in your list of references must also have some kind of in-text citation. If the source is not cited in your text, it doesn’t belong on your list.
- Every in-text citation must match an entry on your list of references.
- Be sure to check the spelling of authors’ names so that you are accurate each and every time.
- Be sure that whatever is in your in-text citation also starts your reference list entry.
- Check your sources, especially the page numbers. It is worth taking a little time to be sure that you can locate the point in the original source that you are referencing.
While this may seem tedious, as you become more adept at working with citations at the college level, you will find yourself better able to do this work efficiently. You’ll also know better where your trouble spots are, and you can focus your efforts there.
Key Points
- We use to citation to give credit to our sources and to help our readers locate those sources if they are interested. Citation is necessary to avoid accusations of plagiarism, but that’s not a primary reason for citation.
- There are many citation styles The ones you will need to use are dictated by your professor and your discipline.
- Citation consists of two parts: a reference list and in-text citations.
- The reference list entries will include all bibliographic information (per the style guide) and will usually be arranged alphabetically by the first word in the citation (usually an author’s last name).
- The in-text citations usually appear in parentheses and those citations must match the first word in the reference list entry so that a reader can find the source in the references list.
- In-text citations also clarify which ideas are yours and which belong to your sources, at the same time as they give credit to those sources.
- Be sure to check that your citations are correct and that you have a complete match between in-text citations and reference list entries.
A usual or customary way of doing something. In writing, the term is most commonly applied to grammar and citation.
A phrase embedded in a sentence that indicates the source of the information in that sentence. Sometimes these tags can serve as citations, particularly when there are no page numbers to reference.
An abbreviation used to indicate additional authors. Formally, it is an abbreviation for "et alia," which is Latin for "and others."
An area of study, very similar to a major in college.


Module 4: Nonlinear Models
Exponential Relationships (2 of 6)
Exponential Relationships (2 of 6)
Learning OUTCOMES
- Use an exponential model (when appropriate) to describe the relationship between two quantitative variables. Interpret the model in context.
Now we investigate what the numbers in the exponential model tell us.
Example
Understanding the Numbers in the Exponential Model
Our goal in this example is to understand the meaning of the numbers 121 and 1.083 in the exponential model for predicting the number of eagle mating pairs.
Predicted eagle pairs = 121 (1.083)t
The 121 is the initial value for the exponential model. It is the predicted value for y when t = 0. It is also the y-intercept, where the exponential model crosses the y-axis.
- To see this, plug t = 0 into the exponential model: Predicted eagle pairs = 121 (1.083)0 = 121 (1) = 121.
- Interpretation in context: When t = 0, the year is 1950. In 1950, the number of eagle mating pairs is predicted to be 121.
Note: A number with an exponent of 0 is equal to 1. For example, 20 = 1 and 1.51200 = 1. (This is not true for 0: 00 is not defined.)
Now let’s investigate the meaning of 1.083 in the context of eagle mating pairs.
For 1951, when t = 1, the model predicts [latex]\hat{\text{y}} = 121(1.083)^1 \approx 131[/latex] pairs of eagles that are mating.
For 1952, when t = 2, there are [latex]\hat{\text{y}} = 121(1.083)^1 \approx 142[/latex] pairs.
We can also view the calculation for t = 2 as repeated multiplication by 1.083:
[latex]\hat{\text{y}} = 121(1.083)^2 \approx 142[/latex]
[latex]\hat{\text{y}} = 121 \cdot \underbrace{(1}.083) \cdot (1.083) \approx 142[/latex]
[latex]131 \text{ pairs } \underbrace{\text{w}}\text{hen } t = 1[/latex]
[latex]142 \text{ pairs when }t = 2[/latex]
Note: From this viewpoint, we find the estimated number of mating pairs for 1952 by multiplying the estimated 131 pairs from the previous year by 1.083.
Here is another example: For 1953, when t = 3, we can rewrite (1.083)3 as repeated multiplication: (1.083)(1.083)(1.083). The exponent 3 tells us to multiply the initial value 121 by 1.083 three times.
[latex]\hat{\text{y}} = 121(1.083)^3 \approx 154[/latex]
[latex]\hat{\text{y}} = 121 \cdot (1.0\underbrace{83)} \cdot (1.083) \cdot (1.083) \approx 154[/latex]
[latex]142 \text{ pairs} \underbrace{\text{w}}\text{hen } t = 2[/latex]
[latex]154 \text{ pairs when } t = 3[/latex]
Note: We can also view this process as multiplying the estimated 142 eagle pairs from the previous year by 1.083.
In general, to find the number of mating pairs for the next year, we multiply the previous year’s estimate by 1.083. We call this the growth factor.
We view the growth factor as containing information about the percentage increase in the population over the previous year. To see how this works, let’s start with a hypothetical situation in which there is no change in the number of eagle mating pairs from one year to the next. Then we look at different percentages of growth for the first year to build to an understanding of the meaning of 1.083:
No change in the number of eagle pairs: If there is no change in a year, we have 100% of the mating pairs from the previous year. The growth factor is 1.00, which is 100% written in decimal form. This is important to understand. A growth factor of 1.00 means no growth. This makes sense because 121(1.00) = 121; there is no change when we multiply by 1.00.
5% growth in the first year:
- 100% of the mating pairs + 5% increase in mating pairs = 105%.
- Convert to decimal form to find the growth factor: 105% = 1.05.
- Now multiply the growth factor by 121 to find the number of mating pairs for the next year: 121(1.05) = 127.
If we multiply by 1.05, this is a 5% increase.
6.8% growth in the first year:
- 100% of the mating pairs + 6.8% increase in mating pairs = 106.8%.
- Convert to decimal form to find the growth factor: 106.8% = 1.068.
- Now multiply the growth factor by 121 to find the number of mating pairs for the next year: 121(1.068) = 129. If we multiply by 1.068, this is a 6.8% increase.
What is the meaning of 1.083 in the model Predicted eagle pairs = 121 (1.083)t?
Answer: The 1.083 is the growth factor; as a percentage, it is 108.3%. We view 108.3% as 100% + 8.3%. There is an estimated 8.3% increase in the number of eagle pairs each year. (Remember, the 100% represents no change in the population.)
Spotlight on Converting Percentages
Percent means “per 100.” So a percent means “divide by 100.”
To convert from a percent to the decimal form, divide by 100.
- For example, 105% means 105 ÷ 100 = 1.05, so 105% = 1.05
- 106.8% means 106.8 ÷ 100 = 1.068, so 106.8% = 1.068
- 96.8% means 96.8 ÷ 100 = .968, so 98.6% = 0.968
- Notice that dividing by 100 moves the decimal two places to the left.
To convert from a decimal form to a percent, we are converting in the opposite direction, so multiply by 100.
- To convert 1.03 to a percent: 1.03 x 100 = 103, so 1.03 = 103%
- To convert 1.083 to a percent: 1.083 x 100 = 108.3, so 1.083 = 108.3%
- To convert 0.834 to a percent: 0.834 x 100 = 83.4, so 0.834 = 83.4%
- Notice that multiplying by 100 moves the decimal two places to the right.
Note: A number is in “decimal form” when it is not a percentage. A percentage like 108.3% is not in “decimal form” even though it has a decimal in the number.
Try It
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by: Open Learning Initiative. Located at: http://oli.cmu.edu. License: CC BY: Attribution


27 Sluter’s Well of Moses
Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker provide a description, historical perspective, and analysis of Claus Sluter’s, The Well of Moses. The prophets depicted include: Moses, David, Jeremiah, Zachariah, Daniel, and Isaiah.
Claus Sluter (with Claus de Werve), The Well of Moses, 1395–1405 (calvary finished 1399, prophets 1402–05, painted by Jean Malouel c. 1402), Asnières stone with gilding and polychromy, slightly less than 7 meters high, originally close to 13 meters with cross. Located on the grounds of the former Chartreuse de Champmol, a Carthusian monastery in Dijon, France established by Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.


Summary
7.1 Common Sense: From Monarchy to an American Republic
The guiding principle of republicanism was that the people themselves would appoint or select the leaders who would represent them. The debate over how much democracy (majority rule) to incorporate in the governing of the new United States raised questions about who was best qualified to participate in government and have the right to vote. Revolutionary leaders argued that property holders had the greatest stake in society and favored a republic that would limit political rights to property holders. In this way, republicanism exhibited a bias toward the elite. George Washington served as a role model for the new republic, embodying the exceptional talent and public virtue prized in its political and social philosophy.
7.2 How Much Revolutionary Change?
After the Revolution, the balance of power between women and men and between White, Black, and Native American people remained largely unchanged. Yet revolutionary principles, including the call for universal equality in the Declaration of Independence, inspired and emboldened many. Abigail Adams and others pressed for greater rights for women, while the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and New York Manumission Society worked toward the abolition of slavery. Nonetheless, for Black people, women, and Native peoples, the revolutionary ideals of equality fell far short of reality. In the new republic, full citizenship—including the right to vote—did not extend to non-White people or to women.
7.3 Debating Democracy
The late 1770s and 1780s witnessed one of the most creative political eras as each state drafted its own constitution. The Articles of Confederation, a weak national league among the states, reflected the dominant view that power should be located in the states and not in a national government. However, neither the state governments nor the Confederation government could solve the enormous economic problems resulting from the long and costly Revolutionary War. The economic crisis led to Shays’ Rebellion by residents of western Massachusetts, and to the decision to revise the Confederation government.
7.4 The Constitutional Convention and Federal Constitution
The economic crisis of the 1780s, shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation, and the outbreak of Shays’ Rebellion spurred delegates from twelve of the thirteen states to gather for the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Although the stated purpose of the convention was to modify the Articles of Confederation, their mission shifted to the building of a new, strong federal government. Federalists like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton led the charge for a new United States Constitution, the document that endures as the oldest written constitution in the world, a testament to the work done in 1787 by the delegates in Philadelphia.


16.1 Introduction
Mary Ann Clark; Jung Choi; and Matthew Douglas
An animal’s endocrine system controls body processes through the production, secretion, and regulation of hormones, which serve as chemical “messengers” functioning in cellular and organ activity and, ultimately, maintaining the body’s homeostasis. The endocrine system plays a role in growth, metabolism, and sexual development. In humans, common endocrine system diseases include thyroid disease and diabetes mellitus. In organisms that undergo metamorphosis, the process is controlled by the endocrine system. The transformation from tadpole to frog, for example, is complex and nuanced to adapt to specific environments and ecological circumstances.


172 Discussion: Fiscal Policy
Respond to the following prompt in a post with a minimum of 200 words, then comment on at least TWO other posts.
- Compare and contrast the use of government spending changes versus tax changes as a means of influencing the course of the economy. Is one or the other preferable in specific situations? Imagine for a moment that you have two roommates, who each have opposing viewpoints on nearly everything, including politics and economics. Taylor is adamant that the best way to manage the economy is through tax changes, while Morgan insists that it’s better to adjust the economy through government spending. What would a Neoclassical economist say? What would a Keynesian economist say? Which roommate do you agree with, and why? Find a news article to help support your opinion. Summarize the article and include the link to in your response.


The Big Picture
The worldwide OER movement is rooted in the human right to access high-quality education. This shift in educational practice is not just about cost savings and easy access to openly licensed content; it’s about participation and co-creation. Open Educational Resources (OER) offer opportunities for systemic change in teaching and learning content through engaging educators in new participatory processes and effective technologies for engaging with learning.
Why do educators use OER?
Please watch the following short video to hear from a variety of teachers who use OER in their classrooms.
There are many reasons to use OER. Here are just a few:
- Affordable – students save money
- Flexible – redistribute and reuse content
- Customizable – revise and remix
- Up to date – add the latest research, events, information
- Accessible – can be more accessible than print copies
- Beneficial to all – knowledge can be freely and widely distributed around the world
Here is some more detailed information from SPARC :
Textbook costs should not be a barrier to education. The price of textbooks has skyrocketed more than three times the rate of inflation for decades. College students face steep price tags that can top $200 per book, and K-12 schools use books many years out of date because they are too expensive to replace. Using OER solves this problem because the material is free online, affordable in print, and can be saved forever. Resources that would otherwise go to purchasing textbooks can be redirected toward technology, improving instruction, or reducing debt.
Students learn more when they have access to quality materials. The rapidly rising cost of textbooks in higher education has left many students without access to the materials they need to succeed. Studies show that 93% of students who use OER do as well or better than those using traditional materials, since they have easy access to the content starting day one of the course.
Technology holds boundless potential to improve teaching and learning. Open Education ensures that teachers, learners and institutions can fully explore this potential. Imagine an American History textbook with the latest news from the 2016 election, or a math tutorial that incorporates local landmarks into word problems. Imagine a lecture attended by hundreds of thousands of people across the globe, or a peer-to-peer exchange between Canadian students learning Mandarin with Chinese students learning English. All of this and more is possible when the pathways for technology in education are fully open.
Better education means a better future. Education is the key to advancing society’s greatest goals, from a building a strong economy to leading healthy lives. By increasing access to education and creating a platform for more effective teaching and learning, Open Education benefits us all.
Why use OER – Workshop Recording
Updated slides 2018: Introduction to OER
Attributions:
Adapted from OER Commons & Open Education, Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License .
Video: The Council of Chief State School Officers , Why OER? Video: CC BY 4.0
Adapted from SPARC, Open Education, SPARC, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.


3. Media and Crime
3.3 Future directions
Dr. Chantal Faucher
This chapter has mainly focused on news media representations of crime and criminal justice, but it is clear that entertainment media similarly distort the image of crime in their portrayals. Media scholars distinguish traditional or legacy media, which encapsulate newspapers, magazines, radio, television, films, as well as books and music recordings, from new media, which includes Internet, video games, and social media (Surette, 2015). New media have transformed the landscape and shaken the foundations of some of the theories discussed in this chapter. Media organisations no longer hold a monopoly on news, and the version of the world they present is subject to far greater challenges and counter-narratives than they were in the past (Fleras, 2011). New media shift the role of the audience from passive consumers to active participants and producers of media content. Internet news and social media operate differently than traditional news, as they encourage engagement. They offer an oppositional gaze to the dominant media gaze (Fleras, 2011). Research has found that engagement in social media can contribute to changing opinions and increasing activism as well as impacting the fear of crime (Grant & Smith, 2021; Intravia et al., 2017; Intravia & Pickett, 2019).
The shift is not complete, however, as “looping” between the legacy and new media is apparent. Looping refers to the recycling of media content in different formats, different contexts, and different outlets (Surette, 2015; see also 12 Cultural Criminology). It is not uncommon to see social media posts linking to traditional media reports. Likewise, traditional media include quotes of what people have said on social media posts on the topic of their reports.
The advent of social media has also allowed groups whose voices have often been silenced in mainstream media to have a platform for sharing their views, shining light on injustice, keeping authorities in check, and advocating for social justice. Cellphone footage of police use-of-force incidents shared online have contributed to challenging the dominant discourses whereby police were the only ones defining what happened in particular incidents. The power of movements such as #MeToo has led to the push for the removal of high-status individuals from their roles in public life with unprecedented frequency (see, for example, the case of former judge Robin Camp).
Several social movements have also been able to harness the power of social media to some extent in advancing their economic and political concerns (e.g., Arab Spring, BLM). The Idle No More movement, which is a grassroots Indigenous movement started in 2012, has gone even further than merely raising concerns about Indigenous and treaty rights. The #IdleNoMore hashtag allowed organisers to not only disseminate information and frame it to help the public understand the stakes, mobilise people and resources, unite geographically dispersed people, share opinions, and criticise policy, but also to reflect Indigenous culture more broadly through discussions of group membership, land, epistemologies, cultural production, resistance, and language (Raynauld et al., 2017; Richez et al., 2020).
traditional types of media (that existed pre-Internet), including print (newspapers, magazines, books), visual (films, television programs), and audio (radio, music recordings) forms
term used to refer to Internet-based news, entertainment, social media, video games, etc. that are interactive
the way in which the perspective on society conveyed in mainstream media is similar to the dominant institutional perspective and encourages the audience to adopt the same perspective
the recirculation of media content in different formats, contexts, and media outlets


8 The CLOTH Lexical Set
The cloth lexical set is part of the group of Checked vowels that is only capable of being in stressed syllables. Because it is Checked, it can only exist when it is followed by a consonant. In fact, cloth must be followed by specific consonants, otherwise the vowel is likely to be part of lot. For example, the word cloth is a part of cloth (of course it is!) because it ends in the ‹th›-sound, the voiceless dental fricative /θ/, while clot is part of lot because it ends in /t/, the voiceless alveolar stop. The consonant that follows the vowel is the determining factor, and I’ll lay out the environments that make that so when we discuss Spellings below.
cloth is a Lexical Set that behaves rather strangely, as it never has its own vowel sound: it always shares with either the lot or thought Lexical Sets.
There are many options for mergers in the open-back region of the vowel space, so overlaps can be quite complex. For example, you might have a lot/cloth/thought/north/force merger alongside a bath/palm/start merger in some parts of Australia; you might get a cloth/thought merger with a lot/palm merger in several regions of the United States.
cloth behaves differently in different accents. In the UK, cloth is more commonly merged with lot today; historically, it was more likely to be merged with thought (which is also merged with north/force.) This merger was frequently associated with traditional Received Pronunciation (RP); as that “high status” accent becomes less fashionable, and as older speakers die off, cloth words become less noticeable, as they are blending in with lot. Meanwhile, in the US, cloth is frequently merged with thought and has a larger inventory of words that are part of the set.
As we have seen in other Lexical Sets, cloth is broken into 3 subgroupings. Groups Ⓐ and Ⓑ are followed by similar, but not always identical consonants; the words that belong to one group over the other can seem somewhat arbitrary. Meanwhile, Group Ⓒ has its vowel preceding /r/ before another vowel. Different accents have different ways of implementing the various subgroupings. For example—
In Traditional RP:
- Group Ⓐ is merged with thought;
- Groups Ⓑ & Ⓒ are merged with lot.
In some accents in the US, such as so-called General American:
- Groups Ⓐ & Ⓑ are merged with thought;
- Group Ⓒ is split, so that some words are merged with start while others are merged with north/force.
In Canada:
- Groups Ⓐ & Ⓑ are merged with palm/lot
- Group Ⓒ has all words spelled ‹or/orr› merged with north/force.
If you have a merger of two or more Lexical Sets, you’ll need to memorize the most common instances of the set (or even just a subgroup), and the environments in which they are found, as figuring out where these words belong is non-obvious. For example, many words in Group Ⓑ are similar in their spelling to words in Group Ⓐ, and so need to be memorized. For example, why are broth, cross, Austin in Group Ⓐ, while moth, boss, sausage are in Group Ⓑ? Though there are historical reasons why these words are sorted into these groups, the answer to why is simply this: because they are.
- ☑ Checked: cannot exist without a following consonant
- Used in stressed syllables only
Spellings
Ⓐ o, au + fricative: merged with thought in GenAm and older RP;
These spellings require a following voiceless fricative, generally /f/ (off, cough), /θ/ (moth), /s/ (toss), /ft/ (soft), or /st/ (lost)
Ⓑ o + fricative or velar: merged with thought in GenAm and with lot in RP;
These spellings require either:
- a following voiceless fricative, generally /f/ (coffee), /θ/ (moth), /ʃ/ (wash), /s/ (moss), or /st/ (foster), OR
- a following velar nasal, ‹-ng›/ŋ/ (long)
- a following velar plosive, /k, ɡ/ (chocolate, dog), though this is much more variable in its usage, and should be checked with an accent informant.
Ⓒ orV, orrV, lawrV, laurV, warrV, quarrV: merged with start and/or north/force in GenAm, & with lot in RP;
These spellings are mostly
- ‹or› or ‹orr› before another vowel (origin, orange, borrow, horrid),
- ‹awr› or ‹aur› before another vowel (Lawrence, Laurence, laurel), or
- /w/ before ‹arr› before another vowel (quarrel, warrant)
Along the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, all of cloth Ⓒ is merged with start. Inland, through much of the Midwest and the West, cloth Ⓒ is primarily merged with north/force, though ‹orr› words as in sorry, borrow, tomorrow are said with start. In Canada, all of cloth C is merged with north/force.
Pronunciations
As cloth Ⓐ & Ⓑ are either merged with lot or thought, it is important to consider the pronunciations of those two. In accents with a difference between the two sets, lot [a ~ ɑ ~ ɒ] is generally more open and forward than thought [ɑ ~ ɒ ~ ɔ].
For more pronunciation options to explore, see lot and thought.
In accents where there is a merger between lot and thought, and yet a contrast with palm [ɑ̟ ] such as one finds in Philadelphia, cloth will match lot and thought [ɒ̝ ~ ɑ̞]. In near-merger settings, where lot, thought and palm are almost completely the same, as we hear in most of Canada, there may still be a few cloth words that are different. For example, ‹ong› words, with cloth before the velar nasal /ŋ/, are in the range of [ɒŋ]. In Inland Northern accents where lot [a] is more advanced than palm [ɑ̟], cloth merges with thought in the range of [ɒ ~ ɔ̞]
With cloth being so difficult to distinguish from lot, thought and palm, many L2 speakers merge it with lot and/or thought and/or palm. For others, a spelling pronunciation—usually a merger with goat— in the range of [o ~ ɔ] is not uncommon.
Personal Pronunciation
Do you merge cloth words with lot or thought? Let’s try to figure that out. Compare these words, and see whether their vowels match.
| lot | cloth | thought |
| bot | Ⓐ broth | brought |
| Goth | Ⓐ froth | fraught |
| con | Ⓐ cough | cause |
| crop | Ⓐ croft | crawl |
| sot | Ⓐ soft | sought |
| bot | Ⓑ bong | bought |
| rot | Ⓑ wrong | rought |
Are lot and cloth the same, are cloth and thought the same, or are they all the same? If there are outliers, words that don’t fit the pattern, don’t fret! It is quite common in a personal idiolect for a word here or there to not match the “standard” Lexical Sets.
Based on this knowledge, for cloth Ⓐ and Ⓑ you can use the details from the Personal Pronunciation section of lot, or thought to determine how to transcribe your own speech. For cloth Ⓒ, before /r/, we have mergers with either start, north, or force. See those Lexical Sets for details on pronunciation/transcription options.
Alternate Pronunciations
Experiment with the Word Lists, Phrases and Sentences with the following vowels:
Word Lists, sorted by consonants that follow
KEY: ◾cloth in stressed syllable
⚠ These words are highly variable. Just because they’re listed here doesn’t make them right for all accents!
PLOSIVES and AFFRICATES
Note that many accents merge these words with lot, not thought, and for those that do merge them with thought, they do not necessarily behave consistently.
-k
-g
NASALS
-m
-n
-ŋ
FRICATIVES
cloth only occurs before voiceless fricatives, never before voiced ones.
-s
-ʃ
-θ
-f
APPROXIMANTS
The cloth vowel followed by /r/, followed by unstressed comma (schwa /ə/), happy, kit, or goat, is Group Ⓒ, and is only used in the United States. Words that are members of this group are frequently difficult to identify, as they may easily merge with start, lot, or north/force. Note that some North American speakers may have Group Ⓐ & Ⓑ words with cloth, and Group Ⓒ words merged with something else.
-ɹ* (see start, north and force for options)
correlate, correspond, horrid, horrible, horrify, Morris, porridge, sorrel
Laurence/Lawrence, laurel
quarrel, quarry, warrant, warren, warrior
borrow, horror, morrow, sorrow, tomorrow, sorry
🍁 Many of these words are shibboleths for Canadian speakers, who use north/force; when working in a US context, start is required for many accents.
Short Phrases Ⓐ or Ⓑ
Underlined cloth Ⓐ, cloth Ⓑ; lot and thought words are marked with superscript l & t, lotl, and thoughtt
- Hotl broth
- You’re wrong.
- The lost Austen book.
- Melt the chocolate in your coffee.
- You’ve gone above and beyond.
- Moth-eaten cloth
- Lay the coffin in the trough softly.
- The wash-watert is frothy.
- They’re flip-flopsl, notl thongs!
- Across the frost-covered lawnt.
Short Phrases Ⓐ, Ⓑ, Ⓒ
Underlined cloth Ⓐ, cloth Ⓑ, cloth Ⓒ
- He lacks moral authority.
- Lawrence borrowed my office.
- The orange coral from Oregon.
- The tomorrow’s orator
- The offer in the majority position
- I often visit my florist’s loft.
- The Austrian sausage is horrible.
- Florida orange juice
- Categorically, the tongs belong to me.
- Wash it with a soft cloth.
Sentences
Level 1
Short with 2-3 words, underlined cloth Ⓐ, cloth Ⓑ, cloth Ⓒ
- I gotl lost in Boston.
- Frost covered the moss.
- Ross from Australia loves coffee.
- Foster often coughs into his elbow.
- He was laid off from the Gloucester office.
Level 2
Short with 3-5 words, underlined cloth Ⓐ, cloth Ⓑ, cloth Ⓒ
- The Austrian flossed her teeth till they were glossy.
- They fed the orange moth some broth.
- The coughing officer felt the soft inside of the coffin.
- Laurel and Austin quarrelled often.

Level 3
Medium with 3-4 words, not underlined
- The majority of the crosses at the cemetery came from this quarry.
- There’s a warrant in Florida for the woman from Oregon.

- He spoke metaphorically about the cost of such a loss.
- The chef tossed a lotl of sorrel in the sour porridge.
Level 4
Hard with 4-6 words, not underlined
- Senator Warren offered to cover the cost of the loss.
- Never borrow lip gloss without washing it first.
- The scent of joss sticks waftedl across the sorry doss house.
- The Thane of Ross took the wrong coffer on the morrow to Norwich.
- Cross the fosse by way of the long bridge to get to the watert trough in the croft.
Mergers with cloth Ⓐ, Ⓑ
cloth is all mergers, all the time! Primarily the challenge is in figuring out whether cloth in a new accent you’re learning is merged in the way your accent merges it, or not.
The lot–cloth Merger is perhaps the most common merger that people have these days, in Englishes around the globe. If you merge cloth with lot in your own personal accent, learning to identify cloth words is challenging, as there aren’t a lot of spelling clues as to which words are part of the set. Add to this the challenge of Distribution: some accents don’t necessarily have precisely the same words as part of their version of a set. In these cases, having an informant who speaks the accent who can help you identify whether a word should be merged with thought or lot is very helpful.
Having thethought–cloth Merger in your personal accent, which is common in much of the US, is perhaps a little easier. When working on an accent with the lot–cloth Merger, learning to identify which words might shift to lot is fortunately fairly easy, as their “short-o” spellings generally makes them stand out from other thought words.
Those with a 3-way thought–lot–cloth Merger in your personal speech pattern, which happens in Canada and in parts of the West of the US, you’re going to have a particularly hard time decoding which words go where. And those with a 4-way thought–lot–cloth–palm Merger perhaps have it hardest of all! Be sure to tackle thought, lot, and palm before trying to make the following contrasts distinct.
cloth Ⓐ, Ⓑ Contrast Sentences with lot
- Merge all 3 with palm (and start, if non-rhotic) as in Canadian;
- Merge thought with cloth Ⓐ, and lot with cloth Ⓑ as in RP;
- Merge cloth Ⓐ and cloth Ⓑ with thought, while keepinɡ lot distinct, as in GenAm.
-
- The boss botched his toss to the tot.
- Scott crossed his hands over his crotch
- The hot coffee made Tom cough.
- I’m often bothered by the fonts used in Jane Austen novels.
- The quality of the odd Australian sausage is off.
cloth Ⓐ, Ⓑ Contrast Sentences with thought
- Merge all 3 with palm (and start, if non-rhotic) as in Canadian;
- Merge thought with Ⓐ, and lot with Ⓑ as in RP;
- Merge cloth Ⓐ and cloth Ⓑ with thought, while merging lotl with palmp as in GenAm.
- Saul didn’t wash the soft cloths with his laundry.
- The cost to install the hotl water softener in the office was appalling.
- Robl saw that frothing milk for coffee is notl easy.
- Shawn was appalled by the strong taste of guavap in the sauce.
- Tawny took off her uncomfortable brap and thong, and tossed them away.
Mergers with cloth Ⓒ
It is perhaps most helpful to think of whether cloth Ⓒ in any particular accent merges with force, north, or start, rather than with thought, lot, or palm. For many accents, there is a parallelism between these sets. Historically speaking, these lexical sets went from more close pronunciations to more open, in the range of /or, ɔr, ɑr/. I’ve single-underlined ‹orr› words here, and double-underlined ‹or› words.
- 🍁 Merge north/force and both cloth Ⓒ categories; make starts distinct, as in Canadian;
- Merge cloth Ⓒ-orr with starts, and cloth Ⓒ-or with northn/forcef, as in GenAm;
- Merge cloth Ⓒ-orr & cloth Ⓒ-or with starts; make northnand forcefdistinct, as in US Atlantic states.
-
- I’m sorry I soiled your sorel-colored saris—are you soref about it?
- I’m boredn about hearing how you’ll borrow a bars of soap & my boarf hair brush.
- She heard the whoref scream herself hoarsef at the horror movie with the horsen.
- Tomorrow, Morris will put moref morphinen in the marmalades.
- Ares our(s) orange orbsn horrible ornamentsn, orn ares they made of molten oref?
Review
Pathway Puzzles
Pathway Puzzles allow you to practice finding members of a lexical set. Choose the next cell with the FIRST lexical set word to make a pathway from the START of the puzzle down to the FINISH. Open the KEY document to see the solution, and check your work. Pathway Puzzles were created by Farisya Khairul, through support from a AMPD Minor Research Grant.
cloth Ⓐ – cloth Ⓑ Pathway Puzzle | KEY
cloth Ⓑ – cloth Ⓐ (- lot) Pathway Puzzle | KEY


6 The Victim
Victims of domestic violence have multiple health problems as a result of the abusiveness of their partners. They seek medical care for injuries resulting from the perpetrators’ acts (e.g., burns, broken bones, internal injuries, vaginal injuries, miscarriages, head injuries, damage to eyes or ears, dental injuries, knife or gunshot wounds, cuts, back injuries) and with illnesses aggravated by the stress of living with their partner’s abusiveness (e.g., asthma, lupus, MS, depression, anxiety, insomnia, eating disorders).
Victims may also be patients in the health care system for issues seemingly unrelated to their victimization, and their treatment for their medical conditions may be compromised by the continuing abuse (e.g., an insulin-dependent patient whose perpetrator controls her by withholding her medications or by refusing to allow her to keep her medical appointments). This victimization by intimate partners puts patients at future risk for medical and psychological sequelae to abuse.
If the domestic violence is not identified and addressed, there are both long and short-term consequences for the victims. Unidentified victims may receive inappropriate treatments for their presenting injury or illness (e.g., over-medications, treatment protocols they are unable to carry out due to the control of the abusers) and/or they may be denied the opportunity to get the information and support they need to protect themselves from future injuries, illnesses or death.
Failure to identify victims of abuse also creates consequences for the health care system. The health care practitioner misses the opportunity for early identification, intervention and ultimate prevention. Initial injuries and illnesses are followed by repeated injuries and illnesses due to the violence. Victims seeking assistance return to the health care system for multiple visits, consuming scarce resources. For some victims the only professional with whom they have contact is the health care provider and they will return again and again in hopes that their suffering will be alleviated.
1. Victims of Domestic Violence Can Be Found in All Age, Racial, Socioeconomic, Educational, Occupational, Religious, Sexual Orientation and Personality Groups
Victims of domestic violence are a very heterogeneous population whose primary commonality is that they are being abused by someone with whom they are, or have been, intimate. They do not fit into any specific age group, racial group, personality profile, socioeconomic, educational, occupational, religious or sexual orientation.
Too often, victimization is seen as a problem for one group but not for another. For example, teen victims of domestic violence are often ignored. While there is a great deal of public discussion about the need for appropriate sex education to help teens protect themselves from unwanted disease or pregnancy, there is little aware- ness of the need for teen education about domestic violence. With further documentation of dating violence (Levy, 1991), there is a call for more attention to this issue by those professionals in contact with adolescents who are just beginning to have intimate relationships. They need assistance in specific ways to avoid violence in their dating relationships. Victims of partner abuse may be 12, 25, 43, 78, 98 or any age in between. All age groups have the potential to be victimized by perpetrators of domestic violence.
Sometimes ignoring the issue takes the form of stereotypes that communicate that wife beating is just a way of life or “culturally acceptable” in “that” group. As noted previously, there is little comprehensive research on the prevalence and “acceptability” of domestic violence in specific groups (e.g., certain cultural groups, gays, lesbians). What research has been done raises as many questions as it answers. What is known is that domestic violence is a problem in all racial, ethnic, sexual orientation, ability, economic class, educational, and occupational groups.
Furthermore, there is no evidence that battered women fit a particular personality profile. Early studies of battered women attempted to focus on characteristics of the victim that would provide a causative explanation for the violence (Snell, Rosenwald, & Robey, 1964). Later studies indicate that no causative link has been found between the characteristics of battered women and their victimization (Hotaling & Sugarman, 1986). Consequently, as with victims of other trauma (e.g., car accidents, floods, muggings), there is no particular personality profile for the person who is battered. Being a victim of domestic violence is due to behaviors of the perpetrator, rather than the personal characteristics of the victim.
2. Victims May or May Not Have Been Abused as Children, or in Previous Relationships
Just as some have looked to the personality or demographic characteristics of the victim to explain her victimization, others have suggested that most domestic violence victims have a history of childhood abuse and/or previous violent relationships, and that this contributes to the current victim- ization. Yet there is no evidence that previ- ous victimization, either as adults or as children, results in women seeking out or causing their current victimization (Dutton, M.A., 1992). Some victims of domestic violence have been victimized in the past and some have not. While it may be helpful to understand an individual victim’s history and her coping strategies in dealing with past and current abuse, the practitioner should exercise caution and avoid making victim blaming interpretations of such history.
3. Some Victims Become Very Isolated as a Result of the Perpetrators’ Control over Their Activities and Contacts with Friends and Family Members
Some of a victim’s behaviors in a health care setting can be understood in light of the control the perpetrator has managed to enforce through her isolation (e.g., her reluctance to commit to a particular treatment protocol that requires multiple appointments, her lack of confidence in her own abilities, or her fear of further harm).
Without outside contact and information, it becomes more difficult for the victim to avoid the psychological control and threats of the perpetrator. Some victims come to believe their abuser when they say the victims would not survive alone if they left, while others resist such distortions.
Even when the victim maintains contact with friends or extended family, those relationships are often mediated through the control of the perpetrator. Consequently, victims do not experience needed support and advocacy. The victim’s experience with others is repeatedly processed through the comments and interpretations of the abuser. Some perpetrators interrogate victims about every detail of their interactions with others and describe to the victims the nature of those relation- ships. The victims’ positive feedback or support from their other relationships is undermined by the perpetrators’ intrusions into those relationships. The more successful perpetrators are in isolating the victims, the more they control what the victims believe (Graham & Rawlings, 1991).
4. Why Some Victims Stay/When They Leave
One of the most commonly asked questions about domestic violence is, “Why do victims stay in violent relationships?” The reality is that many victims leave. But to understand this process of leaving, one must once again consider what domestic violence is, what the perpetrator is doing, and what the victim’s options are in her community.
The primary reason given by victims of domestic violence for staying or returning to the perpetrator (or for not following other health care provider recommenda- tions) is fear of violence and the lack of real options for safety with their children. This fear of the violence is realistic. Research on battered women shows that the lethality of the perpetrator’s violence often increases when the perpetrator believes that the victim has left or is about to leave the relationship (Campbell, J., 1992, Wilson & Daly, 1993). The literature suggests several indicators for homicide against the victim: the perpetrators’ obsession with the victim, a pattern of escalating physical violence, increased risk-taking by the batterer, threats to kill the victim and self, substance abuse, and a gun in the household (Campbell, J., 1992; Saunders, 1994; Hart & Gondolf, 1984; Kellerman, et al., 1993).
Some perpetrators repeatedly threaten or attempt to kill or seriously injure their victims, children or others when the victims attempt to leave relationships. The victim may have previously attempted to leave only to have been tracked down by the perpetrator, seriously injured and brought back. Perpetrators do not just let victims leave relationships. They will use violence and all other tactics of control to maintain the relationship. It is a myth that victims stay with perpetrators because they like to be abused. Even in cases where the victim was abused as a child, the victim does not seek out violence and does not want to be battered. Staying in or returning to the relationship may simply be safer than leaving.
The reasons for staying in a violent relationship are multiple and vary for each victim. They include:
a. Fear of the perpetrator’s violence;
b. Immobilization by psychological and physical trauma;
c. Connection to the perpetrator through his access to the children;
d. Illness (e.g., HIV, MS) and dependence on the perpetrator for health care;
e. Belief in cultural/family/religious values that encourage the maintenance of the family unit at all costs;
f. Continual hope and belief in the perpetrator’s promises to change and to stop being violent;
g. Belief that the perpetrator cannot survive (e.g., due to illness with AIDS) or will engage in self-destructive behavior if the victim leaves;
h. Insufficient funding and resources nationwide that result in a lack of shelters and victim advocacy programs to provide transitional support;
i. Lack of real alternatives for employment and financial assistance, especially for victims with children;
j. Lack of affordable legal assistance necessary to obtain a divorce, custody order, restraining order, or protection order;
k. Lack of affordable housing that would provide safety for the victim and children;
l. Being told by others that the abuse is happening because the victim is gay, lesbian, or bisexual and that the abuse would stop if they would “change;” and
m. Being told by the perpetrator, counselors, the courts, police, ministers, family members, or friends that the violence is the victim’s fault, and that the victim could stop the abuse simply by complying with the perpetrator’s demands. In these cases, the victims learn that the systems with the power to intervene will not believe them or act to protect them. Thus, the victims are forced to comply with the perpetrators in hopes of stopping the abuse.
5. Victim Survival Strategies
Victims of domestic violence use many strategies to survive that become inappropriately labeled as “crazy,” codependent, or inappropriate behavior on the part of the victim (e.g., being too fearful to ask partner to use safe sex precautions, being afraid to use legal remedies or seek battered women’s advocacy services, or wanting to return to the perpetrator in spite of severe violence). These victim responses may in fact be normal reactions or strategic decisions for coping with very frightening and dangerous situations (Dutton, M.A., 1992).
When the victim discovers that a system with the power to intervene will not act to safeguard and support her, she may conclude that reconciliation is the safer course. The victim can rarely stop the perpetrator’s abuse. All that she can do is to keep herself and her children as safe as possible, and even this requires the support of someone else. Some victims will begin to terminate the relationship by seeking assistance from the court system or social service agencies, only to see that those systems are not effective in stopping the violence. For example, a protective order may not deter a perpetrator in communities where the police refuse to enforce the order. Where outside protection fails, the victim is forced to rely on strategies that have worked in the past.
Victims use many different strategies to cope with and resist the abuse. Such strategies include agreeing with the perpetrator’s denial and minimization of the violence in public, accepting the perpetrator’s promises that it will never happen again, saying that she “still loves him,” being unwilling to leave the perpetrator or terminate the relationship, and doing what he asks. These strategies may appear to be the result of passiveness or submission on the part of the victim, when in reality she has learned that these are sometimes successful approaches for temporarily avoiding or stopping the violence. Many victims who appear reluctant to carry out actions that the health care provider believes would protect them and their children from further violence actually have the same goal as the health care provider: namely, an end to the violence. They simply have different strategies.
Some victims have told other health care providers about the abuse, even if they did not use the terms “abuse” or “domestic violence.” In the past their descriptions of the abuse may have been ignored, not believed, or met with inappropriate responses. It can be very humiliating to the victim to talk about these issues with someone who is not sensitive. Because of prior attempts to seek assistance from the health care system or other social service agencies, the victim may now be reluctant to assume that her safety and confidentiality will be respected by the current health care provider. In such cases, unless the health care provider initiates the topic, the victim may not even raise the issue with the health care provider. Other victims will readily name the abuse, but minimize it as a way to cope with what is happening until they can determine whether there really are the community supports they need for protection. In such cases, victims sometimes re- engage in the prior survival strategies of complying with the perpetrators while they assess the community.
Successful interventions must be based on an understanding of the victim’s behavior as normal responses to violence perpetrated by an intimate. Rather than viewing the victim’s behaviors as masochistic, passive, crazy, or inappropriate, they should be viewed as survival strategies which contribute to the victim’s safety and the safety of her children.


7.10 Skills Checklist: Respirations
1. Gather Supplies: Watch or clock with a second hand
2. Routine Pre-Procedure Steps:
-
- Knock on the client’s door.
- Perform hand hygiene.
- Introduce yourself and identify the resident.
- Maintain respectful, courteous, and professional communication at all times.
- Provide for privacy.
- Explain the procedure to the client.
3. Procedure Steps:
-
- Count respirations for 60 seconds.
4. Post-Procedure Steps:
-
- Check on resident comfort and ask if anything else is needed.
- Ensure the bed is low and locked. Check the brakes.
- Place the call light or signaling device within reach of the resident.
- Open the door and privacy curtain.
- Perform hand hygiene.
- Document respiratory rate and report abnormal findings to the nurse.
View a YouTube video[1] of an instructor demonstration of obtaining respirations:
View a YouTube video[2] of an instructor demonstrating obtaining temperature, pulse, and respirations in a sequential procedure:
- Chippewa Valley Technical College. (2022, December 3). Obtaining Respirations. [Video]. YouTube. Video licensed under CC BY 4.0. https://youtu.be/yljzSZHqbq8 ↵
- Chippewa Valley Technical College. (2022, December 3). Obtaining Temperature, Pulse, and Respirations. [Video]. YouTube. Video licensed under CC BY 4.0. https://youtu.be/_NRc4zEYrNI ↵


References
Canadian Cancer Society. (2020). Symptoms of testicular cancer. https://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/testicular/signs-and-symptoms/?region=on
Canadian Medical Association. (2019, December). Urology profile. https://www.cma.ca/sites/default/files/2019-01/urology-e.pdf
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, July) Genital HPV infection: CDC fact sheet. National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/hpv-Fs-July-2017.pdf
CrashCourse. (2015, November 9). Reproductive System, part 2 – Male reproductive system: Crash Course anatomy & physiology 41. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/-XQcnO4iX_U
Gentle Procedures Clinic. (n.d). No-Scalpel vasectomy procedure info. https://gentleprocedurestoronto.ca/vasectomy/no-scalpel-no-needle/
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2022, November 22). Genital herpes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/genital-herpes/symptoms-causes/syc-20356161
Medical News Today. (2023, February 16). What is the difference between chlamydia and gonorrhea? Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/chlamydia-and-gonorrhea
Ontario Agency for Health Protection and Promotion. (2023, December 15). Chlamydia. Public Health Ontario. https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/diseases-and-conditions/infectious-diseases/sexually-transmitted-infections/chlamydia
Ontario Agency for Health Protection and Promotion. (2023, December 15). Gonorrhea. Public Health Ontario. https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/diseases-and-conditions/infectious-diseases/sexually-transmitted-infections/gonorrhea
Urology Care Foundation. (2019). What are sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or diseases (STDs)?. https://www.urologyhealth.org/urologic-conditions/sexually-transmitted-infections#Acquired_Immune_Deficiency_Syndrome_(AIDS)


Hutschdorf Church Records
26
Helen (Kirmse) Hacker noted in an email March 1, 2009 that “Norma never could get Grandma’s family traced in Germany.” and followed up with the following statement:
Aunt Martha [(Kassel) Kirmse] said her [Barbara (Kraus) Kirmse’s] brother Adam stayed in Germany and 2 sisters came to America. The sisters names she [Aunt Martha] told me were wrong – think she had their daughter’s names instead.
As will be shown below, Norma actually had obtained information about Barbara’s family in Hutschdorf but drew wrong conclusions because of incorrect leads. In this chapter, the data that is given in the following letter is reviewed and compared it to information from family lore, census, immigration and death records.
Letter
This letter dated April 4, 1991 was received in response to a request that Norma made for information about Barbara Krause.
Attachments:
Transcription of Letter
Evang.-Luth. Pfarramt Hutschdorf
Hutschdorf 26, den
8656 Thumou
Raifelsenbank Thurnouer Land eG 10863
BLZ 77069739
11.4.1991
Nr 86 Az.
Evang.-Luth. Pfarramt Hutschdorf – 8656 ThumouMrs Norma Rauh
422 Myers
Alva, Ok. 73717
USAThre Anfrage zur Ahnenforschung “Barbara Kraus”
Sehr geehrte Frau Rauh!
Zu Ihrer Anfrage zir Ahnenforgschung “Barbara Kraus” teilen wir Ihnen folgendes mit:
Barbara Kraus wurde am 7. Mai 1842 in Hutschdorf geboren, ihre Eltern sind Jobst Kraus, Hausbesitzer and Taglohren dahier, und Anna Margaretha. geb. Göppner, Von Wernstein. (Kopie I)
Hutschdorf Die Heirat von Jobst Kraus and Anna Margaretha Göppner war am 13. Juni 1837. Der Vater des Brautigams is Johann Kraus, Herberger von hier und die Mutter der Braut (ein lediges Kind) is Katharina Göppner von Wernstein. (Kopie II)
Als weitere Schwester von Barbara Kraus konnten wir Margaretha Kraus finden, geb am 25. Dez 1838 zu Hutschdorf.
Anna Margaretha Kraus stirbt am 11. Januar 1846 im Alter von 33 Jahren in Hutschdorf.
Jobst Kraus, ihr Ehemann und jetzt Witwer, heiratet ein zweites Mal am 18. Mai 1847, und zwar eine Anna, geb. Rosa, Tochter des Wofgang Rosa, Taglohner zu Gossmannsreuth. Von diesm Ehepaar konnten wir ein Kind finden; Johann Georg Kraus, geb. am 19. Juli 1849.
In diesm gesuchten Zeitraum konnten wir ein anderes Eheparr mit dem Namen Krauss in unserer Kirchengemeinde finden, un zwar in Windischenhaig, das sind Johann Wolfgang und Anna Margaretha Krauss,geb. Pensel aus Porbitsch. Auch von ihnen konnten wir zwei Kinder finden, Barbara, geb. 29. Okt. 1841, und Andreas, geb. 1. Febr. 1845.
Jobst Kraus and Johann Wolfgang Kraus scheinen aber keine Bruder zu sein, also deren Kinder uach keine Cousins!
Des weitern gibt es im fraglichen Zeitraum witere Familien mit dem Namen Kraus/Krauss in unserer Kirchengemeinde. Es is also sehr schwierig, eine Katharina oder Anna Kraus ohne jegilichen Anhaltspunkt einer Jahrezahl, z. B. Geburtsdatum, zu finden, denn auch diese Vornamen sind verbreite. Falls Sie zu diessen von Ihner gesuchten Personen ein Geburtdatum haven, konnen Sie sich gerne nochmals an uns wenden
Wir hoffen, Ihenen mit diesen Informationen ein Stuch weitergeholfen zu haben.
Mi freundlichen Grussen!
Translation
Norma, upon receiving the letter, requested and received the following handwritten translation and cover letter from Anita Perkins of Liberal, Kansas.
Translation of Letter
Applying several electronic translators to the above transcription of the letter, provided the following translation. While this translation is not exactly the same as the handwritten translation, there are no major differences.
Evang.-Luth. Pfarramt Hutschdorf
Hutschdorf 26, den
8656 Thumou
Raifelsenbank Thurnouer Land eG 10863
BLZ 77069739
11.4.1991
Nr 86 Az.
Evang.-Luth. Pfarramt Hutschdorf – 8656 Thumou
Mrs Norma Rauh
422 Myers
Alva, Ok. 73717
USAYour request for genealogical research “Barbara Kraus”
Dear Ms. Rauh!
To your request for genealogical research “Barbara Kraus” we inform you that:
Barbara Kraus was born on 7 May 1842 in Hutschdorf, her parents are Jobst Kraus, a homeowner and day laborer(paid by the day), and Anna Margaretha, born Goeppner, of Wernstien. (Copy I)
The Marriage of Jobst Kraus and Anna Margaretha Goeppner was 13 June 1837. The groom’s father is Johann Kraus, innkeeper from here, and the mother of the bride (an illegitimate child) is Katharina Goeppner of Wernstein. (Copy II)
As another sister of Barbara Kraus we could find Margaretha Kraus, born on 25 December 1838 of Hutschdorf.
Anna Margaretha Kraus died 11 January 1846 at the age of 33 years in Hutschdorf.
Jobst Kraus, her husband and now a widower, married a second time on 18 May 1847, one Anna, nee Rosa, daughter of the Wolfgang Rosa, day laborer in the town of Gössmannsreuth. From this couple we could find a child, Johann Georg Kraus, born on 19 July 1849.
In this time period we could find another couple named Krauss in our church, in Windischenhaig that are Johann Wolfgang and Anna Margaretha Krauss born, Pensel from Pörbitsch. Also, we could find two of their children, Barbara, born 29 October 1841, and Andreas, born 1 February 1845. Here, then, the mother seems to have entered into a second marriage (with a Mr. Krauss), because here are more children.
Jobst Kraus and Johann Wolfgang Kraus but seem to have no brothers or sisters, so no nieces or nephews and no cousins!
The larger time period in question, the more families named Kraus/Krauss are in our church community. It is very difficult to find Katherina or Anna Kraus, without any clue of a year, for example to find birth, because these are common names and are very wide spread. If you have a birth date for the people you are looking for, please feel free to contact us again
We hope to have helped you with this information a bit.
Best Regards!+
Norma’s Conclusion
The following envelope contained the response to a request Norma made for information about Barbara Krause.
Aunt Norma concluded according to her note on the envelope, “I do not think this the right Barbara Krause”,
Norma’s Continued Search
Norma wrote another request to publish an ad for more information on Barbara Krause and family.
From the above letter, Norma thinks Barbara lived in region around Hutschdorf, Bavaria and says that the family story is that Barbara had two sisters who came to the USA, Anna (Schuetz) and Katarina (Krauss). Norma also notes that she sent a letter to the State Archive at Kulmbach and the letter was forwarded to the parish at Hutschdorf. The letter she received from the Hutschdorf parish church does contain information about a Barbara Kraus. But Norma does not believe the information sent was about her Barbara Krause.
Note that Norma has Barbara’s birth date as being 17 May 1842 which is 10 days later than Barbara’s Death Certificate and the above church record. And, Norma has Barbara’s sisters given first names as Anna (Schuetz) and Katarina (Krauss).
No response was found in Aunt Norma’s files to the second request for genealogical information on Barbara Krause.
Conclusions
- Barbara’s birth date (May 7, 1842) given in the above church record is the same as is calculated from our Barbara’s Death Certificate: death date (February 20, 1920) – age at death (77 yr 9 mo 13 da) = birth date: May 7, 1842.
- According to the Bremen Barque Fortuna passenger manifest, Margaretha (Kraus) Schuetz was 23 years old when she immigrated to New York in October 1862. Hence, Margaretha was born about 1839. This closely matches the Hutschdorf birth record date (25 December 1838 ) of Margaretha, daughter of Anna Margaretha (Goeppner) and Jobst Kraus, (Note: The 1870 US Census has that Margaret was born about 1842 which is about 3 years later than her birth record – the census record appears to be wrong.)
- While there is no mention of a daughter named Renada in the letter, Renada’s death certificate lists her father as Jobst Krauss. The birth date, 6 April 1836, as given in Renada’s death certificate is over a year before the marriage of Jobst Kraus and Anna Margaretha Göppner, 13 June 1837. Possibly Jobst had previously been married and Renada is a half sister of Margaretha and Barbara.
- The letter does note that there was a half brother, Johann Georg Kraus, born on 19 July 1849. Barbara and Margaretha’s mother, Anna Margaretha Kraus, died 11 January 1846 in Hutschdorf and their father remarried on 18 May 1847. Hence the brother’s name, Adam, that Norma was given is incorrect.
- The 1870 US Census gives Margaret Schuetz’s daughter names as being Barbara and Anna. Also, in the same census, Renarde Krause’s daughter names are given as Hannah and Catherine. The names (Anna and Catherine) given to Norma for the two sisters were instead the names of their respective younger daughters.
- The wrong names for Barbara’s sisters apparently lead Norma to reject the information in the letter. However, it was due to Norma’s efforts that the connection of Barbara (Kraus) Kirmse to her family in Bavaria was found.


Kara Stanley
Beyond Charismatic Megafauna
While cuddly giants like pandas grab headlines, conservation efforts shouldn’t neglect the countless lesser-known species facing extinction. These “unsung heroes” play vital ecological roles, from pollinating plants to keeping food webs in check. Their loss disrupts entire ecosystems, and their unique adaptations hold potential scientific breakthroughs. Protecting these critically endangered species requires shifting focus beyond charisma, recognizing the interconnectedness of all life on Earth. This further thought will highlight a few species. These are only a drop in the bucket, however, among the numerous species facing extinction.
US Fish and Wildlife – Rusty Patched Bumble bee
World Wildlife Fund – Sumatran Orangutan
BBC News – Extinction alert issued over endangered vaquita porpoise
World Wildlife Fund – Whales (6 out of 13 Great Whale Species are endangered.)