42 How to Test Your Ebooks
Hugh McGuire
Pressbooks helps you create high quality ebooks that meet the industry standards set by the International Digital Publishing Forum (IDPF) and submission requirements of all mainstream ebook retail platforms. Supported ebook formats on Pressbooks include EPUB 2 and MOBI. EPUB 3 files are also available in beta format.
Before you submit your ebook files for publication, we highly recommend testing your files on a few common ebook platforms. Read on for a list of recommended ebook testing tools.
Free Ebook Testing Tools
The ugly non-secret of ebooks is that they look different on just about every platform. No matter whether its Kindle or iBooks or Nook or Kobo or some other reading platform, you should expect some variation in the reading experience. Pressbooks works hard to standardize the design of your ebooks, but if you want to know exactly how your book will look after it’s available for purchase, we suggest downloading your ebook files and viewing them on a few of the free ebook reading tools listed below.
- Adobe Digital Editions
ADE is Adobe’s free desktop EPUB reader. Since ADE was one of the first widely accepted ebook-reading technologies available, it’s used to power a lot of different services’ ebook platforms. How your book looks on ADE is a good indicator of how it will look elsewhere. - Kindle Previewer
Amazon Kindle requires that ebooks are created in their own proprietary format: MOBI. Likewise, the MOBI format is only compatible with one testing tool: Kindle Previewer. If you’re testing your MOBI files, Kindle Previewer can show you what your ebook will look like in tablet, phone, or ereader format. It also allows you to modify the display with the same settings available on the Kindle ereader software. NOTE: We do not recommend uploading your MOBI files from your desktop directly to your Kindle or Kindle mobile app. See more information below. - Apple Books
Apple Books is an ebook reading application available on all iPhones by default. It can also be used to read ebooks on MacBook computers, on iPads, and on the iPod Touch. This software is free, but can only be downloaded if you have an Apple device. - Rakuten Kobo
Kobo is another common ebook reader. You can download the Kobo application on your phone to view your EPUB files. It’s also possible to transfer your EPUB files directly from your desktop to your Kobo device. - Dropbox
Dropbox is a great tool to let you access files from multiple devices — drop your EPUB file into a folder in dropbox, and then you can access it from any device. - IDPF Validator
The International Digital Publishing Forum maintains a tool that allows you to “validate” your EPUB, or make sure that the file conforms to globally accepted standards and specifications required by all ebook platforms. EPUB files with validation errors may be rejected from ebook retailers, which is why we recommend either testing your files with IDPF or enabling Pressbooks error reports before you submit your files for publication. Read on for more details.
Testing MOBI Files on Your Apple Device
If you try to upload your MOBI file directly to your iPhone or iPad, what you see probably won’t look very good. However, that same file sold through the Amazon Kindle bookstore will look the way you designed it. This is why we don’t recommend testing MOBI files on any software other than Kindle Previewer: results can be misleading if files aren’t viewed the right way.
Pressbooks uses Amazon’s Kindlegen software to create a MOBI file from the original EPUB file. Since Amazon created the MOBI format and is the only distribution service that uses it, the tools and devices that can be used to view a MOBI format are entirely controlled by Amazon and are fairly limited when compared with the EPUB format.
In addition, the process of creating a MOBI file actually involves bundling two files together: a KF8 file and a MOBI7 file.
The KF8 file is used in all modern Kindle applications and devices, with the exception of devices running Apple iOS.
The MOBI7 file is used only on outdated Kindle e-ink devices; it’s a very limited format and doesn’t support many of the styles offered in Pressbooks.
Now, you’re wondering: if KF8 doesn’t work for iOS, and MOBI7 files are limited, what happens to ebooks on Apple devices?
The answer is that when you submit your MOBI file to Kindle, they create a third proprietary file format called AZK. Since AZK files aren’t generated by Kindlegen, they can’t packaged with your original MOBI file when it’s exported from Pressbooks. This means your MOBI file won’t be compatible with iOS devices until it’s been uploaded and sold through Kindle. Uploading your MOBI file to an IPad or iPhone will show you the MOBI7 file we described above, which means only basic styling will be visible.
The AZK version of your ebook should look the same as the KF8 version of your ebook, which is the version you’ll see when you upload your file to Kindle Previewer.
Ebook Validation Logs & Error Reports
There’s a difference between testing your ebooks for design and testing them for functionality. The majority of the tools listed above will help you test for design. You can use them to see what your ebook will look like on distributor platforms and get a pretty good idea of the reading experience your book will offer. When testing on Kindle Previewer, or Apple Books, or Adobe Digital Editions, you’ll want to keep an eye on things like fonts, colors, and margins.
Testing for functionality involves making sure that your book meets all the technical specifications required for submission to distribution services. That means that all the correct metadata has been included, that there aren’t issues with how your images have been embedded, and that all your internal links have been set up correctly.
By default, ebooks created on Pressbooks are built to conform to these specifications. However, the content that you import into Pressbooks may introduce validation errors that Pressbooks is unable to resolve automatically.
The last of the tools listed above, the IDPF Validator, does help you test your EPUB files for functionality. You can also receive error reports from Pressbooks automatically by following these steps:
- Go to Settings > Export from the left sidebar menu of your book’s dashboard
- Find the Email Validation Logs setting and change it from “No. Ignore validation errors” to “Yes. Email me validation error logs on export”
- Click Save Changes
Pressbooks will then scan your files for validation errors every time you export a fresh set. If a validation error is found, the error will be flagged on the export screen, and a report will be sent to the email associated with your Pressbooks account. If you need help figuring out what the error report says, check out our Validation Logs chapter.


47 RISP Clinical Probation
Probationary actions are recommended to the Program Director by a faculty member or may be activated by the student’s academic or clinical performance. When probationary actions occur, the student will be counseled and notified of the action, the length of probation, and the action(s) necessary to be removed from probation. Failure to comply with the remedial actions outlined in that notification will result in the dismissal of the student from the program.
Examples of situations in which student may be placed on clinical probation include, but are not limited to:
- Failure to perform at a minimum technical competency level as identified in the course syllabus
- Unexcused or excessive clinical absences
- Excessive tardiness in clinic
- Excessive pattern of poor behavior
- Failure to follow RISP Clinical Policies & Procedures
- HIPAA violations
- Inappropriate use of radiation
- Poor interpersonal skills, including breaches of civility toward others, and language barriers
- Lack of professionalism
- Academic misconduct
- Clinical practice performed without appropriate supervision
Students on clinical probation are prohibited from participating in any professional development activities that take them away from the clinical setting (i.e. RNSA trip, conferences, etc.) unless they have submitted a letter of petition to the Clinical Coordinator ten days prior to the event. This petition must be reviewed by the faculty and subsequently, the faculty will grant or deny the request within five days of submission.
Letter of Petition Guidelines
- Must clearly and thoroughly explain the reason for the request as well as the activity in which you wish to participate
- Must include a brief summary explaining why the student feels it is important to attend the requested event/activity
- Should demonstrate your semester progress with clinical course requirements that proves the student will not fall behind in the semester as a result of attending the event/activity
- Must demonstrate how the inappropriate behavior has been improved
Students should remember, it is a privilege to attend all scheduled events and activities outside of clinic and class. A clear, respectful, and well throughout petition letter should be written as a way to convince the faculty why attending the event/activities should be approved considering the student has failed to follow program policies effectively in the past. The petition letter should be ½ to 1 full-page and include very detailed information, which explains the justification for approving the student’s absence from clinic.


Trolltown, USA
50 Carved Troll
Carved Troll
American
Mike Feeney, c. 1990
Wood (log)
Loan, Mount Horeb Chamber of Commerce
(IMAGE UNDER COPYRIGHT, CANNOT USE)
Carved from a single tree stump, the “Treasure Chest Troll” created by sculptor Mike Feeney represents the evolution of Mount Horeb’s troll theme. Beginning with his first Main Street creation in 1988, Feeney captures the relationship between the uncharacteristically friendly trolls introduced by earlier Mount Horeb artists and this mythical creature’s traditional connection with the natural world. Feeney’s trolls, some of which are based on actual town residents, harbor distinct and unique personalities.


69 Reading: Art in the Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The art of the Italian Renaissance was influential throughout Europe for centuries.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
- The Florence school of painting became the dominant style during the Renaissance. Renaissance artworks depicted more secular subject matter than previous artistic movements.
- Michelangelo, da Vinci, and Rafael are among the best known painters of the High Renaissance.
- The High Renaissance was followed by the Mannerist movement, known for elongated figures.
Key Terms
- fresco: A type of wall painting in which color pigments are mixed with water and applied to wet plaster. As the plaster and pigments dry, they fuse together and the painting becomes a part of the wall itself.
- Mannerism: A style of art developed at the end of the High Renaissance, characterized by the deliberate distortion and exaggeration of perspective, especially the elongation of figures.
The Renaissance began during the 14th century and remained the dominate style in Italy, and in much of Europe, until the 16th century. The term “renaissance” was developed during the 19th century in order to describe this period of time and its accompanying artistic style. However, people who were living during the Renaissance did see themselves as different from their Medieval predecessors. Through a variety of texts that survive, we know that people living during the Renaissance saw themselves as different largely because they were deliberately trying to imitate the Ancients in art and architecture.
Florence and the Renaissance
When you hear the term “Renaissance” and picture a style of art, you are probably picturing the Renaissance style that was developed in Florence, which became the dominate style of art during the Renaissance. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Italy was divided into a number of different city states. Each city state had its own government, culture, economy, and artistic style. There were many different styles of art and architecture that were developed in Italy during the Renaissance. Siena, which was a political ally of France, for example, retained a Gothic element to its art for much of the Renaissance.
Certain conditions aided the development of the Renaissance style in Florence during this time period. In the 15th century, Florence became a major mercantile center. The production of cloth drove their economy and a merchant class emerged. Humanism, which had developed during the 14th century, remained an important intellectual movement that impacted art production as well.
Early Renaissance
During the Early Renaissance, artists began to reject the Byzantine style of religious painting and strove to create realism in their depiction of the human form and space. This aim toward realism began with Cimabue and Giotto, and reached its peak in the art of the “Perfect” artists, such as Andrea Mantegna and Paolo Uccello, who created works that employed one point perspective and played with perspective for their educated, art knowledgeable viewer.
During the Early Renaissance we also see important developments in subject matter, in addition to style. While religion was an important element in the daily life of people living during the Renaissance, and remained a driving factor behind artistic production, we also see a new avenue open to panting—mythological subject matter. Many scholars point to Botticelli’s Birth of Venus as the very first panel painting of a mythological scene. While the tradition itself likely arose from cassone painting, which typically featured scenes from mythology and romantic texts, the development of mythological panel painting would open a world for artistic patronage, production, and themes.
High Renaissance
The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the Early Renaissance, namely the realistic representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most well known artists from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian, and Michelangelo. Their paintings and frescoes are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Da Vinci’s Last Supper, Raphael’s The School of Athens and Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling paintings are the masterpieces of this period and embody the elements of the High Renaissance.
Mannerism
High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of High Renaissance, tended to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong, often religious, emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael’s pupil, Giulio Romano.
Art and Patronage
The Medici family used their vast fortune to control the Florentine political system and sponsor a series of artistic accomplishments.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss the relationship between art, patronage, and politics during the Renaissance
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
- Although the Renaissance was underway before the Medici family came to power in Florence, their patronage and political support of the arts helped catalyze the Renaissance into a fully fledged cultural movement.
- The Medici wealth and influence initially derived from the textile trade guided by the guild of the Arte della Lana; through financial superiority, the Medici dominated their city’s government.
- Medici patronage was responsible for the majority of Florentine art during their reign, as artists generally only made their works when they received commissions in advance.
- Although none of the Medici themselves were scientists, the family is well known to have been the patrons of the famous Galileo Galilei, who tutored multiple generations of Medici children.
Key Terms
- Lorenzo de’ Medici: An Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic, who was one of the most powerful and enthusiastic patrons of the Renaissance.
- patronage: The support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another, especially in the arts.
Overview
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449–1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti. Works by Neri di Bicci, Botticelli, da Vinci, and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned additionally by the convent di San Donato agli Scopeti of the Augustinians order in Florence.
The Medici House Patronage
The House of Medici was an Italian banking family, political dynasty, and later royal house that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de’ Medici in the Republic of Florence during the first half of the 15th century. Their wealth and influence initially derived from the textile trade guided by the guild of the Arte della Lana. Like other signore families, they dominated their city’s government, they were able to bring Florence under their family’s power, and they created an environment where art and Humanism could flourish. They, along with other families of Italy, such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, and the Gonzaga of Mantua, fostered and inspired the birth of the Italian Renaissance.
The biggest accomplishments of the Medici were in the sponsorship of art and architecture, mainly early and High Renaissance art and architecture. The Medici were responsible for the majority of Florentine art during their reign. Their money was significant because during this period, artists generally only made their works when they received commissions in advance. Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, the first patron of the arts in the family, aided Masaccio and commissioned Brunelleschi for the reconstruction of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence, in 1419. Cosimo the Elder’s notable artistic associates were Donatello and Fra Angelico. The most significant addition to the list over the years was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564), who produced work for a number of Medici, beginning with Lorenzo the Magnificent, who was said to be extremely fond of the young Michelangelo, inviting him to study the family collection of antique sculpture. Lorenzo also served as patron of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) for seven years. Indeed, Lorenzo was an artist in his own right, and an author of poetry and song; his support of the arts and letters is seen as a high point in Medici patronage.
In architecture, the Medici are responsible for some notable features of Florence, including the Uffizi Gallery, the Boboli Gardens, the Belvedere, the Medici Chapel, and the Palazzo Medici. Later, in Rome, the Medici Popes continued in the family tradition by patronizing artists in Rome. Pope Leo X would chiefly commission works from Raphael. Pope Clement VII commissioned Michelangelo to paint the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel just before the pontiff’s death in 1534. Eleanor of Toledo, princess of Spain and wife of Cosimo I the Great, purchased the Pitti Palace from Buonaccorso Pitti in 1550. Cosimo in turn patronized Vasari, who erected the Uffizi Gallery in 1560 and founded the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno (“Academy of the Arts of Drawing”) in 1563. Marie de’ Medici, widow of Henry IV of France and mother of Louis XIII, is the subject of a commissioned cycle of paintings known as the Marie de’ Medici cycle, painted for the Luxembourg Palace by court painter Peter Paul Rubens in 1622–1623.
Although none of the Medici themselves were scientists, the family is well known to have been the patrons of the famous Galileo Galilei, who tutored multiple generations of Medici children and was an important figurehead for his patron’s quest for power. Galileo’s patronage was eventually abandoned by Ferdinando II when the Inquisition accused Galileo of heresy. However, the Medici family did afford the scientist a safe haven for many years. Galileo named the four largest moons of Jupiter after four Medici children he tutored, although the names Galileo used are not the names currently used.
Leonardo da Vinci
While Leonardo da Vinci is admired as a scientist, an academic, and an inventor, he is most famous for his achievements as the painter of several Renaissance masterpieces.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the works of Leonardo da Vinci that demonstrate his most innovative techniques as an artist
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
- Among the qualities that make da Vinci’s work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, and his use of sfumato.
- Among the most famous works created by da Vinci is the small portrait titled the Mona Lisa, known for the elusive smile on the woman’s face, brought about by the fact that da Vinci subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined.
- Despite his famous paintings, da Vinci was not a prolific painter; he was a prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that interested him.
Key Terms
- sfumato: In painting, the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition between colors, tones, and often objects.
While Leonardo da Vinci is greatly admired as a scientist, an academic, and an inventor, he is most famous for his achievements as the painter of several Renaissance masterpieces. His paintings were groundbreaking for a variety of reasons and his works have been imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics.
Among the qualities that make da Vinci’s work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his use of the human form in figurative composition, and his use of sfumato. All of these qualities are present in his most celebrated works, the Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and the Virgin of the Rocks.
The Last Supper
Da Vinci’s most celebrated painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, which was painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting depicts the last meal shared by Jesus and the 12 Apostles where he announces that one of the them will betray him. When finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design. This work demonstrates something that da Vinci did very well: taking a very traditional subject matter, such as the Last Supper, and completely re-inventing it.
Prior to this moment in art history, every representation of the Last Supper followed the same visual tradition: Jesus and the Apostles seated at a table. Judas is placed on the opposite side of the table of everyone else and is effortlessly identified by the viewer. When da Vinci painted The Last Supper he placed Judas on the same side of the table as Christ and the Apostles, who are shown reacting to Jesus as he announces that one of them will betray him. They are depicted as alarmed, upset, and trying to determine who will commit the act. The viewer also has to determine which figure is Judas, who will betray Christ. By depicting the scene in this manner, da Vinci has infused psychology into the work.
Unfortunately, this masterpiece of the Renaissance began to deteriorate immediately after da Vinci finished painting, due largely to the painting technique that he had chosen. Instead of using the technique of fresco, da Vinci had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso in an attempt to bring the subtle effects of oil paint to fresco. His new technique was not successful, and resulted in a surface that was subject to mold and flaking.
Mona Lisa
Among the works created by da Vinci in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa, or La Gioconda, “the laughing one.” In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman’s face—its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined.
The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called sfumato, the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition between colors, tones, and often objects. Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic landscape background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the subdued coloring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but applied much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. And again, da Vinci is innovating upon a type of painting here. Portraits were very common in the Renaissance. However, portraits of women were always in profile, which was seen as proper and modest.
Virgin and Child with St. Anne
In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne, da Vinci’s composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St. Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This painting influenced many contemporaries, including Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto. The trends in its composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese.
Michelangelo
Michelangelo was a 16th century Florentine artist renowned for his masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architectural design.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss Michelangelo’s achievements in sculpture, painting, and architecture
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
- Michelangelo created his colossal marble statue, the David, out of a single block of marble, which established his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination.
- In painting, Michelangelo is renowned for the ceiling and The Last Judgement of the Sistine Chapel, where he depicted a complex scheme representing Creation, the Downfall of Man, the Salvation of Man, and the Genealogy of Christ.
- Michelangelo’s chief contribution to Saint Peter’s Basilica was the use of a Greek Cross form and an external masonry of massive proportions, with every corner filled in by a stairwell or small vestry. The effect is a continuous wall-surface that appears fractured or folded at different angles.
Key Terms
- contrapposto: The standing position of a human figure where most of the weight is placed on one foot, and the other leg is relaxed. The effect of contrapposto in art makes figures look very naturalistic.
- Sistine Chapel: The best-known chapel in the Apostolic Palace.
Michelangelo was a 16th century Florentine artist renowned for his masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architectural design. His most well known works are the David, the Last Judgment, and the Basilica of Saint Peter’s in the Vatican.
Sculpture: David
In 1504, Michelangelo was commissioned to create a colossal marble statue portraying David as a symbol of Florentine freedom. The subsequent masterpiece, David, established the artist’s prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination. David was created out of a single marble block, and stands larger than life, as it was originally intended to adorn the Florence Cathedral. The work differs from previous representations in that the Biblical hero is not depicted with the head of the slain Goliath, as he is in Donatello’s and Verrocchio’s statues; both had represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath. No earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. Instead of appearing victorious over a foe, David’s face looks tense and ready for combat. The tendons in his neck stand out tautly, his brow is furrowed, and his eyes seem to focus intently on something in the distance. Veins bulge out of his lowered right hand, but his body is in a relaxed contrapposto pose, and he carries his sling casually thrown over his left shoulder. In the Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture.
The sculpture was intended to be placed on the exterior of the Duomo, and has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture.
Painting: The Last Judgement
In painting, Michelangelo is renowned for his work in the Sistine Chapel. He was originally commissioned to paint tromp-l’oeil coffers after the original ceiling developed a crack. Michelangelo lobbied for a different and more complex scheme, representing Creation, the Downfall of Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the Genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel that represents much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church.
The composition eventually contained over 300 figures, and had at its center nine episodes from the Book of Genesis, divided into three groups: God’s Creation of the Earth, God’s Creation of Humankind, and their fall from God’s grace, and lastly, the state of Humanity as represented by Noah and his family. Twelve men and women who prophesied the coming of the Jesus are painted on the pendentives supporting the ceiling. Among the most famous paintings on the ceiling are The Creation of Adam, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the Great Flood, the Prophet Isaiah and the Cumaean Sibyl. The ancestors of Christ are painted around the windows.
The fresco of The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel was commissioned by Pope Clement VII, and Michelangelo labored on the project from 1536–1541. The work is located on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, which is not a traditional placement for the subject. Typically, last judgement scenes were placed on the exit wall of churches as a way to remind the viewer of eternal punishments as they left worship. The Last Judgment is a depiction of the second coming of Christ and the apocalypse; where the souls of humanity rise and are assigned to their various fates, as judged by Christ, surrounded by the Saints. In contrast to the earlier figures Michelangelo painted on the ceiling, the figures in The Last Judgement are heavily muscled and are in much more artificial poses, demonstrating how this work is in the Mannerist style.
In this work Michelangelo has rejected the orderly depiction of the last judgement as established by Medieval tradition in favor of a swirling scene of chaos as each soul is judged. When the painting was revealed it was heavily criticized for its inclusion of classical imagery as well as for the amount of nude figures in somewhat suggestive poses. The ill reception that the work received may be tied to the Counter Reformation and the Council of Trent, which lead to a preference for more conservative religious art devoid of classical references. Although a number of figures were made more modest with the addition of drapery, the changes were not made until after the death of Michelangelo, demonstrating the respect and admiration that was afforded to him during his lifetime.
Architecture: St. Peter’s Basilica
Finally, although other architects were involved, Michelangelo is given credit for designing St. Peter’s Basilica. Michelangelo’s chief contribution was the use of a symmetrical plan of a Greek Cross form and an external masonry of massive proportions, with every corner filled in by a stairwell or small vestry. The effect is of a continuous wall surface that is folded or fractured at different angles, lacking the right angles that usually define change of direction at the corners of a building. This exterior is surrounded by a giant order of Corinthian pilasters all set at slightly different angles to each other, in keeping with the ever-changing angles of the wall’s surface. Above them the huge cornice ripples in a continuous band, giving the appearance of keeping the whole building in a state of compression.
Mannerism
Mannerist artists began to reject the harmony and ideal proportions of the Renaissance in favor of irrational settings, artificial colors, unclear subject matters, and elongated forms.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the Mannerist style, how it differs from the Renaissance, and reasons why it emerged.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
- Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque.
- The artists who came a generation after Raphael and Michelangelo had a dilemma. They could not surpass the great works that had already been created by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. This is when we start to see Mannerism emerge.
- Jacopo da Pontormo (1494–1557) represents the shift from the Renaissance to the Mannerist style.
Key Terms
- Mannerism: Style of art in Europe from c. 1520–1600. Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque. Not every artist painting during this period is considered a Mannerist artist.
Mannerism is the name given to a style of art in Europe from c. 1520–1600. Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque. Not every artist painting during this period is considered a Mannerist artist, however, and there is much debate among scholars over whether Mannerism should be considered a separate movement from the High Renaissance, or a stylistic phase of the High Renaissance. Mannerism will be treated as a separate art movement here as there are many differences between the High Renaissance and the Mannerist styles.
Style
What makes a work of art Mannerist? First we must understand the ideals and goals of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance artists were engaging with classical antiquity in a new way. In addition, they developed theories on perspective, and in all ways strived to create works of art that were perfect, harmonious, and showed ideal depictions of the natural world. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo are considered the artists who reached the greatest achievements in art during the Renaissance.
The Renaissance stressed harmony and beauty and no one could create more beautiful works than the great three artists listed above. The artists who came a generation after had a dilemma; they could not surpass the great works that had already been created by da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. This is when we start to see Mannerism emerge. Younger artists trying to do something new and different began to reject harmony and ideal proportions in favor of irrational settings, artificial colors, unclear subject matters, and elongated forms.
Jacopo da Pontormo
Jacopo da Pontormo (1494–1557) represents the shift from the Renaissance to the Mannerist style. Take for example his Deposition from the Cross, an altarpiece that was painted for a chapel in the Church of Santa Felicita, Florence. The figures of Mary and Jesus appear to be a direct reference to Michelangelo’s Pieta. Although the work is called a “Deposition,” there is no cross. Scholars also refer to this work as the “Entombment” but there is no tomb. This lack of clarity on subject matter is a hallmark of Mannerist painting. In addition, the setting is irrational, almost as if it is not in this world, and the colors are far from naturalistic. This work could not have been produced by a Renaissance artist. The Mannerist movement stresses different goals and this work of art by Pontormo demonstrates this new, and different style.


Additional Resources
You may find these resources helpful to review for your own learning as a facilitator or to include in your trainings.
- 6 Ways to Engage with GBV Prevention Education Online + Resources. (blog post, June 2020)
- “Be More Than A Bystander” Campaign, Ending Violence Association of BC.
- Bringing in the Bystander (Online): UVic’s Bystander Intervention Training, Participant Workbook (2020).
- Decolonizing the Roots of Rape Culture: reflections on consent, sexual violence and university campuses. (podcast and paper) (Sarah Hunt, 2016)
- Online Bystander Intervention Project, Gender Equity Victoria. (Australia)
- Online Harassment Field Manual, PEN America.
- Plain Language Best Practices: Sexualized Violence Policies and Procedures: A Model for BC Post-secondary Institutions, West Coast Editorial Associates. (BCcampus)
- Reducing Assault On Campus: Technology and Bystander Intervention, Men Can Stop Rape.
- Responding to a Sexual Assault Disclosure: Practice Tips for Universities & Colleges, Ending Violence Association of BC. (2016)
- Understanding Rape Culture (infographic), Violence Against Women Learning Network, Western University.


Presenting Data – Graphs and Tables
Types of Data
There are different types of data that can be collected in an experiment. Typically, we try to design experiments that collect objective, quantitative data.
Objective data is fact-based, measurable, and observable. This means that if two people made the same measurement with the same tool, they would get the same answer. The measurement is determined by the object that is being measured. The length of a worm measured with a ruler is an objective measurement. The observation that a chemical reaction in a test tube changed color is an objective measurement. Both of these are observable facts.
Subjective data is based on opinions, points of view, or emotional judgment. Subjective data might give two different answers when collected by two different people. The measurement is determined by the subject who is doing the measuring. Surveying people about which of two chemicals smells worse is a subjective measurement. Grading the quality of a presentation is a subjective measurement. Rating your relative happiness on a scale of 1-5 is a subjective measurement. All of these depend on the person who is making the observation – someone else might make these measurements differently.
Quantitative measurements gather numerical data. For example, measuring a worm as being 5cm in length is a quantitative measurement.
Qualitative measurements describe a quality, rather than a numerical value. Saying that one worm is longer than another worm is a qualitative measurement.
| Quantitative | Qualitative | |
| Objective | The chemical reaction has produced 5cm of bubbles. | The chemical reaction has produced a lot of bubbles. |
| Subjective | I give the amount of bubbles a score of 7 on a scale of 1-10. | I think the bubbles are pretty. |
After you have collected data in an experiment, you need to figure out the best way to present that data in a meaningful way. Depending on the type of data, and the story that you are trying to tell using that data, you may present your data in different ways.
Data Tables
The easiest way to organize data is by putting it into a data table. In most data tables, the independent variable (the variable that you are testing or changing on purpose) will be in the column to the left and the dependent variable(s) will be across the top of the table.
Be sure to:
- Label each row and column so that the table can be interpreted
- Include the units that are being used
- Add a descriptive caption for the table
Example
You are evaluating the effect of different types of fertilizers on plant growth. You plant 12 tomato plants and divide them into three groups, where each group contains four plants. To the first group, you do not add fertilizer and the plants are watered with plain water. The second and third groups are watered with two different brands of fertilizer. After three weeks, you measure the growth of each plant in centimeters and calculate the average growth for each type of fertilizer.
| Treatment | Plant Number | ||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Average | |
| No treatment | 10 | 12 | 8 | 9 | 9.75 |
| Brand A | 15 | 16 | 14 | 12 | 14.25 |
| Brand B | 22 | 25 | 21 | 27 | 23.75 |
Scientific Method Review: Can you identify the key parts of the scientific method from this experiment?
- Independent variable – Type of treatment (brand of fertilizer)
- Dependent variable – plant growth in cm
- Control group(s) – Plants treated with no fertilizer
- Experimental group(s) – Plants treated with different brands of fertilizer
Graphing data
Graphs are used to display data because it is easier to see trends in the data when it is displayed visually compared to when it is displayed numerically in a table. Complicated data can often be displayed and interpreted more easily in a graph format than in a data table.
In a graph, the X-axis runs horizontally (side to side) and the Y-axis runs vertically (up and down). Typically, the independent variable will be shown on the X axis and the dependent variable will be shown on the Y axis (just like you learned in math class!).
Line Graph
Line graphs are the best type of graph to use when you are displaying a change in something over a continuous range. For example, you could use a line graph to display a change in temperature over time. Time is a continuous variable because it can have any value between two given measurements. It is measured along a continuum. Between 1 minute and 2 minutes are an infinite number of values, such as 1.1 minute or 1.93456 minutes.
Changes in several different samples can be shown on the same graph by using lines that differ in color, symbol, etc.
Bar Graph
Bar graphs are used to compare measurements between different groups. Bar graphs should be used when your data is not continuous, but rather is divided into different categories. If you counted the number of birds of different species, each species of bird would be its own category. There is no value between “robin” and “eagle”, so this data is not continuous.
Scatter Plot
Scatter Plots are used to evaluate the relationship between two different continuous variables. These graphs compare changes in two different variables at once. For example, you could look at the relationship between height and weight. Both height and weight are continuous variables. You could not use a scatter plot to look at the relationship between number of children in a family and weight of each child because the number of children in a family is not a continuous variable: you can’t have 2.3 children in a family.
How to make a graph
- Identify your independent and dependent variables.
- Choose the correct type of graph by determining whether each variable is continuous or not.
- Determine the values that are going to go on the X and Y axis. If the values are continuous, they need to be evenly spaced based on the value.
- Label the X and Y axis, including units.
- Graph your data.
- Add a descriptive caption to your graph. Note that data tables are titled above the figure and graphs are captioned below the figure.
Example
Let’s go back to the data from our fertilizer experiment and use it to make a graph. I’ve decided to graph only the average growth for the four plants because that is the most important piece of data. Including every single data point would make the graph very confusing.
- The independent variable is type of treatment and the dependent variable is plant growth (in cm).
- Type of treatment is not a continuous variable. There is no midpoint value between fertilizer brands (Brand A 1/2 doesn’t make sense). Plant growth is a continuous variable. It makes sense to sub-divide centimeters into smaller values. Since the independent variable is categorical and the dependent variable is continuous, this graph should be a bar graph.
- Plant growth (the dependent variable) should go on the Y axis and type of treatment (the independent variable) should go on the X axis.
- Notice that the values on the Y axis are continuous and evenly spaced. Each line represents an increase of 5cm.
- Notice that both the X and the Y axis have labels that include units (when required).
- Notice that the graph has a descriptive caption that allows the figure to stand alone without additional information given from the procedure: you know that this graph shows the average of the measurements taken from four tomato plants.
Descriptive captions
All figures that present data should stand alone – this means that you should be able to interpret the information contained in the figure without referring to anything else (such as the methods section of the paper). This means that all figures should have a descriptive caption that gives information about the independent and dependent variable. Another way to state this is that the caption should describe what you are testing and what you are measuring. A good starting point to developing a caption is “the effect of [the independent variable] on the [dependent variable].”
Here are some examples of good caption for figures:
- The effect of exercise on heart rate
- Growth rates of E. coli at different temperatures
- The relationship between heat shock time and transformation efficiency
Here are a few less effective captions:
- Heart rate and exercise
- Graph of E. coli temperature growth
- Table for experiment 1


5 Conservation Practices for Shorelines, Streams, and Wetlands
Colby Moorberg; Allison Aubert; Eric Brevik; Isaiah Euler; Teddy Gillespie; Brooke Hogan; Megan Owens; and Daniel Stich
Abbreviations
PDF – Portable Document Format
NC – North Carolina
NRCS – Natural Resources Conservation Service
SWCS – Soil and Water Conservation Society
URL – Uniform Resource Locator
US – United States
USACE – US Army Corps of Engineers
USDA – US Department of Agriculture
USFWS – US Fish and Wildlife Service
Streambank, Shoreline, and Coastal Protection
Broome, S. 2015. Restoration and Management of Coastal Dune Vegetation. Raleigh, NC: NC State University. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/restoration-and-management-of-coastal-dune-vegetation.
Coastal dunes perform many functions, protecting low-lying areas, acting as barriers against storm surge and waves, and providing habitat to migratory birds and other animals. This extension bulletin from North Carolina State University describes these functions of beach-dune systems. It focuses primarily on beach dune restoration, including grasses, fertilization, construction, and protection.
National Research Council. 2007. Chapter 3 Methods for Addressing Erosion. In Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, 44–77. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. https://www.nap.edu/read/11764/chapter/5.
This chapter from Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts focuses on strategies for limiting erosion on shorelines. The strategies can be grouped into soft and hard methods of conservation. Soft methods described in this chapter include managing land use, vegetation, marshland, seagrass, and vegetated dunes. Hardened structures described include bulkheads, seawalls, revetments, breakwalls, and sills. Strategies to trap or add sand are also discussed in detail, including beach nourishment, groins, and breakwaters, among others. The chapter then provides design elements and criteria for implementing conservation practices on shores and coasts.
USDA NRCS. 1996. Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection. In Engineering Field Handbook, 143. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21429
Chapter 16 of the Engineering Field Handbook from the USDA NRCS provides technical details for streambank and shoreline protection practices. This chapter should help engineers determine appropriate measures to minimize streambank and shoreline erosion.
USDA NRCS. 2010. Streambank and Shoreline Protection. Conservation Practice Standard 580. 4. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1046931.pdf.
This conservation practice standard overview defines streambank and shoreline protection as applying structural or vegetative measures to protect and stabilize banks of streams, lakes, estuaries, or excavated channels. This standard includes the purpose of the practice, conditions where it applies, criteria, considerations, plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2012. Streambank and Shoreline Protection. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 580. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1255166.pdf.
This document defines streambank and shoreline protection as applying structural or vegetative measures that protect and stabilize banks of streams, lakes, estuaries, or excavated channels. The USDA NRCS provides a general overview of the practice and closes by listing conservation practices commonly associated with streambank and shoreline protection. Those practices include riparian forest buffers, riparian herbaceous buffers, fences, channel bed stabilization, and open channels.
Stream Conservation
Allen, H. H., and J. R. Leech. 1997. Bioengineering for Streambank Erosion Control. Report 1 – Guidelines. 105. Vicksburg, MS: USACE, Waterways Experiment Station. http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA326294.
This report from the USACE outlines bioengineering of streams to prevent streambank erosion. Bioengineering streams requires using living organisms like trees and other plantings along streams to protect the stream from erosion instead of using rip rap and other expensive, hard engineering practices. The report synthesizes bioengineering applications and provides preliminary planning and design guidelines for eroded streambanks. This document can be used as a guide to bioengineering projects but should not be used as a cookbook. The guidelines include the scope of the practices and details on planning, hard structures, and bioengineering, bioengineering by zones, bioengineering treatments, and velocities. It also outlines plant acquisition, handling, and timing of planting, as well as information about monitoring, aftercare, and costs.
EPA. 2015, September 15. Hydromodification and Habitat Alteration: National Management Measures. https://www.epa.gov/nps/hydromodification-and-habitat-alteration-national-management-measures.
The EPA developed this document to guide implementation of hydromodification projects to reduce surface and groundwater pollution from nonpoint sources.
EPA Office of Water, O. 2016, September 14. Stream Corridor Restoration Tools. https://www.epa.gov/watershedacademy/stream-corridor-restoration-tools.
This web page provides an index to the eleven sections of the Watershed Technology Electronic Catalog. The Watershed Technology Electronic Catalog contains media and text on 150 watershed management practices. This resource gives watershed managers and restoration practitioners a starting point for restoration design projects. These design products should be modified to fit individual projects by skilled professionals after in depth site analysis and planning.
Iowa Department of Natural Resources, and USDA NRCS. 2006. How to Control Streambank Erosion. http://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/water/stormwater/streambankmanual.pdf
This manual from the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, published in cooperation with the USDA NRCS, addresses controlling streambank erosion. It describes in detail several control methods that are most applicable in Iowa and other midwestern states. The manual primarily focuses on bioengineering methods and is not a technical manual but a planning aid for streambank protection projects. The URL leads a direct download of a PDF.
Channel Bed Stabilization
USDA NRCS. 2015. Channel Bed Stabilization. Conservation Practice Standard 584. 3. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=stelprdb1255169&ext=pdf.
In this conservation practice standard, the USDA NRCS describes how to stabilize stream channel beds. The standard includes conditions where the practice could be applied and what should be considered when attempting streambed stabilization. It also includes details for plans and specifications and operations and maintenance. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2015. Channel Bed Stabilization. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 584. Practice Introduction. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=nrcs143_026241&ext=pdf.
This overview from the USDA NRCS provides a brief summary of channel bed stabilization, describing how and under what circumstances channel beds should be altered for stabilization, as well including a few parameters and precautions. It has a list of conservation practices commonly associated with channel bed stabilization, including streambank and shoreline protection, clearing and snagging, and open channel. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Filter Strips
Grimser, M. E., A. T. O’Geen, and D. Lewis. 2006. Vegetative Filter Strips for Nonpoint Source Pollution Control in Agriculture. 7. Oakland, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. https://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/Details.aspx?itemNo=8195#FullDescription.
This extension bulletin from the University of California provides a general overview of vegetative filter strips. Design considerations are described, and examples of pollutant removal efficiency are provided in table format. An example design for an irrigated farming operation are provided. This bulletin caters to horticultural crop producers, farm managers, and practitioners.
Smyth, A., R. Muñoz-Carpena, and Y. Li. 2015. Vegetative Filter Strips–A Best Management Practice for Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution. Extension Bulletin SL432. 5. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences Extension. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss646.
This extension publication from the University of Florida gives a concise description of vegetative filter strips and provides an overview of the primary functions, design factors, and effectiveness for removing emerging pollutants. A number of figures help convey the main points presented in the bulletin.
USDA NRCS. 2016b. Filter Strips. Conservation Practice Standard 393. 4. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1241319.pdf.
This conservation standard practice defines filter strips as an area of vegetation established for removing organic material, sediment, and other pollutants from wastewater and runoff. The standard includes information on the purpose of filter strips, conditions where the practice applies, criteria, considerations, plans, and specifications, as well as information on operation and maintenance. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2016a. Filter Strips. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 393. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=nrcs143_025826&ext=pdf.
This conservation practice standard gives an overview in which the USDA NRCS defines filter strips as an area of vegetation established for removing organic material, sediment, and other pollutants from wastewater and runoff. It includes a brief overview of filter strips and offers a list of associated conservation practices. Those include nutrient management, integrated pest management, waste recycling, and residue and tillage management. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Riparian Forest Buffer
Kansas State University Horticulture and Natural Resources. 2018, May 25. Riparian Buffers. https://hnr.k-state.edu/extension/publications/riparian-buffers.html.
This website includes a table with hyperlinks to eight extension bulletins from Kansas State University on streamside forestry and riparian forest buffers. Topics include riparian forest buffers, streambank protection, timber management, planting, and more.
Klapproth, J. C., and J. E. Johnson. 2009. Understanding the Science Behind Riparian Forest Buffers: An Overview. 4. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/420/420-150/420-150.html.
This extension bulletin from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University provides a concise overview of riparian forest buffers as an ecosystem, as well as information on the effects of these buffers on water quality, living resources, and social and community benefits. Virginia’s riparian buffer implementation plan is also summarized.
USDA NRCS. 2010. Riparian Forest Buffer. Conservation Practice Standard 391. 3. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026098.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard defines riparian forest buffers as areas with predominantly trees or shrubs adjacent to and up-slope from streams and other water bodies. The purpose of these buffers is to provide shade for water bodies to keep temperatures low, improve habitat, reduce sediment and other pollutants, and more. The standard describes where the practice applies, criteria for the practice, general considerations, plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2012. Riparian Forest Buffer. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 391. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1255022.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation standard overview provides a definition of riparian forest buffer, a brief description of the practice, and a list of commonly associated conservation practices. Those practices include riparian herbaceous cover, stream habitat improvement and management, streambank and shoreline protection, and tree/shrub establishment. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Virginia Department of Forestry. 2014, November 6. Riparian Forest Buffers. http://www.dof.virginia.gov/manage/riparian/index.htm.
This website from the Virginia Department of Forestry contains general information on riparian forest buffers, primarily for citizens of the commonwealth of Virginia. The site features many links to additional resources on riparian forest buffers, including links to each extension bulletin from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in a series called “Understanding the Science Behind Riparian Forest Buffers.”
Saturated Buffers
Jaynes, D., B. Reinhart, C. Hay, J. Kjaersgaard, K. Nelson, N. Utt, S. Jacquemin, and T. Isenhart. 2018. Questions and Answers About Saturated Buffers. Extension Publication ABE-160. 8. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University. https://edustore.purdue.edu/.
This extension publication from Purdue University, Iowa State University, and others is in question-and-answer format, providing a concise, yet thorough, overview of saturated buffers. It begins with a definition of saturated buffers: an edge-of-field practice designed to remove nitrate from drainage water before it enters nearby surface waters. Examples of installations with descriptions and pictures are provided for different scenarios. Other information includes benefits to water quality, effect on crop yield; length of saturated buffers; management and vegetation considerations; costs and regulations; and appropriate sites.
SWCS. 2019. Saturated Buffer Facts. https://www.swcs.org/resources/conservation-media-library/saturated-buffer-facts.
This web page from the SWCS Conservation Media Library provides an overview of saturated buffers, a conservation practiced designed to improve water quality from agricultural drainage water. The web page includes a description of the conservation practice, a summary of benefits of the practice, and lists some economic considerations. It also includes a list of other credible sources of information on saturated buffers.
SWCS Events. 2018. Saturated Buffers: A Nutrient Removal Option for Farmers. Ankeny, IA: SWCS. https://vimeo.com/291573566.
This brief video from the SWCS features experts on saturated buffers: Dan Jaynes, a researcher from the ARS; Willie Ubben, a tiling contractor; and Justin Hanson, a corn and soybean farmer from Iowa. Saturated buffer installation is generally described, images are included, and the effectiveness of saturated buffers for removing nitrate from drainage water are discussed.
USDA NRCS. 2016a. Saturated Buffer. Conservation Practice Standard 604. 4. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=nrcseprd1051806&ext=pdf.
This conservation practice standard from the USDA NRCS defines saturated buffers as a subsurface drainage tile line used to divert and spread drainage water discharge along a vegetated area to increase soil saturation. The standard outlines where this practice is applicable, criteria for determining appropriate locations and soils, general considerations, plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance concerns. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2016b. Saturated Buffer. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 604. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=nrcseprd1053609&ext=pdf.
This conservation practice overview from the USDA NRCS defines saturated buffers, provides a brief overview of the practice, and lists commonly associated practices. Those practices include nutrient management and drainage management. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Stream Crossings
Higgins, S., C. Agouridis, and S. Wightman. 2011. Stream Crossings for Cattle. 7. Lexington, KY: Kentucky Cooperative Extension. http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/aen/aen101/aen101.pdf.
This extension bulletin from Kentucky Cooperative Extension provides an overview of stream crossings for cattle. This bulletin provides livestock producers with instructions for installing stream crossings for livestock and vehicles. Many figures are provided, along with reference tables and examples.
USDA NRCS. 2017. Stream Crossing. Conservation Practice Standard 578. 6. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=nrcseprd1335269&ext=pdf.
This conservation practice standard from the USDA NRCS defines stream crossings as stabilized areas or structures across streams that facilitate travel for livestock, people, equipment, or vehicles. The practice improves water quality by reducing sediment, nutrient, or organic loading to streams, as well as reducing streambank and streambed erosion. The conditions suitable for the practice are described, along with criteria, general considerations, information for developing plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance considerations.
USDA NRCS. 2017. Stream Crossing. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 578. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=nrcseprd1364066&ext=pdf.
This conservation standard practice overview from the USDA NRCS defines stream crossings as a conservation practice. It also provides a brief overview of the conservation practice and lists commonly associated practices.
Stream Fencing
Goard, D. 2006. Fencing. 2. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.kansasforests.org/streamside_forestry/streamside_docs/Fencing.pdf.
In this Kansas State University extension bulletin, Goard describes why fencing is used to exclude livestock and cattle from riparian buffer strips. outlines the problems with unrestricted grazing in riparian areas, and explains how excluding grazing from these areas can be beneficial. Goard goes on to summarize how to implement fencing along riparian corridors.
Wetland Conservation
Dahl, T. E., and G. J. Allord. 1996. History of wetlands in the conterminous United States. In National Water Summary on Wetland Resources, ed. J. D. Fretwell, J. S. Williams, and P. J. Redman. USGS Water-Supply. https://www.fws.gov/wetlands/Documents/History-of-Wetlands-in-the-Conterminous-United-States.pdf.
Dah and Allord summarize the history of wetlands in the US dating back to the colonial period. The periods include the colonial period (1600s to 1800s); westward expansion (1800-1860); agriculture moves west (1860-1900); technology changing (1900-1950); and changing priorities and values (1950-present). In all but the last period, wetland loss was widespread, and in some cases, incentivized by the government. For each period, Dahl and Allord describe how wetlands were destroyed and why they were destroyed. For the most recent period, Dahl and Allord describe how the values and ecological services provided by wetlands began to be recognized, resulting in greater perceived value by the public and state and federal legal protection of wetlands. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Sucik, M., and E. Marks. 2014. The Status and Recent Trends of Wetlands in the United States. 25. Ames, Iowa: US Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/technical/nra/nri/.
This National Resources Inventory report on wetlands for 2010 summarizes changes to wetlands in the US. It includes a brief history of wetlands in the US, then summarizes trends in wetland area across different regions. The general trend is that wetland area has decreased over the history of the National Resources Inventory. Case studies from three different regions highlight pressures triggering wetland loss and efforts to prevent or reverse that loss. The report closes with a description of the National Resources Inventory.
US EPA Office of Water. 2019, May 20. Wetland Functions and Values. https://cfpub.epa.gov/watertrain/moduleFrame.cfm?parent_object_id=262.
In this module, the EPA highlights the full scope of the beneficial attributes of wetlands. The module provides a discussion of how wetlands have become appreciated for their role in providing healthy ecosystems, as well as their benefits to our economy through commercial fishing and cleaner water. The module also highlights other services that wetlands provide: among them, sustainability, recreation, and research.
USDA NRCS. 2008a. Chapter 13 Wetland Restoration, Enhancement, or Creation. In Engineering Field Handbook, 150. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17765.wba.
As stated in the purpose and scope of this chapter, wetland creation, restoration, or enhancement requires a multidisciplinary approach involving soil science, biology, geology, and engineering. Thus, this chapter is an expansion of the Engineering Field Handbook that encompasses the expanded scope of wetland management. This 150-page document includes information on hydrogeomorphic classification of wetlands and wetland processes and characteristics, as well as guidelines for planning, designing, constructing, and managing wetlands.
USDA NRCS. 2008b. Hydrogeomorphic Wetland Classification System: An Overview and Modification to Better Meet the Needs of the Natural Resources Conservation Service. 10. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_010784.pdf.
This technical note was issued in 2008 to guide USDA NRCS staff when assessing hydrogeomorphic (HGM) wetlands. It provides an overview of original HGM concepts and supplies additional structure to the classification system. HGM classification is used in assessing changes to wetlands from proposed projects, wetland improvements, among others. Since its inception in 1993, HGM classification has been solely based on the geographic setting of the wetland in question. However, vegetation and soil properties may more strongly influence wetland function than geography. The USDA NRCS acknowledged this idea in this technical note and subsequently encouraged NRCS staff to include modifiers to original HGM classes to more accurately describe wetland characteristics. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2015. Chapter 19 Hydrology Tools for Wetland Identification and Analysis. In Engineering Field Handbook, 61. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=37808.wba.
Jurisdictional wetlands require the presence of hydric soils, hydrophytic vegetation, and wetland hydrology. This chapter from the Engineering Field Handbook describes the available tools that use onsite and offsite data to document the presence of wetland hydrology beyond onsite wetland hydrology field indicators. Chapter contents include descriptions of data sources like weather, soils, and streams and how to use that data for hydrologic modeling.
USDA NRCS. 2017. Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the United States: A Guide for Identifying and Delineating Hydric Soils. (L. M. Vasilas, G. W. Hurt, and J. F. Berkowitz, Eds.) Version 8.0. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS in cooperation with the National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_053171.pdf.
This technical guide for recognizing hydric soil indicators was developed by the National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils, which includes representatives from USDA NRCS, USFWS, USACE, EPA, academia, and others. It should help staff identify, delineate, and verify hydric soils in the field. It groups and describes indicators as they relate to all soils and then groups and describes indicators specific to soil textures. In addition to field indicators, this guide includes test indicators. The test indicators should not be used to delineate hydric soils but to encourage submission of potential indicator descriptions and supporting data. In this way, the list of approved indicators can be expanded. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Wetland Creation
Frentress, C., J. C. Cathey, C. D. Mason, T. Parks, R. Hirsch, and M. W. Wagner. 2007. Techniques for Wetland Construction and Management. 23. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University. http://wildlifehabitat.tamu.edu/Lessons/Wetland-Management/Readings/Wetland-Construction-and-Management.pdf.
The objective of this extension publication from Texas A&M is to provide land managers with information on restoring, creating, or enhancing wetlands. The first table summarizes wetland ecosystem services and the functions wetlands perform for that ecosystem. The introduction includes a description of wetland ecosystems, economic benefits from wetlands, and the intrinsic value of wetlands. The authors then present information on wetland construction and management and how wetlands can be managed under different scenarios. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2010. Wetland Creation. Conservation Practice Standard 658. 4. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_025863.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard outlines the definition, purpose, conditions, criteria, and considerations of wetland creation. Wetland creation seeks to establish wetland hydrology, vegetation, and wildlife habitats on soils that can support wetland functions. This practice does not apply to areas used to treat water resource pollution, areas of wetland rehabilitation, or wildlife habitat management following wetland establishment. The local hydrology and soils must be suitable to maintain wetland conditions. Native vegetative species should be used to cultivate the wetland. In planning wetland creation, considerations should include how the the proposed wetland could affect the environment in the surrounding area. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2012. Wetland Creation. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 658 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1255219.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard overview defines wetland creation as establishing a wetland on land that was previously not a wetland. In the practice information section, the purpose of wetland creation should be creating wetland functions and values. The overview closes with a list of associated conservation practices, including dikes, structures for water control, grade stabilization structures, pond sealing and lining, and use exclusion. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Wetland Enhancement
USDA NRCS. 2010. Wetland Enhancement. Conservation Practice Standard 659. 5. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026454.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard outlines the definition, goals, criteria, and considerations in enhancing wetlands. The goal of wetland enhancement is to augment specific wetland functions beyond what naturally occurring conditions allow, sometimes at the expense of other wetland functions, using soil, vegetation, hydrology, and wildlife habitats. This practice does not apply to the treatment of water pollution sources, rehabilitation of wetlands, restoration of a historic wetland, or wetland establishment. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2012. Wetland Enhancement. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 659. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1255220.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard overview defines wetland enhancement as modification of an existing wetland or reestablishment of a degraded wetland for the purposes of favoring specific wetland functions. It provides a brief description of where this practice applies and the purposes of this practice. It closes with a list of commonly associated conservation practices, including dikes, structures for water control, fencing, fish passages, and use exclusion. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
Wetland Restoration
USDA NRCS. 2007. Noxious, Invasive, and Alien Plant Species: A Challenge in Wetland Restoration and Enhancement. Technical Note 190-72. 26. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/water/wetlands/restore/?cid=nrcs143_010912.
The purpose of this technical note is to inform USDA NRCS staff of plant species that prevent successfully restoring and enhancing wetlands. It defines five categories of plants, listed in order of increasing threat: native, alien, weeds, invasive, and noxious. Alien, weeds, invasive, and noxious species displace native vegetation and thus interfere with wetland enhancement and restoration, reducing biodiversity, reducing wildlife habitat and food resources, and disrupting ecosystem processes. This technical note includes a list of common invasive and noxious plant species that impair wetland enhancement and restoration and describes their dispersal methods and control practices. Mitigating the spread of such species requires familiarity with potential threats in an area, anticipating sources of harmful plant species, developing monitoring protocols, and encouraging establishment of native species in disturbed areas.
USDA NRCS. 2008. Stream Water Surface Profile Modification for Wetland Restoration. Technical Note 1. 25. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=stelprdb1243051&ext=pdf.
This technical note from the USDA NRCS applies to riverine wetlands in which the wetland hydrology has changed due to incision of the stream channel and is used for developing strategies for restoring or enhancing the connectivity between the floodplain and the stream. The technical note begins with background information for classifying or describing wetlands and stream channels, including hydrogeomorphic wetland classification, landscape position, hydrology, and stream channel classification. Then, wetland restoration or enhancement and hydrology restoration strategies are described in detail, including design conditions for various scenarios, as well as guidelines for modeling hydrology for such conditions.
USDA NRCS. 2010. Wetland Restoration. Conservation Practice Standard 657. 5. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026340.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard defines wetland restoration as the return of a wetland and its functions to an approximation of its conditions before disturbance. Restoration restores site conditions favorable for hydric soil properties, wetland hydrology, native hydrophytic vegetation, and native wildlife habitats. Wetland restoration does not include treating water resource pollution areas, wetland rehabilitation where enhancements have been made to certain functions, wetland creation, or wildlife habitat management. The practice standard provides the criteria, recommendations, and considerations for restoring hydric soil properties, wetland hydrology, hydrophytic vegetation, and wildlife habitats. It also recommends maintenance following restoration for such things as pests, sediment load, and invasive species.
USDA NRCS. 2011. Scenarios for Wetland Restoration. Technical Note 4. 33. Washington, D.C.: USDA NRCS. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=stelprdb1243054&ext=pdf.
This USDA NRCS technical note provides general principles for wetland restoration as described in Conservation Practice Standard 657. These principles are presented in the context of nine different scenarios based on hydrogeomorphic wetland classification, hydrology, and topography.
USDA NRCS. 2012. Wetland Restoration. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 657. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1255218.pdf.
This conservation practice standard overview defines wetland restoration as returning a wetland and its functions to an approximation of its conditions before disturbance. The goals of wetland restoration and considerations for the practice are briefly described. The overview concludes with a list of associated conservation practices, including dikes, structures for water control, habitat management, riparian herbaceous cover, and riparian forest buffer.
Wetland Wildlife Habitat Management
USDA NRCS. 2012a. Wetland Wildlife Habitat Management. Conservation Practice Standard 644. 2. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026455.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard defines wetland wildlife habitat management as retaining, managing, or developing wetland habitat for wetland wildlife. The standard further describes the purpose as to improve, develop, or maintain wetland habitat for waterfowl, shorebirds, fur-bearers, or other fauna and flora associated with wetlands. Conditions where the conservation practice applies and criteria for the practice are described, followed by considerations, plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance of the conservation practice. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.
USDA NRCS. 2012b. Wetland Wildlife Habitat Management. Conservation Practice Standard Overview 644. 1. Washington, D.C.: USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1255211.pdf.
This USDA NRCS conservation practice standard overview defines wetland wildlife habitat management as retaining, managing, or developing wetland habitat for wetland wildlife. The standard further describes the purpose as to improve, develop, or maintain wetland habitat for waterfowl, shorebirds, fur-bearers, or other fauna and flora associated with wetlands. Conditions where the conservation practice applies and other considerations for implementing the practice are briefly described. It concludes with a list of associated conservation practices, including wetland restoration, wetland enhancement, restoration and management of rare and declining habitats, shallow development and management, and upland wildlife habitat management, among others. The URL leads to a direct download of a PDF.


8 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- State the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory
- Use postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory to explain the laws of definite and multiple proportions
The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day. In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of small, finite particles that they called atomos, a term derived from the Greek word for “indivisible.” They thought of atoms as moving particles that differed in shape and size, and which could join together. Later, Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of the four “elements”—fire, earth, air, and water—and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers thought about atoms and “elements” as philosophical concepts, but apparently never considered performing experiments to test their ideas.
The Aristotelian view of the composition of matter held sway for over two thousand years, until English schoolteacher John Dalton helped to revolutionize chemistry with his hypothesis that the behavior of matter could be explained using an atomic theory. First published in 1807, many of Dalton’s hypotheses about the microscopic features of matter are still valid in modern atomic theory. Here are the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.
- Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can participate in a chemical change.
- An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a mass that is characteristic of the element and is the same for all atoms of that element ((Figure)). A macroscopic sample of an element contains an incredibly large number of atoms, all of which have identical chemical properties.
- Atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all other elements.
- A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements combined in a small, whole-number ratio. In a given compound, the numbers of atoms of each of its elements are always present in the same ratio ((Figure)).
- Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are instead rearranged to yield substances that are different from those present before the change ((Figure)).
Dalton’s atomic theory provides a microscopic explanation of the many macroscopic properties of matter that you’ve learned about. For example, if an element such as copper consists of only one kind of atom, then it cannot be broken down into simpler substances, that is, into substances composed of fewer types of atoms. And if atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, then the total mass of matter present when matter changes from one type to another will remain constant (the law of conservation of matter).
Testing Dalton’s Atomic Theory In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple spheres represent atoms of another element. If the spheres touch, they are part of a single unit of a compound. Does the following chemical change represented by these symbols violate any of the ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory? If so, which one?
Solution The starting materials consist of two green spheres and two purple spheres. The products consist of only one green sphere and one purple sphere. This violates Dalton’s postulate that atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are merely redistributed. (In this case, atoms appear to have been destroyed.)
Check Your Learning In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple spheres represent atoms of another element. If the spheres touch, they are part of a single unit of a compound. Does the following chemical change represented by these symbols violate any of the ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory? If so, which one?
The starting materials consist of four green spheres and two purple spheres. The products consist of four green spheres and two purple spheres. This does not violate any of Dalton’s postulates: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but are redistributed in small, whole-number ratios.
Dalton knew of the experiments of French chemist Joseph Proust, who demonstrated that all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportion by mass. This statement is known as the law of definite proportions or the law of constant composition. The suggestion that the numbers of atoms of the elements in a given compound always exist in the same ratio is consistent with these observations. For example, when different samples of isooctane (a component of gasoline and one of the standards used in the octane rating system) are analyzed, they are found to have a carbon-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 5.33:1, as shown in (Figure).
| Constant Composition of Isooctane | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Sample | Carbon | Hydrogen | Mass Ratio |
| A | 14.82 g | 2.78 g | |
| B | 22.33 g | 4.19 g | |
| C | 19.40 g | 3.64 g |
It is worth noting that although all samples of a particular compound have the same mass ratio, the converse is not true in general. That is, samples that have the same mass ratio are not necessarily the same substance. For example, there are many compounds other than isooctane that also have a carbon-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 5.33:1.00.
Dalton also used data from Proust, as well as results from his own experiments, to formulate another interesting law. The law of multiple proportions states that when two elements react to form more than one compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the other element in a ratio of small, whole numbers. For example, copper and chlorine can form a green, crystalline solid with a mass ratio of 0.558 g chlorine to 1 g copper, as well as a brown crystalline solid with a mass ratio of 1.116 g chlorine to 1 g copper. These ratios by themselves may not seem particularly interesting or informative; however, if we take a ratio of these ratios, we obtain a useful and possibly surprising result: a small, whole-number ratio.
This 2-to-1 ratio means that the brown compound has twice the amount of chlorine per amount of copper as the green compound.
This can be explained by atomic theory if the copper-to-chlorine ratio in the brown compound is 1 copper atom to 2 chlorine atoms, and the ratio in the green compound is 1 copper atom to 1 chlorine atom. The ratio of chlorine atoms (and thus the ratio of their masses) is therefore 2 to 1 ((Figure)).
Laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions A sample of compound A (a clear, colorless gas) is analyzed and found to contain 4.27 g carbon and 5.69 g oxygen. A sample of compound B (also a clear, colorless gas) is analyzed and found to contain 5.19 g carbon and 13.84 g oxygen. Are these data an example of the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, or neither? What do these data tell you about substances A and B?
Solution In compound A, the mass ratio of carbon to oxygen is:
In compound B, the mass ratio of carbon to oxygen is:
The ratio of these ratios is:
This supports the law of multiple proportions. This means that A and B are different compounds, with A having one-half as much oxygen per amount of carbon (or twice as much carbon per amount of oxygen) as B. A possible pair of compounds that would fit this relationship would be A = CO and B = CO2.
Check Your Learning A sample of compound X (a clear, colorless, combustible liquid with a noticeable odor) is analyzed and found to contain 14.13 g carbon and 2.96 g hydrogen. A sample of compound Y (a clear, colorless, combustible liquid with a noticeable odor that is slightly different from X’s odor) is analyzed and found to contain 19.91 g carbon and 3.34 g hydrogen. Are these data an example of the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, or neither? What do these data tell you about substances X and Y?
In compound X, the mass ratio of carbon to hydrogen is In compound Y, the mass ratio of carbon to oxygen is The ratio of these ratios is This small, whole-number ratio supports the law of multiple proportions. This means that X and Y are different compounds.
Key Concepts and Summary
The ancient Greeks proposed that matter consists of extremely small particles called atoms. Dalton postulated that each element has a characteristic type of atom that differs in properties from atoms of all other elements, and that atoms of different elements can combine in fixed, small, whole-number ratios to form compounds. Samples of a particular compound all have the same elemental proportions by mass. When two elements form different compounds, a given mass of one element will combine with masses of the other element in a small, whole-number ratio. During any chemical change, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
Chemistry End of Chapter Exercises
1. In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple spheres represent atoms of another element. If the spheres of different elements touch, they are part of a single unit of a compound. The following chemical change represented by these spheres may violate one of the ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory. Which one?
The starting materials consist of one green sphere and two purple spheres. The products consist of two green spheres and two purple spheres. This violates Dalton’s postulate that that atoms are not created during a chemical change, but are merely redistributed.
2. Which postulate of Dalton’s theory is consistent with the following observation concerning the weights of reactants and products? When 100 grams of solid calcium carbonate is heated, 44 grams of carbon dioxide and 56 grams of calcium oxide are produced.
3. Identify the postulate of Dalton’s theory that is violated by the following observations: 59.95% of one sample of titanium dioxide is titanium; 60.10% of a different sample of titanium dioxide is titanium.
This statement violates Dalton’s fourth postulate: In a given compound, the numbers of atoms of each type (and thus also the percentage) always have the same ratio.
4. Samples of compound X, Y, and Z are analyzed, with results shown here.
| Compound | Description | Mass of Carbon | Mass of Hydrogen |
|---|---|---|---|
| X | clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor | 1.776 g | 0.148 g |
| Y | clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor | 1.974 g | 0.329 g |
| Z | clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor | 7.812 g | 0.651 g |
Do these data provide example(s) of the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, neither, or both? What do these data tell you about compounds X, Y, and Z?
Glossary
- Dalton’s atomic theory
- set of postulates that established the fundamental properties of atoms
- law of constant composition
- (also, law of definite proportions) all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass
- law of definite proportions
- (also, law of constant composition) all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass
- law of multiple proportions
- when two elements react to form more than one compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers


La Cite Collegiale
Project Description
The original project objective was to test Riipen in multiple ways. The first opportunity was to do so in a traditional sense where faculty members would submit projects to the platform and get some industry partners to sponsor them. The second opportunity was based on submitting areas of expertise tied to our applied research centre. This way, we could attract partners based on needs and build students projects in the context of those needs. We weren’t very successful in either test. First, the fact that the software is English only made it difficult for our faculty members and students to fully use the power of the tool. Also, the majority of the partners in the platform prefer to sponsor English-language projects, thus making it a challenge to find matches for French-based projects.
Team Description
- Suzanne Gibault, executive director, Ideation and Creativity
- Michel Singh, senior advisor, Ideation and Creativity
- Nathalie Méthot, manager, Applied Research and Innovation
- Isabelle Tremblay, faculty member, Business Administration
- Sylvain Després, faculty member, Design
- Lynn Beaudoin, faculty member, Esthetics
- Olivier Chartrand, manager, Course Development
- Charles-André Masseboeuf, Business Development, Applied Research and Innovation
- Karen Bakker, Riipen
- Emily Masching, Riipen
We had various meetings to kick off the project with our applied research team, and we coordinated the publishing of our projects on Riipen. We focused on working with a small number of faculty members to get things started, and we thought we would target different domain areas. We also had regular calls with the customer success team at Riipen to follow up on how things were evolving.
Experiential Learning Details
We don’t have a lot of data to share. What we can share is that we have evidence that it’s a major challenge for French institutions to integrate Riipen in their environment because of the language barrier. This fact has been communicated to Riipen and eCampusOntario. We are working on various ideas that could facilitate the use of the platform for francophones. At this point the discussions are at a very early stage, but we feel that one of the opportunities is to regroup French-language institutions together in order to engage a larger set of stakeholders in the conversation.
User Experience
We offered Riipen training to 35 faculty members as part of the pilot. This training was well received as we also covered the fundamentals of experiential learning. Out of these 35 faculty members, eight of them submitted projects to Riipen. On the downside, we did not get a positive match for any of these projects.
From an applied research perspective, we did submit two areas of expertise (bio-innovation and prototyping). We got some positive feedback from two industry partners looking for some help in the prototyping area. Unfortunately we weren’t able to get any projects going. One of the partners had some very short-term needs that we could not address. The other partner was in the Niagara region and was looking for some specialized equipment, which made it impossible because of geographical reasons.
On the plus side, we did not have any technical issues with the platform, although we did not do any in-depth testing.
Value
The main value we got from our sandbox project was the opportunity to test an English-only tool in a French environment. The outcome from the project is positive because it can allow us to work with eCampusOntario and other partners to address this issue for Riipen and for other potential solutions.
Future Plans
We are looking at integrating more experiential learning opportunities within our curriculum. Our course development team is focused on building capacity with our business development team in order to get more opportunities to students. We would like to use Riipen as a tool of choice to gather, manage, and promote our class projects with industry partners. For this to happen, we need the platform to be translated and we also need to foster a French ecosystem of industry partners. We have already engaged with eCampusOntario in this work.
Lessons Learned
Lessons Learned
- Train your faculty on the tool and on the potential of their already-existing class projects being transformed into experiential learning opportunities.
- Get faculty inspired by looking at what professors from other institutions are doing on Riipen. There is a long list of projects in Riipen that are available covering a wide range of domain areas.
- Coordinate efforts with the business development team and with placement services. It’s very helpful to have a common approach when working with external partners.


Purpose of the project: Apply numeric integration techniques to a real-world problem.
How do you measure streamflow? The basic idea is simple: it is area times velocity. For example, suppose you had a river that was [latex]20[/latex] feet wide, [latex]3[/latex] feet deep, and had water moving at [latex]2[/latex] feet per second. Then we multiply the [latex]20[/latex] and the [latex]3[/latex] to get an area of [latex]60[/latex] ft[latex]^2[/latex], and the multiply by the [latex]2[/latex] ft per second to get [latex]120[/latex] ft[latex]^3[/latex] per second. This works great if you have a rectangular river where the water moves at a constant velocity. But what if the river is not a rectangle? What if the velocity changes depending on where in the river you are? How can you find the streamflow? And what does this have to do with numeric integration techniques?
- The USGS uses a “midpoint” method to find streamflow. Explain how this works.
- Explain how a “trapezoid rule” and “Simpson’s rule” work for a streamflow measurement.
- In class, we tried this out on a real stream. How did the three methods compare?
- Try all three methods on the virtual river (link) with [latex]n = 4[/latex] and [latex]n = 8[/latex]. I recommend using a spreadsheet to record your data and to automatically do the calculations for you. How did the methods compare now? How does changing [latex]n[/latex] affect the answers?
- Give a detailed explanation as to the sources of errors for these methods. How accurate do you think they are?