The Odyssey
Book VIII
Argument
The Phæacians consult on the subject of Ulysses. Preparation is made for his departure. Antinoüs entertains them at his table. Games follow the entertainment. Demodocus the bard sings, first the loves of Mars and Venus, then the introduction of the wooden horse into Troy. Ulysses, much affected by his song, is questioned by Alcinoüs, whence, and who he is, and what is the cause of his sorrow.
But when Aurora, daughter of the dawn,
Blush’d in the East, then from his bed arose
The sacred might of the Phæacian King.
Then uprose also, city-waster Chief,
Ulysses, whom the King Alcinoüs
Led forth to council at the ships convened.
There, side by side, on polish’d stones they sat
Frequent; meantime, Minerva in the form
Of King Alcinoüs’ herald ranged the town,
With purpose to accelerate the return
Of brave Ulysses to his native home,
And thus to ev’ry Chief the Goddess spake.
Phæacian Chiefs and Senators, away!
Haste all to council on the stranger held,
Who hath of late beneath Alcinoüs’ roof
Our King arrived, a wand’rer o’er the Deep,
But, in his form, majestic as a God.
So saying, she roused the people, and at once
The seats of all the senate-court were fill’d
With fast-assembling throngs, no few of whom
Had mark’d Ulysses with admiring eyes.
Then, Pallas o’er his head and shoulders broad
Diffusing grace celestial, his whole form
Dilated, and to the statelier height advanced,
That worthier of all rev’rence he might seem
To the Phæacians, and might many a feat
Atchieve, with which they should assay his force.
When, therefore, the assembly now was full,
Alcinoüs, them addressing, thus began.
Phæacian Chiefs and Senators! I speak
The dictates of my mind, therefore attend.
This guest, unknown to me, hath, wand’ring, found
My palace, either from the East arrived,
Or from some nation on our western side.
Safe conduct home he asks, and our consent
Here wishes ratified, whose quick return
Be it our part, as usual, to promote;
For at no time the stranger, from what coast
Soe’er, who hath resorted to our doors,
Hath long complain’d of his detention here.
Haste—draw ye down into the sacred Deep
A vessel of prime speed, and, from among
The people, fifty and two youths select,
Approved the best; then, lashing fast the oars,
Leave her, that at my palace ye may make
Short feast, for which myself will all provide.
Thus I enjoin the crew; but as for those
Of sceptred rank, I bid them all alike
To my own board, that here we may regale
The stranger nobly, and let none refuse.
Call, too, Demodocus, the bard divine,
To share my banquet, whom the Gods have blest
With pow’rs of song delectable, unmatch’d
By any, when his genius once is fired.
He ceas’d, and led the way, whom follow’d all
The sceptred senators, while to the house
An herald hasted of the bard divine.
Then, fifty mariners and two, from all
The rest selected, to the coast repair’d,
And, from her station on the sea-bank, launched
The galley down into the sacred Deep.
They placed the canvas and the mast on board,
Arranged the oars, unfurl’d the shining sail,
And, leaving her in depth of water moor’d,
All sought the palace of Alcinoüs.
There, soon, the portico, the court, the hall
Were fill’d with multitudes of young and old,
For whose regale the mighty monarch slew
Two beeves, twelve sheep, and twice four fatted brawns.
They slay’d them first, then busily their task
Administ’ring, prepared the joyous feast.
And now the herald came, leading with care
The tuneful bard; dear to the muse was he,
Who yet appointed him both good and ill;
Took from him sight, but gave him strains divine.
For him, Pontonoüs in the midst disposed
An argent-studded throne, thrusting it close
To a tall column, where he hung his lyre
Above his head, and taught him where it hung.
He set before him, next, a polish’d board
And basket, and a goblet fill’d with wine
For his own use, and at his own command.
Then, all assail’d at once the ready feast,
And when nor hunger more nor thirst they felt,
Then came the muse, and roused the bard to sing
Exploits of men renown’d; it was a song,
In that day, to the highest heav’n extoll’d.
He sang of a dispute kindled between
The son of Peleus, and Laertes’[1] son,
Both seated at a feast held to the Gods.
That contest Agamemnon, King of men,
Between the noblest of Achaia’s host
Hearing, rejoiced; for when in Pytho erst
He pass’d the marble threshold to consult
The oracle of Apollo, such dispute
The voice divine had to his ear announced;
For then it was that, first, the storm of war
Came rolling on, ordain’d long time to afflict
Troy and the Greecians, by the will of Jove.
So sang the bard illustrious; then his robe
Of purple dye with both hands o’er his head
Ulysses drew, behind its ample folds
Veiling his face, through fear to be observed
By the Phæacians weeping at the song;
And ever as the bard harmonious ceased,
He wiped his tears, and, drawing from his brows
The mantle, pour’d libation to the Gods.
But when the Chiefs (for they delighted heard
Those sounds) solicited again the bard,
And he renew’d the strain, then cov’ring close
His count’nance, as before, Ulysses wept.
Thus, unperceiv’d by all, the Hero mourn’d,
Save by Alcinoüs; he alone his tears,
(Beside him seated) mark’d, and his deep sighs
O’erhearing, the Phæacians thus bespake.
Phæacia’s Chiefs and Senators, attend!
We have regaled sufficient, and the harp
Heard to satiety, companion sweet
And seasonable of the festive hour.
Now go we forth for honourable proof
Of our address in games of ev’ry kind,
That this our guest may to his friends report,
At home arriv’d, that none like us have learn’d
To leap, to box, to wrestle, and to run.
So saying, he led them forth, whose steps the guests
All follow’d, and the herald hanging high
The sprightly lyre, took by his hand the bard
Demodocus, whom he the self-same way
Conducted forth, by which the Chiefs had gone
Themselves, for that great spectacle prepared.
They sought the forum; countless swarm’d the throng
Behind them as they went, and many a youth
Strong and courageous to the strife arose.
Upstood Acroneus and Ocyalus,
Elatreus, Nauteus, Prymneus, after whom
Anchialus with Anabeesineus
Arose, Eretmeus, Ponteus, Proreus bold,
Amphialus and Thöon. Then arose,
In aspect dread as homicidal Mars,
Euryalus, and for his graceful form
(After Laodamas) distinguish’d most
Of all Phæacia’s sons, Naubolides.
Three also from Alcinoüs sprung, arose,
Laodamas, his eldest; Halius, next,
His second-born; and godlike Clytoneus.
Of these, some started for the runner’s prize.
They gave the race its limits.[2] All at once
Along the dusty champaign swift they flew.
But Clytoneus, illustrious youth, outstripp’d
All competition; far as mules surpass
Slow oxen furrowing the fallow ground,
So far before all others he arrived
Victorious, where the throng’d spectators stood.
Some tried the wrestler’s toil severe, in which
Euryalus superior proved to all.
In the long leap Amphialus prevail’d;
Elatreus most successful hurled the quoit,
And at the cestus,[3] last, the noble son
Of Scheria’s King, Laodamas excell’d.
When thus with contemplation of the games
All had been gratified, Alcinoüs’ son
Laodamas, arising, then address’d.
Friends! ask we now the stranger, if he boast
Proficiency in aught. His figure seems
Not ill; in thighs, and legs, and arms he shews
Much strength, and in his brawny neck; nor youth
Hath left him yet, though batter’d he appears
With num’rous troubles, and misfortune-flaw’d.
Nor know I hardships in the world so sure
To break the strongest down, as those by sea.
Then answer thus Euryalus return’d.
Thou hast well said, Laodamas; thyself
Approaching, speak to him, and call him forth.
Which when Alcinoüs’ noble offspring heard,
Advancing from his seat, amid them all
He stood, and to Ulysses thus began.
Stand forth, oh guest, thou also; prove thy skill
(If any such thou hast) in games like ours,
Which, likeliest, thou hast learn’d; for greater praise
Hath no man, while he lives, than that he know
His feet to exercise and hands aright.
Come then; make trial; scatter wide thy cares,
We will not hold thee long; the ship is launch’d
Already, and the crew stand all prepared.
To whom replied the wily Chief renown’d
Wherefore, as in derision, have ye call’d
Me forth, Laodamas, to these exploits?
No games have I, but many a grief, at heart,
And with far other struggles worn, here sit
Desirous only of conveyance home,
For which both King and people I implore.
Then him Euryalus aloud reproach’d.
I well believ’d it, friend! in thee the guise
I see not of a man expert in feats
Athletic, of which various are perform’d
In ev’ry land; thou rather seem’st with ships
Familiar; one, accustom’d to controul
Some crew of trading mariners; well-learn’d
In stowage, pilotage, and wealth acquired
By rapine, but of no gymnastic pow’rs.
To whom Ulysses, frowning dark, replied.
 Therefore the Gods
Give not endowments graceful in each kind,
Of body, mind, and utt’rance, all to one.
This man in figure less excels, yet Jove
Crowns him with eloquence; his hearers charm’d
Behold him, while with modest confidence
He bears the prize of fluent speech from all,
And in the streets is gazed on as a God!
Another, in his form the Pow’rs above
Resembles, but no grace around his words
Twines itself elegant. So, thou in form
Hast excellence to boast; a God, employ’d
To make a master-piece in human shape,
Could but produce proportions such as thine;
Yet hast thou an untutor’d intellect.
Thou much hast moved me; thy unhandsome phrase
Hath roused my wrath; I am not, as thou say’st,
A novice in these sports, but took the lead
In all, while youth and strength were on my side.
But I am now in bands of sorrow held,
And of misfortune, having much endured
In war, and buffeting the boist’rous waves.
Yet, though with mis’ry worn, I will essay
My strength among you; for thy words had teeth
Whose bite hath pinch’d and pain’d me to the proof.
He said; and mantled as he was, a quoit
Upstarting, seized, in bulk and weight all those
Transcending far, by the Phæacians used.
Swiftly he swung, and from his vig’rous hand
Sent it. Loud sang the stone, and as it flew
The maritime Phæacians low inclined
Their heads beneath it; over all the marks,
And far beyond them, sped the flying rock.
Minerva, in a human form, the cast
Prodigious measur’d, and aloud exclaim’d.
Stranger! the blind himself might with his hands
Feel out the ’vantage here. Thy quoit disdains
Fellowship with a crowd, borne far beyond.
Fear not a losing game; Phæacian none
Will reach thy measure, much less overcast.
She ceased; Ulysses, hardy Chief, rejoiced
That in the circus he had found a judge
So favorable, and with brisker tone,
As less in wrath, the multitude address’d.
Young men, reach this, and I will quickly heave
Another such, or yet a heavier quoit.
Then, come the man whose courage prompts him forth
To box, to wrestle with me, or to run;
For ye have chafed me much, and I decline
No strife with any here, but challenge all
Phæacia, save Laodamas alone.
He is mine host. Who combats with his friend?
To call to proof of hardiment the man
Who entertains him in a foreign land,
Would but evince the challenger a fool,
Who, so, would cripple his own interest there.
As for the rest, I none refuse, scorn none,
But wish for trial of you, and to match
In opposition fair my force with yours.
There is no game athletic in the use
Of all mankind, too difficult for me;
I handle well the polish’d bow, and first
Amid a thousand foes strike whom I mark,
Although a throng of warriors at my side
Imbattled, speed their shafts at the same time.
Of all Achaia’s sons who erst at Troy
Drew bow, the sole who bore the prize from me
Was Philoctetes; I resign it else
To none now nourish’d with the fruits of earth.
Yet mean I no comparison of myself
With men of antient times, with Hercules,
Or with Oechalian Eurytus, who, both,
The Gods themselves in archery defied.
Soon, therefore, died huge Eurytus, ere yet
Old age he reach’d; him, angry to be call’d
To proof of archership, Apollo slew.
But if ye name the spear, mine flies a length
By no man’s arrow reach’d; I fear no foil
From the Phæacians, save in speed alone;
For I have suffer’d hardships, dash’d and drench’d
By many a wave, nor had I food on board
At all times, therefore I am much unstrung.
He spake; and silent the Phæacians sat,
Of whom alone Alcinoüs thus replied.
Since, stranger, not ungraceful is thy speech,
Who hast but vindicated in our ears
Thy question’d prowess, angry that this youth
Reproach’d thee in the presence of us all,
That no man qualified to give his voice
In public, might affront thy courage more;
Now mark me, therefore, that in time to come,
While feasting with thy children and thy spouse,
Thou may’st inform the Heroes of thy land
Even of our proficiency in arts
By Jove enjoin’d us in our father’s days.
We boast not much the boxer’s skill, nor yet
The wrestler’s; but light-footed in the race
Are we, and navigators well-inform’d.
Our pleasures are the feast, the harp, the dance,
Garments for change; the tepid bath; the bed.
Come, ye Phæacians, beyond others skill’d
To tread the circus with harmonious steps,
Come, play before us; that our guest, arrived
In his own country, may inform his friends
How far in seamanship we all excel,
In running, in the dance, and in the song.
Haste! bring ye to Demodocus his lyre
Clear-toned, left somewhere in our hall at home.
So spake the godlike King, at whose command
The herald to the palace quick return’d
To seek the charming lyre. Meantime arose
Nine arbiters, appointed to intend
The whole arrangement of the public games,
To smooth the circus floor, and give the ring
Its compass, widening the attentive throng.
Ere long the herald came, bearing the harp,
With which Demodocus supplied, advanced
Into the middle area, around whom
Stood blooming youths, all skilful in the dance.
With footsteps justly timed all smote at once
The sacred floor; Ulysses wonder-fixt,
The ceaseless play of twinkling[4] feet admired.
Then, tuning his sweet chords, Demodocus
A jocund strain began, his theme, the loves
Of Mars and Cytherea chaplet-crown’d;
How first, clandestine, they embraced beneath
The roof of Vulcan, her, by many a gift
Seduced, Mars won, and with adult’rous lust
The bed dishonour’d of the King of fire.
The sun, a witness of their amorous sport,
Bore swift the tale to Vulcan; he, apprized
Of that foul deed, at once his smithy sought,
In secret darkness of his inmost soul
Contriving vengeance; to the stock he heav’d
His anvil huge, on which he forged a snare
Of bands indissoluble, by no art
To be untied, durance for ever firm.
The net prepared, he bore it, fiery-wroth,
To his own chamber and his nuptial couch,
Where, stretching them from post to post, he wrapp’d
With those fine meshes all his bed around,
And hung them num’rous from the roof, diffused
Like spiders’ filaments, which not the Gods
Themselves could see, so subtle were the toils.
When thus he had encircled all his bed
On ev’ry side, he feign’d a journey thence
To Lemnos, of all cities that adorn
The earth, the city that he favours most.
Nor kept the God of the resplendent reins
Mars, drowsy watch, but seeing that the famed
Artificer of heav’n had left his home,
Flew to the house of Vulcan, hot to enjoy
The Goddess with the wreath-encircled brows.
She, newly from her potent Sire return’d
The son of Saturn, sat. Mars, ent’ring, seiz’d
Her hand, hung on it, and thus urg’d his suit.
To bed, my fair, and let us love! for lo!
Thine husband is from home, to Lemnos gone,
And to the Sintians, men of barb’rous speech.
He spake, nor she was loth, but bedward too
Like him inclined; so then, to bed they went,
And as they lay’d them down, down stream’d the net
Around them, labour exquisite of hands
By ingenuity divine inform’d.
Small room they found, so prison’d; not a limb
Could either lift, or move, but felt at once
Entanglement from which was no escape.
And now the glorious artist, ere he yet
Had reach’d the Lemnian isle, limping, return’d
From his feign’d journey, for his spy the sun
Had told him all. With aching heart he sought
His home, and, standing in the vestibule,
Frantic with indignation roar’d to heav’n,
And roar’d again, summoning all the Gods.—
Oh Jove! and all ye Pow’rs for ever blest!
Here; hither look, that ye may view a sight
Ludicrous, yet too monstrous to be borne,
How Venus always with dishonour loads
Her cripple spouse, doating on fiery Mars!
And wherefore? for that he is fair in form
And sound of foot, I ricket-boned and weak.
Whose fault is this? Their fault, and theirs alone
Who gave me being; ill-employ’d were they
Begetting me, one, better far unborn.
See where they couch together on my bed
Lascivious! ah, sight hateful to my eyes!
Yet cooler wishes will they feel, I ween,
To press my bed hereafter; here to sleep
Will little please them, fondly as they love.
But these my toils and tangles will suffice
To hold them here, till Jove shall yield me back
Complete, the sum of all my nuptial gifts
Paid to him for the shameless strumpet’s sake
His daughter, as incontinent as fair.
He said, and in the brazen-floor’d abode
Of Jove the Gods assembled. Neptune came
Earth-circling Pow’r; came Hermes friend of man,
And, regent of the far-commanding bow,
Apollo also came; but chaste reserve
Bashful kept all the Goddesses at home.
The Gods, by whose beneficence all live,
Stood in the portal; infinite arose
The laugh of heav’n, all looking down intent
On that shrewd project of the smith divine,
And, turning to each other, thus they said.
Bad works speed ill. The slow o’ertakes the swift.
So Vulcan, tardy as he is, by craft
Hath outstript Mars, although the fleetest far
Of all who dwell in heav’n, and the light-heel’d
Must pay the adult’rer’s forfeit to the lame.
So spake the Pow’rs immortal; then the King
Of radiant shafts thus question’d Mercury.
Jove’s son, heaven’s herald, Hermes, bounteous God!
Would’st thou such stricture close of bands endure
For golden Venus lying at thy side?
Whom answer’d thus the messenger of heav’n
Archer divine! yea, and with all my heart;
And be the bands which wind us round about
Thrice these innumerable, and let all
The Gods and Goddesses in heav’n look on,
So I may clasp Vulcan’s fair spouse the while.
He spake; then laugh’d the Immortal Pow’rs again.
But not so Neptune; he with earnest suit
The glorious artist urged to the release
Of Mars, and thus in accents wing’d he said.
Loose him; accept my promise; he shall pay
Full recompense in presence of us all.
Then thus the limping smith far-famed replied.
Earth-circler Neptune, spare me that request.
Lame suitor, lame security.[5] What bands
Could I devise for thee among the Gods,
Should Mars, emancipated once, escape,
Leaving both debt and durance, far behind?
Him answer’d then the Shaker of the shores.
I tell thee, Vulcan, that if Mars by flight
Shun payment, I will pay, myself, the fine.
To whom the glorious artist of the skies.
Thou must not, canst not, shalt not be refused.
So saying, the might of Vulcan loos’d the snare,
And they, detain’d by those coercive bands
No longer, from the couch upstarting, flew,
Mars into Thrace, and to her Paphian home
The Queen of smiles, where deep in myrtle groves
Her incense-breathing altar stands embow’r’d.
Her there, the Graces laved, and oils diffused
O’er all her form, ambrosial, such as add
Fresh beauty to the Gods for ever young,
And cloath’d her in the loveliest robes of heav’n.
Such was the theme of the illustrious bard.
Ulysses with delight that song, and all
The maritime Phæacian concourse heard.
Alcinoüs, then, (for in the dance they pass’d
All others) call’d his sons to dance alone,
Halius and Laodamas; they gave
The purple ball into their hands, the work
Exact of Polybus; one, re-supine,
Upcast it high toward the dusky clouds,
The other, springing into air, with ease
Received it, ere he sank to earth again.
When thus they oft had sported with the ball
Thrown upward, next, with nimble interchange
They pass’d it to each other many a time,
Footing the plain, while ev’ry youth of all
The circus clapp’d his hands, and from beneath
The din of stamping feet fill’d all the air.
Then, turning to Alcinoüs, thus the wise
Ulysses spake: Alcinoüs! mighty King!
Illustrious above all Phæacia’s sons!
Incomparable are ye in the dance,
Ev’n as thou said’st. Amazement-fixt I stand!
So he, whom hearing, the imperial might
Exulted of Alcinoüs, and aloud
To his oar-skill’d Phæacians thus he spake.
Phæacian Chiefs and Senators, attend!
Wisdom beyond the common stint I mark
In this our guest; good cause in my account,
For which we should present him with a pledge
Of hospitality and love. The Chiefs
Are twelve, who, highest in command, controul
The people, and the thirteenth Chief am I.
Bring each a golden talent, with a vest
Well-bleach’d, and tunic; gratified with these,
The stranger to our banquet shall repair
Exulting; bring them all without delay;
And let Euryalus by word and gift
Appease him, for his speech was unadvised.
He ceas’d, whom all applauded, and at once
Each sent his herald forth to bring the gifts,
When thus Euryalus his Sire address’d.
Alcinoüs! o’er Phæacia’s sons supreme!
I will appease our guest, as thou command’st.
This sword shall be his own, the blade all steel.
The hilt of silver, and the unsullied sheath
Of iv’ry recent from the carver’s hand,
A gift like this he shall not need despise.
So saying, his silver-studded sword he gave
Into his grasp, and, courteous, thus began.
Hail, honour’d stranger! and if word of mine
Have harm’d thee, rashly spoken, let the winds
Bear all remembrance of it swift away!
May the Gods give thee to behold again
Thy wife, and to attain thy native shore,
Whence absent long, thou hast so much endured!
To whom Ulysses, ever-wise, replied.
Hail also thou, and may the Gods, my friend,
Grant thee felicity, and may never want
Of this thy sword touch thee in time to come,
By whose kind phrase appeas’d my wrath subsides!
He ended, and athwart his shoulders threw
The weapon bright emboss’d. Now sank the sun,
And those rich gifts arrived, which to the house
Of King Alcinoüs the heralds bore.
Alcinoüs’ sons receiv’d them, and beside
Their royal mother placed the precious charge.
The King then led the way, at whose abode
Arrived, again they press’d their lofty thrones,
And to Areta thus the monarch spake.
Haste, bring a coffer; bring thy best, and store
A mantle and a sumptuous vest within;
Warm for him, next, a brazen bath, by which
Refresh’d, and viewing in fair order placed
The noble gifts by the Phæacian Lords
Conferr’d on him, he may the more enjoy
Our banquet, and the bard’s harmonious song.
I give him also this my golden cup
Splendid, elaborate; that, while he lives
What time he pours libation forth to Jove
And all the Gods, he may remember me.
 Meantime, the Queen
Producing from her chamber-stores a chest
All-elegant, within it placed the gold,
And raiment, gifts of the Phæacian Chiefs,
With her own gifts, the mantle and the vest,
And in wing’d accents to Ulysses said.
Now take, thyself, the coffer’s lid in charge;
Girdle it quickly with a cord, lest loss
Befall thee on thy way, while thou perchance
Shalt sleep secure on board the sable bark.
Which when Ulysses heard, Hero renown’d,
Adjusting close the lid, he cast a cord
Around it which with many a mazy knot
He tied, by Circe taught him long before.
And now, the mistress of the household charge
Summon’d him to his bath; glad he beheld
The steaming vase, uncustom’d to its use
E’er since his voyage from the isle of fair
Calypso, although, while a guest with her,
Ever familiar with it, as a God.
Laved by attendant damsels, and with oil
Refresh’d, he put his sumptuous tunic on
And mantle, and proceeding from the bath
To the symposium, join’d the num’rous guests;
But, as he pass’d, the Princess all divine
Beside the pillars of the portal, lost
In admiration of his graceful form,
Stood, and in accents wing’d him thus address’d.
Hail, stranger! at thy native home arrived
Remember me, thy first deliv’rer here.
To whom Ulysses, ever-wise, replied.
Nausicaa! daughter of the noble King
Alcinoüs! So may Jove, high-thund’ring mate
Of Juno, grant me to behold again
My native land, and my delightful home,
As, even there, I will present my vows
To thee, adoring thee as I adore
The Gods themselves, virgin, by whom I live!
He said, and on his throne beside the King
Alcinoüs sat. And now they portion’d out
The feast to all, and charg’d the cups with wine,
And introducing by his hand the bard
Phæacia’s glory, at the column’s side
The herald placed Demodocus again.
Then, carving forth a portion from the loins
Of a huge brawn, of which uneaten still
Large part and delicate remain’d, thus spake
Ulysses—Herald! bear it to the bard
For his regale, whom I will soon embrace
In spite of sorrow; for respect is due
And veneration to the sacred bard
From all mankind, for that the muse inspires
Herself his song, and loves the tuneful tribe.
He ended, and the herald bore his charge
To the old hero who with joy received
That meed of honour at the bearer’s hand.
Then, all, at once, assail’d the ready feast,
And hunger now, and thirst both satisfied,
Thus to Demodocus Ulysses spake.
Demodocus! I give thee praise above
All mortals, for that either thee the muse
Jove’s daughter teaches, or the King, himself,
Apollo; since thou so record’st the fate,
With such clear method, of Achaia’s host,
Their deeds heroic, and their num’rous toils,
As thou hadst present been thyself, or learnt
From others present there, the glorious tale.
Come, then, proceed; that rare invention sing,
The horse of wood, which by Minerva’s aid
Epeus framed, and which Ulysses erst
Convey’d into the citadel of Troy
With warriors fill’d, who lay’d all Ilium waste.
These things rehearse regular, and myself
Will, instant, publish in the ears of all
Thy fame, reporting thee a bard to whom
Apollo free imparts celestial song.
He ended; then Apollo with full force
Rush’d on Demodocus, and he began
What time the Greeks, first firing their own camp
Steer’d all their galleys from the shore of Troy.
Already, in the horse conceal’d, his band
Around Ulysses sat; for Ilium’s sons
Themselves had drawn it to the citadel.
And there the mischief stood. Then, strife arose
Among the Trojans compassing the horse,
And threefold was the doubt; whether to cleave
The hollow trunk asunder, or updrawn
Aloft, to cast it headlong from the rocks,
Or to permit the enormous image, kept
Entire, to stand an off’ring to the Gods,
Which was their destined course; for Fate had fix’d
Their ruin sure, when once they had received
Within their walls that engine huge, in which
Sat all the bravest Greecians with the fate
Of Ilium charged, and slaughter of her sons.
He sang, how, from the horse effused, the Greeks
Left their capacious ambush, and the town
Made desolate. To others, in his song,
He gave the praise of wasting all beside,
But told how, fierce as Mars, Ulysses join’d
With godlike Menelaus, to the house
Flew of Deiphobus; him there engaged
In direst fight he sang, and through the aid
Of glorious Pallas, conqu’ror over all.
So sang the bard illustrious, at whose song
Ulysses melted, and tear after tear
Fell on his cheeks.  Unnoticed by the rest
Those drops, but not by King Alcinoüs, fell
Who, seated at his side, his heavy sighs
Remark’d, and the Phæacians thus bespake.
Phæacian Chiefs and Senators attend!
Now let Demodocus enjoin his harp
Silence, for not alike grateful to all
His music sounds; during our feast, and since
The bard divine began, continual flow
The stranger’s sorrows, by remembrance caused
Of some great woe which wraps his soul around.
Then, let the bard suspend his song, that all
(As most befits th’ occasion) may rejoice,
Both guest and hosts together; since we make
This voyage, and these gifts confer, in proof
Of hospitality and unfeign’d love,
Judging, with all wise men, the stranger-guest
And suppliant worthy of a brother’s place.
And thou conceal not, artfully reserv’d,
What I shall ask, far better plain declared
Than smother’d close; who art thou? speak thy name,
The name by which thy father, mother, friends
And fellow-citizens, with all who dwell
Around thy native city, in times past
Have known thee; for of all things human none
Lives altogether nameless, whether good
Or whether bad, but ev’ry man receives
Ev’n in the moment of his birth, a name.
Thy country, people, city, tell; the mark
At which my ships, intelligent, shall aim,
That they may bear thee thither; for our ships
No pilot need or helm, as ships are wont,
But know, themselves, our purpose; know beside
All cities, and all fruitful regions well
Of all the earth, and with dark clouds involv’d
Plough rapid the rough Deep, fearless of harm,
(Whate’er betide) and of disast’rous wreck.
Yet thus, long since, my father I have heard
Nausithoüs speaking; Neptune, he would say,
Is angry with us, for that safe we bear
Strangers of ev’ry nation to their home;
And he foretold a time when he would smite
In vengeance some Phæacian gallant bark
Returning after convoy of her charge,
And fix her in the sable flood, transform’d
Into a mountain, right before the town.
So spake my hoary Sire, which let the God
At his own pleasure do, or leave undone.
But tell me truth, and plainly. Where have been
Thy wand’rings? in what regions of the earth
Hast thou arrived? what nations hast thou seen,
What cities? say, how many hast thou found
Harsh, savage and unjust? how many, kind
To strangers, and disposed to fear the Gods?
Say also, from what secret grief of heart
Thy sorrows flow, oft as thou hear’st the fate
Of the Achaians, or of Ilium sung?
That fate the Gods prepared; they spin the thread
Of man’s destruction, that in after days
The bard may make the sad event his theme.
Perish’d thy father or thy brother there?
Or hast thou at the siege of Ilium lost
Father-in-law, or son-in-law? for such
Are next and dearest to us after those
Who share our own descent; or was the dead
Thy bosom-friend, whose heart was as thy own?
For worthy as a brother of our love
The constant friend and the discrete I deem.
- Agamemnon having inquired at Delphos, at what time the Trojan war would end, was answered that the conclusion of it should happen at a time when a dispute should arise between two of his principal commanders. That dispute occurred at the time here alluded to, Achilles recommending force as most likely to reduce the city, and Ulysses stratagem. ↵
- Τοισι δ’ απο νυσοης τετατο δρομος—This expression is by the commentators generally understood to be significant of the effort which they made at starting, but it is not improbable that it relates merely to the measurement of the course, otherwise, καρπαλιμως επετοντο will be tautologous. ↵
- In boxing. ↵
-
The Translator is indebted to Mr Grey for an epithet more expressive of the original (Μαρμαρυγας) than any other, perhaps, in all our language. See the Ode on the Progress of Poetry.
“To brisk notes in cadence beating, Glance their many-twinkling feet”↵
- The original line has received such a variety of interpretations, that a Translator seems free to choose. It has, however, a proverbial turn, which I have endeavoured to preserve, and have adopted the sense of the words which appears best to accord with what immediately follows. Vulcan pleads his own inability to enforce the demand, as a circumstance that made Neptune’s promise unacceptable. ↵


2.4 Linear independence
In this section, our focus turns to the uniqueness of solutions of a linear system, the second of our two fundamental questions asked in Question 1.4.2. This will lead us to the concept of linear independence.
Reading
Try out the Preview Activity and read section Chapter 2 Section 4 in Understanding Linear Algebra by Davis Austin.
Definition 1: A set of vectors [latex]\{\vec{v}_1,\vec{v}_2,\dots,\vec{v}_n \}[/latex] is called linearly dependent if one of the vectors is a linear combination of the others. Otherwise, the set of vectors is called linearly independent.
Definition 2: A set of vectors [latex]\{\vec{v}_1,\vec{v}_2,\dots,\vec{v}_n \}[/latex] is called linearly dependent if [latex]c_1\vec{v}_1+\dots+c_n\vec{v}_n =\vec{0}[/latex] has more than one solution. Otherwise, if the only solution is [latex]c_1=0, c_2=0, \dots, c_n=0[/latex] then the set of vectors is called linearly independent.
Proposition 2.4.2.
The columns of a matrix are linearly independent if and only if in its reduced row echelon form, every column contains a pivot.


37 The Renaissance
The 15th century marked a significant turning point in European history as the continent emerged from the challenges of the Middle Ages to enter a remarkable period of cultural, artistic, and intellectual renewal known as the Renaissance. This era represented a clear departure from the rigid spiritual and feudal structures of the past, embracing a revival of classical learning, humanism, and individual expression. Fueled by the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts, the Renaissance ignited a passionate pursuit of knowledge, beauty, and innovation, showcasing the talents of influential figures such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Galileo.
During this time, city-states like Florence, Venice, and Rome became vibrant centers of creativity and commerce. The Renaissance spirit thrived as wealthy merchant families and powerful princes provided patronage, allowing artists, writers, and thinkers to explore new ideas and challenge traditional beliefs. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450 revolutionized the way knowledge was shared, making books more accessible and enabling the rapid spread of new ideas. This technological advancement played a crucial role in accelerating the momentum of the Renaissance, ultimately shaping the course of European history and laying the groundwork for the modern world.
The Renaissance, which means “rebirth” in French, was an intellectual movement dedicated to reviving the art, literature, and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. Northern Italy’s wealth, urbanization, and political fragmentation created an ideal setting for this movement. Economic growth was fueled by Mediterranean trade, and rival courts vied to sponsor artists and intellectuals. Italy’s education system, which emphasized Ancient Roman literature, laid the groundwork for humanism. The writings of Francesco Petrarch ignited a renewed interest in Roman literature, shifting the focus from philosophy and theology to humanistic studies.
Humanism emphasized the study of original texts rather than commentaries. Scholars aimed to understand the Latin language and style within various historical contexts. Initially centered on Latin, humanistic scholars soon began exploring Greek, particularly after Greek-speaking refugees fled the Ottoman Turks. These refugees brought valuable Greek texts and established schools in Italy, especially in Florence. Manuel Chrysoloras founded a Greek school, providing Western Europeans with direct access to Plato and Homer’s works for the first time in centuries.
The revival of classical culture extended to art and architecture. Structures like the Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence (1420-1436) imitated ancient Roman temples, while sculptors like Donatello created naturalistic works not seen in over a millennium. The movement influenced not only scholars and artists but also had widespread effects throughout Western Europe. Humanistic education became fashionable among princes and wealthy merchants, spreading from Italy to the elite of Western Europe.
Humanism also had significant political implications. Lorenzo Valla, a humanist scholar, critically analyzed the Donation of Constantine in 1440, revealing it to be a forgery. This document had been used by popes to assert their temporal power but was written in a Latin style inconsistent with fourth-century Rome. Valla’s discovery undermined the papacy’s legitimacy and challenged the Church’s authority, embodying humanism’s focus on empirical evidence and original sources. As humanism spread, it transformed Western Europe’s cultural and intellectual landscape, paving the way for groundbreaking advancements in art, literature, science, and philosophy. The Renaissance marked a decisive shift away from medieval certainties, embracing innovation and creativity that would shape the future of Western history.
Renaissance humanism also transformed ideals of governance. Niccolò Machiavelli, a humanist scholar, challenged traditional notions of virtuous leadership in his analysis of Ancient Roman historical writings. He argued that effective rulers must prioritize state interests over ethics and morality, providing an intellectual justification for ruthless decision-making. While rulers had long acted pragmatically, Machiavelli’s ideas legitimized this approach. Moreover, humanists’ intense study of ancient texts led to a renewed focus on the Bible, particularly the Greek New Testament. Scholars like Desiderius Erasmus employed linguistic analysis to examine the original text, bypassing centuries of commentary. This fresh perspective yielded explosive insights, revolutionizing biblical interpretation.


18 de Freitas, Morgan, and Gibson “Will MOOCs transform learning and teaching in higher education? Engagement and course retention in online learning provision”
Reference
Background
Sara Isabella de Freitas, John Morgan, and David Gibson’s article “Will MOOCs transform learning and teaching in higher education? Engagement and course retention in online learning provision” (2015) considered the low rate of completion, low rate of retention, quality concerns, and the need for engagement strategies within the MOOCs (Massive open online courses). The purpose of this article is to evoke change in MOOCs in relation to the use in higher education. The authors preformed a review of the current MOOC’s position and a case study of an MOOC class. De Freitas, Morgan, and Gibson propose new strategies for engaging MOOC learners to increase course retention. De Freitas, Morgan, and Gibson describes the differences between traditional and online learning, the aspects of retention and completion of learners in MOOCs.
Key points
- In the United States, the need to up-skill has been brought by economic uncertainty and high unemployment which has resulted in a lifelong learning made available by advances in digital communications which the U.S. has become the trailblazer with demands growing for modularized and bite-sized online learning experiences from competitors.
- Benefits for all ages of learners from all backgrounds that has an open equal access to education reaching one billion in the next decade at no cost through online learning and mobile learning with the availability of connectable broadband and the digital revolution of mobile and portable technologies.
- Online versus traditional learning. There has been found that there is evidence “no significant difference” between e-learning and traditional face-to-face learning courses.
- With seven to ten percent completing MOOCs the dilemma of student retention and their learning remains. There is a high enrolment which means students are not committed, engaged or motivated with courses being fee and non-accredited.
- Engendering greater engagement in online learning may be accomplished with social interactions. Gameplay and multimedia enriched content that is often peer-led with peer interactions.
- New approaches to engage MOOC students has been researched to show the increasing credibility and support for using games as a learning tool for the hard to reach learners, motivation, and boost performance although retention has not been tested yet.
- In the future, MOOCs have to be able to prove they can increase completion and retention rates, impact the high dropout rates, and keep learners engaged through gamification and tools to enliven learning experiences.
Case study
A case study of a MOOC course with four one-week modules. Theses modules were divided into 10 sections that consisted of a short video that was followed by a multiple-choice question. This occurred on a closed system to control student flow through the course and facilitate student interaction on a forum and engagement with a gamified platform that rewards students with a badge of achievement to share on social media. The final assessment for each module was five multiple-choice challenging questions and a final certificate. Course was designed for everyone and non-mathematical emphasized in the first video. The reviews were extremely positive; only 20-25% of the students dropped out. It was found that the retention was positively impacted by the complexity of assessments proving the importance of flow of learning; and gamified or game-based approaches need to be tested further for contributing to a higher retention rate.
Discussion
With the growing number of learners of higher education it is important that we understand how to engage our learners on all different platforms including MOOCs with various delivery methods. This article asks an important question, “In terms of market share of higher education, will pure online MOOCs rise to threaten the effectiveness of the blended model?” (De Freitas, Morgan & Gibson, 2015, p. 468). With the use of the 21st century technology skills this could be possible with the change from the curriculum focused teachings to a experience-centered focus of design.
- MOOCs
- Open access to materials
- Video lectures, discussions
- Social media support
- Online
- Stored materials
- Video lectures
- Learning activities (quizzes, games, etc)
- Social media-support
- Peer Reviews
- Authors proposed Third model
- Equal balance between
- Video and audio material
- Assignments, quizzes, and interactive media
- Social interactions
- Equal balance between
MOOCs have the ability for learners of all types to have access to the best instructors and the best resources available. MOOCs are finding the balance between effective teaching and learner retention.
Discussion questions
- In regards to open access how can higher education be transformed?
- What are the engagement strategies discussed in this paper that are need for traditional and online learners to succeed?
- Why do only seven percent of the learners enrolled in MOOCS complete the course?
Additional resources
- Boyle, F., Kwon, J., Ross, C., & Simpson, O. (2010). Student-student mentoring for retention and engagement in distance education. Open Learning, 25(2), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680511003787370.
- Hone, K. S., & El Said, G. R. (2016). Exploring the factors affecting MOOC retention: A survey study. Computers and Education, 98(C), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.03.016.


11.11 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic disorder that is characterized by inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. IBD is an umbrella term used to describe two disorders called ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. In ulcerative colitis (UC), this inflammation is limited to the two layers of the colon, the mucosa and submucosa, most commonly in the rectum. In Crohn’s disease (CD), inflammation can occur anywhere in the GI tract, from the mouth to the anus, and the inflammation affects all three layers of the colon. With both disorders, signs and symptoms can also occur outside the GI tract, commonly referred to as extraintestinal manifestations. Neither ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease can be cured, and both disorders carry an increased risk for cancer of the GI tract.[1],[2],[3]
Both UC and CD are linked to an autoimmune response; however, the exact cause is unknown. It is thought that this autoimmune response could be triggered by normal intestinal bacteria, certain drugs/toxins, or infectious processes. There are also several risk factors for developing IBD[4],[5],[6]:
- Genetics/family history of IBD
- Clients aged 15-30 years and 60 or older
- Northern European/Jewish ancestry
IBD is also more common in developed countries and in cold climates.[7],[8],[9]
Pathophysiology
In IBD, extreme inflammation leads to breakdown of the mucosal layer of the GI tract. This breakdown allows exposure to intestinal viruses or bacteria that can also cause increased inflammation.[10],[11],[12]
In clients with UC, inflammation leads to edema and ulcerations that can bleed. This inflammation spreads in a uniform fashion, starting in the rectum and proceeding up the colon. Over time, the colon becomes inflexible and shortened, ultimately losing the folds (haustra) in the colon.[13],[14],[15]
In clients with CD, the inflammation starts out with a singular lesion, which goes on to develop into a deeper ulceration. Unlike UC, which has a uniform spread, a hallmark sign of CD are skip lesions. These are lesions that “skip” around the GI tract, leaving areas of normal or unaffected bowel between them. Over time, the affected areas develop a “cobblestone” appearance. The continued inflammation and resulting scar tissue can lead to the formation of strictures (narrowing) or fistulas (an abnormal passageway between two organs), causing bowel obstruction.[16],[17],[18] See Figure 11.33[19] for an illustration of the differences between CD and UC.
The inflammation of IBD is not limited to the GI tract and can occur in joints/bones, bile ducts, mouth (e.g., canker sores), eyes, and skin.[20],[21],[22]
Assessment
Physical Exam
Although UC and CD share similar characteristics, there are some key differences between the two in signs and symptoms that may be found during assessment. See Table 11.11 for the similarities and differences between the signs and symptoms of UC and CD.[23],[24],[25]
Table 11.11. Comparison of Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn’s Disease
| Ulcerative Colitis | Crohn’s Disease |
|---|---|
| Affects only mucosa and submucosa layers of bowel | Affects all layers of bowel |
| Ulcerations confined to large intestine | Ulcerations anywhere in the GI tract, but most commonly appear in small and large intestine |
| Uniform spread of lesions | Skip lesions |
| Diarrhea, may contain blood and mucus | Non-bloody diarrhea |
| Abdominal pain, left upper or left lower quadrant | Abdominal pain, right lower quadrant |
| Tenesmus (Frequent urge to have a bowel movement/sensation that bowels are not empty) | Tenesmus rare |
| Fistulas, abscesses, strictures are rare | Fistulas, abscesses, strictures, fissures may be present |
| Weight loss is rare | Weight loss is common |
| Elevated heart rate, fever, dehydration | Elevated heart rate, fever, dehydration |
| Nausea/vomiting rare | Nausea/vomiting common |
| Symptoms can remit and relapse | Symptoms can remit and relapse |
Common Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests
A variety of laboratory and diagnostic tests may be used to diagnose IBD, as well as to rule out other disorders that can cause similar symptoms[26],[27]:
Laboratory Tests
- A complete blood count (CBC) may indicate anemia due to blood loss in stool and an elevated white count due to inflammation. Elevated platelet levels may be seen with Crohn’s disease, increasing the client’s risk for developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism, and cerebrovascular accident (CVA).
- A comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) may show decreased albumin levels if malnutrition is occurring. Altered electrolyte levels may also occur with severe diarrhea.
- Elevated markers of inflammation such as a C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) may occur.
- A variety of stool studies can be used to help diagnose IBD, as well as rule out other conditions. For example, fecal calprotectin levels may be elevated due to inflammation. Stool can also be examined for ova and parasites to rule out a parasitic infection.[28],[29]
Review normal reference ranges for common diagnostic tests in “Appendix A – Normal Reference Ranges.”
Diagnostic Tests
- Endoscopy is the gold standard for confirming the presence of IBD by taking a biopsy of the affected tissue. This can be done via EGD but is more commonly done via a colonoscopy.
- Barium studies can also be useful in diagnosing IBD because they can show the characteristic “lead pipe appearance” that is common with UC and the skip lesions that are common in CD.
- Ultrasounds, abdominal X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs can also be ordered to assess for complications caused by IBD such as perforation, bowel obstructions, fistulas, and strictures.[30],[31]
Nursing Diagnosis
Nursing priorities for those suffering from inflammatory bowel disease include symptom management, preventing complications, and ensuring adequate nutrition.
Nursing diagnoses for clients with inflammatory bowel disease are created based on the specific needs of the client, their signs and symptoms, and the etiology of the disorder. These nursing diagnoses guide the creation of client specific care plans that encompass client outcomes and nursing interventions, as well the evaluation of those outcomes. These individualized care plans then serve as a guide for client treatment.
Possible nursing diagnoses for those with inflammatory bowel disease are as follows[32],[33],[34]:
- Diarrhea
- Acute Pain
- Deficient Fluid Volume
- Impaired Skin Integrity
- Risk for Infection
- Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than Body Requirements
- Risk for Infective Coping
Outcome Identification
Outcome identification encompasses the creation of short- and long-term goals for the client. These goals are used to create expected outcome statements that are based on the specific needs of the client. Expected outcomes should be specific, measurable, and realistic. These outcomes should be achievable within a set time frame based on the application of appropriate nursing interventions.
Sample expected outcomes include the following:
- The client will exhibit formed stool that occurs at the client’s normal frequency until the next follow-up appointment.
- The client will rate their pain at 3 or less on a scale of 0 to 10 within two hours.
- The client will exhibit blood pressure and heart rate within normal limits for age, moist mucous membranes, and urine output appropriate for their age during hospitalization.
- The client will exhibit skin in the peri-area that is an appropriate color for race and free from skin breakdown during symptoms of diarrhea.
- The client will verbalize three methods to reduce their risk of contracting an infection after the teaching session.
- The client will maintain a weight within a healthy range that is appropriate for their height until their next follow-up appointment.
Interventions
Medical Interventions
Medical treatment for IBD can be categorized as medication therapy and surgical management.
Specific interventions for IBD will depend on the severity of the disorder, but the ultimate goal is to achieve remission.[35],[36]
Medications
Medication therapy for IBD is often prescribed in a stepwise approach to achieve symptom management. The first step is the use of aminosalicylates, such as mesalamine. If the client does not achieve symptom control with aminosalicylates, the second step adds a steroid medication until inflammation is decreased. Step-three drugs, also known as immune-modifying agents (i.e., thiopurines) or biological drugs (i.e., anti-TNF-alpha medications), are used when steroids do not achieve the desired effect. Step-four medications are disease specific (i.e., for UC or CD) and tend to be experimental with multiple side effects. Many medications used to treat IBD suppress the immune system, increasing the client’s risk for infection.[37],[38].[39],[40]
An alternative approach to stepwise therapy is a step-down approach. This type of therapy refers to the prescription of potent medications first that are then scaled back after symptoms are under control. This approach is generally used for clients with severe cases of IBD or at high-risk for complications.[41],[42],[43],[44]
Lastly, probiotics and antidiarrheals may be used in some clients. Probiotics will help replenish natural flora, and antidiarrheals will help reduce the frequency of stools.[45],[46],[47],[48]
View a supplementary YouTube video[49] on medications used to IBD: Medications for IBD (Crohn’s and Colitis) Featuring Dr. Alan Low | GI Society.
Surgical Management
Surgical removal of the colon (total colectomy) may be required for clients with UC if the disease cannot be controlled with medications or if complications are present. After surgery, the client has a stoma and colostomy collection bag. Although this surgery will cure the gastrointestinal symptoms of UC, it will not cure any extraintestinal manifestations of the disorder.[50],[51],[52],[53]
Surgery may be required for clients with severe CD disease or when complications are present. The site of the surgery is determined by the affected portion of the GI tract and the purpose of the surgery.[54],[55],[56],[57]
Nursing Interventions
When providing nursing care to clients with IBD, nursing interventions can be divided into nursing assessments, nursing actions, and client teaching[58],[59],[60],[61],[62]:
Nursing Assessments
- Assess the client for signs and symptoms of malnutrition and anemia, as these can be caused by poor intake or poor absorption of nutrients.
- Assess the intake and output of the client, noting the number of calories consumed, as well as consistency, characteristics, and frequency of stools.
- Assess for elevated temperature, elevated heart rate, increased white blood cell count, and increased pain, as these could indicate a complication such as perforation and peritonitis. Low blood pressure, elevated heart rate, and low-grade fever may also occur with dehydration.
- Assess the client’s weight daily to monitor for malnutrition, as well as fluid loss due to diarrhea.
- Assess electrolyte levels (particularly potassium and magnesium), as levels can be decreased due to diarrhea.
- Complete frequent abdominal assessments, as altered bowel sounds, increased pain, or distention may mean that a complication such as bowel obstruction or perforation has occurred.
Nursing Actions
- Encourage frequent colonoscopies (every one to two years) due to the high risk of cancer development.
- Seek referrals to mental health services if needed as anxiety and depression are common.
- Encourage the client to receive appropriate vaccinations due to their increased risk for illness.
- Administer intravenous fluids or total parenteral nutrition (TPN) as ordered. TPN may be needed for clients with severe disease or during acute flare-ups.
- Ensure referrals to a stoma nurse if the client has a stoma present.
- Administer IBD medications per provider order.
- Encourage the client to drink two liters of fluid per day to prevent dehydration.
- Encourage the client to join a support group consisting of others with IBD to strengthen their support system.
- Provide peri-care after bowel movements and apply barrier cream as needed.
Review information about parenteral nutrition in the “Applying the Nursing Process” section of the “Nutrition” chapter of Open RN Nursing Fundamentals, 2e.
Client Teaching
The following teaching topics are typically included in health teaching about IBD:
- Teach the client about the disease process, treatment, and self-managing the disorder. Many medications used to treat IBD have serious side effects that should be reported to the health care provider.
- Review symptoms of perforation and when to seek emergency care.
- Encourage bone mineral density testing as prescribed by their health care provider due to the increased risk of osteoporosis from steroid medications.
- Avoid NSAIDs because they may increase symptoms.
- Avoid foods that may increase symptoms such as dairy, caffeine, alcohol, and foods high in fat and fiber. Clients may benefit from a diet that is bland and high in protein, calories, and vitamins.
Evaluation
Evaluation of client outcomes refers to the process of determining whether or not client outcomes were met by the indicated time frame. This is done by reevaluating the client as a whole and determining if their outcomes have been met, partially met, or not met. If the client outcomes were not met in their entirety, the care plan should be revised and reimplemented. Evaluation of outcomes should occur each time the nurse assesses the client, examines new laboratory or diagnostic data, or interacts with another member of the client’s interdisciplinary team.
RN Recap: Inflammatory Bowel Disease
View a brief YouTube video overview of inflammatory bowel disease[63]:
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- “Crohn%27s_Disease_vs._Ulcerative_Colitis.jpg” by RicHard-59 is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Herdman, T. H., Kamitsuru, S., & Lopes, C. T. (Eds.). (2020). Nursing diagnoses: Definitions and classification, 2021-2023 (12th ed.). Thieme. ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Curran, A. (2022, May 16). Inflammatory bowel disease nursing diagnosis and nursing care plan. https://nursestudy.net/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-diagnosis/?expand_article=1 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Gastrointestinal Society. (2020, November 5). Medications for IBD (Crohn's and Colitis) featuring Dr. Alan Low | GI Society [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QFtqqGAvy0Y ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Crohn Disease by Ranasinghe & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Ulcerative Colitis by Lynch & Hsu is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease by McDowell, Farooq, & Haseeb is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 ↵
- Vera, M. (2023, October 13). 10 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) nursing care plans. https://nurseslabs.com/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-care-plans/ ↵
- Curran, A. (2022, May 16). Inflammatory bowel disease nursing diagnosis and nursing care plan. https://nursestudy.net/inflammatory-bowel-disease-nursing-diagnosis/?expand_article=1 ↵
- Open RN Project. (2024, June 23). Health Alterations - Chapter 11 - Inflammatory bowel disease [Video]. You Tube. CC BY-NC 4.0 https://youtu.be/FnIXCLwgbt8?si=-Jk5Su-tBFY4Bt3I ↵
A chronic disorder that is characterized by inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract.
Signs and symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease that are not confined to the gastrointestinal tract such as inflammation of the joints/bones, bile ducts, mouth, eyes, and skin.
Folds in the colon.
Lesions that have normal areas of bowel between them; a hallmark symptom of Crohn’s disease.
Narrowing.
An abnormal connection between two organs.
Frequent urge to have a bowel movement/sensation that bowels are not empty.
Surgical removal of the colon.


18 Telling Time
To ask / say what time it is:
The verb “ser” can be used both to ask and say what time it is. Literally one asks “what is the hour?” (la hora = the hour). Since the word “la hora” is singular, the singular form of ser (es) is frequently used to ask the question, and to answer when it’s one o’clock (one = singular):
| ¿Qué hora es? | What time is it? |
| Es la una. | It’s one (o’clock). |
However, once it’s two or later (plural numbers), then the plural form of ser (son las) is used to say what time it is:
| Son las dos de la tarde. | It's two pm. |
| Son las seis de la mañana. | It's four am. |
| Son las nueve de la noche. | It's nine pm. |
Expressing AM / PM:
The concept of “am” is expressed by using “de la mañana” and “pm” by using either “de la tarde” or “de la noche” for when it’s dark out.
Alternate ways to ask what time it is:
Since the answer to the question “¿qué hora es?” frequently begins with “son las…” (except for 1:00), many native speakers will often use the pural form “son” in the question instead of the singular “es” form: “¿qué horas son”. Another alternate way of asking what time it is would be to say “¿qué hora tiene?” (what time do you have?).
To summarize: three common ways to ask what time it is:
- ¿Qué hora es?
- ¿Qué horas son?
- ¿Qué hora tiene?
To express time after the hour:
In Spanish when it’s later than a specific hour “on the dot”, minutes are added by using “y + (number of minutes)”. In English, we sometimes use phrases such as “it’s twelve ten” for 12:10, or “it’s 20 after eight” for 8:20. In Spanish the equivalents would be:
| Son las doce y diez. | It's twelve ten. | 12:10 |
| Sons las ocho y veinte. | It's twenty after eight. | 8:20 |
To express “till”:
There are a couple of ways to express “till” in Spanish. One way is to use the hour that’s coming up, then “menos + (number of minutes)”:
| Son las once menos diez. | 10:50 (literally: it’s eleven less ten) |
| Es la una menos veinte. | 12:40 (literally: it’s one less twenty) |
Another way to express “till” may be more common: “son + (number of minutes) + para la(s) + (up-coming hour)”:
| Son quince para las nueve. | 8:45 (it’s fifteen till 9) |
| Son veinticinco para las diez. | 9:35 (it’s twenty-five till 10) |
| Son cinco para la una. | 12:55 (it’s five till 1) |
Practical expressions related to telling time:
The phrases “y cuarto” can be used instead of “y quince” to express “quarter past the hour”. Similarly, “y media” can be used instead of “y treinta” to express “half past the hour”:
| Son las tres y cuarto. | Son las tres y quince | 3:15 |
| Es la una y media. | Es la una y treinta | 1:30 |
The following expressions are also commonly used:
| Es (el) mediodía. | It's noon |
| Es (la) medianoche. | It's midnight |
| Son las siete en punto. | It's seven "on the dot"/"sharp" |
To ask / say what time something is at:
To ask what time something is at, use “¿A qué hora es el/la…?”. If you’re asking at what time someone does something, use “A qué hora + (verb)”:
| ¿A qué hora es la clase de español? | What time is Spanish at? |
| ¿A qué hora es el concierto? | What time is the concert (at)? |
| ¿A qué hora trabajas? | What time do you work? |
To answer the above questions, use “a la(s)”:
| La clase es a las diez. | The class is at ten. |
| El concierto es a las siete. | The concert is at seven pm. |
| Trabajo a la una. | I work at one. |


The White Wampum
The Happy Hunting Grounds
Into the rose gold westland, its yellow prairies roll,
World of the bison’s freedom, home of the Indian’s soul.
Roll out, O seas! in sunlight bathed,
Your plains wind-tossed, and grass enswathed.

Fringing the prairie billows, fretting horizon’s line,
Darkly green are slumb’ring wildernesses of pine,
Sleeping until the zephyrs throng
To kiss their silence into song.
Whispers freighted with odour swinging into the air,
Russet needles as censers swing to an altar, where
The angels’ songs are less divine
Than duo sung twixt breeze and pine.
Laughing into the forest, dimples a mountain stream,
Pure as the airs above it, soft as a summer dream,
O! Lethean spring thou’rt only found
Within this ideal hunting ground.
Surely the great Hereafter cannot be more than this,
Surely we’ll see that country after Time’s farewell kiss.
Who would his lovely faith condole?
Who envies not the Red-skin’s soul,
Sailing into the cloud land, sailing into the sun,
Into the crimson portals ajar when life is done?


5 GM Food
Click play on the following audio player to listen along as you read this section.
It is hard to be a farmer.   Weeds can hurt your crops. Your crops may need more rain than they get. Fruits and vegetables can go bad before they are sold. Some people say farmers can fix all this with GM food.
What is GM food? All living things have DNA. DNA tells living things how to grow. These days, people can change the DNA that tells food how to grow. When people change the DNA of food, it is called GM food.
Some GM food can grow in cold weather. GM food can stop bugs from eating it. GM fruits and vegetables can stay good longer. One day, GM food may be able to grow in dry land in Africa. It will feed people who do not have much food.
But there is a lot we do not know about GM food. Will GM companies help poor people grow food? Or do GM companies just want to get rich? Does GM food kill bugs we need, like butterflies? Does GM food make birds sick? Does GM food make people sick? We do not know. There have not been many tests on GM food.
Do you think farmers should grow GM food?


1 Who were the “Objectivists”?
In their simplest definition, the “Objectivists” were a group of thirty modernist writers gathered and presented by Louis Zukofsky in two explicitly-titled “Objectivist” publications: the February 1931 issue of Chicago’s Poetry magazine, and An “Objectivists” Anthology, published the following year in France. Beginning in the mid-1930s, many of the writers identified as “Objectivist” ceased writing poetry or faded into obscurity until the early 1960s, when several members of the group reemerged as active poets and enjoyed a surge of attention and retroactive identification as “Objectivists.”
Core “Objectivists”
The seven core “Objectivist” writers featured on this website: Louis Zukofsky, Charles Reznikoff, George Oppen, William Carlos Williams, Carl Rakosi, Basil Bunting and Lorine Niedecker, were connected through a shifting web of friendship and joint publication beginning in the mid-1920s and stretching into the early twenty-first century. All of these writers published important work after 1962, and of the seven, all but Lorine Niedecker appeared in both of the foundational “Objectivist” publications. I recognize that my decision to refer to Niedecker as an “Objectivist” poet despite her absence from the early “Objectivist” publishing ventures and group publications could be contested, so some justification for this decision may be helpful.[1] Niedecker became attracted to the group, and to Zukofsky in particular, after reading the February 1931 issue of Poetry in her local library. This encounter prompted Niedecker to write directly to Zukofsky sometime in mid-late 1931, and Niedecker’s first submission to Poetry magazine, dated November 5, 1931, mentions her having been encouraged to do so by Zukofsky.[2] Niedecker’s first letter to Zukofsky marked the commencement of an intense, lifelong friendship, developed through frequent correspondence for nearly 40 years.[3] Late in 1933, Niedecker traveled to New York City for an extended stay with Zukofsky, during which time she met Charles Reznikoff, George and Mary Oppen, and (probably) William Carlos Williams. In August 1934, Zukofsky wrote to T.C. Wilson, a young graduate student at the University of Michigan who was editing an issue of Bozart-Westminster along with Ezra Pound, indicating that he “[c]onsider[ed] it a grave error not to have included her in Objectivists Anthology, but she has travelled some since 1932.”[4] Later in life, Niedecker met both Carl Rakosi and Basil Bunting, who in particular had been a longtime admirer of her writing. While I would not go so far as Rakosi in describing Niedecker as the “most Objectivist of all of us,”[5] it is my view that Niedecker, by virtue of both her personal relationships with other members of the group and her poetic sensibilities, warrants inclusion among the core “Objectivists.” Two other writers, Robert McAlmon and Kenneth Rexroth, also appeared in both of the original “Objectivist” publications, but I have chosen to exclude them from my list of core “Objectivists,” and discuss the reasons for this decision at greater length below.
Speaking purely in terms of the lives of the core “Objectivists,” there are a number of biographical similarities. The group’s geographic center was New York City, and though all seven were never in the area at the same time, all core members either lived in the city or spent significant periods of time there between 1928 and 1935.[6] Four of the group were Jewish,[7] four were the children of American immigrants,[8] and they were generally non-academic; apart from Zukofsky, none held graduate degrees connected to literature or university affiliations of any kind until the 1960s, when some members of the group began to be invited to fill artist-in-residence positions at various American universities.[9] With the exception of Williams and Reznikoff, all were of the same ‘generation,’ having been born between 1900 and 1908.[10] Of the five born after the turn of the century, Basil Bunting was the eldest and George Oppen the youngest, with Niedecker, Rakosi, and Zukofsky having being born during the eight month span from May 1903 and January 1904.[11] Not surprisingly, considering his seniority relative to the rest of the group, Williams was also the first of the “Objectivists” to die, in 1963, just as many of the writers who had been published with him as “Objectivists” were beginning to reemerge to greater public notice.[12] The last surviving “Objectivist” was Rakosi, who published his final volume of poetry in 1999, and continued sending new work in magazines and giving interviews until shortly before his death, aged 100, on June 25, 2004.
In addition to their shared publication efforts, the “Objectivists” were also loosely united by shared political and poetic affinities. In contradistinction to Pound, Eliot, and Cummings, three of the most prominent American modernist poets of the era, each of the “Objectivists” was leftist in their politics, with each generally expressing Marxist, socialist, or Progressive sympathies.[13] Their poetics might be described as sympathetically heterogeneous, with Ezra Pound and the imagist tradition serving as important common touchstones for the group.
- Jenny Penberthy and other attentive readers of Niedecker’s poetry have long noted her intellectual and poetic independence, including surrealist tendencies, of which Zukofsky did not approve, in both her earliest and latest poetry. See Penberthy in How2 and both Ruth Jennison and Rachel Blau DuPlessis’ contributions to Radical Vernacular (pp. 131-179). ↵
- That letter reads, in full: “Dear Miss Monroe, Mr. Zukofsky encourages me to send some of my poems to you to be considered for “Poetry”. Very truly yours, Lorine Niedecker.” Niedecker to Harriet Monroe in Poetry: A Magazine of Verse Records 1895-1961, Box 18, Folder 2, University of Chicago Special Collections. ↵
- Niedecker and Zukofsky conducted one of the deepest, most fruitful, and longest lasting epistolary friendships among writers of which I know. They destroyed much of their correspondence, but a significant portion of the surviving letters from Niedecker were collected and edited by Jenny Penberthy in Niedecker and the Correspondence with Zukofsky 1931–1970, published in 1993 by Cambridge University Press. Fragments of Zukofsky’s side of the correspondence are held by the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. ↵
- I am grateful to Jenny Penberthy for bringing this letter to my attention in September 2018. The rest of the letter is full of detailed, though qualified, praise for Niedecker, including the assertion that Niedecker was “the only woman in the U.S.A. as far as I know now writing poetry, with the exception of Marianne Moore – and promising more of a base to build on than Marianne. Suggest that you take something by her whether you like it or not, or whether E.P. [Ezra Pound] likes it or not — such exceptions should be made sometimes so as not to risk dogma.” Zukofsky’s letters to Wilson are held in the T.C. Wilson papers at Yale University. ↵
- Quoted in Bird, 71 ↵
- Apart from a stint at graduate school in Madison, Wisconsin during the 1930-1931 academic year and a trip to visit Pound and other artistic friends in Europe in the summer of 1933, Zukofsky spent the entirety of these years in New York City. Reznikoff lived in New York City for his entire life, apart from a year at journalism school in Missouri (the 1910-1911 academic year), a cross-country trip selling hats for his parents’ business and extended stay in Los Angeles from April-June of 1931, and a two year stint working in Hollywood for his friend Al Lewin (from March 1937 through June 1939). The Oppens arrived in New York City in 1928, living briefly in Greenwich Village before taking a room at the Madison Square Hotel (on the corner of Madison Avenue and 26th Street, near the north east corner of Madison Square Park) for the rest of the winter. They lived briefly with Zukofsky’s close friends Ted and Kate Hecht on Staten Island in the spring, before renting a small house in New Rochelle harbor, the city where George had been born. They returned to San Francisco at the end of the summer in 1929, and lived a rented house in Belvedere for a year before leaving for France in the summer of 1930 around the same time that Zukofsky left New York for Madison. The Oppens arrived in Le Havre, and stayed in France until early in 1933, when they left Paris to return to New York, taking an apartment in Brooklyn Heights near Zukofsky. The Oppens lived in New York from 1933 until the early 1940s, when they moved to Detroit. From 1913 until their deaths, Williams and his wife Flossie made their home some 25 miles northwest of Manhattan at 9 Ridge Road in Rutherford, New Jersey, from which location Williams made frequent visits to the city. Carl Rakosi lived in New York City from 1924 to 1925 and again from 1935 to 1940. Bunting lived in New York City for the last half of 1930: he and his first wife, Marian Culver, were married on Long Island on July 9, 1930 and lived in Brooklyn Heights through January 1931, when Bunting’s six-month visa expired and the couple returned to Rapallo, Italy. Although Zukofsky was in Madison during most of Bunting’s time in New York City, Bunting met Williams, René Taupin, and others in Zukofsky’s circle, and met Zukofsky in person when Zukofsky returned to the city for the winter holidays. Niedecker came to New York City for the first time in late 1933, and over the next several years would spend several months in the city, living with Zukofsky during her sometimes lengthy visits. ↵
- Zukofsky, Reznikoff, Oppen, and Rakosi. ↵
- Zukofsky’s parents immigrated from what is now Lithuania, Reznikoff’s parents immigrated from Russia, Rakosi was born in Germany and immigrated from Hungary when he was six years old, and Williams’ parents had immigrated from Puerto Rico, though his father had been born in England. ↵
- Zukofsky earned a master’s degree in English from Columbia University in June 1924, writing his thesis on the writings of the historian Henry Adams. In February 1946, he began a teaching position as an English instructor at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now operating as the New York University Tandon School of Engineering), where he taught until his retirement in May 1965. Reznikoff attended journalism school for a year at the University of Missouri and considered pursuing a Ph.D. in history before enrolling in law school, earning his LLB from New York University in 1915 and being admitted to the bar the following year. Reznikoff took a few postgraduate courses in law, but never earned an advanced degree. Oppen dropped out of Oregon State Agricultural College (now Oregon State University) after he was suspended and Mary was expelled from school for their relationship. Neither George or Mary earned university degrees. Williams attended medical school at the University of Pennsylvania, where he befriended classmates Ezra Pound and Hilda Doolittle [H.D.], graduating in 1906 and filling internships at two New York hospitals and pursuing advanced study in pediatrics in Leipzig, Germany. Rakosi attended the University of Chicago for a year before transferring to the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he earned a bachelor’s degree in English in 1924 and a master’s degree in industrial psychology in 1925. Rakosi attended a wide range of graduate programs in the 1920s and 1930s, briefly enrolling in both the Ph.D. program in English literature and law school at the University of Texas at Austin and medical school at the University of Texas Medical Department in Galveston but leaving each program before earning a degree. After choosing a career as a social worker, Rakosi attended the Graduate School of Social Work at Tulane University in New Orleans and eventually earned his master’s degree in Social Work from the University of Pennsylvania in 1940. Between 1952 and 1954, he would complete course work in the Social Work Ph.D. program at the University of Minnesota, but he never completed the doctorate. Bunting was enrolled at the London School of Economic from October 1919 to April 1923, but was very casual in his studies and left without earning a degree. Niedecker attended Beloit College from 1922-1924, but family financial pressures forced her to leave without completing her degree. ↵
- Williams was born in Rutherford, New Jersey on September 17, 1883, and Reznikoff was born in New York City on August 31, 1894. ↵
- Bunting was born on March 1, 1900 in Scotswood-on-Tyne, a western suburb of Newcastle, England; Niedecker was born on May 12, 1903 on Blackhawk Island near Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin; Rakosi was born on November 6, 1903 in Berlin, Germany; Zukofsky was born on January 23, 1904 in New York City; Oppen was born on April 24, 1908 in New Rochelle, New York. ↵
- William Carlos Williams died March 4, 1963, aged 79; Lorine Niedecker died December 31, 1970, aged 67; Charles Reznikoff died January 22, 1976, aged 81; Louis Zukofsky died May 12, 1978, aged 74; George Oppen died July 7, 1984, aged 76; Basil Bunting died April 17, 1985, aged 85; Carl Rakosi died June 25, 2004, aged 100. For comparison, Ezra Pound was born on October 30, 1885 in Hailey, Idaho and died on November 1, 1972 in Venice, Italy, aged 87. ↵
- Oppen and Rakosi were both members of the Communist Party of the United States of America in New York City during the last half of the 1930s, but neither remained an active member of the party by the end of the decade. Zukofsky appears to have applied for membership in the Communist Party in 1925, when his close friend Whittaker Chambers began to ingratiate himself with the party’s New York leadership, but others recalled that his application was rejected, though the influence of Marxist ideas on Zukofsky remained prominent in his poetry and private letters through the late 1930s and is clear in his editorial decisions, both in regards to who he selected for inclusion in the “Objectivist” publications and afterward. In 1934 and 1935, Zukofsky spent several months preparing A Worker’s Anthology (though never published, many of the poems he gathered for this manuscript made their way into his A Test of Poetry), joined the anti-fascist (and Communist-affiliated) League of American Writers and worked briefly as an unpaid poetry editor for the prominent Communist-affiliated literary magazine New Masses. He and Bunting both argued politics with the fascist-sympathizing Pound in their letters throughout the 30s, with Zukofsky taking up more Marxist-Leninist positions and Bunting more anarcho-socialist ones. In a July 1938 letter to Pound, Zukofsky wrote: “Can’t guess what Kulchah is about, but if you want to dedicate yr. book to a communist (me) and a British-conservative-antifascist-imperialist (Basil), I won’t sue you for libel and I suppose you know Basil. So dedicate” (Pound/Zukofsky, 195). Zukofsky’s multi-hybrid classification of Bunting is a good sign of the difficulty even his closest friends experienced in classifying his political views. Bunting attended a Quaker secondary school and was imprisoned as a conscientious objector during the first World War and for several years as a young adult was, like his father, a dues-paying Fabian Socialist. His mature political views, while largely uncategorizable, resemble something of a fusion between socialism and anarchism, though he was perhaps the most suspicious of ideology of the whole group, arguing strenuously for the separation of literature from both political and economic motives and ends. A flavor of his independent-mindedness comes through in a 1954 to Dorothy Pound: “our only hope for our children is to destroy uniformity, centralization, big states and big factories and give men a chance to vary and live without more interference than it is the nature of their neighbors to insist on” (quoted in Basil Bunting, 12). Williams’ politics might be best described as democratic populist, and Niedecker was sympathetic to both the strain of Progressivism led by Wisconsin politician Robert La Follette and Henry Wallace as well as the socialism of William Morris. For more on Niedecker’s politics, see: http://steelwagstaff.info/lorine-niedecker-and-the-99/. Reznikoff was the least overtly political of the group, though his writing is profoundly sympathetic to human suffering and what we would today refer to as social justice concerns. He did also work for seventeen years in an editorial capacity on the Labor Zionist journal Jewish Frontier alongside his more politically engaged wife Marie Syrkin, who was the daughter of Nahum and Bassnya Osnos, two prominent Socialist Zionists, as well as a close friend of the Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir. ↵