7.1 Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Compare and contrast agonist and antagonist muscles
- Describe how fascicles are arranged within a skeletal muscle
- Explain the major events of a skeletal muscle contraction within a muscle in generating force
To move the skeleton, the tension created by the contraction of the fibers in most skeletal muscles is transferred to the tendons. The tendons are strong bands of dense, regular connective tissue that connect muscles to bones. The bone connection is why this muscle tissue is called skeletal muscle.
Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body
To pull on a bone, that is, to change the angle at its joint, which essentially moves the skeleton, a skeletal muscle must also be attached to a fixed part of the skeleton. The moveable end of the muscle that attaches to the bone being pulled is called the muscle’s insertion, and the end of the muscle attached to a fixed (stabilized) bone is called the origin. During elbow flexion—bending the elbow—a muscle called the biceps brachii contracts pulling its insertion on the radius toward its origin on the humerus.
Although a number of muscles may be involved in an action, the principal muscle involved is called the prime mover, or agonist. To lift a cup, the biceps brachii muscle is the prime mover of elbow flexion; however, because it can be assisted by a muscle called the brachialis, the brachialis is called a synergist in this action (Figure 7.2). A synergist can also be a fixator that holds an origin site stable for the prime mover.
A muscle with the opposite action of the prime mover is called an antagonist. Antagonists play two important roles in muscle function: (1) they maintain body or limb position, such as holding the arm out or standing erect; and (2) they control rapid movement, as in shadow boxing without landing a punch or the ability to check the motion of a limb.
For example, to extend the knee, a group of four muscles called the quadriceps femoris in the anterior compartment of the thigh are activated (and would be called the agonists of knee extension). However, to flex the knee joint, an opposite or antagonistic set of muscles called the hamstrings is activated.
As you can see, these terms would also be reversed for the opposing action. If you consider the first action as the knee bending, the hamstrings would be called the agonists and the quadriceps femoris would then be called the antagonists. See Table 7.1 for a list of some agonists and antagonists.
|
Agonist |
Antagonist |
Movement |
|
Biceps brachii – in the anterior compartment of the arm |
Triceps brachii – in the posterior compartment of the arm |
The biceps brachii flexes the elbow, whereas the triceps brachii extends the elbow |
|
Hamstrings – group of three muscles in the posterior compartment of the thigh |
Quadriceps femoris – groups of four muscles in the anterior compartment of the thigh |
The hamstrings flex the knee, whereas the quadriceps femoris extends the knee |
|
Flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus – in the anterior compartment of the forearm |
Extensor digitorum – in the posterior compartment of the forearm |
The flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus flex the fingers and wrist, whereas the extensor digitorum extends the fingers and wrist |
Patterns of Fascicle Organization
Skeletal muscle is enclosed in connective tissue scaffolding at three levels. Each muscle fiber (cell) is covered by endomysium and the entire muscle is covered by epimysium. When a group of muscle fibers is “bundled” as a unit within the whole muscle by an additional covering of a connective tissue called perimysium, that bundled group of muscle fibers is called a fascicle. Fascicle arrangement by perimysia is correlated to the force generated by a muscle; it also affects the range of motion of the muscle. Based on the patterns of fascicle arrangement, skeletal muscles can be classified in several ways. What follows are the most common fascicle arrangements.
Parallel muscles have fascicles that are arranged in the same direction as the long axis of the muscle (Figure 7.3). The majority of skeletal muscles in the body have this type of organization. Some parallel muscles are flat sheets that expand at the ends to make broad attachments. Other parallel muscles are rotund with tendons at one or both ends. Muscles that seem to be plump have a large mass of tissue located in the middle of the muscle, between the insertion and the origin, which is known as the central body. A more common name for this muscle is belly. When a muscle contracts, the contractile fibers shorten it to an even larger bulge. For example, extend and then flex your biceps brachii muscle; the large, middle section is the belly (Figure 7.4). When a parallel muscle has a central, large belly that is spindle-shaped, meaning it tapers as it extends to its origin and insertion, it sometimes is called fusiform.
Circular muscles are also called sphincters (see Figure 7.3). When they relax, the sphincters’ concentrically arranged bundles of muscle fibers increase the size of the opening, and when they contract, the size of the opening shrinks to the point of closure. The orbicularis oris muscle is a circular muscle that goes around the mouth. When it contracts, the oral opening becomes smaller, as when puckering the lips for whistling. Another example is the orbicularis oculi, one of which surrounds each eye. Consider, for example, the names of the two orbicularis muscles (orbicularis oris and orbicularis oculi), where part of the first name of both muscles is the same. The first part of orbicularis, orb (orb = “circular”), is a reference to a round or circular structure; it may also make one think of an orbit, such as the moon’s path around the earth. The word oris (oris = “oral”) refers to the oral cavity, or the mouth. The word oculi (ocular = “eye”) refers to the eye.
There are other muscles throughout the body named by their shape or location. The deltoid is a large, triangular-shaped muscle that covers the shoulder. It is so-named because the Greek letter delta looks like a triangle. The rectus abdominis (rector = “straight”) is the straight muscle in the anterior wall of the abdomen, while the rectus femoris is the straight muscle in the anterior compartment of the thigh.
When a muscle has a widespread expansion over a sizable area, but then the fascicles come to a single, common attachment point, the muscle is called convergent. The attachment point for a convergent muscle could be a tendon, an aponeurosis (a flat, broad tendon), or a raphe (a very slender tendon). The large muscle on the chest, the pectoralis major, is an example of a convergent muscle because it converges on the greater tubercle of the humerus via a tendon.
Pennate muscles (penna = “feathers”) blend into a tendon that runs through the central region of the muscle for its whole length, somewhat like the quill of a feather with the muscle arranged similar to the feathers. Due to this design, the muscle fibers in a pennate muscle can only pull at an angle, and as a result, contracting pennate muscles do not move their tendons very far. However, because a pennate muscle generally can hold more muscle fibers within it, it can produce relatively more tension for its size. There are three subtypes of pennate muscles.
In a unipennate muscle, the fascicles are located on one side of the tendon. The extensor digitorum of the forearm is an example of a unipennate muscle. A bipennate muscle has fascicles on both sides of the tendon. In some pennate muscles, the muscle fibers wrap around the tendon, sometimes forming individual fascicles in the process. This arrangement is referred to as multipennate. A common example is the deltoid muscle of the shoulder, which covers the shoulder but has a single tendon that inserts on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus.
Because of fascicles, a portion of a multipennate muscle like the deltoid can be stimulated by the nervous system to change the direction of the pull. For example, when the deltoid muscle contracts, the shoulder abducts (arm moves away from midline in the sagittal plane), but when only the anterior fascicle is stimulated, the shoulder will abduct and flex (arm moves anteriorly at the shoulder joint).
The Lever System of Muscle and Bone Interactions
Skeletal muscles do not work by themselves. Muscles are arranged in pairs based on their functions. For muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton, the connection determines the force, speed, and range of movement. These characteristics depend on each other and can explain the general organization of the muscular and skeletal systems.
The skeleton and muscles act together to move the body. Have you ever used the back of a hammer to remove a nail from wood? The handle acts as a lever and the head of the hammer acts as a fulcrum, the fixed point that the force is applied to when you pull back or push down on the handle. The effort applied to this system is the pulling or pushing on the handle to remove the nail, which is the load, or “resistance” to the movement of the handle in the system. Our musculoskeletal system works in a similar manner, with bones being stiff levers and the articular endings of the bones—encased in synovial joints—acting as fulcrums. The load would be an object being lifted or any resistance to a movement (your head is a load when you are lifting it), and the effort, or applied force, comes from contracting skeletal muscle.


85 On the Equality of the Sexes
Judith Sargent Murray
SIR: In the foregoing letter I have examined the theory of the connection between equality and justice, with the view of showing that the only real connection between the two ideas is to be found in the fact that, as justice implies general rules, it also implies an impartial application of those rules to all the particular cases to which they may apply. I also showed that when equality is spoken of as being just or unjust in any more general sense than this, the expression can mean nothing else than that it is or is not generally expedient. The doctrine upon this subject which I deny, and which I am disposed to think Mr. Mill affirms—though, if he does, it is with somewhat less than his usual transparent vigor and decision is that equality is in itself always expedient, or, to say the very least, presumably expedient, and that in every case of inequality the burden of proof lies on those who justify its maintenance.
If I had time to do so, I might give in proof or illustration of this the whole of his essay on the “Subjection of Women,” a work from which I dissent from the first sentence to the last, but which I will consider on the present occasion only with reference to the particular topic of equality, and as the strongest distinct illustration known to me of what is perhaps one of the strongest, and what appears to me to be by far the most ignoble, contemptible, and mischievous of all the popular feelings of the age.
The object of Mr. Mill’s essay is to explain the grounds of the opinion that “the principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes, the legal subordination of one sex to the other, is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to he replaced by a principle of perfect equality, admitting no power or privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other.”
Mr. Mill is fully aware of the difficulty of his task. He admits that he is arguing against “an almost universal opinion,” but he urges that it and the practice founded on it is a relic of a by-gone state of things. “We now live—that is to say, one or two of the most advanced nations of the world now live—in a state in which the law of the strongest seems to be entirely abandoned as the regulating principle of the world’s affairs. Nobody professes it, and, as regards most of the relations between human beings, nobody is permitted to practise it…. This being the ostensible state of things, people flatter themselves that the rule of mere force is ended.” Still they do not know how hard it dies, and in particular they are unaware of the fact that it still regulates the relations between men and women. It is true that the actually existing generation of women do not dislike their position. The consciousness of this haunts Mr. Mill throughout the whole of his argument, and embarrasses him at every turn. He is driven to account for it by such assertions as that “each individual of the subject class is in a chronic state of bribery and intimidation combined,” by reference to the affection which slaves in classical times felt for their masters in many cases, and by other suggestions of the same sort. His great argument against the present state of things is that it is opposed to what he calls “the modern conviction, the fruit of a thousand years of experience”—
“That things in which the individual is the person directly interested never go right but as they are left to his own discretion, and that any regulation of them by authority except to protect the rights of others is sure to be mischievous . .
. . The peculiar character of the modern world . . . is that human beings are no longer born to their place in life and chained down by an inexorable bond to the place they are born to, but are free to employ their faculties and such favorable chances as offer, to achieve the lot which may appear to them most desirable. Human society of old was constituted on a very different principle. All were born to a fixed social position, and were mostly kept in it by law or interdicted from any means by which they could emerge from it . . . . In consonance with this doctrine it is felt to be an overstepping of the proper bounds of authority to fix beforehand on some general presumption that certain persons are not fit to do certain things. It is now thoroughly known and admitted that if some such presumptions exist no such presumption is infallible . . . . Hence we ought not . . . to ordain that to be born a girl instead of a boy shall decide the person’s position all through life.”
The result is that “the social subordination of women thus stands out as an isolated fact in modern social institutions.” It is in “radical opposition” to “the progressive movement, which is the boast of the modern world.” This fact creates a “prima-facie presumption” against it, “far outweighing any which custom and usage could in such circumstances create” in its favor.
I will not follow Mr. Mill through the whole of his argument, much of which consists of matter not relevant to my present purpose, and not agreeable to discuss, though many of his assertions provoke reply. There is something—I hardly know what to call it, indecent is too strong a word, but I may say unpleasant in the direction of indecorum—in prolonged and minute discussions about the relations between men and women, and the characteristics of women as such. I will therefore pass over what Mr. Mill says on this subject with a mere general expression of dissent from nearly every word he says. The following extracts show the nature of that part of his theory which bears on the question of equality:
“The equality of married persons before the law . . . is the only means of rendering the daily life of mankind in any high sense a school of moral cultivation. Though the truth may not be felt or generally acknowledged for generations to come, the only school of genuine moral sentiment is society between equals. The moral education of mankind has hitherto emanated chiefly from the law of force, and is adapted almost solely to the relations which force creates. In the less advanced states of society, people hardly recognize any relation with their equals. To be an equal is to be an enemy. Society, from its highest place to its lowest, is one long chain, or rather ladder, where every individual is either above or below his nearest neighbor, and wherever he does not command he must obey. Existing moralities, accordingly, are mainly fitted to a relation of command and obedience. Yet command and obedience are but unfortunate necessities of human life; society in equality is its normal state. Already in modern life, and more and more as it progressively improves, command and obedience become exceptional facts in life, equal association its general rule .
. . . “We have had the morality of submission and the morality of chivalry and generosity; the time is now come for the morality of justice.”
In another part of the book this doctrine is stated more fully in a passage of which it will be enough for my purpose to quote a very few lines:
“There are many persons for whom it is not enough that the inequality” (between the sexes) “has no just or legitimate defence; they require to be told what express advantage would be obtained by abolishing it. To which let me first answer, the advantage of having all the most universal and pervading of all human relations regulated by justice instead of injustice. The vast amount of this gain to human nature it is hardly possible by any explanation or illustration to place in a stronger light than it is placed in by the bare statement to any one who attaches a moral meaning to words.”
These passages show what Mr. Mill’s doctrine of equality is, and how it forms the very root, the essence, so to speak, of his theory about the subjection of women. I consider it unsound in every respect. I think that it rests upon an unsound view of history, an unsound view of morals, and a grotesquely distorted view of facts, and I believe that its practical application would be as injurious as its theory is false.
The theory may be shortly restated in the following propositions, which I think are implied in or may be collected from the extracts given above. They are as follows:
1. Justice requires that all people should live in society as equals.
2. History shows that human progress has been a progress from a “law of force” to a condition in which command and obedience become exceptional.
3. The “law of the strongest” having in this and one or two other countries been “entirely abandoned” in all other relations of life, it may be presumed not to apply to the relation between the sexes.
4. The notorious facts as to the nature of that relation show that in this particular case the presumption is, in fact, well founded.
I dissent from each of these propositions. In the present letter I shall examine the first and the fourth, which may be regarded as an illustration of the first. On a subsequent occasion I shall consider the second and third. First, as to the proposition that justice requires that all people should live in society as equals. I have already shown that this is equivalent to the proposition that it is expedient that all people should live in society as equals. Can this be proved? for it is certainly not a self-evident proposition.
I think that if the rights and duties which laws create are to be generally advantageous, they ought to be adapted to the situation of the persons who enjoy or are subject to them. They ought to recognize both substantial equality and substantial inequality, and they should from time to time be so moulded and altered as always to represent fairly well the existing state of society. Government, in a word, ought to fit society as a man’s clothes fit him. To establish by law rights and duties which assume that people are equal when they are not is like trying to make clumsy feet look handsome by the help of tight boots. No doubt it may be necessary to legislate in such a manner as to correct the vices of society, or to protect it against special dangers or diseases to which it is liable. Law in this case is analogous to surgery, and the rights and duties imposed by it might be compared to the irons which are sometimes contrived for the purpose of supporting a weak limb or keeping it in some particular position. As a rule, however, it is otherwise. Rights and duties should be so moulded as to clothe, protect, and sustain society in the position which it naturally assumes. The proposition, therefore, that justice demands that people should live in society as equals may be translated thus: “It is inexpedient that any law should recognize any inequality between human beings.” This appears to me to involve the assertion, “There are no inequalities between human beings of sufficient importance to influence the rights and duties which it is expedient to confer upon them.” This proposition I altogether deny. I say that there are many such differences, some of which are more durable and more widely extended than others, and of which some are so marked and so important that, unless human nature is radically changed, we cannot even imagine their removal; and of these the differences of age and sex are the most important.
The difference of age is so distinct a case of inequality that even Mr. Mill does not object to its recognition. He admits, as every one must, that perhaps a third or more of the average term of human life—and that the portion of it in which the strongest, the most durable, and beyond all comparison the most important impressions are made on human beings, the period in which character is formed— must be passed by every one in a state of submission, dependence, and obedience to orders the objects of which are usually most imperfectly understood by the persons who receive them. Indeed, as I have pointed out in previous letters, Mr. Mill is disposed rather to exaggerate than to underrate the influence of education and the powers of educators. Is not this a clear case of inequality of the strongest kind, and does it not at all events afford a most instructive precedent in favor of the recognition by law of a marked natural distinction? If children were regarded by law as the equals of adults, the result would be something infinitely worse than barbarism. It would involve a degree of cruelty to the young which can hardly be realized even in imagination. The proceeding, in short, would be so utterly monstrous and irrational that I suppose it never entered into the head of the wildest zealot for equality to propose it. Upon the practical question all are agreed; but consider the consequences which it involves. It involves the consequence that, so far from being “unfortunate necessities,” command and obedience stand at the very entrance to life, and preside over the most important part of it. It involves the consequence that the exertion of power and constraint is so important and so indispensable in the greatest of all matters that it is a less evil to invest with it every head of a family indiscriminately, however unfit he may be to exercise it, than to fail to provide for its exercise. It involves the consequence that, by mere lapse of time and by following the promptings of passion, men acquire over others a position of superiority and of inequality which all nations and ages, the most cultivated as well as the rudest, have done their best to surround with every association of awe and reverence. The title of Father is the one which the best part of the human race have given to God, as being the least inadequate and inappropriate means of indicating the union of love, reverence, and submission. Whoever first gave the command or uttered the maxim, “Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land,” had a far better conception of the essential conditions of permanent national existence and prosperity than the author of the motto “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.”
Now, if society and government ought to recognize the inequality of age as the foundation of an inequality of rights of this importance, it appears to me at least equally clear that they ought to recognize the inequality of sex for the same purpose, if it is a real inequality. Is it one? There are some propositions which it is difficult to prove, because they are so plain, and this is one of them. The physical differences between the two sexes affect every part of the human body, from the hair of the head to the sole of the feet, from the size and density of the bones to the texture of the brain and the character of the nervous system. Ingenious people may argue about any thing, and Mr. Mill does say a great number of things about women which, as I have already observed, I will not discuss; but all the talk in the world will never shake the proposition that men are stronger than women in every shape. They have greater muscular and nervous force, greater intellectual force, greater vigor of character. This general truth, which has been observed under all sorts of circumstances and in every age and country, has also in every age and country led to a division of labor between men and women, the general outline of which is as familiar and as universal as the general outline of the differences between them. These are the facts, and the question is, whether the law and public opinion ought to recognize this difference. How it ought to recognize it, what difference it ought to make between men and women as such, is quite another question. The first point to consider is, whether it ought to treat them as equals, although, as I have shown, they are not equals, because men are the stronger. I will take one or two illustrations. Men, no one denies, may, and in some cases ought to, be liable to compulsory military service. No one, I suppose, would hesitate to admit that, if we were engaged in a great war, it might become necessary, or that if necessary it would be right, to have a conscription both for the land and for the sea service. Ought men and women to be subject to it indiscriminately? If any one says that they ought, I have no more to say, except that he has got into the region at which argument is useless. But if it is admitted that this ought not to be done, an inequality of treatment founded on a radical inequality between the two sexes is admitted, and, if this admission is once made, where are you to draw the line? Turn from the case of liability to military service to that of education, which in Germany is rightly regarded as the other great branch of state activity, and the same question presents itself in another shape. Are boys and girls to be educated indiscriminately, and to be instructed in the same things? Are boys to learn to sew, to keep house, and to cook, as girls unquestionably ought to be, and are girls to play at cricket, to row, and be drilled like boys? I cannot argue with a person who says Yes. A person who says No admits an inequality between the sexes on which education must be founded, and which it must therefore perpetuate and perhaps increase.
Follow the matter a step further to the vital point of the whole question— marriage. Marriage is one of the subjects with which it is absolutely necessary both for law and morals to deal in some way or other. All that I need consider in reference to the present purpose is the question whether the laws and moral rules which relate to it should regard it as a contract between equals, or as a contract between a stronger and a weaker person involving subordination for certain purposes on the part of the weaker to the stronger. I say that a law which proceeded on the former and not on the latter of these views would be founded on a totally false assumption, and would involve cruel injustice in the sense of extreme general inexpediency, especially to women. If the parties to a contract of marriage are treated as equals, it is impossible to avoid the inference that marriage, like other partnerships, may be dissolved at pleasure. The advocates of women’s rights are exceedingly shy of stating this plainly. Mr. Mill says nothing about it in his book on the “Subjection of Women,” though in one place he comes very near to saying so, but it is as clear an inference from his principles as any thing can possibly be, nor has he ever disavowed it. If this were the law, it would make women the slaves of their husbands. A woman loses the qualities which make her attractive to men much earlier than men lose those which make them attractive to women. The tie between a woman and young children is generally far closer than the tie between them and their father. A woman who is no longer young, and who is the mother of children, would thus be absolutely in her husband’s power, in nine cases out of ten, if he might put an end to the marriage when he pleased. This is one inequality in the position of the parties which must be recognized and provided for beforehand if the contract is to be for their common good. A second inequality is this: When a man marries, it is generally because he feels himself established in life. He incurs, no doubt, a good deal of expense, but he does not in any degree impair his means of earning a living. When a woman marries, she practically renounces in all but the rarest cases the possibility of undertaking any profession but one, and the possibility of carrying on that one profession in the society of any man but one. Here is a second inequality. It would be easy to mention others of the deepest importance, but these are enough to show that to treat a contract of marriage as a contract between persons who are upon an equality in regard of strength and power to protect their interest is to treat it as being what it notoriously is not.
Again, the contract is one which involves subordination and obedience on the part of the weaker party to the stronger. The proof of this is, to my mind, as clear as that of a proposition in Euclid, and it is this:
1. Marriage is a contract, one of the principal ones of which is the government of a family.
2. This government must be vested either by law or by contract in the hands of one of the two married persons.
3. If the arrangement is made by contract, the remedy for breach of it must either be by law or by a dissolution of the partnership at the will of the contracting parties.
4. Law could give no remedy in such a case. Therefore the only remedy for breach of the contract would be dissolution of the marriage.
5. Therefore, if marriage is to be permanent, the government of the family must be put by law and by moral rules in the hands of the husband, for no one proposes to give it to the wife.
Mr. Mill is totally unable to meet this argument, and apparently embraces the alternative that marriage ought to be dissoluble at the pleasure of the parties. After much argument as to contracts which appear to be visionary, his words are these: “Things never come to an issue of downright power on one side and obedience on the other except where the connection has been altogether a mistake, and it would be a blessing to both parties to be relieved from it.”
This appears to me to show a complete misapprehension of the nature of family government, and of the sort of cases in which the question of obedience and authority can arise between husband and wife. No one contends that a man ought to have power to order his wife about like a slave, and beat her if she disobeys him. Such conduct in the eye of the law would be cruelty, and ground for a separation. The question of obedience arises in quite another way. It may, and no doubt often does, arise between the very best and most affectionate married people, and it need no more interfere with their mutual affection than the absolute power of the captain of a ship need interfere with perfect friendship and confidence between himself and his first-lieutenant. Take the following set of questions: “Shall we live on this scale or that? Shall we associate with such and such persons? Shall I, the husband, embark in such an undertaking, and shall we change our place of residence in order that I may do so? Shall we send our son to college? Shall we send our daughters to school or have a governess? For what profession shall we train our sons?” On these and a thousand other such questions the wisest and the most affectionate people might arrive at opposite conclusions. What is to be done in such a case? for something must be done. I say the wife ought to give way. She ought to obey her husband, and carry out the view at which he deliberately arrives, just as, when the captain gives the word to cut away the masts, the lieutenant carries out his orders at once, though he may be a better seaman and may disapprove them. I also say that, to regard this as a humiliation, as a wrong, or as an evil in itself, is a mark not of spirit and courage, but of a base, unworthy, mutinous disposition—a disposition utterly subversive of all that is most worth having in life. The tacit assumption involved in it is that it is a degradation ever to give up one’s own will to the will of another, and to me this appears the root of all evil, the negation of that which renders any combined efforts possible. No case can be specified in which people unite for a common object, from making a pair of shoes up to governing an empire, in which the power to decide does not rest somewhere; and what is this but command and obedience? Of course the person who for the time being is in command is of all fools the greatest if he deprives himself of the advantage of advice, if he is obstinate in his own opinion, if he does not hear as well as determine; but it is also practically certain that his inclination to hear will be proportioned to the degree of importance which he has been led to attach to the function of determining.
To sum the matter up, it appears to me that all the laws and moral rules by which the relation between the sexes is regulated should proceed upon the principle that their object is to provide for the common good of two great divisions of mankind who are connected together by the closest and most durable of all bonds, and who can no more have really conflicting interests than the different members of the same body, but who are not and never can be equals in any of the different forms of strength.
This problem law and morals have solved by monogamy, indissoluble marriage on the footing of the obedience of the wife to the husband, and a division of labor with corresponding differences in the matters of conduct, manners, and dress. Substantially this solution appears to me to be right and true; but I freely admit that in many particulars the stronger party has in this, as in other cases, abused his strength, and made rules for his supposed advantage, which, in fact, are greatly to the injury of both parties. It is, needless to say any thing in detail of the stupid coarseness of the laws about the effects of marriage on property—laws which might easily be replaced by a general statutory marriage settlement analogous to those which every prudent person makes who has any thing to settle. As to acts of violence against women, by all means make the law on this head as severe as it can be made without defeating itself.
As to throwing open to women the one or two employments from which they are at present excluded, it is rather a matter of sentiment than of practical importance. I need not revive in this place a trite discussion. My object at present is simply to establish the general proposition that men and women are not equals, and that the laws which affect their relations ought to recognize that fact.
In my next letter I shall examine the opinion that laws which recognize any sort of inequality between human beings are mere vestiges of the past, against which as such there lies the strongest of all presumptions.—I am, sir, your obedient servant,
“F.”
(1790)
Source:
Becoming America, Wendy Kurant, ed., CC-BY-SA


Teaching Music with Aural Skills
If you’re leading an ensemble or a member of a chamber ensemble that shares leadership, you have the responsibility to think about how to teach the music that you will be performing. This is often very difficult, particularly if you’re working with inexperienced musicians, and leaders sometimes resort to teaching by rote. There’s nothing wrong with this as long as it fits your goals, but sometimes it can slow the learning process down and feel “unmusical.”
In addition, many ensemble directors—especially those who work in schools, colleges, and universities—have educational goals for their students. Integrating aural-skills thinking into the rehearsal process can help ensemble members learn to think for themselves in terms of key, meter, and more.
Recall that one of the central themes of this text is the importance of context, particularly key, meter, and tempo. Though we haven’t discussed it much yet, we should also add harmony/chord progression to that list. Adding an awareness of these factors from the beginning of the learning process can make that process more effective and sometimes quicker. In addition, if musicians learn music without that context (say, a part at a time), then when they are suddenly faced with the context (all playing together), it can be disorienting and require yet another learning process.
How can we teach music in a way that supports our musicians while making sure they have the context they need to facilitate their learning and understand the music? This is a huge question, with many nuanced answers. We’ll just give three principles here:
- When communicating with your musicians, make sure you’re referencing the context. For example, it is our experience that choral directors often reference intervals when helping their singers find difficult notes. This gives a certain small amount of context, but it may be even more musical and effective to draw on the larger context of the accompanying chord(s) (pointing out, say, that they are moving from the root of one chord to the third of the next, and perhaps playing that chord progression for context) or the key (pointing out that they need to find, say, scale degree 6/la). The way you do so will of course depend on the education your musicians have and their standard practice: you might use solfege and technical terms, or merely demonstrate while helping them track the chord/key with an accompanying instrument.
- Use the bass to help your musicians hear their relationship to the key and chord progression. The bass is strongly associated with chord progressions, so having it sound while another section is practicing or learning their part will help that part hear some of the context without being distracted by large numbers of other sounds.
- Finally, think about which parts have natural relationships. These might be similarities (say, two parts often move in parallel thirds) or pointed contrasts (say, one part always rests while the other plays and vice versa). These parts can be very useful to learn together since each provides crucial context for how the other will sound.
Activity: Rehearse a sight-reading ensemble
Goal: Integrate fundamental aural skills into the rehearsal process (the director); practice sight reading in an ensemble (everyone else).
Before you start: You’ll need an ensemble; we recommend a 1- or 2-on-a-part choir; working with singers typically requires the highest level of thinking about context, since singers don’t have the aid of an external mechanism in finding pitches. You’ll also need some music to rehearse; we recommend notated choral or instrumental music with 3–5 independent parts. You may be able to find such music in a sight-singing anthology, but it’d be great if you can check some music out from a score library or find some on IMSLP or CPDL.
Instructions:
- Assign each member of the group to a different piece of music or section of a piece. Each person will act as ensemble director for their assigned excerpt. It will be helpful if everyone has some time to look over their section, consider how to orient the ensemble to key and meter, consider what in the excerpt will be most difficult, and relate everything to context (key/scale degrees, meter/rhythmic cells).
- Each person should take 10 minutes to lead the ensemble in sight-reading and rehearsing their assigned excerpt. Whenever there are difficulties, the leader should offer advice related to aural skills—the numbered list of ideas above may be helpful. Since the group is not working towards a performance, you can focus on integrating aural skills into the process rather than teaching the music in the quickest way.
- Once everyone has taken a turn leading the ensemble, engage in self-evaluation or discuss how things went as a group. What types of aural skills were the most helpful to the ensemble? How was each director able to integrate these into their rehearsal? What might have been able to be done better?


Module 9: Hypothesis Testing With One Sample
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Barbara Illowsky & OpenStax et al.
The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses. They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints.
H0: The null hypothesis: It is a statement about the population that either is believed to be true or is used to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt.
Ha: The alternative hypothesis: It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H0 and what we conclude when we reject H0.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.
After you have determined which hypothesis the sample supports, you make adecision. There are two options for a decision. They are “reject H0” if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis or “do not reject H0” or “decline to reject H0” if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis.
Mathematical Symbols Used in H0 and Ha:
| H0 | Ha |
|---|---|
| equal (=) | not equal (≠) or greater than (>) or less than (<) |
| greater than or equal to (≥) | less than (<) |
| less than or equal to (≤) | more than (>) |
Note
H0 always has a symbol with an equal in it. Ha never has a symbol with an equal in it. The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis, even with > or < as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis. This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
Example
H0: No more than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p ≤ 30
Ha: More than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p > 30
try it
A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces cholesterol by 25%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0 : The drug reduces cholesterol by 25%. p = 0.25
Ha : The drug does not reduce cholesterol by 25%. p ≠ 0.25
Example
We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in American colleges is different from 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null and alternative hypotheses are:
H0: μ = 2.0
Ha: μ ≠ 2.0
try it
We want to test whether the mean height of eighth graders is 66 inches. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses. H0: μ __ 66 Ha:μ __ 66
- H0 : μ = 66
- Ha : μ ≠ 66
Example
We want to test if college students take less than five years to graduate from college, on the average. The null and alternative hypotheses are:
H0: μ ≥ 5
Ha: μ < 5
try it
We want to test if it takes fewer than 45 minutes to teach a lesson plan. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol ( =, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: μ __ 45 Ha:μ __ 45
- H0: μ ≥ 45
- Ha: μ < 45
Example
In an issue of U.S. News and World Report, an article on school standards stated that about half of all students in France, Germany, and Israel take advanced placement exams and a third pass. The same article stated that 6.6% of U.S. students take advanced placement exams and 4.4% pass. Test if the percentage of U.S. students who take advanced placement exams is more than 6.6%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: p ≤ 0.066
Ha: p > 0.066
try it
On a state driver’s test, about 40% pass the test on the first try. We want to test if more than 40% pass on the first try. Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: p __ 0.40 Ha: p __ 0.40
- H0: p = 0.40
- Ha: p > 0.40
Concept Review
In a hypothesis test, sample data is evaluated in order to arrive at a decision about some type of claim. If certain conditions about the sample are satisfied, then the claim can be evaluated for a population. In a hypothesis test, we: Evaluate the null hypothesis, typically denoted with H0. The null is not rejected unless the hypothesis test shows otherwise. The null statement must always contain some form of equality (=, ≤ or ≥) Always write the alternative hypothesis, typically denoted with Ha or H1, using less than, greater than, or not equals symbols, i.e., (≠, >, or <). If we reject the null hypothesis, then we can assume there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. Never state that a claim is proven true or false. Keep in mind the underlying fact that hypothesis testing is based on probability laws; therefore, we can talk only in terms of non-absolute certainties.
Formula Review
H0 and Ha are contradictory.


Neurons and Glial Cells
Objective 1: Compare and contrast neurons and glial cells.
Neurons
Most artists who draw a “typical” neuron draw a shape we call multipolar. We will look at neurons at a molecular level of detail in subsequent chapters. For now, we’ll name some microscopic parts of the neuron that are important for its function:
- dendrites, tree-like extensions of the cell body;
- cell body, or soma, the area where the nucleus and most organelles reside;
- axon, the “cable” of the neuron
It’s important to remember that very few actual neurons operate exactly the way we’re describing here. Rather, we’re taking the properties of 80 billion neurons with thousands of different shapes and making some general “rules” about what the different parts do. Along the way, we’ll find plenty of exceptions to these general rules.
A multipolar neuron has an extensively branched tree surrounding its cell body. Fittingly, these branches are called dendrites (Greek δενδρον, dendron, “tree”). The dendrites are, in general, where a neuron receives information. Even neurons without an obvious tree receive information in a modified, unrecognizable dendrite (such as the lamellated corpuscle we saw in the skin).
The dendrites are also used in the initial stages of information processing. The dendrites and soma together determine what information is going to be transmitted to another cell or to a target organ. We’ll discuss the details of this process in the chapter on information processing within neurons.
Information coming into a fine, faraway dendritic branch has less of an effect on the output of a neuron than information coming into a thicker, nearer branch.
The metabolic center of a neuron, which includes the cell nucleus, is the cell body or soma. The cell body aids in the processing of information.
After information is gathered at the dendrites, and processed via the dendrites and cell body, a decision has to be made: do we give that information to another cell? This decision is made at a point that naturally enough has the nickname of the decision point.
The output of a neuron travels through its axon. If the information must travel a long distance, the axon is myelinated: it is covered by an insulated sheath. In some neurons, the myelin sheath is interrupted periodically at points called the nodes of Ranvier.
The axon ends in one or more axon terminals (or terminal knobs or terminal boutons). These are the sites where information is sent to the next neuron in line, or to muscles or glands, a specialized structure called the synapse.
We will study the molecular machinery of the synapse in another chapter. For now, all we need to know is that an individual neuron makes a lot of synapses; 10,000 synapses would be a rough average number for a typical neuron. Each of these synapses transfers information to a target cell using chemical signals called neurotransmitters.
The side of the synapse which sends information is the presynaptic side. The axon terminals of an α motor neuron would be an example. The side which receives information is the postsynaptic side. The muscle cell of the neuromuscular junction would be an example. The postsynaptic side contains neurotransmitter receptors which can either change the electrical properties of the postsynaptic cell, or the biochemical properties, or both.
Glia
There are two main cell types in the brain. Neurons are what we generally think of when we think of “nerve cells”. Remember that these are the cells that receive, process and transmit information in a point-to-point fashion in the nervous system. There are about 80 billion neurons in the human nervous system, but no one can possibly count them, so that’s just an estimate.
Another roughly 80 billion cells in the brain are glial cells or glia (Greek λοια, gloia, “glue”). For a long time, no one wanted to study cells whose name made people think of “Elmer’s” or the kid in first grade who ate paste. Recently, however, glial cells have come into their own as a field of study. Glial cells maintain the structural and chemical environment of the brain, and function in ways we probably don’t fully appreciate. For example, Einstein’s brain had the same number of neurons as you and I, but more glial cells than normal1. The image here, from Ramón y Cajal’s drawings, shows the glial cells in the cerebral cortex of a human child.
There are four types of glial cells:
- astrocytes (astroglia),
- oligodendrocytes (oligodendroglia),
- microglia, and
- ependymal cells
Astrocytes (Astroglia)
Astrocytes (also called astroglia) form the borders of the CNS.
They cooperate with blood vessels to form the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which permits only lipid-soluble substances, certain amino acids, and glucose to pass (we introduced the BBB earlier). This helps protect the brain from chemical or microbiological damage, but also makes it hard for the body to mount a defense against something that circumvents the BBB.
The end-feet of astrocytes make up the pia mater, one of the coverings on the outside of the brain. Astrocytes also wall off groups of neurons and act as sponges to soak up potentially harmful ions and waste products.
Oligodendrocytes (Oligodendroglia)
Oligodendrocytes (also called oligodendroglia) have only one job, but they do it well. They form myelin sheaths which insulate nerve axons that must send information over long distances. In order to ensure propagation of the action potential, the myelin sheath must have gaps every few hundred micrometers. These gaps are called the nodes of Ranvier.
Microglia
Immune cells called macrophages reside in tissues other than the brain. Macrophages swallow and digest invaders and waste products.
Microglia are the brain’s equivalent of macrophages. The brain is termed an “immunologically privileged site”, so no immune cells can pass the BBB. Only microglia are normally allowed to carry out immune functions in the brain.
Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells, along with the border-forming astrocytes, make up a single layer of border cells lining the ventricles. These open spaces in the brain are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which bathes, floats, and cushions the brain. CSF circulates continuously, being made by a specific tissue in special locations, traveling through the chambers of the brain and spinal cord, and finally being absorbed into veins at another location. Accordingly, ependymal cells have cilia that continuously “row” CSF through the ventricular system. You will find more about cerebrospinal fluid here.
Glial Cells of the Peripheral Nervous System
The CNS has immune privilege and ventricles. The PNS lacks both of these features, so the glial cell types carrying these two functions (microglia and ependymal cells, respectively) are absent in the PNS.
Satellite cells in the PNS perform the same basic functions as astrocytes in the CNS: maintenance of a favorable chemical environment and mechanical/structural support. Satellite cells are found mostly in ganglia, collections of nerve cell bodies in the PNS.
Schwann cells are found in the PNS in place of the oligodendrocytes of the CNS. The distinction is not only in its name. There is a functional difference as well: axons ensheathed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS cannot regrow if cut or damaged, while those surrounded by Schwann cells in the PNS can regenerate. For example, if you cut nerves in your finger with a deep knife cut, the finger may be numb for several weeks but eventually, the nerves will regrow.
Similarly, PNS nerves damaged by surgery can regrow, albeit slowly (about 1 mm per day).
1 See, for a thorough analysis of the data on Einstein’s brain: Colombo JA, Reisin HD, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ and Rajkowska G. (2006) Cerebral cortex astroglia and the brain of a genius: A propos A. Einstein’s. Brain Res Rev 52(2): 257-263.


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Vocabulary & Check Your Knowledge
Urinary System Vocabulary
Adventitial
The outermost layer of the wall of a blood vessel.
Apical
Relating to or denoting an apex.
Autonomic
Involuntary or unconscious.
Calyces
A cuplike cavity or structure.
Deamination
The removal of an amino group from a molecule.
Detrusor
A muscle which forms a layer of the wall of the bladder.
Excretion
Waste is eliminated from an organism. In vertebrates this is primarily carried out by the lungs, kidneys, and skin.
Homeostasis
A biological process that results in stable equilibrium.
Hydrostatic
Relating to the equilibrium of liquids and the pressure exerted by liquid at rest.
Hypothalamic
A region of the forebrain below the thalamus.
Lethargy
Periods of weakness.
Mitochondria
An organelle found in large numbers in most cells.
Osmosis
A process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one.
pH
pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is, as determined by the number of free hydrogen ions in the substance.
Prostaglandins
Any of a group of compounds with varying hormone-like effects.
Pseudostratified
Consisting of closely packed cells which appear to be arranged in layers.
Solutes
The minor component in a solution.
Voiding
Excrete (waste matter).
Test Yourself
Urinary System Glossary Reinforcement Activity (Text Version)
- The removal of an amino group from molecule is called the _____[Blank 1].
- Voiding
- Deamination
- Calyces
- _____[Blank 2] is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is, as determined by the number of free hydrogen ions in the substance.
- pH
- Apical
- Osmosis
- _____[Blank 3] relates to the equilibrium of liquids and the pressure exerted by liquid at rest.
- Solutes
- Hydrostatic
- Mitochondria
- The outermost layer of the wall of a blood vessel is called the ____[Blank 4].
- Hydrostatic
- Pseudostratified
- Adventitial
- Any of a group of compounds with varying hormone-like effects is referred to as _____[Blank 5].
- Solutes
- Excretion
- Prostaglandins
Check your answers: [1]
Activity source: Urinary System Glossary Reinforcement Activity by Gisele Tuzon, licensed under CC BY 4.0./Text version added.
Attribution
Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is adapted from “Urinary System” in Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford licensed under CC BY 4.0. / A derivative of Betts et al., which can be accessed for free from Anatomy and Physiology (OpenStax). Adaptations: dividing Urinary System chapter content into sub-chapters.
- 1. Deamination, 2.pH, 3. Hydrostatic, 4. Adventitial, 5. Prostaglandins ↵


80 Introduction to Fitness and Wellness Readings
Purpose
The readings will help you understand the key tems used in this unit and give you a basic introduction to the topics covered.
Directions
- Read Module key terms, sections one and two of this document: Health-Related Fitness Overview
This overview document was created by Mr. Travis M. Erickson, MS, CSCS*D, Lecturer for the Appalachian State University department of Health, Leisure, and Exercise Science (ericksontm@appstate.edu). - Read all the information under the blue heading “Chronic disease prevention” in this article: Chronic Disease Prevention – Encyclopedia of Fitness (Avritt, Julie Jordan. “Chronic Disease Prevention.” The Gale Encyclopedia of Fitness. Ed. Jacqueline L. Longe. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2012. 172-176. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX4021200056&v=2.1&u=viva2_nvcc&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=f28c43613b305b7fc4acb5f8d8a28a4d)
- Read Warm Up and Cool Down (Alic, Margaret. “Warm-Up and Cool Down.” The Gale Encyclopedia of Fitness. Ed. Jacqueline L. Longe. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2012. 900-903. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Retrieved fromhttp://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX4021200244&v=2.1&u=viva2_nvcc&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=b02c2fcc57e56494d305a9ef11a3b848)
- Before you start planning your exercise program, it is important to have a better understanding of the acute physiological changes that occur during exercise and how the warm up ad cool down periods can help you transition from rest to exercise and vice versa. All the information contained in this article is important, however, pay special attention to any information that is new to you. For instance, notice how static stretching is not recommended during the warm-up period, but dynamic stretching is a good option (you will learn more about the different types of stretching next week). In addition, note how any type of stretching should only be performed after the muscles have been properly warmed, thus stretching cold muscles is not safe practice. This is usually new information for most students and contrary to popular belief, but it is based on scientific evidence and I encourage you to incorporate this information in your own warm up and cool down plans.
Important Information
Since we utilize various open sources for this class, and some of these sources are aimed at the general public, you may notice some inconsistencies in how the terminology is used. For this reason, I want you to keep in mind the following definitions as you read the various materials this week.
- Health-related components of fitness: components of fitness that are necessary for good health. We will go over each one of these components in detail in the upcoming weeks. They are cardiorespiratory (CR) endurance (also called aerobic endurance), flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and body composition.
- CR endurance (aerobic endurance): The ability of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs to work together to accomplish three goals: 1) deliver oxygen to body tissues; 2) deliver nutrients; 3) remove waste products. CR endurance exercises involve large muscle groups in prolonged, dynamic movement (ex. running, swimming, etc)
- Flexibility: The ability of moving a joint through the range of motion.
- Muscular strength: The ability of muscles to exert maximal effort.
- Muscular endurance: The ability of muscles to exert submaximal effort repetitively (contract over and over again or hold a contraction for a long time).
- Body composition: The percentage of the body composed of lean tissue (muscle, bone, fluids, etc.) and fat tissue.
There are also other components of fitness related to sports performance rather than just health. They are called skill-related components of fitness or motor fitness and include power, speed, agility, balance, and coordination. For the purpose of this class we will focus mainly on the health-related components of fitness.


62 Viscosity
Viscous means “sticky”’ and the term viscosity refers to the way in which the chocolate flows. Chocolate comes in various viscosities, and the confectioner chooses the one that is most appropriate to his or her needs. The amount of cocoa butter in the chocolate is largely responsible for the viscosity level. Emulsifiers like lecithin can help thin out melted chocolate, so it flows evenly and smoothly. Because it is less expensive than cocoa butter at thinning chocolate, it can be used to help lower the cost of chocolate.
Moulded pieces such as Easter eggs require a chocolate of less viscosity. That is, the chocolate should be somewhat runny so it is easier to flow into the moulds. This is also the case for coating cookies and most cakes, where a thin, attractive and protective coating is all that is needed. A somewhat thicker chocolate is advisable for things such as ganache and flavouring of creams and fillings. Where enrobers (machines to dip chocolate centres) are used, the chocolate may also be thinner to ensure that there is an adequate coat of couverture.
Viscosity varies between manufacturers, and a given type of chocolate made by one manufacturer may be available in more than one viscosity. Bakers sometimes alter the viscosity depending on the product. A vegetable oil is sometimes used to thin chocolate for coating certain squares. This makes it easier to cut afterwards.
Chips, Chunks, and Other Baking Products
Content and quality of chocolate chips and chunks vary from one manufacturer to another. This chocolate is developed to be more heat stable for use in cookies and other baking where you want the chips and chunks to stay whole. Ratios of chocolate liquor, sugar, and cocoa butter differ. All these variables affect the flavour.
Chips and chunks may be pure chocolate or have another fat substituted for the cocoa butter. Some high-quality chips have up to 65% chocolate liquor, but in practice, liquor content over 40% tends to smear in baking, so high ratios defeat the purpose.
Many manufacturers package their chips or chunks by count (ct) size. This refers to how many pieces there are in 1 kg of the product. As the count size number increases, the size of the chip gets smaller. With this information, you can choose the best size of chip for the product you are producing.
Other chocolate products available are chocolate sprinkles or “hail,” used as a decoration; chocolate curls, rolls, or decorative shapes for use on cakes and pastries; and chocolate sticks or “batons,” which are often baked inside croissants.


20.4 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
Mary Ann Clark; Jung Choi; and Matthew Douglas
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- Describe human male and female reproductive anatomies
- Discuss the human sexual response
- Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and discuss their differences and similarities
As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring.
Human Reproductive Anatomy
The reproductive tissues of male and female humans develop similarly in utero until a low level of the hormone testosterone is released from male gonads.  When testosterone is absent, the tissues develop into female sexual tissues. Primitive gonads become testes or ovaries.  The tissue that will become the scrotum in a male becomes the labia in a female; that is, they are homologous structures.
Male Reproductive Anatomy
In the male reproductive system, the scrotum houses the testicles or testes (singular: testis), including providing passage for blood vessels, nerves, and muscles related to testicular function. The testes are a pair of male reproductive organs that produce sperm and some reproductive hormones. Each testis is approximately 2.5 by 3.8 cm (1.5 by 1 in.) in size and divided into wedge-shaped lobules by connective tissue called septa. Coiled in each wedge are seminiferous tubules that produce sperm.
Sperm are immobile at body temperature; therefore, the scrotum and penis are external to the body, as illustrated in (Figure) so that a proper temperature is maintained for motility. In land mammals, the pair of testes must be suspended outside the body at about 2° C lower than body temperature to produce viable sperm. Infertility can occur in land mammals when the testes do not descend through the abdominal cavity during fetal development.
Which of the following statements about the male reproductive system is false?
- The vas deferens carries sperm from the testes to the penis.
- Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules in the testes.
- Both the prostate and the bulbourethral glands produce components of the semen.
- The prostate gland is located in the testes.
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Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules that are coiled inside the testes, as illustrated in (Figure). The walls of the seminiferous tubules are made up of the developing sperm cells, with the least developed sperm at the periphery of the tubule and the fully developed sperm in the lumen. The sperm cells are mixed with “nursemaid” cells called Sertoli cells which protect the germ cells and promote their development. Other cells mixed in the wall of the tubules are the interstitial cells of Leydig. These cells produce high levels of testosterone once the male reaches adolescence.
When the sperm have developed flagella and are nearly mature, they leave the testicles and enter the epididymis, shown in (Figure). This structure resembles a comma and lies along the top and posterior portion of the testes; it is the site of sperm maturation. The sperm leave the epididymis and enter the vas deferens (or ductus deferens), which carries the sperm, behind the bladder, and forms the ejaculatory duct with the duct from the seminal vesicles. During a vasectomy, a section of the vas deferens is removed, preventing sperm from being passed out of the body during ejaculation and preventing fertilization.
Semen is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct secretions (about 10 percent of the total) and fluids from accessory glands that contribute most of the semen’s volume. Sperm are haploid cells, consisting of a flagellum as a tail, a neck that contains the cell’s energy-producing mitochondria, and a head that contains the genetic material. (Figure) shows a micrograph of human sperm as well as a diagram of the parts of the sperm. An acrosome is found at the top of the head of the sperm. This structure contains lysosomal enzymes that can digest the protective coverings that surround the egg to help the sperm penetrate and fertilize the egg. An ejaculate will contain from two to five milliliters of fluid with from 50–120 million sperm per milliliter.
 These are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral gland, all of which are illustrated in (Figure). The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that lie along the posterior border of the urinary bladder. The glands make a solution that is thick, yellowish, and alkaline. As sperm are only motile in an alkaline environment, a basic pH is important to reverse the acidity of the vaginal environment. The solution also contains mucus, fructose (a sperm mitochondrial nutrient), a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acid, and local-acting hormones called prostaglandins. The seminal vesicle glands account for 60 percent of the bulk of semen.
The penis, illustrated in (Figure), is an organ that drains urine from the renal bladder and functions as a copulatory organ during intercourse. The penis contains three tubes of erectile tissue running through the length of the organ. These consist of a pair of tubes on the dorsal side, called the corpus cavernosum, and a single tube of tissue on the ventral side, called the corpus spongiosum. This tissue will become engorged with blood, becoming erect and hard, in preparation for intercourse. The organ is inserted into the vagina culminating with an ejaculation. During intercourse, the smooth muscle sphincters at the opening to the renal bladder close and prevent urine from entering the penis. An orgasm is a two-stage process: first, glands and accessory organs connected to the testes contract, then semen (containing sperm) is expelled through the urethra during ejaculation.
The walnut-shaped prostate gland surrounds the urethra, the connection to the urinary bladder. It has a series of short ducts that directly connect to the urethra. The gland is a mixture of smooth muscle and glandular tissue. The muscle provides much of the force needed for ejaculation to occur. The glandular tissue makes a thin, milky fluid that contains citrate (a nutrient), enzymes, and prostate specific antigen (PSA). PSA is a proteolytic enzyme that helps to liquefy the ejaculate several minutes after release from the male. Prostate gland secretions account for about 30 percent of the bulk of semen.
The bulbourethral gland, or Cowper’s gland, releases its secretion prior to the release of the bulk of the semen. It neutralizes any acid residue in the urethra left over from urine. This usually accounts for a couple of drops of fluid in the total ejaculate and may contain a few sperm. Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation to prevent pregnancy may not work if sperm are present in the bulbourethral gland secretions. The location and functions of the male reproductive organs are summarized in (Figure).
| Male Reproductive Anatomy | ||
|---|---|---|
| Organ | Location | Function |
| Scrotum | External | Carry and support testes |
| Penis | External | Deliver urine, copulating organ |
| Testes | Internal | Produce sperm and male hormones |
| Seminal Vesicles | Internal | Contribute to semen production |
| Prostate Gland | Internal | Contribute to semen production |
| Bulbourethral Glands | Internal | Clean urethra at ejaculation |
Female Reproductive Anatomy
A number of reproductive structures are exterior to the female’s body. These include the breasts and the vulva, which consists of the mons pubis, clitoris, labia majora, labia minora, and the vestibular glands, all illustrated in (Figure). The location and functions of the female reproductive organs are summarized in (Figure). The vulva is an area associated with the vestibule which includes the structures found in the inguinal (groin) area of women. The mons pubis is a round, fatty area that overlies the pubic symphysis. The clitoris is a structure with erectile tissue that contains a large number of sensory nerves and serves as a source of stimulation during intercourse. The labia majora are a pair of elongated folds of tissue that run posterior from the mons pubis and enclose the other components of the vulva. The labia majora derive from the same tissue that produces the scrotum in a male. The labia minora are thin folds of tissue centrally located within the labia majora. These labia protect the openings to the vagina and urethra. The mons pubis and the anterior portion of the labia majora become covered with hair during adolescence; the labia minora is hairless. The greater vestibular glands are found at the sides of the vaginal opening and provide lubrication during intercourse.
| Female Reproductive Anatomy | ||
|---|---|---|
| Organ | Location | Function |
| Clitoris | External | Sensory organ |
| Mons pubis | External | Fatty area overlying pubic bone |
| Labia majora | External | Covers labia minora |
| Labia minora | External | Covers vestibule |
| Greater vestibular glands | External | Secrete mucus; lubricate vagina |
| Breasts | External | Produce and deliver milk |
| Ovaries | Internal | Carry and develop eggs |
| Oviducts (Fallopian tubes) | Internal | Transport egg to uterus |
| Uterus | Internal | Support developing embryo |
| Vagina | Internal | Common tube for intercourse, birth canal, passing menstrual flow |
The breasts consist of mammary glands and fat. The size of the breast is determined by the amount of fat deposited behind the gland. Each gland consists of 15 to 25 lobes that have ducts that empty at the nipple and that supply the nursing child with nutrient- and antibody-rich milk to aid development and protect the child.
Internal female reproductive structures include ovaries, oviducts, the uterus, and the vagina, shown in (Figure). The pair of ovaries is held in place in the abdominal cavity by a system of ligaments. Ovaries consist of a medulla and cortex: the medulla contains nerves and blood vessels to supply the cortex with nutrients and remove waste. The outer layers of cells of the cortex are the functional parts of the ovaries. The cortex is made up of follicular cells that surround eggs that develop during fetal development in utero. During the menstrual period, a batch of follicular cells develops and prepares the eggs for release. At ovulation, one follicle ruptures and one egg is released, as illustrated in (Figure)a.
The oviducts, or fallopian tubes, extend from the uterus in the lower abdominal cavity to the ovaries, but they are not in contact with the ovaries. The lateral ends of the oviducts flare out into a trumpet-like structure and have a fringe of finger-like projections called fimbriae, illustrated in (Figure)b. When an egg is released at ovulation, the fimbrae help the nonmotile egg enter into the tube and passage to the uterus. The walls of the oviducts are ciliated and are made up mostly of smooth muscle. The cilia beat toward the middle, and the smooth muscle contracts in the same direction, moving the egg toward the uterus. Fertilization usually takes place within the oviducts and the developing embryo is moved toward the uterus for development. It usually takes the egg or embryo a week to travel through the oviduct. Sterilization in women is called a tubal ligation; it is analogous to a vasectomy in males in that the oviducts are severed and sealed.
The uterus is a structure about the size of a woman’s fist. This is lined with an endometrium rich in blood vessels and mucus glands. The uterus supports the developing embryo and fetus during gestation. The thickest portion of the wall of the uterus is made of smooth muscle. Contractions of the smooth muscle in the uterus aid in passing the baby through the vagina during labor. A portion of the lining of the uterus sloughs off during each menstrual period, and then builds up again in preparation for an implantation. Part of the uterus, called the cervix, protrudes into the top of the vagina. The cervix functions as the birth canal.
 It allows menstrual flow to leave the body.  It is lined by stratified squamous epithelial cells to protect the underlying tissue.
Sexual Response during Intercourse
The sexual response in humans is both psychological and physiological. Both sexes experience sexual arousal through psychological and physical stimulation. There are four phases of the sexual response. During phase one, called excitement, vasodilation leads to vasocongestion in erectile tissues in both men and women.  Vaginal secretions are released to lubricate the vagina to facilitate intercourse. During the second phase, called the plateau, stimulation continues, the outer third of the vaginal wall enlarges with blood, and breathing and heart rate increase.
During phase three, or orgasm, rhythmic, involuntary contractions of muscles occur in both sexes. In the male, the reproductive accessory glands and tubules constrict placing semen in the urethra, then the urethra contracts expelling the semen through the penis. In women, the uterus and vaginal muscles contract in waves that may last slightly less than a second each. During phase four, or resolution, the processes described in the first three phases reverse themselves and return to their normal state. Men experience a refractory period in which they cannot maintain an erection or ejaculate for a period of time ranging from minutes to hours.
Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis. During meiosis, two cell divisions separate the paired chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids that were made during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle. Meiosis produces haploid cells with half of each pair of chromosomes normally found in diploid cells. The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is called oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis, illustrated in (Figure), occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules ((Figure)), with stem cells at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia (singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one offspring going on to differentiate into a sperm cell and the other giving rise to the next generation of sperm.
Meiosis starts with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first meiotic division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This cell is haploid and must go through another meiotic cell division. The cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid and when it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a flagellum, it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes through meiosis.
Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the beginning of adolescence, but in an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary cause the activation of these cells and the production of viable sperm. This continues into old age.
Visit this site to see the process of spermatogenesis.
Oogenesis
Oogenesis, illustrated in (Figure), occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production, oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to about one to two million cells in the embryo.
The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte, as shown in (Figure). This cell will start the first meiotic division and be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through the meiosis II, producing a second polar body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half of them coming from the sperm.
Egg production begins before birth, is arrested during meiosis until puberty, and then individual cells continue through at each menstrual cycle. One egg is produced from each meiotic process, with the extra chromosomes and chromatids going into polar bodies that degenerate and are reabsorbed by the body.
Section Summary
As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring. Processes developed to produce reproductive cells that had exactly half the number of chromosomes of each parent so that new combinations would have the appropriate amount of genetic material. Gametogenesis, the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and eggs (oogenesis), takes place through the process of meiosis.
(Figure) Which of the following statements about the male reproductive system is false?
- The vas deferens carries sperm from the testes to the penis.
- Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules in the testes.
- Both the prostate and the bulbourethral glands produce components of the semen.
- The prostate gland is located in the testes.
(Figure) D
Review Questions
Sperm are produced in the ________.
- scrotum
- seminal vesicles
- seminiferous tubules
- prostate gland
C
Most of the bulk of semen is made by the ________.
- scrotum
- seminal vesicles
- seminiferous tubules
- prostate gland
C
Which of the following cells in spermatogenesis is diploid?
- primary spermatocyte
- secondary spermatocyte
- spermatid
- sperm
A
Which female organ has the same embryonic origin as the penis?
- clitoris
- labia majora
- greater vestibular glands
- vagina
A
Which female organ has an endometrial lining that will support a developing baby?
- labia minora
- breast
- ovaries
- uterus
D
How many eggs are produced as a result of one meiotic series of cell divisions?
- one
- two
- three
- four
A
Critical Thinking Questions
Describe the phases of the human sexual response.
In phase one (excitement), vasodilation leads to vasocongestion and enlargement of erectile tissues. Vaginal secretions are released to lubricate the vagina during intercourse. In phase two (plateau), stimulation continues, the outer third of the vaginal wall enlarges with blood, and breathing and heart rate increase. In phase three (orgasm), rhythmic, involuntary contractions of muscles occur. In the male, reproductive accessory glands and tubules constrict, depositing semen in the urethra; then, the urethra contracts, expelling the semen through the penis. In women, the uterus and vaginal muscles contract in waves that may last slightly less than a second each. In phase four (resolution), the processes listed in the first three phases reverse themselves and return to their normal state. Men experience a refractory period in which they cannot maintain an erection or ejaculate for a period of time ranging from minutes to hours. Women do not experience a refractory period.
Compare spermatogenesis and oogenesis as to timing of the processes and the number and type of cells finally produced.
Stem cells are laid down in the male during gestation and lie dormant until adolescence. Stem cells in the female increase to one to two million and enter the first meiotic division and are arrested in prophase. At adolescence, spermatogenesis begins and continues until death, producing the maximum number of sperm with each meiotic division. Oogenesis continues again at adolescence in batches of oogonia with each menstrual cycle. These oogonia finish the first meiotic division, producing a primary oocyte with most of the cytoplasm and its contents, and a second cell called a polar body containing 23 chromosomes. The second meiotic division results in a secondary oocyte and a second oocyte. At ovulation, a mature haploid egg is released. If this egg is fertilized, it finishes the second meiotic division, including the chromosomes donated by the sperm in the finished cell. This is a diploid, fertilized egg.
Glossary
- bulbourethral gland
- secretion that cleanses the urethra prior to ejaculation
- clitoris
- sensory structure in females; stimulated during sexual arousal
- labia majora
- large folds of tissue covering the inguinal area
- labia minora
- smaller folds of tissue within the labia majora
- oogenesis
- process of producing haploid eggs
- oviduct
- (also, fallopian tube) muscular tube connecting the uterus with the ovary area
- penis
- male reproductive structure for urine elimination and copulation
- prostate gland
- structure that is a mixture of smooth muscle and glandular material and that contributes to semen
- scrotum
- sac containing testes; exterior to the body
- semen
- fluid mixture of sperm and supporting materials
- seminal vesicle
- secretory accessory gland in males; contributes to semen
- seminiferous tubule
- site of sperm production in testes
- spermatogenesis
- process of producing haploid sperm
- testes
- pair of reproductive organs in males
- uterus
- environment for developing embryo and fetus
- vagina
- muscular tube for the passage of menstrual flow, copulation, and birth of offspring
Chapter 43 in OpenStax Concepts of Biology 2e


Chapter 6: One Last Time Before You Go: The Conclusion and Final Review
Top Bun
Introduction as Top Bun
The main purpose of a five-paragraph essay is to prove that its writer has read the text under analysis. No position of inquiry needs to be taken, no controversial way of reading the text needs to be proposed. Like the sesame seed-adorned top bun of a hamburger, the introduction is the showiest element, covering everything that will be discussed in the remaining essay:
Example
In “The Ultimate Communications App,” Charles Justice writes about the importance of language. He compares it to a “communications app,” he defines it as “A common way for us to share information and create enduring knowledge,” and he compares different languages to the “Tower of Babel.”
While the author appears to be pointing at some of the more important moments from Justice’s article, this introduction promises to do little beyond that pointing. These elements are in the text and they are part of Justice’s discussion on language, but it looks as if little will be done by way of investigating how or why Justice or the author of this proposed analysis discuss these particular aspects.


Culture, Values, and Beliefs
Learning Outcomes
- Compare material versus nonmaterial culture
- Describe cultural values and beliefs
Humans are social creatures. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens nearly 250,000 years ago, people have grouped together into communities in order to survive. Living together, people form common habits and behaviors—from specific methods of childrearing to preferred techniques for obtaining food. In modern-day Paris, many people shop daily at outdoor markets to pick up what they need for their evening meal, buying cheese, meat, and vegetables from different specialty stalls. In the United States, the majority of people shop once a week at supermarkets, filling large carts to the brim. How would a Parisian perceive U.S. shopping behaviors that suburban Americans take for granted?
Note that in the above comparison we are looking at cultural differences on display in two distinct places, suburban America and urban France, even though we are examining a behavior that people in both places are engaged in. It’s important to note that geographical place is an important factor in culture—beliefs and practices, and society—the social structures and organization of individuals and groups.
Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings, is learned. In the United States, people tend to view marriage as a choice between two people, based on mutual feelings of love. In other nations and in other times, marriages have been arranged through an intricate process of interviews and negotiations between entire families, or in other cases, through a direct system, such as a “mail order bride.” To someone raised in New York City, the marriage customs of a family from Nigeria may seem strange or even wrong. Conversely, someone from a traditional Kolkata family might be perplexed with the idea of romantic love as the foundation for marriage and lifelong commitment. In other words, the way in which people view marriage depends largely on what they have been taught.
Behavior based on learned customs is not a bad thing. Being familiar with unwritten rules helps people feel secure and “normal.” Also, perhaps such cultural traditions are comforting in that they seem to have already worked well enough for our forebears to have retained them. Most people want to live their daily lives confident that their behaviors will not be challenged or disrupted. But even an action as seemingly simple as commuting to work evidences a great deal of cultural propriety and learned behaviors.
Take the case of going to work on public transportation. Whether people are commuting in Dublin, Cairo, Mumbai, or San Francisco, many behaviors will be the same, but significant differences also arise between cultures. Typically, a passenger will find a marked bus stop or station, wait for his bus or train, pay an agent before or after boarding, and quietly take a seat if one is available. But when boarding a bus in Cairo, passengers might have to run, because buses there often do not come to a full stop to take on patrons. Dublin bus riders would be expected to extend an arm to indicate that they want the bus to stop for them. And when boarding a commuter train in Mumbai, passengers must squeeze into overstuffed cars amid a lot of pushing and shoving on the crowded platforms. That kind of behavior would be considered the height of rudeness in the United States, but in Mumbai it reflects the daily challenges of getting around on a train system that is taxed to capacity.
In this example of commuting, culture consists of both intangible things like beliefs and thoughts (expectations about personal space, for example) and tangible things (bus stops, trains, and seating capacity).
The objects or belongings of a group of people are considered material culture. Metro passes and bus tokens are part of material culture, as are automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship, or engage in other recognizable patterns of behavior.
Nonmaterial culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture, namely, capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry are part of material culture, but the appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school building belongs to material culture, but the teaching methods and educational standards within it are part of education’s nonmaterial culture. These material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly or greatly from region to region. As people travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different parts of the world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically unfamiliar. What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the differences and commonalities between others’ symbolic and material worlds and our own.
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Values and Beliefs
The first, and perhaps most crucial, elements of culture we will discuss are its values and beliefs. Values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s beliefs. Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs, but they also share collective values. To illustrate the difference, Americans commonly believe in the American Dream—that anyone who works hard enough will be successful and wealthy. Underlying this belief is the American value that wealth is good and important.
Values help shape a society by suggesting what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, to be sought or avoided. Consider the value that the United States places upon youth. Children represent innocence and purity, while an adult who is youthful in appearance signifies sexual vitality. Shaped by this value, individuals spend millions of dollars each year on cosmetic products and surgeries to look young and beautiful. The United States also has an individualistic culture, meaning people place a high value on individuality and independence. In contrast, many other cultures are collectivist, meaning the welfare of the group and group relationships is a primary value.
Living up to a culture’s values can be difficult. It’s easy to value good health, but it’s hard to quit smoking. Marital monogamy is valued, but many spouses engage in infidelity. Cultural diversity and equal opportunities for all people are valued in the United States, yet the country’s highest political offices have been dominated by white men.
Values often suggest how people should behave, but they don’t accurately reflect how people actually do behave. Values portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to. But ideal culture differs from real culture, the way society actually is, based on what occurs and exists. In an ideal culture, there would be no traffic accidents, murders, poverty, or racial tension. But in real culture, police officers, lawmakers, educators, and social workers constantly strive to prevent or repair those accidents, crimes, and injustices. American teenagers are encouraged to value celibacy. However, the number of unplanned pregnancies among teens reveals that not only is the ideal hard to live up to, but the value alone is not enough to spare teenagers the potential consequences of having sex.
One way societies strive to put values into action is through sanctions: rewards and punishments that encourage people to live according to their society’s ideas about what is good and right. When people observe the norms of society and uphold its values, they are often rewarded. A boy who helps an elderly woman board a bus may receive a smile and a “thank you.” A business manager who raises profit margins may receive a quarterly bonus. People positively sanction certain behaviors by giving their support, approval, or permission, or negatively sanction them by invoking formal policies of disapproval and nonsupport. Sanctions are a form of social control, a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms. Sometimes people conform to norms in anticipation or expectation of positive sanctions: good grades, for instance, may mean praise from parents and teachers. From a criminal justice perspective, properly used social control is also inexpensive crime control. Utilizing social control approaches pushes most people to conform to societal rules, regardless of whether authority figures (such as law enforcement) are present.
When people go against a society’s values, they are punished. A boy who shoves an elderly woman aside to board the bus first may receive frowns or even a scolding from other passengers. A business manager who drives away customers will likely be fired. Breaking norms and rejecting values can lead to cultural sanctions such as earning a negative label—lazy, no-good bum—or to legal sanctions, such as traffic tickets, fines, or imprisonment.
Values are not static; they vary across time and between groups as people evaluate, debate, and change collective societal beliefs. Values also vary from culture to culture. For example, cultures differ in their values about what kinds of physical closeness are appropriate in public. It’s rare to see two male friends or coworkers holding hands in the United States where that behavior often symbolizes romantic feelings. But in many nations, masculine physical intimacy is considered natural in public. This difference in cultural values came to light when people reacted to photos of former president George W. Bush holding hands with the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia in 2005. An example of nonmaterial culture, the simple gesture of hand-holding carries great symbolic differences across cultures.
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Glossary
- beliefs:
- tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
- culture:
- the shared beliefs, practices, and material objects of a group of people
- ideal culture:
- the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to
- real culture:
- the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists
- sanctions:
- rewards or punishments for accepted behavior; a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors
- social control:
- a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
- values:
- a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
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