2 Non-Carbon Emitting Energies
Jack Harris
2.1 Introduction
Keywords
- Renewable – a renewable resource can be replaced after it is used and is collected on a human timescale
- Wind power – A source of energy collected when wind moves turbines that power electric generators
- Solar power – a source of energy collected by using the light and heat of the sun
- Nuclear fission – energy derived from the splitting of atoms harnessed to create electricity
- Uranium – the element most commonly used for nuclear fission
- Turbine – a machine for producing continuous power in which a wheel or rotor, typically fitted with vanes, is made to revolve by a fast-moving flow of water, steam, gas, air, or fluid.
- Generator – a dynamo or similar machine for converting mechanical energy into electricity.
- Electricity grid – an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to consumers.
- Carbon emissions – the most common form is carbon dioxide or CO2. Most of the carbon dioxide output on Earth is as a result of human activities like deforestation, cement production, and the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas.
- Intermittent energy – not available consistently due to outside conditions
- Baseline energy – can be turned into usable energy a majority of the time because within a closed operation
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
- Have a basic understanding of wind power, solar power, and nuclear power
- Understand the impact of non-carbon producing energies
- Discuss how climate change has an impact on the energies we use
- Make a claim about where energy is going in the future
Throughout this chapter, we will explore energy sources that do not produce carbon emissions. Renewable energy comes from a resource that can be replaced after it is used and collected on a human timescale. Examples of renewable energy include wind power and solar power. Nuclear power is an example of nonrenewable energy. Despite it being nonrenewable, nuclear power does not produce carbon emissions, the leading cause of climate change. In total, each of these combines to make up a part of the energy system that is currently being used in the United States.
The other part of the energy system is primarily carbon-producing energies like coal, natural gas, and petroleum. These forms of energy are some of the leading causes of climate change, a global issue with far-reaching implications. In the next 30 years, we must transition away from carbon-producing forms of energy to sustain the same quality of life as is present. In the overall discussion of science and technology in society, non-carbon emitting energy is essential because it provides a way to combat climate.
2.2 Types of Non-carbon Emitting Energies
Key Takeaway
Wind, solar, and nuclear energy do not produce carbon, the main force behind climate change. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
This section will be devoted to the different forms of energy that do not produce carbon emissions. The first of these is wind energy. It does not produce carbon because it is a renewable resource because it only uses naturally occurring wind to power it. The second is solar energy which is powered by the sun. These two can be called intermittent sources of energy because the wind does not always blow consistently, and the sun only shines enough to be collected part of the time. The final form of energy we will discuss is nuclear power. Nuclear power harnesses the energy that comes from breaking apart the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear is considered baseline energy because nuclear power plants can be operated close to 90% of the time.
2.2.1 Wind Power
Key Takeaway
Wind power creates electricity by turning turbines to power a generator.
Wind power has been used for thousands of years as a means of generating energy. Many of the first uses of wind power were to help process grain, other foods, or even pump water. In the United States, wind power was used in the colonies and saw increased use in the 1980s due to an oil shortage. Research efforts were funded by the government and vastly increased the number of turbines in use.
In the 1990s, the United States issued a tax credit for wind power which greatly incentivized the building of wind turbines. Fueled by an increase in demand for renewable energy and greater investment into wind energy, the price of wind energy decreases dramatically.
In 2020, wind energy accounted for 8.4% of US electricity generation, compared to less than 1% in 1990(EIA).
“Wind Turbines” by K Ali is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
2.2.2 Solar Power
Key Takeaway
Solar power has been used since the beginning of mankind to grow plants and nourish the human body. Yet, solar power for the purpose of creating electricity is relatively new. Solar power has a variety of uses and a variety of ways it can be collected. Some of its uses are for creating electricity, light, or heating water. Some of the ways it can be collected are through solar panels, solar water heaters, and even molten salt power.
The way in which solar power is used that you might be most familiar with is solar panels. They work by creating an electric current when sunlight hits them and harnessing that electricity. Solar panels can vary in size from just a few square centimeters to a few square meters.
Solar panels can be used on smaller scales too. Homeowners can use solar panels so that they do not have to pay electricity bills. Cities can use solar panels to decrease the amount of energy they need.
“Rows of solar panel at a thermo-solar power plant” by World Bank Photo Collection is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
2.2.3 Nuclear Power
Key Takeaway
Nuclear fission works by harnessing the power of the nucleus of an atom to create energy.
There are two main types of nuclear fission reactors used in the United States currently. One is a pressurized water reactor that pumps water into the reactor core at high pressure which keeps the water from boiling. Once the water is heated, it produces steam that powers an electric generator. The other is a boiling water reactor. The boiling reactor works by allowing the water to boil using the steam produced by the nuclear fission process. The steam powers a turbine that produces electricity. The steam is then converted back to water in the liquid state and reused.
Nuclear power has undergone much scrutiny since the fallout of a reactor in Chernobyl, Ukraine. The reactor there caused 27 lives to be lost within a year of the accident and many more cases of cancer. Additionally, the area will be radioactive for many thousands of years, and neither wildlife nor humans can inhabit it during that time. For the same reason, there is much controversy surrounding the storing of radioactive materials used to power nuclear reactors. Since they will be toxic for thousands of years, they must be stored responsibly or risk harm to the environment and people.
“Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant, Units 1 and 2” by Nuclear Regulatory Commission is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
2.3 The prevalence of renewable energy today
Key Takeaway
As you learned in the last chapter, coal and natural gas are two other ways to create electricity. However, when they are produced, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which means it can cause heating of Earth’s temperatures, known as The Greenhouse Effect. At the pace of climate change currently, if humans continue to create this much carbon dioxide, the world as we know it will be completely different.
One of the ways that our world could change is the melting of the polar ice caps. Polar ice caps are home to much of Earth’s freshwater supply, and if they melt, it could lead to rising sea levels. This is predicted to cost hundreds of billions in damage. Animals may go extinct as their habitats will be inhospitable.
As a response to climate change and energy sources that produce lots of carbon like coal and natural gas, renewable energies like solar and wind have been invested in as well as nuclear energy which is not considered renewable but does not create carbon.
“Melting polar ice caps, Arctic Circle. Courtesy Creative Commons” by Royal Opera House Covent Garden is licensed under CC BY 2.0
2.4 Current energy uses
Key Takeaway
Currently, the breakdown of energy sources in the United States relies heavily on petroleum and natural gas. These are nonrenewable energy sources that are mainly used for transportation, manufacturing, electricity, and heating. The percentages of United States energy consumption for petroleum and natural gases are 34.7% and 33.9%, respectively. Following far behind is coal at 9.9% of United States energy consumption. Coal is also a nonrenewable energy source that is used for electricity and manufacturing. Next is nuclear energy from uranium. At 8.9% of overall energy consumption, this nonrenewable energy source is for electricity generation. It is unfortunate that the majority of United States energy consumption is made of nonrenewable sources. Such a small percentage of the energy consumption is through renewable sources like wind and solar. Wind accounts for 3.2% of energy consumption and contributes directly to electricity. At the same time, solar energy is about 1.3% of United States energy consumption used for electricity as well as heating(EIA). Overall, these renewable energy sources make up a small portion of United States energy consumption. This proportion needs to drastically change to slow the effects of climate change over the next ten years.
“Coal-fired Power Plant” by Rennett Stowe is licensed under CC BY 2.0
2.4.1 Disadvantages of non-carbon emitting technologies
Key Takeaway
The auto industry is worth 2 trillion dollars in the United States. The government, companies, and special interests all have financial and social to keep it this way. However, the amount of carbon emissions emitted by the entire industry is astounding. This is because of the sheer amount of energy required to power all of the manufacturing and daily operation of cars run by gasoline. Since renewable energies like wind and solar do not provide baseline energy, they have not been utilized as sources of energy for cars. Neither has nuclear since the heat it creates provides electric energy. Until cars are mostly electric, carbon-producing forms of energy will be the default for the giant auto industry.
However, the United States has said that it has a goal of 50% of the sales of new cars to be electric. Companies like Tesla are well suited for this change because all of their cars are electric. Companies like Ford and GM are having to pivot away from their traditional cars into electric vehicles but are making pushes to get to the government’s number before 2030. It will be interesting to see how this change affects the impact of climate change.
“Windmills at the windmill farm Middelgrunden” by andjohan is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0
2.5 Environmental impact
Key Takeaway
Wealthy countries are responsible for the majority of climate change. The carbon emissions produced by those countries far outweigh that of poorer countries. However, the poorest countries are paying the highest price in terms of feeling the effects of climate change.
Some estimates say that rising sea levels will affect 23 trillion dollars of industry by 2050 (Swiss Re Institute). The hardest-hit countries will be poorer countries mostly in South Asia. Countries like the United States and Canada, two of the highest contributors to carbon emissions per capita, are two of the countries least likely to be affected by climate change. Part of this is simply location. However, poorer countries also do not have the resources to protect themselves from the rising sea levels as well as changes in weather patterns. Droughts, periods of heavy rainfall, and hurricane patterns are all going to change as a result of a global increase in temperature.
Energy sources like wind, solar, and nuclear do not produce carbon. Thus, turning to cleaner forms of energy is a way to slow the climate crisis. Yet, it is not all of the battle. Countries must be proactive and act together if they want to slow climate change. The United Nations plays a large role in making this happen. The Paris Climate Agreement was facilitated by the United Nations in 2015 and presents a way toward negating the effects of climate change. However, not all the member countries have been loyal to what they signed, and larger countries that left themselves off make a large impact that cannot be negated by a few countries. Bridging this gap is crucial to seeing real change.
“United Nations Climate Change Conference” by UNclimatechangeis licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0
Case Study: Solar Changing Lives
In Kenya, Winifred Mumbua Muisyo has just received access to electricity for the first time in her life. This is because there is no electricity grid in the place where she lives. The solar panel installation she got is now popular in Kenya because of tax credits that were received. It is an affordable addition costing around $5 per month which is about the same as kerosene for lamps.
By gaining access to electricity, her family can watch television, her sons can do homework after the sun sets, and Winifred can investigate noises outside after dark. For someone who has never been able to see after dark, this allows her access to more hours in the day (Sommer, 2021).
Chapter Summary
Throughout this chapter, we explored energy sources that do not produce carbon emissions. We learned about wind, solar, and nuclear power and how they work. We learned why nonrenewable energy is used more abundantly than renewable energies. Additionally, we learned about the effects of climate change on the world and how moving toward energy sources that do not produce carbon can help remedy the climate crisis. This chapter is important to the study of science and technology in society because the energy uses that we use currently have an impact on the way we live our lives currently as well as how we will continue to live them in the future.
- Select the carbon-producing form of energy
A. Solar
B. Nuclear
C. Wind
D. Hydro
- Does the United States use carbon-producing or non-carbon-producing forms of energy more?
A. Carbon-producing
B. Non-carbon-producing
- Which of the following can be installed in poorer countries to establish electricity easiest?
A. Hydro
B. Nuclear
C. Wind
D. Solar
- True or false: One country can solve climate change themselves
A. True
B. False
Answers:
- B
- A
- D
- B
Food for Thought
- In what ways will the next 20 years be shaped by changing energy needs?
- How do energy sources affect climate change?
- If you were a politician what form of energy would you support? Why?
- Consider how energy needs and accessibility change by location? What is the best form of energy for your hometown?
References
Frequently asked questions (faqs) – U.S. energy information administration (EIA). Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) home page | NREL. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/75284.pdf.
Nuclear 101: How does a nuclear reactor work? Energy.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2021, from https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/nuclear-101-how-does-nuclear-reactor-work.
Part 2 energy conversion technology – JSTOR. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq56p.9.
Renewables: Energy you can count on solar … – jstor.org. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep00012.
Richard Rhodes is the author of numerous books, Rhodes →, M. about R., Mendelsohn, R., Mendelsohn, R., Pearce, F., & Pearce, F. (n.d.). Why nuclear power must be part of the Energy Solution. Yale E360. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-enVironmentalists-climate.
Sommer, L. (2021, November 10). This Kenyan family got solar power. high-level climate talks determine who else will. NPR. Retrieved November 23, 2021, from https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/11/10/1052926511/this-kenyan-family-got-solar-power-high-level-climate-talks-determine-who-else-w.
Swiss Re Institute. (n.d.). April 2021 the economics of climate change. Retrieved November 23, 2021, from https://www.swissre.com/dam/jcr:e73ee7c3-7f83-4c17-a2b8-8ef23a8d3312/swiss-re-institute-expertise-publication-economics-of-climate-change.pdf.
The need for a new, clear option: An in-depth … – JSTOR. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/26427280.
Tough love for renewable energy: Making wind … – jstor.org. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23217972.
U.S. Energy Information Administration – EIA – independent statistics and analysis. History of wind power – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/wind/history-of-wind-power.php.
The most common form is carbon dioxide or CO2. Most of the carbon dioxide output on Earth is as a result of human activities like deforestation, cement production, and the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas.
A renewable resource can be replaced after it is used and is collected on a human timescale.
Not available consistently due to outside conditions.
Can be turned into usable energy a majority of the time because within a closed operation.
A source of energy collected when wind moves turbines that power electric generators.
A machine for producing continuous power in which a wheel or rotor, typically fitted with vanes, is made to revolve by a fast-moving flow of water, steam, gas, air, or fluid.
A dynamo or similar machine for converting mechanical energy into electricity.
A source of energy collected by using the light and heat of the sun.
Energy derived from the splitting of atoms harnessed to create electricity.
The element most commonly used for nuclear fission.


The Underground Railroad
William Hogg, Alias John Smith
TRAVELER FROM MARYLAND.
William fled from Lewis Roberts, who followed farming in Baltimore county, Md. In speaking of him, William gave him the character of being a “fierce and rough man,” who owned nine head of slaves. Two of William’s sisters were held by Roberts, when he left. His excuse for running away was, “ill-treatment.” In traveling North, he walked to Columbia (in Pennsylvania), and there took the cars for Philadelphia. The Committee took charge of him, and having given him the usual aid, sent him hopefully on his way. After safely reaching Canada, the thought of his wife in a land of bondage, pressed so deeply upon his mind, that he was prompted to make an effort to rescue her. The following letter, written on his behalf by the Rev. H. Wilson, indicates his feelings and wishes with regard to her:
ST. CATHARINES, Canada West, 24th July, 1854.
DEAR FRIEND, WILLIAM STILL:—Your encouraging letter, to John Smith, was duly received by him, and I am requested to write again on his behalf. His colored friend in Baltimore county, who would favor his designs, is Thomas Cook, whom he wishes you to address, Baltimore post-office, care of Mr. Thomas Spicer.
He has received a letter from Thomas Cook, dated the 6th of June, but it was a long time reaching him. He wishes you to say to Cook, that he got his letter, and that he would like to have him call on his wife and make known to her, that he is in good health, doing well here, and would like to have her come on as soon as she can.
As she is a free woman, there will, doubtless, be no difficulty in her coming right through. He is working in the neighborhood of St. Catharines, but twelve miles from Niagara Falls. You will please recollect to address Thomas Cook, in the care of Thomas Spicer, Baltimore Post-office. Smith’s wife is at, or near the place he came from, and, doubtless, Thomas Cook knows all about her condition and circumstances. Please write again to John Smith, in my care, if you please, and request Thomas Cook to do the same.
Very respectfully yours in the cause of philanthropy.
HIRAM WILSON.


Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Discuss both functional and structural classifications for body joints
- Distinguish between the functional and structural classifications for joints
- Describe the three functional types of joints and give an example of each
- Describe the three structural types of joints and give an example of each
- Describe the planes of movement possible in diarthrodial joints
A joint, also called an articulation, is any place where adjacent bones or bone and cartilage come together (articulate with each other) to form a connection. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally. Structural classifications of joints take into account whether the adjacent bones are strongly anchored to each other by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage, or whether the adjacent bones articulate with each other within a fluid-filled space called a joint cavity. Functional classifications describe the degree of movement available between the bones, ranging from immobile, to slightly mobile, to freely moveable joints. The amount of movement available at a particular joint of the body is related to the functional requirements for that joint. Thus immobile or slightly moveable joints serve to protect internal organs, give stability to the body, and allow for limited body movement. In contrast, freely moveable joints allow for much more extensive movements of the body and limbs.
Structural Classification of Joints
The structural classification of joints is based on whether the articulating surfaces of the adjacent bones are directly connected by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage, or whether the articulating surfaces contact each other within a fluid-filled joint cavity. These differences serve to divide the joints of the body into three structural classifications. A fibrous joint is where the adjacent bones are united by fibrous connective tissue. At a cartilaginous joint, the bones are joined by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. At a synovial joint, the articulating surfaces of the bones are not directly connected, but instead come into contact with each other within a joint cavity that is filled with a lubricating fluid. Synovial joints allow for free movement between the bones and are the most common joints of the body.
Functional Classification of Joints
The functional classification of joints is determined by the amount of mobility found between the adjacent bones. Joints are thus functionally classified as a synarthrosis or immobile joint, an amphiarthrosis or slightly moveable joint, or as a diarthrosis, which is a freely moveable joint (arthroun = “to fasten by a joint”). Depending on their location, fibrous joints may be functionally classified as a synarthrosis (immobile joint) or an amphiarthrosis (slightly mobile joint). Cartilaginous joints are also functionally classified as either a synarthrosis or an amphiarthrosis joint. All synovial joints are functionally classified as a diarthrosis joint.
Synarthrosis
An immobile or nearly immobile joint is called a synarthrosis (plural = synarthroses). The immobile nature of these joints provide for a strong union between the articulating bones. This is important at locations where the bones provide protection for internal organs. Examples include sutures, the fibrous joints between the bones of the skull that surround and protect the brain (Figure 9.1.1), and the epiphyseal growth plate, a cartilaginous joint that unites the epiphyses and diaphysis of a growing long bone like the femur.
Amphiarthrosis
An amphiarthrosis (plural = amphiarthroses) is a joint that has limited mobility. An example of this type of joint is the cartilaginous joint that unites the bodies of adjacent vertebrae. Filling the gap between the vertebrae is a thick pad of fibrocartilage called an intervertebral disc (Figure 9.1.2). Each intervertebral disc strongly unites the vertebrae but still allows for a limited amount of movement between them. However, the small movements available between adjacent vertebrae can sum together along the length of the vertebral column to provide for large ranges of body movements.
Another example of an amphiarthrosis is the pubic symphysis of the pelvis. This is a cartilaginous joint in which the pubic regions of the right and left hip bones are strongly anchored to each other by fibrocartilage. This joint normally has very little mobility. The strength of the pubic symphysis is important in conferring weight-bearing stability to the pelvis. During pregnancy, increased levels of the hormone relaxin lead to increased mobility at the pubic symphysis which allows for expansion of the pelvic cavity during childbirth.
Diarthrosis
A freely mobile joint is classified as a diarthrosis (plural = diarthroses). This functional classification of joints describes all synovial joints of the body, which provide the majority of body movements. Most diarthrotic joints are found in the appendicular skeleton and give the limbs a wide range of motion. These joints are divided into three categories, based on the number of axes of motion provided by each. An axis in anatomy is described as the movements in reference to the three anatomical planes: transverse, frontal, and sagittal. Thus, diarthroses are classified as uniaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial joints.
A uniaxial joint only allows for a motion in a single plane (around a single axis). The elbow joint, which only allows for bending or straightening, is an example of a uniaxial joint. A biaxial joint allows for motions within two planes. An example of a biaxial joint is a metacarpophalangeal joint (knuckle joint) of the hand. The joint allows for movement along one axis to produce bending or straightening of the finger, and movement along a second axis, which allows for spreading of the fingers away from each other and bringing them together. A joint that allows for the several directions of movement is called a multiaxial joint (sometimes called polyaxial or triaxial joint). This type of diarthrotic joint allows for movement along three axes (Figure 9.1.3). The shoulder and hip joints are multiaxial joints. They allow the upper or lower limb to move in an anterior-posterior direction and a medial-lateral direction. In addition, the limb can also be rotated around its long axis. This third movement results in rotation of the limb so that its anterior surface is moved either toward or away from the midline of the body.
Chapter Review
Structural classifications of the body joints are based on how the bones are held together and articulate with each other. At fibrous joints, the adjacent bones are directly united to each other by fibrous connective tissue. Similarly, at a cartilaginous joint, the adjacent bones are united by cartilage. In contrast, at a synovial joint, the articulating bone surfaces are not directly united to each other, but come together at a fluid-filled joint cavity.
The functional classification of body joints is based on the degree of movement found at each joint. A synarthrosis is a joint that is essentially immobile. This type of joint provides for a strong connection between the adjacent bones, which serves to protect internal structures such as the brain or heart. Examples include the fibrous joints of the skull sutures and the cartilaginous epiphyseal plate. A joint that allows for limited movement is an amphiarthrosis. An example is the pubic symphysis of the pelvis, the cartilaginous joint that strongly unites the right and left hip bones of the pelvis. The cartilaginous joints in which vertebrae are united by intervertebral discs provide for small movements between the adjacent vertebrae and are also amphiarthrotic joints. Thus, based on their movement ability, some fibrous and cartilaginous joints are functionally classified as synarthroses while others are amphiarthroses.
The most common type of joint is the diarthrosis, which is a freely moveable joint. All synovial joints are functionally classified as diarthroses. A uniaxial diarthrosis, such as the elbow, is a joint that only allows for movement within a single anatomical plane. Joints that allow for movements in two planes are biaxial joints, such as the metacarpophalangeal joints of the fingers. A multiaxial joint, such as the shoulder or hip joint, allows for three planes of motions.
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Define how joints are classified based on function. Describe and give an example for each functional type of joint.
2. Explain how degree of mobility is related to joint strength.
Glossary
- amphiarthrosis
- slightly mobile joint
- articulation
- joint of the body
- biaxial joint
- type of diarthrosis; a joint that allows for movements within two planes (two axes)
- cartilaginous joint
- joint at which the bones are united by hyaline cartilage (synchondrosis) or fibrocartilage (symphysis)
- diarthrosis
- freely mobile joint
- fibrous joint
- joint where the articulating areas of the adjacent bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue
- joint
- site at which two or more bones or bone and cartilage come together (articulate)
- joint cavity
- space enclosed by the articular capsule of a synovial joint that is filled with synovial fluid and contains the articulating surfaces of the adjacent bones
- multiaxial joint
- type of diarthrosis; a joint that allows for movements within three planes (three axes)
- synarthrosis
- immobile or nearly immobile joint
- synovial joint
- joint at which the articulating surfaces of the bones are located within a joint cavity formed by an articular capsule
- uniaxial joint
- type of diarthrosis; joint that allows for motion within only one plane (one axis)
Solutions
Answers for Critical Thinking Questions
- Functional classification of joints is based on the degree of mobility exhibited by the joint. A synarthrosis is an immobile or nearly immobile joint. An example is the epiphyseal plate or the joints between the skull bones surrounding the brain. An amphiarthrosis is a slightly moveable joint, such as the pubic symphysis or an intervertebral cartilaginous joint. A diarthrosis is a freely moveable joint. These are subdivided into three categories. A uniaxial diarthrosis allows movement within a single anatomical plane or axis of motion. The elbow joint is an example. A biaxial diarthrosis, such as the metacarpophalangeal joint, allows for movement along two planes or axes. The hip and shoulder joints are examples of a multiaxial diarthrosis. These allow movements along three planes or axes.
- Joint mobility is inversely related to joint strength. A synarthrosis, which is an immobile joint, serves to strongly connect bones thus protecting internal organs such as the heart or brain. A slightly moveable amphiarthrosis provides for small movements while maintaining stability between adjacent bones as in the vertebral column. The freedom of movement provided by a diarthrosis can allow for large movements, such as is seen with most joints of the limbs. However, these joints are the most frequently injured due to their looser articulations at the joint cavity.
This work, Anatomy & Physiology, is adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, licensed under CC BY. This edition, with revised content and artwork, is licensed under CC BY-SA except where otherwise noted.
Images, from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, are licensed under CC BY except where otherwise noted.
Access the original for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction.


187 Reading: Multiculturalism and the Law
Multiculturalism and the Law
As we already know, it is in an organization’s best interest to hire and promote a multicultural and diverse workforce. Sometimes though, people are still discriminated against at work. As a result, a federal agency has been established to ensure employees have a place to file complaints should they feel discriminated against.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency charged with the task of enforcing federal employment discrimination laws. The laws include those that protect people from discrimination in all areas of employment, such as discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and disability. People who have filed a discrimination charge are also protected against discrimination under the EEOC. Employers with at least fifteen employees (twenty for age discrimination) are covered under the EEOC. This agency covers not only discrimination in hiring but also discrimination in all types of work situations such as firing, promotions, harassment, training, wages, and benefits. The EEOC has the authority to investigate charges of discrimination against employers. The agency investigates the claims, makes a finding, and then tries to settle the charge. If they are unsuccessful in settling the charge, the EEOC has the right to file a lawsuit on behalf of the complainants. The EEOC has headquarters in Washington, DC, with fifty-three field offices throughout the United States.
If a company has more than one hundred employees, a form called the EEO-1 must be filled out yearly. This form confirms the demographics of an organization based on different job categories (Equal Opportunity Employment Commission, 2011 EEO-1 Survey, accessed December 20, 2010). An organization that employs more than fifty people and works for the federal government must also file an EEO-1 yearly, with the deadline normally in September. In addition, organizations must post the EEOC notice, which you have probably seen before, perhaps in the company break room. Finally, organizations should keep on file records such as hiring statistics in the event of an EEOC investigation.
It is necessary to mention here that while there is a legal compliance concern, as discussed before, it is in the company’s best interest to hire a diverse workforce. So while we can discuss the legal aspects, remember that the purpose of having a diverse workforce is not just to meet EEOC requirements but to create a better, more profitable workplace that better serves customers.
Table 1. How the EEOC Process Works and Requirements for Employers
| Requirements by EEOC |
| Post Federal and State EEOC notices |
| File yearly report called EEO-1 |
| Keep copies of documents on file |
| Process for Investigation |
| 1. The EEOC complaint is filed. |
| 2. The EEOC notifies the organization of the charges. |
| 3. The EEOC acts as a mediator between the employee and the employer to find a solution. |
| 4. If step 3 is unsuccessful, the EEOC will initiate an investigation. |
| 5. The EEOC makes a determination, and then the employer has the option of remedying the situation or face a potential lawsuit. |
EEOC Federal Legislation
While the EEOC is the larger governing body, many pieces of legislation relating to multicultural practices are part of the EEOC family of laws. Many of these laws began with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. This act, enforced by the EEOC, covers several areas in which discrimination was rampant. However, a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) is a quality or attribute employers are allowed to consider when making decisions during the selection process. Examples of BFOQs are a maximum age limit for airline pilots for safety reasons and a Christian college’s requirement that the president of the college be Christian.
EEOC laws relate specifically to the following:
- Age
- Disability
- Equal pay
- Genetic information
- National origin
- Pregnancy
- Race/color
- Religion
- Retaliation
- Sex
- Sexual harassment
Age
Age discrimination involves treating someone less favorably because of his or her age. Created in 1967, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) is enforced by the EEOC. This law covers people who are age forty or older. It does not cover favoring an older worker over a younger worker, if the older worker is forty years or older. The law covers any aspect of employment such as hiring, firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, fringe benefits, and any other condition or term of employment.
The law also goes deeper by forbidding harassment of someone based on age. While simple teasing or offhand comments are not covered, more serious offensive remarks about age are covered by this EEOC law.
Disability
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination against those with disabilities and is enforced by the EEOC. Discrimination based on disability means treating a qualified person unfavorably because of a disability. For example, if someone has AIDS that is controlled, the employee cannot be treated unfavorably. The law requires an employer to provide reasonable accommodation to an employee or applicant with a disability, unless this accommodation would cause significant difficulty or expense for the employer. A reasonable accommodation is defined by the EEOC as any change in the work environment or in the way things are customarily done that enables an individual with a disability to enjoy equal employment opportunities. A reasonable accommodation might include making the workplace accessible for wheelchair use or providing equipment for someone who is hearing or vision impaired.
This law does not mean that organizations are required to hire unqualified people. The law specifically states the person must be qualified for the job and have a disability defined by the law. A disability defined by the law can include the following:
- Physical or mental condition that limits a major life activity (walking, talking, seeing, hearing, or learning)
- History of a disability (e.g., cancer that is in remission)
- Physical or mental impairment that is not transitory (lasting or expected to last less than six months)
The law places limits on employers when it comes to asking job applicants questions about medical history or asking a person to take a medical exam.
Equal Pay/Compensation
The basis of this law is that people are paid the same for the same type of work, and the law specifically addresses gender pay differences. Rather than job title, job content is used to determine if the job is the same work. In addition to covering salary, it deals with overtime pay, bonus, stock options, profit sharing, and other types of bonus plans such as vacation and holiday pay. If inequality in pay is found, the employer cannot reduce the wages of either sex to equalize the pay.
An employee who files an equal pay charge has the option to go directly to court rather than the EEOC.
Genetic Information
This law is one of the newer EEOC laws, which took effect in November 2009. The EEOC’s definition of genetic information includes family medical information or information about the manifestation of a disease or disorder in an individual’s family. For example, an employer cannot discriminate against an employee whose family has a history of diabetes or cancer. This information could be used to discriminate against an employee who has an increased risk of getting a disease and may make health-care costs more expensive for the organization.
In addition, the employer is not allowed to seek out genetic information by requesting, requiring, or purchasing this information. However, there are some situations in which receiving this information would not be illegal:
- A manager or supervisor overhears an employee talking about a family member’s illness.
- Information is received based on wellness programs offered on a voluntary basis.
- If the information is required as documentation to receive benefits for the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). FMLA is discussed in Section 3 “Pregnancy”.
- If the information is commercial, such as the appearance of information in a newspaper, as long as the employer is not specifically searching those sources for the purpose of finding genetic information.
- If genetic information is required through a monitoring program that looks at the biological effects of toxic substances in the workplace.
- For those professions that require DNA testing, such as law enforcement agencies. In this case, the genetic information may only be used for analysis in relation to the specific case at hand.
This law also covers how information about genetics should be kept. For example, genetic information must be kept separate from an employee’s regular file.
National Origin
It is illegal to treat people unfavorably because they are from a particular country or part of the world, because of their accent, or because they appear to be of a particular descent (even if they are not). The law protecting employees based on national origin refers to all aspects of employment: hiring, firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits. An employer can require an employee to speak English only if it is necessary to perform the job effectively. An English-only policy is allowed only if it is needed to ensure the safe or efficient operations of the employer’s business. An employer may not base an employment decision on a foreign accent, unless the accent seriously interferes with job performance.
Pregnancy
This section of the EEOC refers to the unfavorable treatment of a woman because of pregnancy, childbirth, or a medical condition related to pregnancy or childbirth. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, added to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, is enforced by the EEOC. The woman who is unable to perform her job owing to pregnancy must be treated the same as other temporarily disabled employees. For example, modified tasks or alternative assignments should be offered. This law refers not only to hiring but also to firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits. In addition to this law against discrimination of pregnant women, the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) is enforced by the US Department of Labor (US Department of Labor, Leave Benefits: Family and Medical Leave, US Department of Labor, accessed December 20, 2010). The FMLA requires companies with fifty or more employees to provide twelve weeks of unpaid leave for the following:
- Birth and care of a newborn child
- Care of an adopted child
- Care for immediate family members (spouse, child, or parent) with a serious health condition
- Medical leave for the employee who is unable to work because of a serious health condition
In addition to the company size requirement, the employee must have worked at least 1,250 hours over the past 12 months.
Race/Color
This type of discrimination refers to treating someone unfavorably because he or she is of a certain race or because of certain characteristics associated with race. These characteristics might include hair texture, skin color, or facial features. Discrimination can occur when the person discriminating is the same race or color of the person who is being discriminated against. EEOC law also protects people who are married to or associated with someone of a certain race or color. As with the other types of antidiscrimination laws we have discussed, this law refers not only to the initial hiring but also to firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits.
Religion
This part of the EEOC refers to treating a person unfavorably because of their religious beliefs. This law requires a company to reasonably accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs or practices, unless doing so would burden the organization’s operations. For example, allowing flexible scheduling during certain religious periods of time might be considered a reasonable accommodation. This law also covers accommodations in dress and grooming, such as a headscarf, religious dress, or uncut hair and a beard in the case of a Sikh. Ideally, the employee or applicant would notify the employer that he or she needs such an accommodation for religious reasons, and then a discussion of the request would occur. If it wouldn’t pose hardship, the employer should honor the request. If the request might cause a safety issue, decrease efficiency, or infringe on the rights of other employees, it may not be honored.
Retaliation
In all the laws mentioned, the EEOC set of laws makes it illegal to fire, demote, harass, or retaliate against people because they filed a charge of discrimination, complained about discrimination, or participated in employment discrimination proceedings. Perhaps one of the most high-profile sexual harassment and retaliation cases was that of Sanders v. Thomas. Isiah Thomas, then coach of the New York Knicks, fired Anucha Browne Sanders because she hired an attorney to file sexual harassment claims charges. The jury awarded Browne Sanders $11.6 million in punitive charges because of the hostile work environment Thomas created and another $5.6 million because Browne Sanders was fired for complaining (Michael Schmidt, “Jury Awards $11.6 Million to Former Knicks Executive,” New York Times, October 2, 2007, accessed July 12, 2011). A portion of the lawsuit was to be paid by Madison Square Garden and James Dolan, chairman of Cablevision, the parent company of Madison Square Garden and the Knicks. Browne Sanders’s lawyers successfully argued that the inner workings of Madison Square Garden were hostile and lewd, and that the former marketing executive of the organization subjected her to hostility and sexual advances. Thomas left the organization as coach and president in 2008. As in this case, there are large financial and public relations penalties not only for sexual harassment but for retaliation after a harassment suit has been filed.
 As with all EEOC laws, this relates to hiring, firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits.  The victim can be male or female, and sexual harassment can occur female to female, female to male, male to female, and male to male.
Harassment at Yale? The following 2011 video outlines a sexual harassment lawsuit at Yale University. It shows that the lawsuit blamed Yale not for the harassment but for not taking a harder stand on this type of harassment.
Military Service
The Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act (USERR) protects people who serve or have served in the armed forces, Reserves, National Guard, or other uniformed services. The act ensures these individuals are not disadvantaged in their civilian careers because of their service. It also requires they be reemployed in their civilian jobs upon return to service and prohibits discrimination based on past, present, or future military service.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency charged with the development and enforcement of laws relating to multiculturalism and diversity in the workplace.
- The EEOC covers discrimination based on several areas. Companies cannot discriminate based on age; EEOC law covers people who are forty years or older.
- Employers cannot discriminate against people with disabilities and must provide reasonable accommodations, such as the addition of a wheelchair ramp to accommodate those with disabilities.
- Equal pay refers to the fact people should legally be paid the same amount for performing the same type of work, even if the job title is different.
- The newest addition to EEOC law prohibits discrimination based on genetic information, such as a history of cancer in a family.
- Unfavorable treatment of people because they are from a particular country or part of the world or have an accent is covered by the EEOC. An organization cannot require people to speak English, unless it is a requirement for the job or needed for safety and efficient operation of the organization.
- Women can’t be discriminated against because they are pregnant. The inability to perform certain tasks due to pregnancy should be treated as a temporary disability; accommodation can be in the form of modified tasks or alternative assignments.
- The EEOC protects people from discrimination based on their race or color.
- Religion is also an aspect of the EEOC family of laws. The protection of religion doesn’t allow for discrimination; accommodations include modifications of work schedules or dress to be made for religious reasons.
- Discrimination on the basis of sex is illegal and covered by the EEOC. Sexual harassment is also covered by the EEOC and states that all people, regardless of sex, should work in a harassment-free environment.
- Retaliation is also illegal. An organization cannot retaliate against anyone who has filed a complaint with the EEOC or a discrimination lawsuit.
- The US Department of Labor oversees some aspects of EEOC laws, such as the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). This act requires organizations to give twelve weeks of unpaid leave in the event of an adoption, a birth, or a need to provide care to sick family members.
Check Your Understanding
Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in this section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.
Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.


Open Pedagogy as Open Student Projects
Teaching Wikipedia: A Model for Critical Engagement with Open Information
Amanda Koziura; Jennifer M. Starkey; and Einav Rabinovitch-Fox
Authors
- Amanda Koziura, Case Western Reserve University
- Jennifer M. Starkey, Case Western Reserve University
- Einav Rabinovitch-Fox, Case Western Reserve University
Project Overview
Institution: Case Western Reserve University
Institution Type: private, research, undergraduate, postgraduate
Project Discipline: STEM
Project Outcome: Wikipedia content creation
Tools Used: Wikipedia, LibGuides
Resources Included in Chapter:
- Lesson Plans
- Grading Rubric
Introduction
In this chapter, the authors describe the learning experience and goals of a class assignment to write content for Wikipedia about women in science and technology fields. The authors, a university professor and two librarians, collaboratively developed this assignment to allow students to engage in rigorous research and contribute to the visibility of women scientists by writing content for the web. The authors chose the Wikipedia platform as the means to make the students’ work openly available because of its ubiquity and the potential for student work to make an important impact. The assignment, used in two iterations of the course, was designed to provide students not only with a hands-on experience on working on the open web, but also with tools to assess critically the uses and abuses of open access platforms.
Over multiple class sessions with librarians spread throughout the semester, students engaged with questions such as the power and bias of authorship, the meaning of authority, the role of critical consumers/producers of information, how to evaluate and use archival documents on open platforms, as well as ethical questions deriving from producing content for the open web. The chapter examines both the challenges and successes in designing and engaging students with the assignment, offering a model of collaboration between faculty, librarians, and archivists in the promotion of open pedagogy that can be replicated at other institutions and disciplines.
Why Wikipedia?
The Wikipedia assignment was developed as a final assignment in a course on Gender and Technology that was offered as part of the Seminar Approach to General Education and Scholarship (SAGES) Program at Case Western Reserve University. SAGES seminars are usually capped at 17 students, and are comprised of a mixture of first-year and sophomore students. In these seminars, students engage with critical thinking, learning analytical and research skills, as well as gaining experience with multiple forms of academic writing. As the university is a STEM focused institution, where the majority of undergraduate students major in engineering and the hard sciences, the class topic of Gender and Technology was selected by the professor to appeal to students’ interests. The course especially targeted students who seek to engage with questions on how gender and technology define and redefine each other, the role of women in science and technology, and on issues of gender (in)equality in the STEM fields that many will encounter informally throughout their studies.
Both the topic of the course and the pedagogical rationale of the SAGES seminar made Wikipedia a useful tool to promote students’ writing and research skills and engage with the course topic. Women, and especially women who made notable achievements in the STEM fields, are underrepresented on Wikipedia (Harrison, 2019). In fact, as of February 2020, only 18.25% of English Wikipedia’s biographies were about women (WikiProject Women in Red). The content of entries about women are also skewed to have more information about family and relationships, and speak more negatively about their subjects than entries about men (Wagner et al., 2016). Thus, the assignment was a perfect opportunity to not only provide students with experience in public writing, but also to tackle hands-on the questions of gender inequality that the course addressed. By contributing to the visibility of women on Wikipedia, and the internet at large, the assignment demonstrated to students how writing can move beyond the confines of the classroom and become a political act.
In addition, the Wikipedia assignment offered a fresh approach to the “traditional” academic paper, something that often does not generate much excitement from students. The thought behind using Wikipedia as a publishing platform was to empower students to think of themselves as authors and contributors to the information landscape, as well as to raise the stakes of producing valuable work. The fact that their work could be visible to a public audience beyond the professor or the university community was intended to propel them to think more critically, and engage in more revisions on their own writing. The students were also given the option to decide whether to publish their work publicly or not, which added to their self-reflection as writers.
Another pedagogical motivation to use the Wikipedia assignment in class was to get students to think critically about the encyclopedia and open access sources at large. As students engaged in writing content for public consumption, they encountered first hand the challenges of accountability and accuracy. They needed to think about how, and if, they could even “trust” the information presented on Wikipedia, and how they could evaluate information online. This shift from being consumers of information/Wikipedia to producers offered students a way to reevaluate Wikipedia as a credible source, with the hope that they would take these conclusions into the future of their academic careers.
Developing lesson plans
While the instructor was in the process of developing the course, the research librarian that works with the instructor’s department reached out regarding course support opportunities. The instructor responded with some details about the Wikipedia assignment she was developing and scheduled a meeting to discuss how the library could support it. During the course of the meeting, it became clear that the assignment was uniquely positioned to benefit from the expertise of members of the library’s research services, digital scholarship, and archives teams. It was agreed that the librarians would lead three sessions (with the addition of a fourth working session in the second iteration of the course). These sessions would prepare students to engage with critical information literacy, research, digital literacy, and the technical aspects of the project. In other words, the sessions the librarians led would be essential to teach students the critical thinking and technical skills needed to successfully complete the assignment.
All three collaborators approached the project with an open mind and enthusiasm to experiment and take some risks. The instructor was willing to hand over parts of the planning of her course to the librarians, and the librarians were willing to learn all about how to teach students to edit Wikipedia responsibly, which was new to them as well. It became clear in the first meeting that one session alone would not be enough time to cover the social and ethical conversations around Wikipedia, the research and content aspects of the project, as well as the technical editing side. Those three components formed the basis of the first three class sessions. The research and digital scholarship librarians developed the lesson plans collaboratively, consulting the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education and integrating the frames most applicable to the objectives of the assignment (see Appendix). The first session on ethics was led by both librarians, the second session on finding sources and citing in Wikipedia was led by the research librarian, and the third was led by the digital scholarship librarian to teach students editing techniques in a hands-on work session.
Each of the sessions was scaffolded into the syllabus to ensure that they were timed appropriately for the course, and the instructor communicated to students what they were expected to do before each class. A critical component in the success of the assignment was the continual communication between the librarians and faculty, allowing them to remain agile as questions arose from students, as well as the trust placed in each other to fulfil their roles as related to the course. The instructor’s trust also was apparent to the students; the librarians were not simply guests in the class, but were integral to their success in the course and their learning.
What happened in class
The first class session was designed to be an introduction to the social issues surrounding Wikipedia. After a brief introduction to the assignment, the class was broken into small groups and each group was given an article about Wikipedia to read and discuss. These articles (listed in the Appendix) touched on a variety of topics, including hoaxes, bias in authorship, trustworthiness of information, and coverage of controversial issues in a public forum. Each group was asked to report back to the class on the topics raised in the articles and this ignited a discussion that allowed students to engage with these issues.
Afterwards, the students were asked to think about what principles they would want to imbue in Wikipedia if they were building it from scratch. How would they balance openness with reliability? Would they have limits on who could author articles? How would they address bias not only in the articles present but also in what is deemed worthy of an article in the first place? What guidelines and principles would they put into place to help make Wikipedia the best it can be? In the end, they came up with a list of principles that mirrored Wikipedia’s own five pillars, while also recognizing that such pillars are not a foolproof way of addressing the concerns of bias, misinformation, and reliability.
A secondary objective, and one that at least anecdotally appeared to be achieved, was that this session introduced the librarians to the class and helped to establish a rapport with them. This interaction allowed the students to both feel comfortable reaching out to the librarians for help and established the librarians as experts working in concert with their professor. By beginning with a discussion of the ethical considerations of the platform their assignment was based on, the librarians positioned themselves as open to questions, considerate of concerns, and knowledgeable on the topic at hand while simultaneously laying the foundation for future class sessions.
The second session led by librarians focused on locating and vetting sources to use in their biographical entries. An archivist was brought in to speak about the unique structure and access requirements related to archival material, which students who chose subjects that were affiliated with the university might find useful. In the second iteration of the class, the scholarly communications librarian also visited to address copyright concerns for both written and visual material.
The third session was devoted to learning to use the Wikipedia platform and creating and editing biographical entries. Students were asked to create an account prior to the session and were welcome to use their laptops to follow along as the librarian demonstrated how to access, edit, and properly format the sandbox area where students would draft their biographical entries. For the remaining class time students worked on their entries and were able to ask questions of both the professor and librarians. A fourth session, added in the second iteration of the course, was a working session designed to provide students another opportunity to work on their entries while being able to get one-on-one assistance from the librarians. The need for an open work session was demonstrated both semesters by the many technical and content related questions students asked the professor and the librarians after they got started with the work.
By the end of the sessions, all students had explored ethical and social justice concerns related to Wikipedia, acquired the information literacy skills necessary to do the required research for their selected subjects, and practiced crafting and formatting a biographical entry that would meet Wikipedia’s guidelines.
Results of the assignment
Surprisingly, although many of the students were quite tech savvy and literate in using media online, using the Wikipedia sandbox platform was not self-evident to all. Some encountered technical issues in formatting their articles, and some did not really understand the format and presented a version of a “traditional” paper. Moreover, some were confused regarding how they would be evaluated, and seemed uncomfortable working outside of their comfort zone of writing a traditional essay. This concern was met by circulating a grading rubric (see Appendix) that set clear expectations, and eased many of the initial worries regarding the assignment.
Despite these difficulties, all students submitted article drafts and revised them according to comments. While there was not a required page minimum, as information about the individual subject varied greatly, the expectation was that students would have enough sources to create a substantial content article. Articles ranged from being very short (3-4 printed pages) to very long (8-9 pages), but the average article, including citations and notes, was 6 printed pages. Without question, all articles, regardless of length, demonstrated well-done and accurately cited research, using a plethora of sources that indicated that students read credible documents. Overall, students went to great lengths to locate relevant sources even beyond the University’s library, going so far as to seek copyright permissions for images where free alternatives were not available, and bringing an added value to their articles. Even when information for some of the topics was more difficult to find, students showed resilience in consulting various databases and research tools beyond what they would have consulted for a traditional essay.
Some students who were writing about alumni at our institution were able to use the University Archives for research. However, they had to be careful about what items they were able to cite due to Wikipedia’s restrictions on using primary source material. They were able to use everything that had been published, such as yearbooks and student newspapers, as those met the criteria to be considered secondary sources. For students who utilized the University Archives, the experience was overall positive and interesting. “I…loved the Wikipedia project. I felt involved in my research and got to go to the archives,” wrote one of the students. They commented on the helpfulness of the staff and mentioned that the experience of going through archival sources was a new but welcomed experience.
Overall, it seemed that even the students who found the assignment challenging appreciated the experience. “I really enjoyed the Wikipedia project. It is a valuable life skill to know how to operate Wikipedia. And the articles we created brought attention to underrepresented women in the STEM fields,” one of the students wrote in the evaluation. This is in line with what recent research into Wikipedia-based assignments has revealed about student learning and engagement (Vetter et al., 2019).
Students appreciated the opportunity to make their writing public and felt they made a real contribution. “I…felt like my writing had a real-life impact,” another student commented. Although only about half of the students ended up publishing their articles, they understood how the assignment engaged with the course’s topic and appreciated the experience. During the sessions, students were made aware of the possibility that their work could be deleted or modified after publication, as part of the open nature of Wikipedia. Yet, even if their entries went through some revisions and editing by other Wikipedia users after the initial publication, one student expressed that they felt proud that it was because of their initial work that the woman they wrote about got an entry in the first place. This student did not seem to mind later edits and changes, but instead viewed the entire process as empowering.
What was learned
While the assignment overall proved to be successful and the students gained valuable skills and ethical engagement from the experience, there were some challenges that had to be worked through. Students were offered the opportunity to do either biographical entries or write about organizations related to the topic, but students gravitated strongly toward doing biographical entries. One possible reason for this is that the idea of writing about an entire organization may seem more daunting than writing about an individual, even if the amount of research involved is similar. Spending some time showing this could help reduce the anxiety around choosing an organizational topic as opposed to a biographical one. Encouraging some students to choose this path would be helpful as the “pool” of possible biographical topics is limited, and expanding the topic base could be helpful in future iterations of this assignment. Some students had difficulty choosing subjects, and to aid with this, links to lists of needed entries on Wikipedia were provided. Students were also given the option of selecting people that had entries that were insubstantial and needed to be expanded, referred to as a “stub” entry on Wikipedia.
There were also occasions when a student would select a subject to write about and then discover later there was not enough published material about them to write a full entry, even after receiving assistance from a librarian or archivist. This forced some students to pick an alternative subject. Another issue that arose was a student selecting a person to write about and then, during the course of the semester, someone else published a biographical entry about them on Wikipedia. These are difficult issues to work around and there is not an easy solution. Either students will need to change the person they are writing about or, if it is too late to change, be allowed to complete the assignment knowing they won’t be able to publish the entire article publicly. They could instead submit their sandbox entry to the professor for grading and add material to the already published article if they so desire.
Another issue that arose was the fact that the campus IP range was blocked from creating new Wikipedia accounts during the course of the semester. This can happen if there is suspicious or abusive behavior linked back to them. Considering the number of users that fall within an institution’s IP range is quite high, it’s not uncommon for colleges and universities to have their campus IP range blocked for a time. This only prohibits new accounts from being made without review; it will not keep those who had accounts prior to the block from being able to login and edit Wikipedia.
When an IP range is blocked, a form is posted on Wikipedia that allows people to request accounts from the blocked IP range. These requests are supposed to be reviewed and approved or denied within a few days. However, in our case the review did not happen for several months and account requests submitted through the form were not approved until well into the summer. To get around this, students were asked to go off-campus to a local coffee shop, public library, or other easily accessible venue that provided Wi-Fi and create their accounts there to avoid sending the request from the blocked IP range.
The librarians also learned from the first round of sessions and made a few changes to how they constructed their lessons in the second iteration of the class and assignment. While the overall structure remained the same, they adjusted the article list used in the first session to incorporate new material. They also demonstrated a live editing section to show the ease with which people can edit Wikipedia entries instead of asking the class to try it. Previously this had resulted in the class getting off track as they edited a Wikipedia page of interest to them with false information, and the information was quickly changed back.
The librarians also added a speaker who touched on copyright as it relates both to text and images. They were also introduced to places they could search for public domain and creative commons licensed images. While the content was useful, the speaker shared the session with a representative from the University Archives and a research librarian teaching them about finding and evaluating sources. Three speakers were too many and in the future they would be separated out into different sessions or have the information posted for students to review as they work on the assignment.
This assignment is easily adaptable to courses in a broad range of subject areas across areas of humanities, social sciences, and science and technology. The project could work equally well with one librarian collaborator as it did with two librarians. The specific news articles that formed the basis of the conversation in the first class session could be replaced with different articles, either ones focused on discipline specific issues or more recent articles. Without a doubt, new scandals, hoaxes, or other misuses of Wikipedia will arise in the world; people will edit for political gain, manipulate reputations, write fake entries and write in ways that are intentionally or inadvertently non-neutral.
The challenge of identifying unwritten and stub articles for which sufficient information exists, and which meet Wikipedia’s notability requirements, will always be a consideration in adapting this assignment. Instructors and librarians can take advantage of Wikipedia’s page of new entries that have been requested by users, categorized by subject and sub-topic. The Gender and Technology class focused on biographical Wikipedia entries but that could also expand to include other types of topics.
Wikipedia requires the existence of multiple independent and reliable secondary sources in order to meet the notability criteria; students were required to adhere to this and use primary sources only to fill in information gaps. In some cases students changed topics after they struggled to find the requisite secondary sources. The problem with the notability criteria is that it becomes more difficult to justify adding representation of marginalized voices. The scholarly record itself is biased against women and minorities and Wikipedia’s policy perpetuates that bias. A recent illustrative example of this is the physicist Donna Strickland, whose Wikipedia page was deleted based on notability criteria a few months before she won the Nobel Prize for Physics (Koren, 2018). While the authors don’t have a suggested solution for this obstacle, it is an excellent basis for class discussion.
Conclusion
The process of developing the assignment, preparing the lesson plans to complement the assignment, and working with the students on it proved to be extremely rewarding for all involved. Wikipedia provided the perfect platform for students to engage with questions of open access, writing for the public, bias of all kinds, and critically work with information not just as a consumer but also a creator. It enabled a valuable collaboration between the professor and the librarians that allowed for a deep-dive into information literacy concepts that students were immediately able to put to practical use. Since this type of assignment is subject-agnostic, requires little technical skill, and has few barriers to entry for all involved, the authors highly recommend it for anyone interested in experimenting with content that lives at the intersection of ethics, information literacy, and open pedagogy.
References
Harrison, S. (2019, March 26). The notability blues: The Wikipedia rule that makes it harder to create entries about lesser-known but important women from history. Slate. Retrieved from https://slate.com/tag/source-notes
Koren, M. (2018, October 2). One Wikipedia page is a metaphor for the Nobel Prize’s record with women. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/
Vetter M. A., McDowell, Z.J., & Stewart, M. (2019). From opportunities to outcomes: The Wikipedia-based writing assignment. Computers and composition, 52, 53-64. doi: 10.1016/j.compcom.2019.01.008
Wagner, C., Graells-Garrido, E., Garcia, D., & Menczer, F. (2016). Women through the glass ceiling: Gender asymmetries in Wikipedia. EDJ data science, 5. doi: 10.1140/epjds/s13688-016-0066-4
WikiProject Women in Red (n.d.) In Wikipedia. Retrieved February 20, 2020 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Women_in_Red
Contact Information
Author Amanda Koziura may be contacted at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Author Jennifer M. Starkey may be contacted at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Author Einav Rabinovitch-Fox may be contacted at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Feedback, suggestions, or conversation about this chapter may be shared via our Rebus Community Discussion Page.
Appendix: Lesson Plans and Grading Rubric
Session one
Learning objectives
- Critique Wikipedia, paying particular attention to issues of bias
- Examine the benefits and challenges of user-created open information sources
- Construct a list of values upon which an open information resource should be based
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) frames covered
- Authority is constructed and contextual
- Information creation as a process
Class outline
- Introduce the reason why this assignment has been chosen over a traditional paper.
- Lead initial critique of Wikipedia as a reliable information source.
- Divide the class into groups. Hand each group an article about different aspects of Wikipedia (i.e. hoaxes, bias, reliability, etc.) and have them read it. Then have each group report back on what the article was about and what that tells us about Wikipedia. Use this as a jumping off-point to further discuss the benefits and challenges of an open, easily-editable, internet-accessible information source. Issues such as bias, reliability, privilege, and access will likely arise.
- Ask the class: If you were developing Wikipedia, what would be your guidelines and principles? Take notes as the class discusses this.
- Show them the five pillars of Wikipedia and see how close they got.
- Demo how easy it is to edit an article, even without an account.
- Review the associated LibGuide with resources on editing Wikipedia and resources for their research. (Optional – can simply provide a link instead.)
Articles used in-class
Articles from the list below were used in each class. The librarians look for new material each time the class is held and adjust what is used accordingly.
Cieply, M. (2015, June 22). Wikipedia pages of star clients altered by P.R. firm. The New York Times.
Dewey, C. (2014, August 4). Men’s rights activists think a “hateful” feminist conspiracy is ruining Wikipedia. The Washington Post.
Dewey, C. (2015, April 15). The story behind Jar’Edo Wens, the longest-running hoax in Wikipedia history. The Washington Post.
Ghose, T. (2015, August 24). Is Wikipedia trustworthy when it comes to science? The Washington Post.
Koren, M. (2018, October 2). One Wikipedia page is a metaphor for the Nobel Prize’s record with women. The Atlantic.
Moran, L. (2017, February 15). Teen edits band’s Wikipedia page to bluff his way into VIP section. Huffington Post.
Selk, A. & Cavna, M. (2017, March 1). Garfield’s a boy … right? How a cartoon cat’s gender identity launched a Wikipedia war. The Washington Post.
Torres, N. (2016, June 2). Why do so few women edit Wikipedia?. Harvard Business Review.
A LibGuide, Wikipedia Editing Project, was also introduced to the students and embedded in Canvas, a learning management system.
Session two
Learning objectives
- Describe neutral point of view, notability criteria, and verifiability on as defined on Wikipedia
- Use research tools effectively to find reliable sources of information
- Gain awareness of copyright and intellectual property issues as they apply to Wikipedia, particularly in terms of use of images
- Explain the purpose of an archive and the value for the project
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) frames covered
- Information has value
- Authority is constructed and contextual
- Research as inquiry
Class outline
- Discuss the Five Pillars of Wikipedia
- Understand neutral point of view
- Look at examples of Wikipedia articles to understand how to integrate and cite sources effectively and accurately
- Guest speaker talked about copyright issues such as Fair Use, Creative Commons licenses, and use of images in Wikipedia pages
- Guest speaker from University Archives led exercise to analyze archival records, and explained how archives could assist students choosing local subjects to write about
Session three
Learning objectives
- Use the Wikipedia sandbox to draft articles
- Review all the pieces of a biographical Wikipedia entry
- Format biographical Wikipedia entries
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) frames covered
- Information creation as a process
Class outline
- How to log in
- How to navigate to the sandbox
- How to switch between markup and the visual editor
- How to find and use different heading styles
- How to use the link feature
- Link to Wikipedia articles
- Link to external sources
- How to cite sources
- Automatically (i.e. with a website or doi)
- Manually (fill out a form)
- How to insert:
- Infobox template for quick facts
- Media
- How to upload materials you own the copyright to
- How to upload other materials using the Wikimedia Commons Upload Wizard
- References list
- Authority control template (use an orcid number as an example)
- How to save changes (click on publish changes)
- Give students time to start developing the template for their article in the sandbox and ask other questions
Session Four
- In-class workshop, no structured lesson plan
- Check in and coach each student one-on-one
- Troubleshoot technical questions about editing Wikipedia
- Answer questions about assignment criteria
Assignment grading rubric
|
Student Name |
||||||
|
Grade |
Organization |
Content |
Sources |
Citations |
Logic and flow |
Mechanics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
A/A- |
Clear organization of headings and subheadings; appropriate transitions |
Comprehensive coverage of the topic; provides relevant information with links to relevant articles for background |
Article uses the best available sources, and they are appropriate for the article; includes images that improve the reader’s understanding of the topic with clear captions |
Every statement can easily be associated with supporting references; most references include filled-out citations or are complete |
Logical flow; body of article is divided into relevant sections and in hierarchical order that follows guidelines; novel contributions |
Excellent grammar, punctuation and diction; minimal to no spelling errors, no run-on-sentences or comma splices |
|
B+/B |
Purposeful organization, but article does not always flow between sections |
Coverage has some gaps; provides most of the relevant information, lacks links sometimes |
Article uses mostly good sources, but not always appropriate; includes images with captions, sometimes too detailed |
A few statements have unclear sourcing; most references are fairly complete but some missing information |
Logical flow; body of article is divided into relevant sections but they don’t always follow guidelines or hierarchical order |
Strong grammar, punctuation, and diction, despite lapses; may have run-on sentences or comma splices |
|
B-/C+ |
Unclear/ confusing organization of sections; not enough information |
Coverage has many important gaps that make it difficult to follow; provides some of the relevant information, lacks links to relevant articles |
Article depends heavily on non-independent sources or uses low quality sources; no images or images with limited relevancy and no captions |
Not enough citations or references to sources; references have enough information to track down sources but with difficulty |
Weak logical flow; article sections duplicate one another |
Weak grammar, punctuation, and diction; many run-on sentences or comma splices |
|
C/C- |
No sections |
Article does not provide enough information or detail for the reader; no links |
Article uses unreliable sources or does not use references to sources at all; no images or images that violate copyright regulations
|
Very few sources or references
|
Few examples; ideas do not flow at all; no sections |
Problems with sentence structure, grammar, and diction |


Habits of Mind
Plymouth State University requires you to take classes in General Education so that you can develop some Habits of Mind that are critical to your success in college and beyond. The General Education program provides you with opportunities to practice four particular Habits of Mind. A habit of mind is a usual way of thinking, a way of engaging with the everyday world. The Habits of Mind that we focus on at PSU are: purposeful communication, problem-solving, integrated perspective, and self-regulated learning. “Tackling a Wicked Problem” has been designed as the first course in which you will practice each of these.
Purposeful communication is a habit of mind characterized by the construction of meaning through interactions with texts and people and the creation of new messages. “Text” refers broadly to any communicative message, including, but not limited to, messages that are spoken or written, read or listened to, non-verbal, and/or delivered through any form of media (digital, social, artistic, print, etc.). Construction of meaning and creation of messages are influenced by individuals’ prior experiences as well as cultural and historical contexts. Creation of messages involves the development and purposeful expression of ideas and is designed to increase knowledge, foster understanding, and/or promote change in others’ attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors. To be effective, messages must engage the perspectives of others and foster dialog among individuals and the community.
Problem Solving is a habit of mind that involves an iterative process of identifying, explaining, and exploring problems, describing challenges, envisioning possible solutions and their implications, and making decisions about how to proceed based on all of these considerations. Problem solving encompasses a broad array of activities and approaches. Problems range widely in scale and scope—small to large, local to global, well-defined to ambiguous, simulated to real-world—and problem solving may be undertaken individually or in collaboration with others. In all cases, engaging in problem solving requires the ability to think creatively, adapt and extend one’s thinking, acknowledge different contexts and incorporate different perspectives, embrace flexibility, consider potential implications, determine courses of action, persist and adapt despite failure, and reflecting on the results. While the types of problems encountered and the strategies used to grapple with problems vary across disciplines, the problem solving habit of mind is relevant to all disciplines.
Integrated Perspective is a habit of mind characterized by the recognition that individual beliefs, ideas, and values are influenced by personal experience as well as multiple contextual factors—cultural, historical, political, etc. All human beings are interconnected through their participation in natural and social systems. An integrated perspective recognizes that individual decisions impact the self, the community, and the environment. Students will acknowledge the limitations of singular points of view and recognize the benefits of engaging with and learning from others in order to integrate multiple perspectives for effective communication, problem-solving, and collaboration.
Self-Regulated Learning is a habit of mind that encompasses the desire to learn, the ability to set personal goals for learning, and the capacity to engage in a self-monitored learning process. Self-regulated learners typically demonstrate strong commitment to the process of learning and take responsibility for their own learning. They take intellectual risks, persist in the face of challenges, and learn from their mistakes. They are able to organize and reorganize information, interpret information in new ways, and generate their own ideas. Self-regulated learners demonstrate meta-cognitive awareness (an understanding of the factors that influence their own learning) and cultivate the skills and confidence they need in order to be effective learners.
Developing these Habits of Mind is a lifelong pursuit. When we start developing them, we are at the “Basecamp” level of achievement which is the level of achievement your instructors at PSU expect you to have when you finish your first year here. By the time you graduate, we expect that you will have achieved the “Summit” although we also feel that no one ever completely masters any of them. Everyone, no matter how old, educated, or skilled in these Habits of Mind has something they can improve upon.
The following infographic shows the components (or “signposts”) that make up each Habit of Mind in the Plymouth State University General Education program. You can read more about each of the signposts in the next chapter of this book.


Calculus Volumes I and II (Openstax)
OER Reviewed: Calculus Volume I & Calculus Volume II (Openstax)
Reviewer: Peter Sinclair, Instructor, Capilano University and Douglas College
OER previously used for teaching by reviewer.
Rating
Each criterion asks the reviewer to rate it on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = very poor and 5 = excellent).
Comprehensiveness – Rating: 4
The OER covers all areas and ideas of the subject appropriately and provides an effective index and/or glossary.
-
- The OER includes all of the standard topics for Calculus I and II and has a thorough index.
- There are a few chapters where the OER could benefit from a deeper exploration of applications, such as Applied Optimization Problems and Differential Equations. The content necessary for the course in these chapters is complete, but students may be left without a complete understanding of how the topic would be applied outside of a mathematics course.
Content Accuracy – Rating: 4
Content, including diagrams and other supplementary material, is accurate, error-free, and unbiased.
-
- Review for this criterion is based on my general experience with using the OER in past courses and a thorough investigation of the following randomly chosen sections: 2.1 and 4.5 in OpenStax Calculus I; and 3.6 and 5.2 in OpenStax Calculus II.
- The content in the main text, including diagrams, is overall very accurate, error-free, and unbiased. There are a few small typos in the main text, but nothing that would confuse a student.
- The exercise solutions have a higher rate of errors, but exercise solutions are notoriously error-prone even in commercially available textbooks. Of the four sections I investigated closely, most had 2 or 3 mistakes in the solution set (about 5% of the solutions).
- The supplementary materials for this OER are quite sparse:
- There is a student solution manual which simply lists correct answers for odd-numbered exercises. It is word-for-word identical to the appendix in the main textbook with solutions, including mistakes.
- There is an instructor solution manual which lists correct answers for all exercises (odd and even). I did not check this as thoroughly as the main text, but it presumably has mistakes at a similar or slightly higher rate, since it has been looked at by fewer end-users.
- There are sets of lecture slides that contain diagrams from the text. They do not contain any apparent errors.
Relevance/Longevity – Rating: 5
Content is up-to-date, but not in a way that will quickly make the OER obsolete within a short period of time. The OER is written and/or arranged in such a way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.
-
- The content presented in this OER has not changed in recent memory and is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future.
Clarity – Rating: 4
The OER is written in lucid, accessible prose, and provides adequate context for any jargon/technical terminology used.
-
- The OER is written using clear language that only uses technical terminology where necessary.
- Technical terminology is always introduced using clearly stated definitions (usually in a highlighted box) that make it easy for students to notice when a new term is introduced.
- At times, the OER uses slight variations on certain technical terms, such as “inflection point” or “point of inflection,” without explicitly mentioning that the variations are equivalent. While this is unlikely to cause problems for most students, those who are unsure of the material or who do not speak English as a first language may worry that these terms refer to different concepts.
- There are a few instances of long wordy paragraphs that could be broken up into more digestible pieces, but these instances are not particularly frequent.
- The prose is interspersed with figures and examples to help students understand the written content.
Consistency – Rating: 4
The OER is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.
-
- The OER is generally consistent with terminology and framework
- At times, the OER uses slight variations on certain technical terms, such as “inflection point” or “point of inflection,” without explicitly mentioning that the variations are equivalent. While this is unlikely to cause problems for most students, those who are unsure of the material or who do not speak English as a first language may worry that these terms refer to different concepts.
- Most of the OER follows the standard mathematical practice of numbering Theorems by chapter; for example, Theorem 4.18 is the 18th theorem in Chapter 4. There is at least one notable exception to this standard: in Section 4.4 of Calculus I, the text includes three corollaries to the Mean Value Theorem. It refers to these as Corollary 1, Corollary 2, and Corollary 3, even outside of Section 4.4. This could easily cause confusion to readers, who would not know where to look for Corollary 3.
Modularity – Rating: 4
The OER is easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course (i.e., enormous blocks of text without subheadings should be avoided). The OER should not be overly self-referential, and should be easily reorganized, and realigned with various subunits of a course without presenting much disruption to the reader.
-
- The OER is divided into sensible sections and subsections. As with any calculus textbook, most sections build on the previous sections. That said, there are a few instances where material could be skipped or presented out of order and there is nothing in this OER that would prevent that.
- The Exercise numbering is only reset at the beginning of each chapter, not at the beginning of each section. For example, in Calculus I, Section 1.1 contains exercises 1-58, then Section 1.2 contains exercises 59-112, etc. This choice for Exercise numbering does not prevent the re-ordering of sections and chapters, but would make any re-ordering stand out unnecessarily. The numbering also makes it more challenging to add additional problems, as subsequent sections need to be re-numbered.
Organization/Structure/Flow – Rating: 5
The topics in the OER are presented in a logical, clear fashion.
-
- The OER follows a very standard organization of topics that is used in many other textbooks. Some instructors may wish to follow a different ordering of topics, but that would be a case of personal preference; all of the choices made by the OER authors are logical and sensible.
Interface – Rating: 4
The OER is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems, distortion of images/charts, and any other display features that may distract or confuse the reader.
-
- I have viewed the OER in three forms: as a downloaded PDF, through its web interface (using Firefox and Chrome on Windows 10), and through the OpenStax app (on an Android phone).
- There are no major display issues in any of the versions of the OER
- Charts and images are clearly rendered without distortion
- Boxes for definitions, theorems, and examples highlight those elements without distracting from the rest of the text.
- In the online and app versions, the solutions for examples in the text can be toggled, giving students the opportunity to try the examples on their own before looking at the answer.
- The math display in the PDF version has some imperfections; it would benefit from being created in an editor designed for mathematics like LaTeX. These imperfections do not cause any real readability issues, but do make the text look less polished than most commercially available resources.
- When switching tabs when viewing the OER online (Firefox, Chrome, and app), it sometimes lost my place. A similar issue occurred when using the provided links to access solutions to practice problems.
Grammatical/Spelling Errors – Rating: 5
The OER contains no grammatical or spelling errors.
-
- Review for this criterion is based on my general experience with using the OER in past courses and a thorough investigation of the following randomly chosen sections: 2.1 and 4.5 in OpenStax Calculus I; and 3.6 and 5.2 in OpenStax Calculus II
- The OER contains very few grammatical or spelling errors; I only noticed two in the four sections I read closely, neither of which would have caused any confusion for students.
Diversity and Inclusion – Rating: 3
The OER reflects diversity and inclusion regarding culture, gender, ethnicity, national origin, age, disability, sexual orientation, education, religion. It does not include insensitive or offensive language in these areas.
-
- I did not find any insensitive or offensive language in the OER
- There is a clear effort to balance the number of male and female names used in examples and exercises, but those names are all stereotypically white-sounding (such as Andrew, Jessica, Joe, or Sandra)
- The historical figures mentioned in Calculus I include only European men; the historical figures mentioned in Calculus II are slightly more diverse
- OpenStax has a set of diversity and representation development guidelines. These guidelines acknowledge the need to address issues like the ones I mention above, and so the lack of diversity reflected in the OER may be improved in future revisions
Recommendation
- Do you recommend this resource for the specific course taught in the first-year engineering common curriculum (in place of a commercially available resource)?
- Yes, I would.
- If yes, please briefly summarize the reasons for recommending this resource
- This resource covers the standard material for Calculus I and II in a clear and accurate manner. The prose is aimed at the correct level and is supplemented by useful diagrams, examples, and exercises.
- The textbook is nearly as polished as a commercially available alternative; it is consistent, organized well, and has very few errors.
- If not, why? What improvements, if any, could be made?
- What gaps in content have you identified?
- The OER would benefit from more real-world examples of the concepts presented, especially in Calculus I.
- The OER would also benefit from presenting a more diverse group of historical mathematicians.


Chapter 15 (Administration of Enteral Medications)
Open Resources for Nursing (Open RN)
[latexpage]
Answer Key to Chapter 15 Learning Activities
- Dimensional Analysis:
\[
\frac{750~mg}{x~mL}~x~\frac{1~g}{1000~mg}~x~\frac{8~mL}{2~g}~=~\frac{6000}{2000}~=~{3~mL}
\]
Ratio Proportion:
\[
\frac{750~mg}{X~mL}~=~\frac{2000~mg}{ 8~mL}
\]
\[
{750~mg}~x~{8~mL}~=~{2000~mg}~x~{X~mL}
\]
\[
\frac{6000~mg}{mL}~=~{2000~mg}~x~{X~mL}
\]
\[
\frac{6000~\cancel{mg}~mL}{2000~\cancel{mg}}~=~{X~mL}
\]
\[
3~mL~=~X~mL
\]
- If an incorrect medication is given, the nurse should promptly take the following actions:
- Assess the patient given the wrong medication. Assess for adverse effects related to the error.
- Notify the nurse manager/primary care provider regarding the medication error.
- Discuss the course of action to be taken.
- Implement action and continue to monitor the patient for signs of complication or change in condition.
- Report the incident via institution policy.
Answers to interactive elements are given within the interactive element.