Chapter 8: Lifespan Development of Human Potential
Fetal and Infant Development
Nature/Nurture and The Development of Human Potential
Since the scientific revolution, we have acquired considerable information about the most mysterious and wonderful phenomenon on earth, life itself. The progression of knowledge regarding the mechanisms of heredity including genes, chromosomes, and DNA has recently culminated in the mapping of the human genome. We are on the cusp of discovering what is genetically unique about the human being and perhaps, what is unique about our biological potential. This knowledge, however, will not be sufficient to determine our potential as individuals or as a species. As described in Chapter 7, the pace of scientific discovery and technological advancement is accelerating with no limit in sight. Kurzweil has made the seemingly impossible prediction that in the not too distant future humans will become immortal! Unless things change dramatically, immortality will not occur for the Nukak. Tragically, extinction appears the more likely fate. “It is the best of times. It is the worst of times” (Dickens, 1859). Never has the human species been in a better position to consider the meaning of life. Never has our species possessed such power to create or destroy.
The following are the first three articles from the United Nations General Assembly Universal Declaration of Human Rights (December, 1948):
Article 1.
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2.
- Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3.
- Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Americans will recognize these sentiments as being consistent with Thomas Jefferson’s most famous words from the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.” The United Nations would apply these same ideals to the rest of the world. In order to achieve these noble objectives it is essential and strategic to focus our attention on children.
Figures 8.1 and 8.2 Amazonian rainforest children.
Brazil and Peru border on the Amazon. The photographs above, are of Ashaninka children in the Brazilan rainforest and Peruvian mainland children in school. I think you would agree, they might as well be on opposite sides of the world. The Ashaninka children are living similar to the ways their ancestors lived for thousands of years. Their environment is almost entirely natural. The Peruvian children’s environment was created by humans and includes laptop computers. These stark environmental differences enable us to appreciate Wechsler’s emphasis upon the adaptive and multi-faceted nature of human intelligence. The Ashaninka children must acquire the knowledge and skills accrued over thousands of years by previous generations of their tribe in order to survive. Peruvian children’s survival needs are met. They have the opportunity to explore the digitized accumulated knowledge of all the humans who have ever lived! A test to determine “intelligence” for one of these children would have to take their environmental conditions into consideration. Neither child could survive in the other’s world. The opportunities for the Ashaninka and Peruvian children to achieve their potential were determined by factors beyond their control at birth; where they were born and who their parents were. In this chapter, we will consider how nature and nurture interact to influence the course of human development from conception to adulthood.
Fetal Development
We are playing pretend. Congratulations! You have graduated, are romantically involved with a significant other, and expecting a child. The video below portrays the timeline for growth of a human fetus, be it in the rainforest or a city. During the first two months, the embryo consists of the layers of cells from which all organs and body parts will eventually develop. At three months, the fetus is about three inches long and weighs about an ounce. At four months, it is about five inches long and five ounces; the hardened skeleton is starting to form. At five months, the fetus reaches about ten inches in length and by six months, it weighs approximately one and a half pounds. At seven months, the fetus is about 15 inches in length and weighs about three pounds. The average birth statistics, after 39 weeks of pregnancy for children born in developed countries, are a length of 19 inches and weight of seven and a half pounds. Newborns vary considerably, even when taken to full term.
Video
Watch the following video of fetal development:
Problems are least likely to develop during pregnancy for mothers between 16 and 35 years of age. Under modern conditions, the mother’s health and lifestyle can have a significant effect on the fetus; diseases can be transmitted through the placenta. Substance abuse (drugs or alcohol) or smoking can result in premature birth, lower birth weight, and greater risk of birth defects, miscarriages, or stillbirths. The mother’s diet can also affect the fetus: a lack of iron can produce anemia; a lack of calcium can affect the formation of teeth and bones; a lack of protein can reduce size and increase the likelihood of cognitive deficits.
Infant Development
Once again, congratulations! You are the proud parent of a healthy infant . The term “infant” is derived from the Latin word for “speechless.” It is generally applied to children up till three years of age although they typically start to speak earlier. Sometimes this period is sub-divided with separate “newborn” (between birth and one month) and “toddler” (between one and three years) stages. As we will see in the next chapter, some of your baby’s personality will be influenced by heredity. Since we are playing pretend, you get to choose whether your child is a girl or a boy and you can choose whether she/he is active and curious or quiet and relatively passive. Your new job is to insure achievement of the goals expressed in the UN Declaration of Human Rights. You want to make sure your bundle of joy eats, survives and does well in school.
Let’s start with eating. Breastfeeding is generally considered to be healthier for the child than bottle feeding (Gartner et al., 2005). As described in Chapter 5, infants are born with rooting and sucking reflexes, facilitating the nursing process for mother and child. After birth, the mother’s breasts swell as they fill with milk. Nursing reduces the swelling, providing a sense of relief along with other enjoyable feelings stemming from holding and nurturing one’s baby. For breast feeding to occur, the infant needs to grasp and hold onto its mother. In the same way that infants possess reflexes facilitating eating, they possess reflexes facilitating grabbing and holding (Schott & Rosser, 2003). If something is placed in an infant’s palm, a strong grasping reflex occurs. Should the infant sense a sudden loss of support, the Moro reflex occurs; the child first spreads its hands and then restores them to a holding position. Usually, between four and six months of age, it is possible to begin the weaning process, transitioning from liquid to solid foods. When the child’s baby teeth start to appear, usually around ten to twelve months of age, it is possible to introduce soft finger-sized foods.
This early nursing experience was considered crucial to establishing the important role of the mother. It was thought the mother became a conditioned reinforcer through classical conditioning by being paired with food. Research conducted with other species suggested that other factors besides feeding were important. Harry Harlow (1958), studying rhesus monkeys, was the first to demonstrate the important role of touch in infant development (see also Field, 2002). Harlow, using a controversial procedure, reared the monkeys in isolation from their mothers. He constructed two types of “surrogate mother” dolls. One had a wire cylinder for a body and the other was covered with soft terrycloth.
In order to measure the degree of preference for the dolls, Harlow used a procedure similar to the one to assess self-control in pigeons described in Chapter 1. You may recall that the pigeons had to choose between a small, immediate reward, and a larger, delayed reward. Preference was measured by the percentage of times the pigeon pecked the associated keys. Harlow measured the amount of time monkeys spent with the two types of “surrogate mothers.” He found that when hungry, the monkeys went to the doll with the bottle. At other times, the monkeys had a strong preference for the terrycloth doll. The terrycloth doll also served as a secure “home base” from which the monkey would explore novel items or return to when afraid. In the absence of the cloth doll, the monkey frequently cowered and sucked its thumb. In its presence, the monkey would usually cling to the cloth doll initially and then explore the new stimulus. If a fearful stimulus was presented (e.g., a teddy bear that made a loud sound), the monkey would often run and cling to its “mother” before working up the courage to once again explore the environment (Harlow, 1958).
You might be thinking Harlow’s research is interesting but questioning whether the findings relate to human children. This is an external validity issue and an empirical question. Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment and exploratory behavior in children between 12 and 18 months of age (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall 1978). The children were observed playing, with and without their mother present, while strangers walked in and out of the room according to the protocol described in the following video.
Video
Watch the following video of Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation research with infants:
Separation anxiety was often observed when the caregiver (usually the mother) left the room. Stranger anxiety might be displayed toward the unknown adult. The infant’s exploratory behavior, as well as its behavior when being reunited with the caregiver, was also assessed. Ainsworth and Bell (1970) divided the children into Secure (70% of their sample), Insecure-Ambivalent (15%), and Insecure-Avoidant (15%) attachment styles based on their performance during the different episodes.
- The Secure attachment style applied to children displaying low levels of anxiety and avoidance. They played with toys, explored the environment, and interacted with strangers when the caregiver was present. A secure infant might be upset and cry when the caregiver left the room but would appear happy when she returned. The child was still considered secure even if he/she refused to interact with the stranger when the caregiver was not present.
- The Insecure-Ambivalent attachment style applied to children displaying inconsistent emotionality. They were resistant to exploration and strangers, even when the caretaker was present. These children became severely upset when the caretaker left the room but did not seem overly happy when she returned.
- The Insecure-Avoidant attachment style applied to children who did not appear emotionally attached to the caregiver. They did not appear upset when she left the room or happy when she returned. These children appeared passive no matter who was present.
In longitudinal studies , individuals are studied over extended periods of time. Correlations between Strange Situation infant attachment styles and the quantity and quality of subsequent peer relationships have been found in major longitudinal studies (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care 1991-1995, 1996-1999, 2000-2004, 2005-2008); Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaptation from Birth to Adulthood (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2009)). Secure children have more friends, enjoy more positive relationships, and are more likely to become leaders than insecure children. Insecure-ambivalent children are frequently anxious and unsuccessful in seeking friends. Insecure-avoidant children may become aggressive, thereby discouraging friendships.
Video
Watch the following video showing different attachment styles:
Consistent with Harlow’s research findings with monkeys, Ainsworth & Bell (1970) felt that different infant attachment styles were the result of different caregiver (usually maternal) characteristics:
- Warm and consistently responsive caregiving (often involving holding and touching) was correlated with the secure attachment style.
- Inconsistent and unemotional caregiving was associated with the insecure-ambivalent style.
- Unresponsive caregivers, who frequently ignored the child, were associated with the insecure-avoidant style.
Parenting Styles
Can you remember how your parents treated and influenced you at different stages of your life? Do you wish to become a parent? If so, what type of parent do you wish to become? Contemporary parenting styles have been categorized on the dimensions of demandingness and responsiveness (Baumrind, 1968, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Demanding parents specify clear rules of conduct and require their children to comply. Responsive parents are affectionate and sensitive to their children’s needs and feelings. he following video describes the four parenting styles resulting from different combinations of high and low demandingness and responsiveness.
Video
Watch the following video showing different parenting styles:
We may consider the implications of the learning principles described in Chapters 5 and 6 for these different parenting styles. Negligent parents (low demandingness, low responsiveness) do not specify codes of conduct or respond to their children’s needs. If parents do not provide rules and/or consequences, the children will most likely be influenced by others (e.g., siblings, other adults, and eventually other children). From the perspective of the parents, This may result in the acquisition of undesirable behaviors.
Indulgent parents (low demandingness, high responsiveness) do not specify codes of conduct but are affectionate and responsive. They provide “unconditional positive regard” (Rogers, 1957), eliminating the contingency between desired behavior and consequence. We saw in Chapter 5, that the absence of a contingency between responding and consequences can result in learned helplessness. Non-contingent appetitive consequences (e.g., praise, gifts, etc.) can result in “spoiling” and a sense of entitlement. This could create problems for the children in other contexts (e.g., school, playgrounds) when others place demands and react differently to their behavior.
Authoritarian parents (high demandingness, low responsiveness) specify strict codes of conduct in a non-responsive manner. If the children ask for reasons, they may reply “because I say so!” In their parents’ absence, the children would seek other sources of authority.
Authoritative parents (high demandingness, high responsiveness) specify strict codes of conduct within a context of warmth and sensitivity to the children’s needs. They are likely to provide reasons for their codes of conduct, listen to their children’s perspective, and sometimes negotiate alternative codes. Authoritative parenting is most likely to result in secure attachment between parent and child.
Infant Skill Development
Now that you have thought about what type of parent you would like to become, you are most likely to concentrate on survival-related behaviors during the first years of your pretend child’s life. As we have seen, your child is equipped with nursing and grasping reflexes that facilitate an attached, dependent relationship with a caregiver. As a parent, you will begin walking the difficult tightrope balancing the need to nourish and protect your child with the need to foster independence.  You might wonder if voluntary control learning (i.e., instrumental conditioning) is possible.
In a classic program of research, Carolyn Rovee-Collier (Rovee and Rovee, 1969) studied learning and memory in very young infants using a mobile suspended over their crib. A ribbon from the mobile could be attached to the infant’s leg. An active kicking motion would cause the colorful attachments to move. A reversal design (see Chapter 1) was employed in which the baseline frequency of kicking was assessed without the leg attached to the mobile, followed by a phase in which it was attached, and then a return to the detached baseline condition. The frequency of kicking in infants as young as eight weeks old, increased dramatically during the middle phase relative to the initial and subsequent baseline conditions. This is an early indication of the intrinsic motivation provided by controlling one’s environment.
Video
Watch the following video of Rovee-Collier’s research:
Attributions
Figure 8.1 “Ashaninka children” by Ministério da Cultura – Acre, AC is licensed under CC BY 2.0
Figure 8.2 “One Laptop per Child” by Ferreñafe is licensed under CC BY 2.0
layers of cells from which all organs and body parts will eventually develop
unborn offspring resulting from embryonic development
generally applied to children up till three years of age; sometimes sub-divided into “newborn” (between birth and one month) and “toddler” (between one and three years) stages
infants spread their hands and then restore them to a holding position when experiencing a sudden loss of support
gradually transitioning an infant from liquid to solid foods
children are observed playing, with and without their mother present, while strangers walk in and out of the room
secure attachment style - children displaying low levels of anxiety and avoidance
insecure-ambivalent attachment style - children displaying inconsistent emotionality
insecure-avoidant attachment style - children who did not appear emotionally attached to the caregiver
studies of individuals over extended periods of time
Baumrind described four styles based upon whether parents were demanding or not (i.e., specified clear rules of conduct and required their children to comply), or responsive or not (i.e., affectionate and sensitive to their children’s needs and feelings)
negligent parents (low demandingness, low responsiveness) do not specify codes of conduct and are not affectionate or responsive
indulgent parents (low demandingness, high responsiveness) do not specify codes of conduct but are affectionate and responsive
authoritarian parents (high demandingness, low responsiveness) specify strict codes of conduct in a non-responsive manner
authoritative parents (high demandingness, high responsiveness) specify strict codes of conduct within a context of warmth and sensitivity to the children’s needs


Word Practice 2
Here is a video demonstrating the skills in this practice. Please note it does not exactly match the instructions:
Complete the following Practice Activity and submit your completed project.
For Word Practice 2, we will use Word to create a document to inform potential applicants of a trainee program at South Puget Sound Community College’s Fine Arts Division. Key skills in this practice are creating lists, tab stops, and SmartArt.
- Start Word and open Starter_Word_Practice2 from the location you saved the file downloaded from Canvas. Save the file as Yourlastname_Yourfirstname_Word_Practice_2 in your Word folder. Show the formatting marks and turn on the ruler.
- On the Layout Tab, in the Page Setup Group, Choose the arrow under Margins. Choose Custom Margins. In the Page Setup Dialog Box, Change the left and right margins to 1”.
- On the Insert Tab, in the Header and Footer group, Choose Footer, then Edit Footer. In the Header and Footer Toolbar, Design Tab, in the Insert Group, choose the arrow under Document Info. Add the file name to the footer.
- Starting at the top of your document, select all the text in the document. On the Home Tab, in the Paragraph group, select Align left.
- Move your insertion point to the top of the document.
- Select the title only: SPSCC (change PVCC to SPSCC if necessary) Fine Arts Division. Using the mini-toolbar, change the font size of the title text to 36.
- Using the technique you just learned, change the font of the second paragraph ‘Trainee Program’ to 24.
- Select the first two paragraphs, and center align them. Compare the first page in your document to the screenshot below.
- Select the entire document. On the Home Tab, Paragraph group, select the arrow next to Line and Paragraph Spacing. Change the line spacing for the entire document to 1.5 and save the document.
- Set the indentation for the paragraph that begins, ‘Our trainee program’s primary…’ to First Line Indent. This is done by launching the Paragraph dialog box on the Home Tab. In the Paragraph dialog box, on the Indents and Spacing Tab, under Indentation, set the Special Box to First Line by .5”. Click OK. Notice on the ruler, a marker has been set at the .5” mark on the ruler.
- In the next paragraph, which begins, ‘As a trainee’, drag the First Line Indent marker to the 0.5mark on the Horizontal ruler.
- Using either method, apply a first line indent of .5” to the paragraph beginning with ’Here is a partial…’.
- Select the entire document. Launch the Paragraph dialog box on the Home Tab. In the Paragraph dialog box, on the Indents and Spacing Tab, Change the After Paragraph Spacing for the entire document to 6 pt. Click OK.
- Select the two subheadings, ‘Requirements’ and ‘Upcoming Trainee Programs’. and change the Before Paragraph Spacing for the selection to 12 pt. To select two nonadjacent headings, use the CTRL Key on your keyboard. Select the first heading, hold down the CTRL key, and then select the second heading.
- Select the paragraph starting with Educational and the next 2 paragraphs and apply bullets. Bullets are located on the Home Tab, Paragraph Group, Bullets. Choose the first bullet option.
- Select the three trainee positions and apply bullets. Use the same bullet style that you applied in the previous step.
- Apply the same Bullets to all four paragraphs that have October meeting dates.
- Position the insertion point at the end of the paragraph starting with Our requirements following the colon and press Enter one time.
- If necessary, on the ruler, drag the first line indent marker to the left so that it is positioned directly above the lower button and type the following lines:
-
- ‘Be enrolled in an accredited video program’, and press Enter.
- ‘Be available during the entire production process’, and press Enter.
- ‘Submit three faculty letters of recommendation’.
- Select and format all three lines as a bulleted list.
- Select all four of the October meetings. Use the mini-toolbar and select the check mark symbol as a bullet.
- Use Format Painter and change the bullets for the three bulleted lists on Page 1. The Format Painter is on the Home Tab, Clipboard group. To use the format painter, select the area first. Then, click the format painter icon once to activate it. Then, select the area that you would like to ‘paint’. This will apply the format you originally selected. The text “Here is a partial list…” should not be bulleted.
- Select the bulleted list of October meeting dates on Page 2.
- Ensure the tab indicator to the left of the horizontal rule is set to Left Tab. You can verify this by hovering your mouse over the tab indicator. If you click once, it will change the indicator.
- Using the horizontal ruler, set a left tab at the 4-inch mark. The Left Tab is set by clicking once on the 4-inch mark on the horizontal ruler. You will see the Left Tab indicator show up on the ruler.
- Drag the new tab marker at 4 inches to 4.5 inches on the Horizontal ruler, and then double-click it to launch the Tabs Dialog Box.
- In the Tabs Dialog Box, ensure the 4.5” tab stop is highlighted. Change alignment to Left.
- In the Tab Stop Position, replace the 4.5 with 3.5
- Select the 3 leader option. Select set.
- Clear the 4.5″ tab stop position by selecting it, then clicking Clear. Repeat this process with any other tab stops until the only one displayed is the 3.5”. Select OK to close the Tabs Dialog Box. Compare your bulleted, leader list to the image below.
- In the bulleted list with dot leaders, position the insertion point at the end of the line starting with Filming and ending with Studio A. Enter a new blank bullet item, type Set Creation, press tab, and type October 11, 7:00 p.m., Cafeteria. Save your work.
- At the top of the document, move the insertion point behind the text ‘Trainee Program’ and hit enter one time.
- On the Insert Tab, Illustrations group, insert a Circle Process SmartArt graphic. This is under the Process grouping.
- In the first blue circle of the SmartArt graphic, type Apply.
- In the placeholder in the middle row, type Interview. Notice how the SmartArt shape automatically resizes the text you enter for the best fit.
- In the third circle, type Learn.
- Click the outer border of the SmartArt to ensure the entire graphic is selected.
- On the SmartArt Toolbar, Format Tab, Size group, change the SmartArt height to 2 and the width to 6.5.
- With the SmartArt still selected, on the SmartArt Toolbar, Design Tab, in the SmartArt Styles Group, change the color to Colorful – Accent Colors.
- Ensure the SmartArt is still selected, on the SmartArt Toolbar, Design Tab, in the SmartArt Styles Group Apply the 3D Cartoon SmartArt style.
- Scroll to the end of the document, or use the shortcut keys CTRL+END. You should be under the last paragraph text. Ensure the first line indent is back to the left margin.
- On the Insert Tab, Media Group, choose Online Video.
- In the Search Box next to YouTube, type ‘PVCC Fine Arts’ to search for a video to embed. Select the video, and then click Insert.
If you do not have the YouTube search box, you can find PVCC Fine Arts on YouTube by following this link: https://www.youtube.com, and searching for PVCC Fine Arts. Then you will need to copy the URL (in the address bar), and paste it into the online video box in Word. - With the embedded video selected, on the Picture Tools, Format Tab, in the Size group, change the Height and Width of the picture to 2’. Depending on the video you may not get it to be square. Make sure the Height is 2″.
- On the Home Tab, Paragraph Group, Center the video icon.
- Save your document, and compare it to the screen shot below.
- Submit the file for grading per your instructor’s instructions.
The bottom margin of each page
Appears whenever you right-click text in Word, Excel or PowerPoint and provides a quick-access version of the Font group on the Home tab, plus a few extra buttons from other groups
Specifies the distance between where the lines in a paragraph start in relation to the left or right margins
Text symbols such as small circles that precede each item in a bulleted list
A list of items in no particular order that are preceded by a bullet for emphasis and organization
Allows you to copy formatting from one item and apply it to another
A button to the left of the ruler that provides tab marker options
Horizontal position which is set for placing and aligning text on a page
The space between tab stops can show a line, dots or dashes to line up information and guide the reader
Horizontal position which is set for placing and aligning text on a page
A free video sharing website


9 Tokenism
Jessica Dunker
Tokenism is defined in the Brittanica Dictionary (2024) as “the practice of doing something” (such as including, or hiring, a person who belongs to a minority group) “only to prevent criticism and give the appearance that people are being treated fairly.”
Tokenism is often discussed in socioeconomic conversations around workplace diversity, equity, and inclusion, such as:
- What are the complexities of companies’ hiring practices?
- What are the demographics of the administrative leadership as a whole?
- Whose voices may not be considered when discussing new company policies?
Though these questions are important to consider within the workplace, tokenism can also apply to social groups.
Contemporary media from BIPOC — Black, Indigenous, People of Color — artists and writers have included themes of social marginalization and microaggressions among peers and social circles. Being “the only ____ friend” is common in social groups of any age.
This feeling of social marginalization is not limited to BIPOC folks, though. LGBTQ+ people have recently experienced a term familiarly known as “rainbow capitalism,” where companies promote rainbow themed merch around Pride month to increase profit margins.
Multiculturalism goes largely ignored or misrepresented in many social, professional, and academic settings. Consider how the tokenized individual might be treated by the collective majority group, or how the individual might feel in this subservient role.
Directions: Choose 1 article to read and discuss.
Caesar, Charles. “Enough ‘Representation.’ What We Need From Hollywood Is Real Change.” them.us, 2 July 2021.
Purks, Ebony. I didn’t know why my friendships kept ending. The Washington Post, 9 Aug. 2021.
Discuss & Reflect:
- Define tokenization in your own words.
- What do you think the difference is between tokenization and multiculturalism?
- How does tokenization misrepresent companies’ diversity, equity, and inclusion practices?
- Based on these articles, how do you think tokenization could be harmful to an individual?
- How can the workplace, schools, and social groups avoid tokenization?


Private: Creating OER
Tools and Techniques for Creating OER
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
- Provide examples each of low-tech, medium-tech, and high-tech tools for creating OER.
- Explain why an instructor might choose to develop OER using low-tech tools.
- Describe one medium- or high-tech tool you could use to develop an OER.
Consider your Tools
In most cases, the best option for creating OER is to use a digital platform. This makes resources easily shareable and accessible to anyone who has access to a device. However, it can be a challenge to decide what platform will best support your OER. This chapter organizes options based on digital literacy skills. Both the skills of the creator and the user should be considered when choosing the best tools for creating an open resource.[1]
Low Tech
The easiest and most popular way to create educational resources is by using a word processor such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs. These platforms make it easy to print or export content to PDF, and contain features required for basic content creation. Other low-tech options include:
- LibreOffice Draw: Draw lets you produce anything from a quick sketch to a complex plan, and gives you the means to communicate with graphics and diagrams. Draw is an excellent package for producing technical drawings and other visual examples.
- InkScape: An open source application that creates and edits PDFs and also works as a vector drawing and graphics tool. A better option for PDF editing if your document is image-heavy.
Medium Tech
Another common way to create or edit educational resources is to create a website or hosted resource. These may include blogs, websites, or wikis, and allow you to have a central hub to post multiple forms of content.
Check Your Understanding
Think about ways you could use Low- or Medium-Tech resources in your class. Is there a Medium-tech resource you’re already using in your classes? Could you create and disseminate OER easily using that software, or do you need additional training to feel confident?
Look around your campus and see if there are workshops available on the software you want to learn.
Additional medium-tech options include:
- Pressbooks: Pressbooks is a simple book formatting software. The University of Manitoba provides access to Pressbooks through a partnership with Campus Manitoba.
- Gnu Image Manipulation Program (GIMP): GIMP is an open source, cross-platform image editor available for GNU/Linux, OS X, Windows, and other operating systems.
- OER Commons Open Author: Open Author helps you build Open Educational Resources, lesson plans, and courses to share openly on the OER Commons platform.
High Tech
There are a number of platforms that provide professional tools for authoring content, and some are very easy to use. A common tool used by OER projects is PressBooks (in which this text is published), a publishing software that makes it easy to produce interactive e-books and other text-based content. Other tools, like Jupyter Notebooks, may take time to master and require special expertise.
Additional high-tech options include:
- GitBook: Created by GitHub, this open source tool allows you to create a book hosted on the GitHub platform. You can create your book in Markdown, add images and embed content from the Internet.
- Bookdown: The bookdown package is an open-source R package that facilitates writing books and long-form articles/reports with R Markdown.
- Jupyter Notebooks: Jupyter is an open-source web application that allows you to create and share documents that contain live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text.
Ensure that you are checking the restrictions given by software on how you may share the final version of your project. Your choice of platform may be influenced by the terms of use..
- Attribution: This chapter was adapted from the SPARC Open Education Primer created by the SPARC Open Education Leadership Program, licensed CC BY 4.0. ↵
Feedback/Errata


Taking Care of the Basics
International Students (Orientation and Testing)
After Admission
Reach out to the Office of International Affairs (OIA) and/or your program with any questions or concerns. You must review your admission materials carefully engage in OIA’s Orientation and become familiar with visas and employment requirements.
Testing for International Students
International applicants and non-native speakers of English may be required to take additional tests to demonstrate English proficiency and meet graduate or professional admission requirements. English proficiency can be demonstrated in many ways. Be sure to verify English proficiency requirements with your program of interest before registering for a specific exam or program.
Common tests include:
-
English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
By University policy, most graduate students who are non-native speakers of English are required to take the EAP Placement Test before registering for classes, before the start of their first semester on campus, even if they completed the TOEFL test. Students’ letters of admission from the Office of International Affairs will indicate if they are required to take this test.
Some students who are permanent residents, political asylees, or undocumented without a U.S. degree are strongly encouraged to take the EAP Placement test. Graduate students in this category should speak to their advisor or the EAP Program about enrolling in an EAP course. Both undergraduate and graduate students may choose to take EAP courses even if not required.
Because the EAP Placement Test is a placement test used to accurately determine English language skill level, students do not need to “prepare” for it. The scores are used to assign EAP classes that best meet students’ academic needs and will provide favorable English experiences necessary for a successful career at IU Indianapolis and beyond.
The courses prescribed based on the student’s results on the EAP Placement Test are required. Students who have not completed their EAP requirements will not be able to graduate.
The Department of English lists information such as test dates, testing locations, registration instructions, and more. EAP students also can take advantage of the ESL Tutoring Center. For questions about dates and times for the current semester, please email<EMAIL_ADDRESS>-
SPEAK Exam
Graduate students who are being considered for a teaching role (tutor, lab assistant, teaching assistant, course instructor) are also required by university policy to take the SPEAK test and complete any required supplemental EAP courses recommended based on that test. The Graduate Office monitors compliance with the campus policy.


196 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders: A Special Case
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Recognize the goal of substance-related and addictive disorders treatment
- Discuss what makes for effective treatment
- Describe how comorbid disorders are treated
Addiction is often viewed as a chronic disease ([link]). The choice to use a substance is initially voluntary; however, because chronic substance use can permanently alter the neural structure in the prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain associated with decision-making and judgment, a person becomes driven to use drugs and/or alcohol (Muñoz-Cuevas, Athilingam, Piscopo, & Wilbrecht, 2013). This helps explain why relapse rates tend to be high. About 40%–60% of individuals relapse, which means they return to abusing drugs and/or alcohol after a period of improvement (National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA], 2008).
The goal of substance-related treatment is to help an addicted person stop compulsive drug-seeking behaviors (NIDA, 2012). This means an addicted person will need long-term treatment, similar to a person battling a chronic physical disease such as hypertension or diabetes. Treatment usually includes behavioral therapy and/or medication, depending on the individual (NIDA, 2012). Specialized therapies have also been developed for specific types of substance-related disorders, including alcohol, cocaine, and opioids (McGovern & Carroll, 2003). Substance-related treatment is considered much more cost-effective than incarceration or not treating those with addictions (NIDA, 2012) ([link]).
WHAT MAKES TREATMENT EFFECTIVE?
Specific factors make substance-related treatment much more effective. One factor is duration of treatment. Generally, the addict needs to be in treatment for at least three months to achieve a positive outcome (Simpson, 1981; Simpson, Joe, & Bracy, 1982; NIDA, 2012). This is due to the psychological, physiological, behavioral, and social aspects of abuse (Simpson, 1981; Simpson et al., 1982; NIDA, 2012). While in treatment, an addict might receive behavior therapy, which can help motivate the addict to participate in the treatment program and teach strategies for dealing with cravings and how to prevent relapse. Also, treatment needs to be holistic and address multiple needs, not just the drug addiction. This means that treatment will address factors such as communication, stress management, relationship issues, parenting, vocational concerns, and legal concerns (McGovern & Carroll, 2003; NIDA, 2012).
While individual therapy is used in the treatment of substance-related disorders, group therapy is the most widespread treatment modality (Weiss, Jaffee, de Menil, & Cogley, 2004). The rationale behind using group therapy for addiction treatment is that addicts are much more likely to maintain sobriety in a group format. It has been suggested that this is due to the rewarding and therapeutic benefits of the group, such as support, affiliation, identification, and even confrontation (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2005). For teenagers, the whole family often needs to participate in treatment to address issues such as family dynamics, communication, and relapse prevention. Family involvement in teen drug addiction is vital. Research suggests that greater parental involvement is correlated with a greater reduction in use by teen substance abusers. Also, mothers who participated in treatment displayed better mental health and greater warmth toward their children (Bertrand et al., 2013). However, neither individual nor group therapy has been found to be more effective (Weiss et al., 2004). Regardless of the type of treatment service, the primary focus is on abstinence or at the very least a significant reduction in use (McGovern & Carroll, 2003).
Treatment also usually involves medications to detox the addict safely after an overdose, to prevent seizures and agitation that often occur in detox, to prevent reuse of the drug, and to manage withdrawal symptoms. Getting off drugs often involves the use of drugs—some of which can be just as addictive. Detox can be difficult and dangerous.
COMORBID DISORDERS
Frequently, a person who is addicted to drugs and/or alcohol has an additional psychological disorder. Saying a person has comorbid disorders means the individual has two or more diagnoses. This can often be a substance-related diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis, such as depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia. These individuals fall into the category of mentally ill and chemically addicted (MICA)—their problems are often chronic and expensive to treat, with limited success. Compared with the overall population, substance abusers are twice as likely to have a mood or anxiety disorder. Drug abuse can cause symptoms of mood and anxiety disorders and the reverse is also true—people with debilitating symptoms of a psychiatric disorder may self-medicate and abuse substances.
In cases of comorbidity, the best treatment is thought to address both (or multiple) disorders simultaneously (NIDA, 2012). Behavior therapies are used to treat comorbid conditions, and in many cases, psychotropic medications are used along with psychotherapy. For example, evidence suggests that bupropion (trade names: Wellbutrin and Zyban), approved for treating depression and nicotine dependence, might also help reduce craving and use of the drug methamphetamine (NIDA, 2011). However, more research is needed to better understand how these medications work—particularly when combined in patients with comorbidities.
Summary
Addiction is often viewed as a chronic disease that rewires the brain. This helps explain why relapse rates tend to be high, around 40%–60% (McLellan, Lewis, & O’Brien, & Kleber, 2000). The goal of treatment is to help an addict stop compulsive drug-seeking behaviors. Treatment usually includes behavioral therapy, which can take place individually or in a group setting. Treatment may also include medication. Sometimes a person has comorbid disorders, which usually means that they have a substance-related disorder diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis, such as depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia. The best treatment would address both problems simultaneously.
https://www.openassessments.com/assessments/890
Self Check Questions
Critical Thinking Question
1. You are conducting an intake assessment. Your client is a 45-year-old single, employed male with cocaine dependence. He failed a drug screen at work and is mandated to treatment by his employer if he wants to keep his job. Your client admits that he needs help. Why would you recommend group therapy for him?
Personal Application Question
2. What are some substance-related and addictive disorder treatment facilities in your community, and what types of services do they provide? Would you recommend any of them to a friend or family member with a substance abuse problem? Why or why not?
Answers
1. The rationale behind using group therapy for addiction treatment is that addicts are much more likely to maintain sobriety when treatment is in a group format. It has been suggested that it’s due to the rewarding and therapeutic benefits of the group, such as support, affiliation, identification, and even confrontation. Because this client is single, he may not have family support, so support from the group may be even more important in his ability to recover and maintain his sobriety.
Glossary


References
Japjot Singh
Affinity Mapping. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2021, from https://openpracticelibrary.com/practice/affinity-mapping/
Bedimo-Rung, A. L., Mowen, A. J., & Cohen, D. A. (2005). The significance of parks to physical activity and public health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(2), 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.10.024
Cohen, D. A., Han, B., Derose, K. P., Williamson, S., Marsh, T., Raaen, L., & McKenzie, T. L. (2016). The Paradox of Parks in Low-Income Areas. Environment and Behavior, 48(1), 230–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916515614366
Crawford, K. (2021, January 19). Design Thinking Toolkit, Activity 9 – Rose, Bud, Thorn. Atomic Spin. https://spin.atomicobject.com/2018/04/03/design- thinking-rose-bud-thorn/
Designsprintkit.Withgoogle.Com. https://designsprintkit.withgoogle.com/methodology/phase4-decide/rumble-or- all-one
Designsprintkit.Withgoogle.Com. Retrieved April 20, 2021, from https://designsprintkit.withgoogle.com/methodology/phase2- define/personality-sliders
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory. De Gruyter.
Huang, S.-C. L. (2010). The Impact of Public Participation on the Effectiveness of, and Users’ Attachment to, Urban Neighbourhood Parks. Landscape Research, 35(5), 551–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2010.504916
Özgüner, H. (2011). Cultural Differences in Attitudes towards Urban Parks and Green Spaces. Landscape Research, 36(5), 599–620. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2011.560474
Past, Present, Future: Who gets to write urbanism’s next chapter? (2020, November 3). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2ROloe6ZnU
Public Space, Park Space, and Racialized Space. (2020, January 27). Pps.Org. https://www.pps.org/article/public-space-park-space-and-racialized-space
Round Robin. (2014, September 17). BetterEvaluation. https://www.betterevaluation.org/en/evaluation-options/roundrobin
Share and engage with the Design Sprint Community. (n.d.-a).
Share and engage with the Design Sprint Community. (n.d.-b).
Smiley, K. T., Sharma, T., Steinberg, A., Hodges-Copple, S., Jacobson, E., & Matveeva, L. (2016). More Inclusive Parks Planning: Park Quality and Preferences for Park Access and Amenities. Environmental Justice, 9(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2015.0030
Toronto Life. (2013, October). A park for the people: how a grassroots community group has created a hub in Thorncliffe Park. Toronto Life Publishing Co. Ltd. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A345617658/CPI?u=toro37158&sid=CPI&xid= ba9f84cd
UX Mapping Methods Compared: A Cheat Sheet. (2017, November 5). Nielsen Norman Group. https://www.nngroup.com/articles/ux-mapping-cheat-sheet/
What is a Decision Matrix? Pugh, Problem, or Selection Grid | ASQ. (n.d.). Asq.Org. https://asq.org/quality-resources/decision-matrix
What is Placemaking? (2007). Pps.Org. https://www.pps.org/article/what-is- placemaking


Songs of Jamaica (1912)
My Native Land, My Home
DERE is no land dat can compare
Wid you where’er I roam;
In all de wul’ none like you fair,
My native land, my home.
Jamaica is de nigger’s place,
No mind whe’ some declare;
Although dem call we “no-land race,”
I know we home is here.

Though you may cas’[1] me from your breas’
An’ trample me to deat’,
My heart will trus’ you none de less,
My land I won’t feget.
An’ I hope none o’ your sons would
Refuse deir strengt’ to lend,
An’ drain de last drop o’ deir blood
Their country to defend.

Your fertile soil grow all o ‘t’ings[3]
To full de naygur’s wants,
‘Tis seamed wid neber-failing springs[4]
To give dew to de plants.[5]
You hab all t’ings fe mek life bles’,
But buccra ‘pail de whole
Wid gove’mint[6] an’ all de res’,
Fe worry naygur soul.
Still all dem little chupidness[7]
Caan’ tek away me lub;
De time when I’ll tu’n ‘gains’ you is
When you can’t give me grub.


D. A. McGregor
JESUS, wondrous Saviour!
Christ, of kings the King!
Angels fall before Thee,
Prostrate, worshipping;
Fairest they confess Thee
In the Heaven above.
We would sing Thee fairest
Here in hymns of love.
2
All earth’s flowing pleasures
Were a wintry sea,
Heaven itself without Thee
Dark as night would be.
Lamb of God! Thy glory
Is the light above.
Lamb of God! Thy glory
Is the life of love.
3
Life is death, if severed
From Thy throbbing heart.
Death with life abundant
At Thy touch would start.
Worlds and men and angels
All consist in Thee:
Yet Thou camest to us
In humility.
4
Jesus! all perfections
Rise and end in Thee;
Brightness of God’s glory
Thou, eternally.
Favoured beyond measure
They Thy face who see;
May we, gracious Saviour,
Share this ecstasy.


164 24.3 Lipid Metabolism
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how energy can be derived from fat
- Explain the purpose and process of ketogenesis
- Describe the process of ketone body oxidation
- Explain the purpose and the process of lipogenesis
Fats (or triglycerides) within the body are ingested as food or synthesized by adipocytes or hepatocytes from carbohydrate precursors (Figure 1). Lipid metabolism entails the oxidation of fatty acids to either generate energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller constituent molecules. Lipid metabolism is associated with carbohydrate metabolism, as products of glucose (such as acetyl CoA) can be converted into lipids.
Lipid metabolism begins in the intestine where ingested triglycerides are broken down into smaller chain fatty acids and subsequently into monoglyceride molecules (see Figure 1b) by pancreatic lipases, enzymes that break down fats after they are emulsified by bile salts. When food reaches the small intestine in the form of chyme, a digestive hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK) is released by intestinal cells in the intestinal mucosa. CCK stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder to release stored bile salts into the intestine. CCK also travels to the brain, where it can act as a hunger suppressant.
Together, the pancreatic lipases and bile salts break down triglycerides into free fatty acids. These fatty acids can be transported across the intestinal membrane. However, once they cross the membrane, they are recombined to again form triglyceride molecules. Within the intestinal cells, these triglycerides are packaged along with cholesterol molecules in phospholipid vesicles called chylomicrons (Figure 2). The chylomicrons enable fats and cholesterol to move within the aqueous environment of your lymphatic and circulatory systems. Chylomicrons leave the enterocytes by exocytosis and enter the lymphatic system via lacteals in the villi of the intestine. From the lymphatic system, the chylomicrons are transported to the circulatory system. Once in the circulation, they can either go to the liver or be stored in fat cells (adipocytes) that comprise adipose (fat) tissue found throughout the body.
Lipolysis
To obtain energy from fat, triglycerides must first be broken down by hydrolysis into their two principal components, fatty acids and glycerol. This process, called lipolysis, takes place in the cytoplasm. The resulting fatty acids are oxidized by β-oxidation into acetyl CoA, which is used by the Krebs cycle. The glycerol that is released from triglycerides after lipolysis directly enters the glycolysis pathway as DHAP. Because one triglyceride molecule yields three fatty acid molecules with as much as 16 or more carbons in each one, fat molecules yield more energy than carbohydrates and are an important source of energy for the human body. Triglycerides yield more than twice the energy per unit mass when compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Therefore, when glucose levels are low, triglycerides can be converted into acetyl CoA molecules and used to generate ATP through aerobic respiration.
The breakdown of fatty acids, called fatty acid oxidation or beta (β)-oxidation, begins in the cytoplasm, where fatty acids are converted into fatty acyl CoA molecules. This fatty acyl CoA combines with carnitine to create a fatty acyl carnitine molecule, which helps to transport the fatty acid across the mitochondrial membrane. Once inside the mitochondrial matrix, the fatty acyl carnitine molecule is converted back into fatty acyl CoA and then into acetyl CoA (Figure 3). The newly formed acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle and is used to produce ATP in the same way as acetyl CoA derived from pyruvate.
Ketogenesis
If excessive acetyl CoA is created from the oxidation of fatty acids and the Krebs cycle is overloaded and cannot handle it, the acetyl CoA is diverted to create ketone bodies. These ketone bodies can serve as a fuel source if glucose levels are too low in the body. Ketones serve as fuel in times of prolonged starvation or when patients suffer from uncontrolled diabetes and cannot utilize most of the circulating glucose. In both cases, fat stores are liberated to generate energy through the Krebs cycle and will generate ketone bodies when too much acetyl CoA accumulates.
In this ketone synthesis reaction, excess acetyl CoA is converted into hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA). HMG CoA is a precursor of cholesterol and is an intermediate that is subsequently converted into β-hydroxybutyrate, the primary ketone body in the blood (Figure 4).
Ketone Body Oxidation
Organs that have classically been thought to be dependent solely on glucose, such as the brain, can actually use ketones as an alternative energy source. This keeps the brain functioning when glucose is limited. When ketones are produced faster than they can be used, they can be broken down into CO2 and acetone. The acetone is removed by exhalation.  This effect provides one way of telling if a diabetic is properly controlling the disease. The carbon dioxide produced can acidify the blood, leading to diabetic ketoacidosis, a dangerous condition in diabetics.
Ketones oxidize to produce energy for the brain. beta (β)-hydroxybutyrate is oxidized to acetoacetate and NADH is released. An HS-CoA molecule is added to acetoacetate, forming acetoacetyl CoA. The carbon within the acetoacetyl CoA that is not bonded to the CoA then detaches, splitting the molecule in two. This carbon then attaches to another free HS-CoA, resulting in two acetyl CoA molecules. These two acetyl CoA molecules are then processed through the Krebs cycle to generate energy (Figure 5).
Lipogenesis
When glucose levels are plentiful, the excess acetyl CoA generated by glycolysis can be converted into fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, steroids, and bile salts. This process, called lipogenesis, creates lipids (fat) from the acetyl CoA and takes place in the cytoplasm of adipocytes (fat cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells). When you eat more glucose or carbohydrates than your body needs, your system uses acetyl CoA to turn the excess into fat. Although there are several metabolic sources of acetyl CoA, it is most commonly derived from glycolysis. Acetyl CoA availability is significant, because it initiates lipogenesis. Lipogenesis begins with acetyl CoA and advances by the subsequent addition of two carbon atoms from another acetyl CoA; this process is repeated until fatty acids are the appropriate length. Because this is a bond-creating anabolic process, ATP is consumed. However, the creation of triglycerides and lipids is an efficient way of storing the energy available in carbohydrates. Triglycerides and lipids, high-energy molecules, are stored in adipose tissue until they are needed.
Although lipogenesis occurs in the cytoplasm, the necessary acetyl CoA is created in the mitochondria and cannot be transported across the mitochondrial membrane. To solve this problem, pyruvate is converted into both oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA. Two different enzymes are required for these conversions. Oxaloacetate forms via the action of pyruvate carboxylase, whereas the action of pyruvate dehydrogenase creates acetyl CoA. Oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA combine to form citrate, which can cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, citrate is converted back into oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA. Oxaloacetate is converted into malate and then into pyruvate. Pyruvate crosses back across the mitochondrial membrane to wait for the next cycle of lipogenesis. The acetyl CoA is converted into malonyl CoA that is used to synthesize fatty acids. Figure 6 summarizes the pathways of lipid metabolism.
Chapter Review
Lipids are available to the body from three sources. They can be ingested in the diet, stored in the adipose tissue of the body, or synthesized in the liver. Fats ingested in the diet are digested in the small intestine. The triglycerides are broken down into monoglycerides and free fatty acids, then imported across the intestinal mucosa. Once across, the triglycerides are resynthesized and transported to the liver or adipose tissue. Fatty acids are oxidized through fatty acid or β-oxidation into two-carbon acetyl CoA molecules, which can then enter the Krebs cycle to generate ATP. If excess acetyl CoA is created and overloads the capacity of the Krebs cycle, the acetyl CoA can be used to synthesize ketone bodies. When glucose is limited, ketone bodies can be oxidized and used for fuel. Excess acetyl CoA generated from excess glucose or carbohydrate ingestion can be used for fatty acid synthesis or lipogenesis. Acetyl CoA is used to create lipids, triglycerides, steroid hormones, cholesterol, and bile salts. Lipolysis is the breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids, making them easier for the body to process.
Review Questions
1. Lipids in the diet can be ________.
- broken down into energy for the body
- stored as triglycerides for later use
- converted into acetyl CoA
- all of the above
2. The gallbladder provides ________ that aid(s) in transport of lipids across the intestinal membrane.
- lipases
- cholesterol
- proteins
- bile salts
3. Triglycerides are transported by chylomicrons because ________.
- they cannot move easily in the blood stream because they are fat based, while the blood is water based
- they are too small to move by themselves
- the chylomicrons contain enzymes they need for anabolism
- they cannot fit across the intestinal membrane
4. Which molecule produces the most ATP?
- carbohydrates
- FADH2
- triglycerides
- NADH
5. Which molecules can enter the Krebs cycle?
- chylomicrons
- acetyl CoA
- monoglycerides
- ketone bodies
6. Acetyl CoA can be converted to all of the following except ________.
- ketone bodies
- fatty acids
- polysaccharides
- triglycerides
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Discuss how carbohydrates can be stored as fat.
2. If a diabetic’s breath smells like alcohol, what could this mean?
Glossary
- beta (β)-hydroxybutyrate
- primary ketone body produced in the body
- beta (β)-oxidation
- fatty acid oxidation
- bile salts
- salts that are released from the liver in response to lipid ingestion and surround the insoluble triglycerides to aid in their conversion to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
- cholecystokinin (CCK)
- hormone that stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase and the contraction of the gallbladder to release bile salts
- chylomicrons
- vesicles containing cholesterol and triglycerides that transport lipids out of the intestinal cells and into the lymphatic and circulatory systems
- fatty acid oxidation
- breakdown of fatty acids into smaller chain fatty acids and acetyl CoA
- hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA)
- molecule created in the first step of the creation of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA
- ketone bodies
- alternative source of energy when glucose is limited, created when too much acetyl CoA is created during fatty acid oxidation
- lipogenesis
- synthesis of lipids that occurs in the liver or adipose tissues
- lipolysis
- breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids
- monoglyceride molecules
- lipid consisting of a single fatty acid chain attached to a glycerol backbone
- pancreatic lipases
- enzymes released from the pancreas that digest lipids in the diet
- triglycerides
- lipids, or fats, consisting of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone
Solutions
Answers for Review Questions
- D
- D
- A
- C
- B
- C
Answers for Critical Thinking Questions
- Carbohydrates are converted into pyruvate during glycolysis. This pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA and proceeds through the Krebs cycle. When excess acetyl CoA is produced that cannot be processed through the Krebs cycle, the acetyl CoA is converted into triglycerides and fatty acids to be stored in the liver and adipose tissue.
- If diabetes is uncontrolled, the glucose in the blood is not being taken up and processed by the cells. Although blood glucose levels are high, there is no glucose available to the cells to be converted into energy. Because glucose is lacking, the body turns to other energy sources, including ketones. A side effect of using ketones as fuel is a sweet alcohol smell on the breath.
Feedback/Errata


191 Reading: Penetration Pricing
What Is Penetration Pricing?
Penetration pricing is a pricing strategy in which the price of a product is initially set low to rapidly reach a wide fraction of the market and initiate word of mouth.[1] The strategy works on the assumption that customers will switch to the new product because of the lower price. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with marketing objectives of enlarging market share and exploiting economies of scale or experience.
Returning to our economic model, below, you can see that penetration pricing focuses at the bottom of the demand curve. If the initial price is set low, at $2, for instance, the quantity demanded will be high: 400 units.
Penetration pricing offers a lower price in order to draw in higher demand from consumers.
Why Might Penetration Pricing Make Sense?
Like skim pricing, penetration pricing shows an awareness of the dynamics in the product life cycle. The advantages of penetration pricing to the firm are the following:
- It can result in fast diffusion and adoption across the product life cycle. The strategy can achieve high market penetration rates quickly, taking competitors by surprise and not giving them time to react.
- It can create goodwill among the Innovators and Early Adopters, which can generate more demand via word of mouth.
- It establishes cost-control and cost-reduction pressures from the start, leading to greater efficiency.
- It discourages the entry of competitors.
- It can generate high stock turnover throughout the distribution channel, which creates important enthusiasm and support in the channel.
The main disadvantage of penetration pricing is that it establishes long-term price expectations for the product and image preconceptions for the brand and company. Both can make it difficult to raise prices later. Another potential disadvantage is that the low-profit margins may not be sustainable long enough for the strategy to be effective.
- J Dean (1976). "Pricing Policies for New Products." Harvard Business Review 54 (6): 141–153. ↵


References
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Business Research Methodology Institute [BRM]. (2020). Epistemology. https://research-methodology.net/research-philosophy/epistomology/
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Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Knowledge and understanding. In J. Biggs, & C. Tang (Eds.), Teaching for quality learning at university. McGraw-Hill. (pp. 82-94).
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Barr, R. B., & Tagg, J. (1995). From teaching to learning: A new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change Magazine, 27(6), 13-26. https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1073&context=slcehighered
-
Fleming, N. D., & Mills, C. (1992). Not another inventory, rather a catalyst for reflection. To Improve the Academy, 11, 137-155. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1245&context=podimproveacad
-
Marcy, V. (2001). Adult learning styles: How the VARK learning style inventory can be used to improve student learning. Perspective of Physician Assistant Education, 12(2), 117-120. https://journals.lww.com/jpae/Citation/2001/07000/AdultLearningStyles__How_the_VARK_LearningStyle.7.aspx
-
Goswami, U. (2006). Neuroscience and education: From research to practice? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, April, 2-7. http://cursos.aiu.edu/Avances%20de%20las%20neurociencias%20aplicadas%20a%20la%20Educaci%C3%B3n/PDF/Tema%202.pdf
-
Harris, S. (2019, August 19). Is the education bubble about to burst [Video]? YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4v6AkogI00M
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Colvin, R. (2016). Optimising, generalising and integrating educational practice using neuroscience. Nature: Science of Learning, 1, 1-3. https://www.nature.com/articles/npjscilearn201612.pdf
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Thomas, M. S. C., Ansari, D., & Knowland, V. C. P. (2019). Annual research review: Educational neuroscience: Progress and prospects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 60(4), 477-492. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6487963/
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Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Prentice Hall.
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Samaroo, S., Cooper, E., & Green, T. (2013). Pedandragogy: A way forward to self-engaged learning. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 25(3), 76-90. https://doi.org/10.1002/nha3.20032
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Egan, K. (2003). What is curriculum? Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 1(1), 9-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.1978.11075558
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Egan, K. (2003). Retrospective on “what is curriculum?”. Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 1(1), 17-24. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=<IP_ADDRESS>0.4789&rep=rep1&type=pdf


| Object | A thing, person, or matter to which thought or action is directed [6] | pimâmeyihtam |
| Odd | mitoni pahtos |
| Odd numbers | A number that is not divisible by 2. [1] | ayacināwan |
| One | 1 | piyak |
| Ones | The place value located one place to the left of the decimal point in a number; shows how many ones are in a number. [1] | papiyako |
| Operation (mathematical) | Procedures used to combine numbers, expressions, or polynomials into a single result (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents). [1] | oyȇyhtamȏ akihtȃsȏwin |
| + – × ÷ |
| Opposite | Two things that are located or facing directly across. Two opposite numbers are the two numbers that are equidistant from the origin on a number line but in opposite directions from the origin. [4] | kwiskitakitew |
| Order | To place numbers or objects in a sequential arrangement (e.g., least to greatest or heaviest to lightest). [1] | îyaskohtascikȇwin |
| Order of operations | A specified sequence in which mathematical operations are expected to be performed. An arithmetic expression is evaluated by following these ordered steps: 1. Simplify within grouping symbols such as parentheses or brackets, starting with the innermost. 2. Apply exponents—powers and roots. 3. Perform all multiplications and divisions in order from left to right. 4. Perform all additions and subtractions in order from left to right. A common way to remember this is to use the acronym BEDMAS: Brackets, Exponents, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction. Division and multiplication (and addition and subtraction) are to be completed in the order in which they appear from left to right in the expression or equation. [1] |
oyastewaw akīcikīwina |
|
5 – (2 + 11) × 3 + 52 ÷ 4 = 5 – 13 × 3 + 25 ÷ 4 = 5 – 39 + 6.25 = – 34 + 6.25 = – 27.75 |
| Ordered pairs | Two numbers, in order, that are used to describe the location of a point on a plane, relative to a point of origin (0,0); for example, (2, 6). On a coordinate plane, the first number is the horizontal coordinate of a point, and the second is the vertical coordinate of the point. [3] | nāh-nāway |
| Output | The material produced or yield; product [6] | ispayow |
| Outside | Beyond the boundary of or limits. [5] | wayawitimihk |


44 Tables
In this section, we provide guidelines and recommendations for formatting tables.
What Are Tables?
Tables: In this context, we are referring to data tables, which are tables that include row and/or column header information to categorize content)
File types: .doc, .html, .pdf
Before You Begin
Are Your Tables Simple or Complex?
A simple table includes a maximum of one header column and/or one header row. A complex table includes more than one header column and/or header row, and may include merged or split cells.[1]
We recommend you make every effort to keep data tables as simple in structure as possible. The more complex the design of a data table, the less accessible it will be for students using screen-reading technology to access their textbook materials. Screen readers move left-to-right, top-to-bottom, one cell at a time, and because a screen reader does not repeat a cell, merging or splitting cells may affect the reading order of a table.
Who Are You Doing This For?
This work supports students who:
- Are blind or have low vision
- Have a form of cognitive disability
What Do You Need To Do?
In the same way that your content needs true headings to create a logical hierarchy, tables need a properly defined structure to be accessible. This means that you must add row and column headers to define the different sections of data. Screen readers read tables horizontally – cell by cell, row by row – and row and column headers help give context to the data in each cell to students who are blind, have low vision, or have a cognitive disability.
Creating Simple Tables
A simple table includes:
- A table title or caption
- Maximum of one row of column headers and/or maximum of one column of row headers
- No merged or split cells
- Adequate cell padding for visual learners.
Example:
The table below is a simple table. Reviewed against the preceding requirements list, this table:
- Includes a title (Spring Blossoms)
- Has one row in which cells are tagged as column headers (Colour Family, Bulbs, Shrubs, Trees), and one column (beginning on the second row) in which the cells are tagged as row headers (Pink, Yellow)
- Contains no merged or split cells
- Has adequate cell padding to provide space buffering around the data in each cell. (Cell padding in this table is set at “10”).
| Colour Family | Bulbs | Shrubs | Trees |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pink | Tulips | Flowering currant | Ornamental plum |
| Yellow | Daffodils | Forsythia | Star magnolia |
For a student accessing the table through a screen reader, the first row of data will be presented along the lines of:
- Pink, Bulbs: Tulips
- Pink, Shrubs: Flowering currant
- Pink, Trees: Ornamental plum
Create simple tables in Pressbooks using the Table Creator tool in the visual editor.
Define header cells for rows and columns by selecting the Table icon in the visual editor, then selecting Cell and then Table Cell Properties from the drop down menu. The Cell Type can then be set as “Header Cell.”
- AccessAbility: Accessibility and Usability at Penn State. Table Headers and Captions. Accessed from: http://accessibility.psu.edu/tables ↵


72 What if Pocahontas Was a Dude?
Jen Stellato
First enjoy this artist’s rendition of a genderbent Pocahontas, then, think about how the scene of their first meeting might have gone if she actually had been a man.The first thing I noticed was that John Smith immediately pulls his rifle out and locks it on the figure in the mist– which happens to be our beloved Native American Princess, Pocahontas. Her hair is elegantly flowing in the breeze, as if this is a photoshoot from America’s next top model and there is a fan perfectly pointed in her direction. She’s smeyesing, (smiling with the eyes) she looks beautiful, as Tyra Banks would say, she looks FIERCE; not fierce enough for John Smith to want to shoot her though. But if Pocahontas were a man, don’t you think John Smith would have just pulled the trigger?
Maybe John Smith thought it was a bear or some rabies-ridden raccoon, but he was very quick to pull his gun, and very quick to set it back down once he realized his target was a beautiful woman. Disney took this ‘first encounter’ and totally sexualized it; it is not a meeting between colonizer and colonized, it is simply a scene that evokes the idea of “love at first sight”. The movie circulates around their love story, and the conflict between the the colonizers and the native people is evident, but it seems to only serve as a highlight to the strong, almost, magical, bond that Pocahontas and John Smith share.
Disney princess movies traditionally follow this pattern by focusing on some sort of forbidden, “star crossed” love, so they took this same old cookie-cutter plot and pasted it onto a historical event in America’s history. The only problem is they butchered the real story entirely. This movie perpetuates a false idea that the European take-over of this land was some cheery and romantic thing. As children, we grow up loving this movie; as adults, we look back at it, almost disgusted by its ludicrous representation of the ‘first encounter’. But then again, it is a children’s movie, so I guess that brings up the question: how old do kids have to be before we start teaching them the true history of this country, when does the sugar-coating stop?


193 12.8 Zinc
Many animal products are good sources of zinc and are estimated to account for 70% of the zinc North Americans’ consume1. An estimated 15-40% of consumed zinc is absorbed2. Zinc is taken up into the enterocyte through the Zir-and Irt-like protein 4 (ZIP4). Once inside the enterocyte, zinc can:
1. Bind to the zinc storage protein thionein. Once thionein has bound a mineral (or a metal) it is known as metallothionein.
2. Be used for functional purposes.
3. Bind to the cysteine-rich intestinal protein (CRIP) where it is shuttled to a zinc transporter (ZnT). After moving through the basolateral membrane, zinc primarily binds to the circulating protein albumin3.
These functions are represented in the figure below.
The zinc attached to albumin is transported to the liver through the portal vein. There is not a major storage site of zinc, but there are pools of zinc in the liver, bone, pancreas, and kidney1. Zinc is primarily excreted in feces.
There are some similarities between zinc and iron absorption. Increased zinc consumption results in increased thionein synthesis in the enterocyte. As a result, more zinc is bound to thionein (forming metallothionein) and not used for functional uses or transported into circulation, as represented by the thick and thin arrows in the figure below.
The enterocytes are then sloughed off preventing the bound zinc from being absorbed.
There are a number of inhibitors of zinc absorption:
Phytate (phytic acid), which inhibits calcium and iron absorption, also binds to and inhibits zinc absorption3.
Polyphenols (coffee, tea)
Oxalate (spinach, rhubarb, sweet potatoes, and dried beans)
Non-heme iron also inhibits zinc absorption.
In supplements, zinc is found as3,7:
Zinc oxide – 80% zinc
Zinc chloride – 23% zinc
Zinc sulfate – 23% zinc
Zinc gluconate – 14.3% zinc
Zinc oxide is the least bioavailable form, but since it is 80% zinc, it is commonly used in supplements7.
Subsections:
12.82 Zinc Deficiency & Toxicity
References & Links
1. Byrd-Bredbenner C, Moe G, Beshgetoor D, Berning J. (2009) Wardlaw’s perspectives in nutrition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
2. Whitney E, Rolfes SR. (2011) Understanding nutrition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
3. Gropper SS, Smith JL, Groff JL. (2008) Advanced nutrition and human metabolism. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phytic_acid.png
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gallic_acid.svg
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calcium_oxalate.png
7. Bowman BA, Russell RM, editors. (2006) Present knowledge in nutrition. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute Press.


Module 4: Information Literacy
Legal Protection for Indigenous Traditional Knowledges
How does intellectual property work with Indigenous Peoples?
There is no simple answer to this important question. A good starting point to review is the First Nations OCAP® Principles.
The principles differentiate between who has ownership, control, access, and possession of data.
Learner notes
OCAP® is discussed in detail in Module 1: Ethical and Legal Considerations.
Source and recommended reading: For researchers: Doing Indigenous research in a good way | Research | Memorial University of Newfoundland (mun.ca)
“In some Indigenous communities, certain families or clans hold the exclusive right to sing certain songs or dance certain dances, and those rights have been handed down through generations, sometimes for thousands of years. If someone were to take out a copyright on a song, with the thought that they were protecting their rights, they would, in reality, be making the song vulnerable to commercial exploitation.”
—Cited from Indigenous Knowledge and the Question of Copyright (ictinc.ca)
Indigenous law examples
“On the North American Northwest Coast, Indigenous customary laws limit the representation of crest designs by certain groups of individuals, families, or clans. As a result, only specific people in the community are allowed to depict certain beings and tell certain stories. Being a steward of tangible and intangible heritage is a key component of a person’s identity, and these responsibilities are passed on between generations.
“Yet it is very common for Northwest Coast images to be reproduced by companies in disregard of these rules. For instance, a company may have relied on Canadian law to determine that an image had fallen into the public domain 50 years after the passing of the person who created it. According to Northwest Coast customary laws, however, this kind of practice can be likened to both property and identity theft.”
—Cited from Think Before You Appropriate (sfu.ca) [PDF]
Governance models
The governance model of the Indigenous Peoples you are wanting to conduct research or communicate with is an important concept to take into account.
Learner notes
How to deal with different stakeholders in a project that includes Indigenous Peoples
“… bear in mind is that Indigenous Peoples are rightsholders, not stakeholders, in many aspects of research. Some of these rights are articulated in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), among other places. UNDRIP is one of the broadest documents that covers Indigenous groups around the world, but local groups will also have Treaties, laws, land claims, charters, and other ways of articulating rights that distinguish them from other types of stakeholders.”
Learner notes
Existing intellectual property laws are not enough
“Many individuals and businesses rely on copyright, trademarks, patents, trade secrets, or other aspects of intellectual property law to protect their creations against misappropriation… When it comes to [Indigenous Traditional Knowledges], however, ensuring protection tends to be more complicated. [Intellectual property] laws are designed to protect an individual’s creations for a limited time span, whereas cultural practices and expressions are developed collectively over many generations. Furthermore, intellectual property laws reflect the worldview that is dominant in society, which is rarely an Indigenous viewpoint.”
Learner notes
“Existing copyright law, steeped in Western concepts and values, does not adequately protect Indigenous traditional cultural expressions, nor does it sufficiently reflect or account for Indigenous cultural values.”
—Cited from Sharing Indigenous Cultural Heritage Online: An Overview of GLAM Policies – Creative Commons
“To a culture that has struggled to maintain its customs, traditions, languages, and knowledge from the force of colonization and assimilation there is sometimes an urgency to record or create a tangible record of oral histories, songs, dances, and traditional knowledge before the knowledge keepers have passed away. However, the very act of recording as a way of maintaining their culture for future generations introduces an element of vulnerability because they are now tangible and could be lost, or worse, stolen and sold for commercial gain.”
—Cited from Indigenous Knowledge and the Question of Copyright (ictinc.ca)
There are many essential considerations and protections in different Indigenous cultures that must be respected when you are working with Indigenous Traditional Knowledges. These protections for Indigenous Traditional Knowledges have not been incorporated into Canadian copyright law, so much of Indigenous Traditional Knowledges is not considered protected under current copyright laws.
Learner notes
Indigenous Traditional Knowledges are often vulnerable because “Neither the common law or international treaties place Indigenous Customary Law on equal footing with other sources of law” (Younging, 2018, p. 117).
Learner notes
Why Canadian copyright laws are not enough
Let’s look at reasons why copyright laws in Canada are not enough to protect Indigenous Traditional Knowledges.
- Canadian copyright laws are designed from an individualistic ownership perspective. Many Indigenous cultures are communal in social structure and, thus, Indigenous Traditional Knowledges is owned “collectively”; therefore, Indigenous Traditional Knowledges under the Canadian Copyright Act are not sufficient protected. Because the knowledge is often communally held rather than individually held, it can be considered part of the public domain.
- In Canada, copyright expires 70 years after the death of the author. Then the work enters public domain, meaning anyone can do anything with the object without public permission. This time frame is not culturally appropriate, for Indigenous Peoples whose histories, cultures, and knowledges extend back to time immemorial. While it is difficult for expressions of Indigenous Traditional Knowledges to qualify for copyright protection, we recommend that you respect Indigenous Traditional Knowledges beyond Canadian copyright law.
- The copyright eligibility criteria, such as originality and authorship, are often at odds with Indigenous notions of creativity and custodianship over a community’s Indigenous Traditional Knowledges. The “author” of Indigenous Traditional Knowledges is often not identifiable, and there is thus no “rights holder” in the usual sense of the term.
- Most Indigenous Traditional Knowledges are handed down from generation to generation in an oral tradition, are owned communally, and not dated and or in a written format.
Learner notes
Self-Assessment #2
We have discussed the possibility of cultural appropriation being an outcome of the lack of legal protection for Indigenous Traditional Knowledges.
What other potential concerns are there regarding the lack of legal protection for Indigenous Traditional Knowledges?
Record your responses in your Toolkit.
Intellectual property rights misuse in research
Data about Indigenous Peoples has been historically used as a disempowering tool to:
- Control Indigenous communities
- Gain access to Indigenous lands
- Steal natural resources
- Control the narrative of bodies and knowledges
- Conduct research to advance careers of non-Indigenous people
Successful respect
“One recent successful case of respect for [Indigenous Traditional Knowledges] is the case of the Khoi and San Peoples in South Africa. For thousands of years, the Khoi and San Peoples have maintained the use of the popular rooibos (red grass) tea as a medicine and drink. Rooibos is a tea that is now drunk by the general population in South Africa and is commercially exported all over the world. In 2019, the National Khoi and San Council won a successful royalty negotiation for being the first peoples to explore and preserve the ancient knowledge of the uses of the rooibos plant.”
Learner notes
Legal protection for Indigenous intellectual property
So, how do we protect Indigenous Traditional Knowledges and Indigenous cultural expressions?
There have been various efforts made to provide some kind of legal protection for Indigenous intellectual property in colonized countries. We will introduce two of these that are relevant in a Canadian context.
- The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) includes several clauses relating specifically to the protection of intellectual property of Indigenous peoples.
- Canada’s Constitution Act, 1982, section 35.
Learner notes
More information related to UNDRIP is provided in Module 1: Ethical and Legal Considerations.
Source and recommended reading: Indigenous intellectual property – Wikipedia
UNDRIP
Protection of Indigenous Traditional Knowledges and cultural expressions is included in Article 31 of UNDRIP:
“Indigenous Peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures, including human and genetic resources, seeds, medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literatures, designs, sports and traditional games and visual and performing arts. They also have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, and traditional cultural expressions.”
Learner notes
Indigenous cultural property rights are included in Article 11 of UNDRIP:
- Indigenous Peoples have the right to practise and revitalize their cultural traditions and customs. This includes the right to maintain, protect and develop the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures, such as archaeological and historical sites, artefacts, designs, ceremonies, technologies and visual and performing arts and literature.
- States shall provide redress through effective mechanisms, which may include restitution, developed in conjunction with Indigenous peoples, with respect to their cultural, intellectual, religious and spiritual property taken without their free, prior and informed consent or in violation of their laws, traditions and customs.
Learner notes
One of the key principles of UNDRIP is “free, prior and informed consent.”
Constitution Act, section 35
Protection of cultural heritage rights should be done by utilizing section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982. This would allow for the protection of property for the next few millennia.
- Aboriginal rights (commonly referred to as Indigenous rights) are collective rights of distinctive Indigenous societies flowing from their status as the original peoples of Canada. These rights are recognized and affirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.
- The Constitution Act, 1982, does not define Indigenous rights under section 35, but they vary from group to group depending on the customs, practices, and traditions that have formed part of their distinctive cultures, and can include:
- Aboriginal title (ownership rights to land)
- Rights to occupy and use lands and resources, such as hunting and fishing rights
- Self-government rights
- Cultural and social rights
Learner notes
Now that you are aware of, respecting, and following data sovereignty principles, the Canadian Copyright Act, and where a level of protection of Indigenous Traditional Knowledges and Indigenous cultural expressions can be found, let’s move to looking into how to move forward in a good way.
Summary
Indigenous intellectual and cultural property rights are not protected by Canadian copyright law. This includes Nations, individuals, families, and kinship groups who have collective rights.
Learner notes


Study Tips: How to Use This Student Manual
This manual is intended to guide you through the course material, but it is not a complete resource. You will need to use all references at your disposal:
- the Saskpolytechnic Course Module Instruction Sheets (are linked where referenced)
- the Carpentry textbook
- the National Building Code
When you read this student manual, there will be sections you are familiar with. Read these sections briefly and don’t dwell on them. Other sections in this manual will be relatively new to you. Take the time and delve into all the details available to you. Take notes, create a glossary, make flashcards, or use other methods to study. So, this student manual is a roadmap. Summaries in the manual are meant to trigger your memory, but aren’t complete sources of information.
Order of Topics
The course is split into four quarters; roughly one for each level of training. You may revisit topics throughout the course: a good example is concrete. The idea is that by revisiting topics throughout the course, it will help keep them in your memory for the Red Seal Exam.


11 Properties of Life
All groups of living organisms share several key characteristics or functions:
- Cells / Order
- Sensitivity or response to stimuli
- Reproduction
- Evolution and Adaptation
- Growth and development
- Regulation
- Homeostasis
- Metabolism
When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life. Let’s examine what each of these characteristics means to in a scientific sense.
Cells / Order
Organisms, in the most basic form, consist of highly organized structures that are made up of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex. Inside each cell, atoms make up molecules. These in turn make up cell components or organelles. Multicellular organisms, which may consist of millions of individual cells, have an advantage over single-celled organisms in that their cells can be specialized to perform specific functions.
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
Organisms respond to diverse signals from the environment (stimuli). For example, plants can bend toward a source of light or respond to touch (Figure 1.3). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.
Reproduction
Single-celled organisms reproduce by duplicating their DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material; see Figure 7) and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells.
Many multicellular organisms produce specialized reproductive cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, DNA is passed along to an organism’s offspring. Genes, made up of DNA, are the basic units by which traits are passed from parent to offspring. DNA, and the information that it encodes in genes, is the reason that offspring will belong to the same species as parents and will have similar characteristics.
Evolution and Adaptation
All living organisms exhibit a “fit” to their environment. Biologists refer to this fit as adaptation and it is a consequence of evolution by natural selection, which operates in every lineage of reproducing organisms. Examples of adaptations are diverse and unique, from heat-resistant Archaea that live in boiling hot springs to the tongue length of a nectar-feeding moth that matches the size of the flower from which it feeds. All adaptations enhance the reproductive potential of the individual exhibiting them, including their ability to survive to reproduce. Adaptations are not constant. As an environment changes, natural selection causes the characteristics of the individuals in a population to track those changes.
NOTE: “Adaptation” in a biological concept is used differently from how you might use it in normal conversation. Adaptations are changes that occur in the characteristics of an organism due to evolution. These changes take place over many generations and are (mainly) due to changes in the DNA of the organism. An example of an adaptation that your dog has would be that it sheds its winter coat as the weather starts to get warmer, because this is a characteristic that has been developed over many generations. An example of something that is NOT an adaptation would be that your dog has “adapted” to living in your house by learning to live with your cat.
Growth and Development
Organisms grow (get larger) and develop (change over their lifespan) according to specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure 4) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.
Regulation
Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, such as the transport of nutrients, response to stimuli, and coping with environmental stresses. For example, organ systems such as the digestive or circulatory systems perform specific functions like carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.
Homeostasis
To function properly, cells require appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and concentrations of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes, through a process called homeostasis or “steady state”—the ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, many organisms regulate their body temperature in a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure 5), have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.
Metabolism
Metabolism means taking in and using energy. All organisms (such as the California condor shown in Figure 6) use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy from the Sun and convert it into chemical energy in food; others use chemical energy from molecules they take in.
References / Attributions
Unless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.
Text adapted from: OpenStax, Concepts of Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 18, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@9.10