22.4 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
Jung Choi; Mary Ann Clark; and Matthew Douglas
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- Describe human male and female reproductive anatomies
- Discuss the human sexual response
- Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and discuss their differences and similarities
As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring.
Human Reproductive Anatomy
The reproductive tissues of male and female humans develop similarly in utero until a low level of the hormone testosterone is released from male gonads.  When testosterone is absent, the tissues develop into female sexual tissues. Primitive gonads become testes or ovaries.  The tissue that will become the scrotum in a male becomes the labia in a female; that is, they are homologous structures.
Male Reproductive Anatomy
In the male reproductive system, the scrotum houses the testicles or testes (singular: testis), including providing passage for blood vessels, nerves, and muscles related to testicular function. The testes are a pair of male reproductive organs that produce sperm and some reproductive hormones. Each testis is approximately 2.5 by 3.8 cm (1.5 by 1 in.) in size and divided into wedge-shaped lobules by connective tissue called septa. Coiled in each wedge are seminiferous tubules that produce sperm.
Sperm are immobile at body temperature; therefore, the scrotum and penis are external to the body, as illustrated in the figure below so that a proper temperature is maintained for motility. In land mammals, the pair of testes must be suspended outside the body at about 2° C lower than body temperature to produce viable sperm. Infertility can occur in land mammals when the testes do not descend through the abdominal cavity during fetal development.
Visual Connection
Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules that are coiled inside the testes, as illustrated in the figure below. The walls of the seminiferous tubules are made up of the developing sperm cells, with the least developed sperm at the periphery of the tubule and the fully developed sperm in the lumen. The sperm cells are mixed with “nursemaid” cells called Sertoli cells which protect the germ cells and promote their development. Other cells mixed in the wall of the tubules are the interstitial cells of Leydig. These cells produce high levels of testosterone once the male reaches adolescence.
When the sperm have developed flagella and are nearly mature, they leave the testicles and enter the epididymis, shown in the figure below. This structure resembles a comma and lies along the top and posterior portion of the testes; it is the site of sperm maturation. The sperm leave the epididymis and enter the vas deferens (or ductus deferens), which carries the sperm, behind the bladder, and forms the ejaculatory duct with the duct from the seminal vesicles. During a vasectomy, a section of the vas deferens is removed, preventing sperm from being passed out of the body during ejaculation and preventing fertilization.
Semen is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct secretions (about 10 percent of the total) and fluids from accessory glands that contribute most of the semen’s volume. Sperm are haploid cells, consisting of a flagellum as a tail, a neck that contains the cell’s energy-producing mitochondria, and a head that contains the genetic material. The figure below shows a micrograph of human sperm as well as a diagram of the parts of the sperm. An acrosome is found at the top of the head of the sperm. This structure contains lysosomal enzymes that can digest the protective coverings that surround the egg to help the sperm penetrate and fertilize the egg. An ejaculate will contain from two to five milliliters of fluid with from 50–120 million sperm per milliliter.
 These are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral gland, all of which are illustrated in the figure below. The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that lie along the posterior border of the urinary bladder. The glands make a solution that is thick, yellowish, and alkaline. As sperm are only motile in an alkaline environment, a basic pH is important to reverse the acidity of the vaginal environment. The solution also contains mucus, fructose (a sperm mitochondrial nutrient), a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acid, and local-acting hormones called prostaglandins. The seminal vesicle glands account for 60 percent of the bulk of semen.
The penis, illustrated in the figure below, is an organ that drains urine from the renal bladder and functions as a copulatory organ during intercourse. The penis contains three tubes of erectile tissue running through the length of the organ. These consist of a pair of tubes on the dorsal side, called the corpus cavernosum, and a single tube of tissue on the ventral side, called the corpus spongiosum. This tissue will become engorged with blood, becoming erect and hard, in preparation for intercourse. The organ is inserted into the vagina culminating with an ejaculation. During intercourse, the smooth muscle sphincters at the opening of the renal bladder close and prevent urine from entering the penis. An orgasm is a two-stage process: first, glands and accessory organs connected to the testes contract, then semen (containing sperm) is expelled through the urethra during ejaculation.
The walnut-shaped prostate gland surrounds the urethra, the connection to the urinary bladder. It has a series of short ducts that directly connect to the urethra. The gland is a mixture of smooth muscle and glandular tissue. The muscle provides much of the force needed for ejaculation to occur. The glandular tissue makes a thin, milky fluid that contains citrate (a nutrient), enzymes, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). PSA is a proteolytic enzyme that helps to liquefy the ejaculate several minutes after release from the male. Prostate gland secretions account for about 30 percent of the bulk of semen.
The bulbourethral gland, or Cowper’s gland, releases its secretion prior to the release of the bulk of the semen. It neutralizes any acid residue in the urethra left over from urine. This usually accounts for a couple of drops of fluid in the total ejaculate and may contain a few sperm. Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation to prevent pregnancy may not work if sperm are present in the bulbourethral gland secretions. The location and functions of the male reproductive organs are summarized the table below.
| Male Reproductive Anatomy | ||
|---|---|---|
| Organ | Location | Function |
| Scrotum | External | Carry and support testes |
| Penis | External | Deliver urine, copulating organ |
| Testes | Internal | Produce sperm and male hormones |
| Seminal Vesicles | Internal | Contribute to semen production |
| Prostate Gland | Internal | Contribute to semen production |
| Bulbourethral Glands | Internal | Clean urethra at ejaculation |
Female Reproductive Anatomy
A number of reproductive structures are exterior to the female’s body. These include the breasts and the vulva, which consists of the mons pubis, clitoris, labia majora, labia minora, and the vestibular glands, all illustrated in the figure below. The location and functions of the female reproductive organs are summarized in the table below. The vulva is an area associated with the vestibule which includes the structures found in the inguinal (groin) area of women. The mons pubis is a round, fatty area that overlies the pubic symphysis. The clitoris is a structure with erectile tissue that contains a large number of sensory nerves and serves as a source of stimulation during intercourse. The labia majora are a pair of elongated folds of tissue that run posterior from the mons pubis and enclose the other components of the vulva. The labia majora derive from the same tissue that produces the scrotum in a male. The labia minora are thin folds of tissue centrally located within the labia majora. These labia protect the openings to the vagina and urethra. The mons pubis and the anterior portion of the labia majora become covered with hair during adolescence; the labia minora is hairless. The greater vestibular glands are found at the sides of the vaginal opening and provide lubrication during intercourse.
| Female Reproductive Anatomy | ||
|---|---|---|
| Organ | Location | Function |
| Clitoris | External | Sensory organ |
| Mons pubis | External | Fatty area overlying pubic bone |
| Labia majora | External | Covers labia minora |
| Labia minora | External | Covers vestibule |
| Greater vestibular glands | External | Secrete mucus; lubricate vagina |
| Breasts | External | Produce and deliver milk |
| Ovaries | Internal | Carry and develop eggs |
| Oviducts (Fallopian tubes) | Internal | Transport egg to uterus |
| Uterus | Internal | Support developing embryo |
| Vagina | Internal | Common tube for intercourse, birth canal, passing menstrual flow |
The breasts consist of mammary glands and fat. The size of the breast is determined by the amount of fat deposited behind the gland. Each gland consists of 15 to 25 lobes that have ducts that empty at the nipple and that supply the nursing child with nutrient- and antibody-rich milk to aid development and protect the child.
Internal female reproductive structures include ovaries, oviducts, the uterus, and the vagina, shown in the figure below. The pair of ovaries is held in place in the abdominal cavity by a system of ligaments. Ovaries consist of a medulla and cortex: the medulla contains nerves and blood vessels to supply the cortex with nutrients and remove waste. The outer layers of cells of the cortex are the functional parts of the ovaries. The cortex is made up of follicular cells that surround eggs that develop during fetal development in utero. During the menstrual period, a batch of follicular cells develops and prepares the eggs for release. At ovulation, one follicle ruptures and one egg is released, as illustrated in Figure a.
The oviducts, or fallopian tubes, extend from the uterus in the lower abdominal cavity to the ovaries, but they are not in contact with the ovaries. The lateral ends of the oviducts flare out into a trumpet-like structure and have a fringe of finger-like projections called fimbriae, illustrated in figure b. When an egg is released at ovulation, the fimbriae help the nonmotile egg enter into the tube and passage to the uterus. The walls of the oviducts are ciliated and are made up mostly of smooth muscle. The cilia beat toward the middle, and the smooth muscle contracts in the same direction, moving the egg toward the uterus. Fertilization usually takes place within the oviducts and the developing embryo is moved toward the uterus for development. It usually takes the egg or embryo a week to travel through the oviduct. Sterilization in women is called a tubal ligation; it is analogous to a vasectomy in males in that the oviducts are severed and sealed.
The uterus is a structure about the size of a woman’s fist. This is lined with an endometrium rich in blood vessels and mucus glands. The uterus supports the developing embryo and fetus during gestation. The thickest portion of the wall of the uterus is made of smooth muscle. Contractions of the smooth muscle in the uterus aid in passing the baby through the vagina during labor. A portion of the lining of the uterus sloughs off during each menstrual period, and then builds up again in preparation for an implantation. Part of the uterus, called the cervix, protrudes into the top of the vagina. The cervix functions as the birth canal.
 It allows menstrual flow to leave the body.  It is lined by stratified squamous epithelial cells to protect the underlying tissue.
Sexual Response during Intercourse
The sexual response in humans is both psychological and physiological. Both sexes experience sexual arousal through psychological and physical stimulation. There are four phases of the sexual response. During phase one, called excitement, vasodilation leads to vasocongestion in erectile tissues in both men and women.  Vaginal secretions are released to lubricate the vagina to facilitate intercourse. During the second phase, called the plateau, stimulation continues, the outer third of the vaginal wall enlarges with blood, and breathing and heart rate increase.
During phase three, or orgasm, rhythmic, involuntary contractions of muscles occur in both sexes. In the male, the reproductive accessory glands and tubules constrict, placing semen in the urethra, then the urethra contracts, expelling the semen through the penis. In women, the uterus and vaginal muscles contract in waves that may last slightly less than a second each. During phase four, or resolution, the processes described in the first three phases reverse themselves and return to their normal state. Men experience a refractory period in which they cannot maintain an erection or ejaculate for a period of time ranging from minutes to hours.
Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis. During meiosis, two cell divisions separate the paired chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids that were made during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle. Meiosis produces haploid cells with half of each pair of chromosomes normally found in diploid cells. The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is called oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis, illustrated in the figure above, occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules, with stem cells at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia (singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one offspring going on to differentiate into a sperm cell and the other giving rise to the next generation of sperm.
Meiosis starts with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first meiotic division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This cell is haploid and must go through another meiotic cell division. The cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid and when it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a flagellum, it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes through meiosis.
Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the beginning of adolescence, but in an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary cause the activation of these cells and the production of viable sperm. This continues into old age.
Link to Learning
Oogenesis
Oogenesis, illustrated in the figure below, occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production, oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to about one to two million cells in the embryo.
The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte, as shown in the figure above. This cell will start the first meiotic division and be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through meiosis II, producing a second polar body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half of them coming from the sperm.
Egg production begins before birth and is arrested during meiosis until puberty, and then individual cells continue through at each menstrual cycle. One egg is produced from each meiotic process, with the extra chromosomes and chromatids going into polar bodies that degenerate and are reabsorbed by the body.
Section Summary
As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring. Processes developed to produce reproductive cells that had exactly half the number of chromosomes of each parent so that new combinations would have the appropriate amount of genetic material. Gametogenesis, the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and eggs (oogenesis), takes place through the process of meiosis.
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
- bulbourethral gland
- secretion that cleanses the urethra prior to ejaculation
- clitoris
- sensory structure in females; stimulated during sexual arousal
- labia majora
- large folds of tissue covering the inguinal area
- labia minora
- smaller folds of tissue within the labia majora
- oogenesis
- process of producing haploid eggs
- oviduct
- (also, fallopian tube) muscular tube connecting the uterus with the ovary area
- penis
- male reproductive structure for urine elimination and copulation
- prostate gland
- structure that is a mixture of smooth muscle and glandular material and that contributes to semen
- scrotum
- sac containing testes; exterior to the body
- semen
- fluid mixture of sperm and supporting materials
- seminal vesicle
- secretory accessory gland in males; contributes to semen
- seminiferous tubule
- site of sperm production in testes
- spermatogenesis
- process of producing haploid sperm
- testes
- pair of reproductive organs in males
- uterus
- environment for developing embryo and fetus
- vagina
- muscular tube for the passage of menstrual flow, copulation, and birth of offspring


141 Geography
Maps
OpenStreetMap by Open Street Map (ODbL/CC BY-SA).
OpenStreetMap is built by a community of mappers that contribute and maintain data about roads, trails, cafés, railway stations, and much more, all over the world.
United States Map Gallery by Valparaiso University (CC BY-NC-SA).
The maps in this collection draw from data from the U.S. Census Bureau and reveal much about the settlement and subsequent migrations of many groups in the United States. These maps also show the socio-economic picture for much of the country, at least through the lens of topics like education, poverty, life expectancy, and household size. Developed primarily for use in my American Ethnic Geography course (GEO 200), this map collection demonstrates that diversity and regionalism are alive and well in the United States.
Worldmapper by World Mapper (CC BY-NC-SA).
Worldmapper is a collection of world maps called cartograms, where territories are re-sized on each map according to the subject of interest.
Supplementary Materials
Geospatial Technology Learning Resources by Skills Commons NS (Various CC licences).
A collection of resources relating to geospatial technology.
Open Geography Education by R. Adam Dastru (CC BY).
This website is dedicated to providing free or open curriculum and resources to anybody who is interested in our geographic world. It includes links to open textbooks, map assignments, and online resources.
The Western World: Daily Readings on Geography by Joel Quam and Scott Campbell (CC BY-NC-SA).
In essay format, this textbook considers examples of various sub-categories of Geography in combination with five regions of the Western World.
Textbooks
Digital Cartography by Dorris Scott (CC BY-NC-SA).
This resource covers foundational cartographic principles that are needed to make effective maps. lt explores such concepts as data, lettering, along with multivariate and uncertainty visualization. By the end of this book, a reader will be able to: (1) Describe how cartographic concepts such generalization, scale and projection will affect mapping products; (2) Identify the medium, purpose, and spatial data requirements to create a map that is appropriate to a specific audience; (3) Evaluate maps produced by peers and various organizations; and (4) Construct maps that effectively use color, font, and other design elements using ArcGIS Pro.
Geosciences LibreTexts Library by LibreTexts (CC BY-NC-SA).
A collection of open textbooks, assignments, and other educational resources on the subject of geosciences.
Introduction to Geomatics by Scott Bell (CC BY-SA).
This textbook was developed as a supplement to Introduction to Geomatics (GEOG 222) at the University of Saskatchewan. The content is a mix of original content (95% to 100% of the text and most of the images) created by Professor Scott Bell while other material comes from attributed sources (attribution is included at the beginning of a chapter or section, or for the note taking guide, on each slide or at the culmination of a series of slides).
Introduction to Human Geography by R. Adam Dastrup (CC BY-SA) .
This textbook includes chapters on Population and Migration, Cultural Geography, Political Geography, Sustainable Development, Food, Water, & Agriculture, Urban Geography, Environmental Issues, and Living with Disasters.
Laboratory Manual for Introduction to Physical Geography, First British Columbia Edition by Stuart MacKinnon; Chani Welch; Katie Burles; Crystal Huscroft; Nina Hewitt; Gillian Krezoski; Andrew Perkins; Leonard Tang; et al. (CC BY-NC-SA).
This lab manual is a cross-institutional project from British Columbia (BC), Canada that provides 22 labs to be implemented within first year post-secondary physical geography courses. The labs have been developed to be easily adapted for various course structures, durations, and differing laboratory learning objectives set out by instructors. Instructor notes are provided for each lab that outline the instructional intent of the lab author, along with some suggestions for modification. The first edition of this lab manual is intended as a beta test of the lab manual for the 2020/21 academic year.
Mapping, Society, and Technology by Steven Manson (CC BY-NC).
Learn how to read, use, and create maps and along the way explore how maps reflect the relationship between society and technology. Mapping is an essential form of scientific and artistic inquiry as well as a trillion dollar business. People, companies, and governments use and misuse maps and map technology to tell stories, save lives, rig elections, and spy on you.
National Disaster and Human Impacts by Open Geography Education (CC BY-SA).
This textbook includes chapters on natural disasters, plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, mass wasting, tsunamis, weather hazards, severe weather, hurricanes, climatic disasters, wildfires, climate change, impacts, and extinctions.
The Physical Environment: An Introduction to Physical Geography by Michael Ritter (CC BY-SA).
Physical Geography by Course Hero (various CC licences).
An open textbook published by Lumen Learning on Physical Geography. It includes chapters on planet Earth; plate tectonics; tectonic forces; weathering, erosion, and deposition; Earth’s fresh water; oceans and coastal environments; the atmosphere; weather processes and systems.
The Western World: Daily Readings on Geography by Joel Quam and Scott Campbell (CC BY-NC-SA).
In essay format, this textbook considers examples of various sub-categories of Geography in combination with five regions of the Western World.
Media Attributions
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- BC Map by Adamwashere (CC BY-NC-SA).
- Sask map by Wikimedia Commons (public domain).
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3 The Last Step
A lot of people — from Polya to the writers of the Common Core State Standards and a lot of people in between — talk about problem solving in mathematics. One fact is rarely acknowledged, except by many professional mathematicians: Asking good questions is as valuable (and as difficult) as solving mathematical problems.
After solving a mathematical problem and explaining your solution to someone else, it is a very good mathematical habit to ask yourself: What other questions can I ask?
Example: Squares on a Chess Board
Recall Problem 3, “Squares on a Chess Board”:
How many squares of any possible size are on a standard 8 × 8 chess board? (The answer is not 64! It’s a lot bigger!)
We have already talked about some obvious follow-up questions like “What about a 10 × 10 chess board? Or 100 × 100? Or ?”
But there are a lot of interesting (and less obvious . . . and harder) questions you might ask:
- How many rectangles of any size and shape can you find on a standard 8 × 8 chess board? (This is a lot harder, because the rectangles come in all different sizes, like 1 × 2 and 5 × 3. How could you possibly count them all?)
- How many triangles of any size and shape can you find in this picture?
Example: Broken Clock
Recall Problem 4, “Broken Clock”:
This clock has been broken into three pieces. If you add the numbers in each piece, the sums are consecutive numbers. Can you break another clock into a different number of pieces so that the sums are consecutive numbers?
The original problem only asks if you can find one other way. The obvious follow-up question: “Find every possibly way to break the clock into some number of pieces so that the sums of the numbers on each piece are consecutive numbers. Justify that you have found every possibility.”
Think / Pair / Share
Choose a problem from the Problem Bank (preferably a problem you have worked on, but that is not strictly necessary). What follow-up or similar questions could you ask?


Summary
The topics covered in this chapter can be summarized as follows:
| Section | Summary |
|---|---|
| 10.1 Stress and Strain | Stress within rocks—which includes compression, extension and shearing—typically originates from plate-boundary processes. Rock that is stressed responds with either elastic or plastic strain, and may eventually break. The way a rock responds to stress depends on its composition and structure, the rate at which strain is applied, and also to the temperature of the rock body and the presence of water. |
| 10.2 Folding | Folding is generally a plastic response to compressive stress, although some brittle behaviour can happen during folding. An upward fold is an antiform. A downward fold is a synform. The axis of a fold can be vertical, inclined, or even horizontal. If we know that the folded beds have not been overturned, then we can use the more specific terms: anticline and syncline. |
| 10.3 Faulting | Fractures (joints) typically form during extension, but can also form during compression. Faulting, which involves the displacement of rock, can take place during compression or extension, as well as during shearing at transform boundaries. Thrust faulting is a special form of reverse faulting. |
| Lab 10 Exercises | Block models are useful tools for examining and recognizing geologic structures in 3D. Writing a geologic history for the units shown on a block model is an excellent way to practice using the principles of stratigraphy to determine relative ages. |


8 Expectations
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Set expectations for your chapter
- Set the expectation early for students that would like to join your CTSO. For example, you could require them to attend five school meetings, one combined activity, one service project, and compete at regionals. While there might be specific requirements for students activities per the CTSO, you are allowed to choose what is required of your members. This can give them an actionable goal to work toward and promote their involvement.
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Choose your guiding values
- This is something you could do with your students upon inception, or something you guide them toward at the beginning of the year. For example, you might want your students to demonstrate honesty, follow-through, encouragement, and inclusivity.


Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
7.2 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
There are two main types of metamorphic rocks: those that are foliated because they have formed in an environment with either directed pressure or shear stress, and those that are not foliated because they have formed in an environment without directed pressure or relatively near the surface with very little pressure at all. Some types of metamorphic rocks, such as quartzite and marble, which can form whether there is directed-pressure or not, do not typically exhibit foliation because their minerals (quartz and calcite respectively) do not tend to show alignment (see Figure 7.2.8).
When a rock is squeezed under directed pressure during metamorphism it is likely to be deformed, and this can result in a textural change such that the minerals appear elongated in the direction perpendicular to the main stress (Figure 7.2.1). This contributes to the formation of foliation.
When a rock is both heated and squeezed during metamorphism, and the temperature change is enough for new minerals to form from existing ones, there is a strong tendency for new minerals to grow with their long axes perpendicular to the direction of squeezing. This is illustrated in Figure 7.2.2, where the parent rock is shale, with bedding as shown. After both heating and squeezing, new minerals have formed within the rock, generally parallel to each other, and the original bedding has been largely obliterated.
Figure 7.2.3 shows an example of this effect. This large boulder has bedding visible as dark and light bands sloping steeply down to the right. The rock also has a strong slaty foliation, which is horizontal in this view (parallel to the surface that the person is sitting on), and has developed because the rock was being squeezed during metamorphism. The rock has split from bedrock along this foliation plane, and you can see that other weaknesses are present in the same orientation.
Squeezing and heating alone (as shown in Figure 7.2.1) can contribute to foliation, but most foliation develops when new minerals are formed and are forced to grow perpendicular to the direction of greatest stress (Figure 7.2.2). This effect is especially strong if the new minerals are platy like mica or elongated like amphibole. The mineral crystals don’t have to be large to produce foliation. Slate, for example, is characterized by aligned flakes of mica that are too small to see.
The various types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or intensity of metamorphism and the type of foliation are: slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Figure 7.2.4). As already noted, slate is formed from the low-grade metamorphism of shale, and has microscopic clay and mica crystals that have grown perpendicular to the stress. Slate tends to break into flat sheets. Phyllite is similar to slate, but has typically been heated to a higher temperature; the micas have grown larger and are visible as a sheen on the surface. Where slate is typically planar, phyllite can form in wavy layers. In the formation of schist, the temperature has been hot enough so that individual mica crystals are big enough to be visible, and other mineral crystals, such as quartz, feldspar, or garnet may also be visible. In gneiss, the minerals may have separated into bands of different colours. In the example shown in Figure 7.2.4d, the dark bands are largely amphibole while the light-coloured bands are feldspar and quartz. Most gneiss has little or no mica because it forms at temperatures higher than those under which micas are stable. Unlike slate and phyllite, which typically only form from mudrock, schist, and especially gneiss, can form from a variety of parent rocks, including mudrock, sandstone, conglomerate, and a range of both volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks.
Schist and gneiss can be named on the basis of important minerals that are present. For example a schist derived from basalt is typically rich in the mineral chlorite, so we call it chlorite schist. One derived from shale may be a muscovite-biotite schist, or just a mica schist, or if there are garnets present it might be mica-garnet schist. Similarly, a gneiss that originated as basalt and is dominated by amphibole, is an amphibole gneiss or, more accurately, an amphibolite.
If a rock is buried to a great depth and encounters temperatures that are close to its melting point, it may partially melt. The resulting rock, which includes both metamorphosed and igneous material, is known as migmatite (Figure 7.2.5).
As already noted, the nature of the parent rock controls the types of metamorphic rocks that can form from it under differing metamorphic conditions. The kinds of rocks that can be expected to form at different metamorphic grades from various parent rocks are listed in Table 7.1. Some rocks, such as granite, do not change much at the lower metamorphic grades because their minerals are still stable up to several hundred degrees.
| Parent Rock | Very Low Grade (150-300°C) | Low Grade (300-450°C) | Medium Grade (450-550°C) | High Grade (Above 550°C) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mudrock | slate | phyllite | schist | gneiss |
| Granite | no change | no change | almost no change | granite gneiss |
| Basalt | chlorite schist | chlorite schist | amphibolite | amphibolite |
| Sandstone | no change | little change | quartzite | quartzite |
| Limestone | little change | marble | marble | marble |
Metamorphic rocks that form under either low-pressure conditions or just confining pressure do not become foliated. In most cases, this is because they are not buried deeply, and the heat for the metamorphism comes from a body of magma that has moved into the upper part of the crust. This is contact metamorphism. Some examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks are marble, quartzite, and hornfels.
Marble is metamorphosed limestone. When it forms, the calcite crystals tend to grow larger, and any sedimentary textures and fossils that might have been present are destroyed. If the original limestone was pure calcite, then the marble will likely be white (as in Figure 7.2.6), but if it had various impurities, such as clay, silica, or magnesium, the marble could be “marbled” in appearance. Marble that forms during regional metamorphism—and in fact that includes most marble—may or may not develop a foliated texture, but foliation is typically not easy to see in marble.
Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone (Figure 7.2.7). It is dominated by quartz, and in many cases, the original quartz grains of the sandstone are welded together with additional silica. Most sandstone contains some clay minerals and may also include other minerals such as feldspar or fragments of rock, so most quartzite has some impurities with the quartz.
Even if formed during regional metamorphism, quartzite (like marble) does not tend to look foliated because quartz crystals don’t align with the directional pressure. On the other hand, any clay present in the original sandstone is likely to be converted to mica during metamorphism, and any such mica is likely to align with the directional pressure. An example of this is shown in Figure 7.2.8. The quartz crystals show no alignment, but the micas are all aligned, indicating that there was directional pressure during regional metamorphism of this rock. Since these micas are very small, this rock would not appear to be foliated to the naked eye.
Hornfels is another non-foliated metamorphic rock that normally forms during contact metamorphism of fine-grained rocks like mudstone or volcanic rock (Figure 7.2.9). In some cases, hornfels has visible crystals of minerals like biotite or andalusite. If the hornfels formed in a situation without directed pressure, then these minerals would be randomly orientated, not aligned with one-another, as they would be if formed with directed pressure.
Exercise 7.2 Naming metamorphic rocks
Provide reasonable names for the following metamorphic rocks based on the description:
- A rock with visible crystals of mica and with small crystals of andalusite. The mica crystals are consistently parallel to one another.
- A very hard rock with a granular appearance and a glassy lustre. There is no evidence of foliation.
- A fine-grained rock that splits into wavy sheets. The surfaces of the sheets have a sheen to them.
- A rock that is dominated by aligned crystals of amphibole.
See Appendix 3 for Exercise 7.2 answers.
Media Attributions
- Figures 7.2.1 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 7.2.4abd: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
- Figure 7.2.4c: Schist detail © Michael C. Rygel. CC BY-SA.
- Figure 7.2.5: Migmatite in Geopark on Albertov © Chmee2. CC BY.
- Figure 7.2.6 (right): An outcrop of banded marble by the USGS. Public domain.
- Figure 7.2.7: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
- Figure 7.2.8: © Sandra Johnstone. CC BY.
- Figure 7.2.9: Hornfels by Fed. Public domain.
in the context of a mineral deposit, the amount of a specific metal or mineral expressed as a proportion of the whole rock
a fine-grained metamorphic rock that splits easily into sheets
a metamorphic rock with slaty cleavage and a sheen on the surface produced by aligned micas
A metamorphic rock with visible aligned mica crystals.
high-grade metamorphic rock in which the mineral components are separated into bands
a foliated metamorphic rock in which the mineral amphibole is an important component
a rock that is a mixture of metamorphic and igneous rock, formed at very high grades of metamorphism when a part of the parent rock starts to melt
metamorphism that takes place adjacent to a source of heat, such as a body of magma
metamorphosed limestone (or dolostone) in which the calcite or dolomite has been recrystallized into larger crystals
a metamorphic rock formed from the contact or regional metamorphism of sandstone
a fine-grained metamorphic rock that is not foliated
metamorphism caused by burial of the parent rock to depths greater than 5 kilometres (typically takes place beneath mountain ranges, and extends over areas of hundreds of km2)


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Video Games
Computer games constitute a possible area of inquiry in future digital humanities scholarship. James Coltrain and Stephen Ramsay, both of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, define a video game “as an interactive digital work designed to impart a particular experience or set of experiences that are dependent on the player’s interactions”. Computer games are also a form of virtual reality simulating aspects of reality or imagined reality. There is significant overlap between the objects and concepts studied by humanists and the complex processes that are expressed by these games. Examples include the social interactions of simulation games, such as The Sims by Maxis/Electronic Arts, or the large, complex systems of Sid Meier’s Civilization multiplayer strategy game. Coltrain and Ramsey use the term scholarly game to denote games whose simulation and interactive aspects suggest humanistic lines of inquiry (Coltrain & Ramsay, 2019).
Although these scholarly games include traditional game challenges, they are also “serious games”, as their purpose is not only to provide entertainment, but also to express and exemplify both the satisfying and unsatisfying aspects of the real-world.
Humanities scholars can employ game-like simulations by creating their own experimental spaces that reflect their own theories, and then allowing users to experiment with and interact with those environments. Coltrain and Ramsay describe the example of the indie game Kerbal Space Program or Besieged, which challenges players to accomplish a specified goal given a set of tools with which to solve a problem. The designers can then analyze the solutions devised by the players, some of which may not have been conceived by the designers themselves. Because interactivity is one of the most defining characteristics of computer games, these games allow the player to choose among many options and to explore a variety of interpretations crafted by the game designer. In this way, computer games are “explorable environments”, encouraging players to take their own approaches to solving problems, with the outcomes of this exploration depending on the decisions and actions taken by the player. Such exploration would depend on the player’s own decisions. In the words of Coltrain and Ramsay, these exploration-based games provide “compelling examples of intentionally designed user agency”.
The simulation and interactivity of games themselves suggest new lines of scholarly inquiry. For instance, the researcher and players could assess the theory of the game proposed by the researcher, and based upon the results of the game, the simulation itself can be critiqued, especially if the game is too easy or the results are unusually good. As another example, players may more fully appreciate the inventiveness of ancient civilizations if, in a game, they must build a pyramid using only tools available to those civilizations. The experiences of these players in achieving the goal may per se evoke a novel topic for scholarly humanistic research. As Coltrain and Ramsay state: “…games could provide a vehicle for modeling humanistic theories in a way that more closely resembles the diverse variety of subjective human experiences”. Because of their interactivity, unique ability to present a compelling sense of space and time, and through sensory stimuli and queues, such as sound, colour, graphics, and (sometimes) tactile feedback, “games can add vibrant and dynamic context to interpretations that would be difficult to express on the page” (Coltrain & Ramsay, 2019).
Furthermore, game media provide historical perspective and promote new lines of inquiry. For instance, Matthew Kirschenbaum, a leading digital humanities scholar and Professor of English and Digital Studies at the University of Maryland, used digital tools to investigate the code of a game found on a floppy disk – a predecessor to CD-ROM storage – and found that the disk contained code that was “deleted”. In digital media, data are not technically deleted, but the parts of the physical media on which the old data reside are marked by the operating system to be overwritten. In other words, if the “deleted” data is not overwritten by new data, it is still readable with specialized digital tools. After some forensic research, Kirschenbaum discovered that the game on the disk was a modification of another game originally stored on that disk. That is, the new game was created from a copy of an older game. Consequently, games themselves, and the media on which they are stored, provide fertile areas of research for digital humanists (Owens & Padilla, 2021).