16 Chapter 13 Qualitative Analysis
Qualitative analysis is the analysis of qualitative data such as text data from interview transcripts. Unlike quantitative analysis, which is statistics driven and largely independent of the researcher, qualitative analysis is heavily dependent on the researcher’s analytic and integrative skills and personal knowledge of the social context where the data is collected. The emphasis in qualitative analysis is “sense making” or understanding a phenomenon, rather than predicting or explaining. A creative and investigative mindset is needed for qualitative analysis, based on an ethically enlightened and participant-in-context attitude, and a set of analytic strategies. This chapter provides a brief overview of some of these qualitative analysis strategies. Interested readers are referred to more authoritative and detailed references such as Miles and Huberman’s (1984) [17] seminal book on this topic.
Grounded Theory
How can you analyze a vast set qualitative data acquired through participant observation, in-depth interviews, focus groups, narratives of audio/video recordings, or secondary documents? One of these techniques for analyzing text data is grounded theory – an inductive technique of interpreting recorded data about a social phenomenon to build theories about that phenomenon. The technique was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) [18] in their method of constant comparative analysis of grounded theory research, and further refined by Strauss and Corbin (1990) [19] to further illustrate specific coding techniques – a process of classifying and categorizing text data segments into a set of codes (concepts), categories (constructs), and relationships. The interpretations are “grounded in” (or based on) observed empirical data, hence the name. To ensure that the theory is based solely on observed evidence, the grounded theory approach requires that researchers suspend any preexisting theoretical expectations or biases before data analysis, and let the data dictate the formulation of the theory.
Strauss and Corbin (1998) describe three coding techniques for analyzing text data: open, axial, and selective. Open coding is a process aimed at identifying concepts or key ideas that are hidden within textual data, which are potentially related to the phenomenon of interest. The researcher examines the raw textual data line by line to identify discrete events, incidents, ideas, actions, perceptions, and interactions of relevance that are coded as concepts (hence called in vivo codes ). Each concept is linked to specific portions of the text (coding unit) for later validation. Some concepts may be simple, clear, and unambiguous while others may be complex, ambiguous, and viewed differently by different participants. The coding unit may vary with the concepts being extracted. Simple concepts such as “organizational size” may include just a few words of text, while complex ones such as “organizational mission” may span several pages. Concepts can be named using the researcher’s own naming convention or standardized labels taken from the research literature. Once a basic set of concepts are identified, these concepts can then be used to code the remainder of the data, while simultaneously looking for new concepts and refining old concepts. While coding, it is important to identify the recognizable characteristics of each concept, such as its size, color, or level (e.g., high or low), so that similar concepts can be grouped together later . This coding technique is called “open” because the researcher is open to and actively seeking new concepts relevant to the phenomenon of interest.
Next, similar concepts are grouped into higher order categories . While concepts may be context-specific, categories tend to be broad and generalizable, and ultimately evolve into constructs in a grounded theory. Categories are needed to reduce the amount of concepts the researcher must work with and to build a “big picture” of the issues salient to understanding a social phenomenon. Categorization can be done is phases, by combining concepts into subcategories, and then subcategories into higher order categories. Constructs from the existing literature can be used to name these categories, particularly if the goal of the research is to extend current theories. However, caution must be taken while using existing constructs, as such constructs may bring with them commonly held beliefs and biases. For each category, its characteristics (or properties) and dimensions of each characteristic should be identified. The dimension represents a value of a characteristic along a continuum. For example, a “communication media” category may have a characteristic called “speed”, which can be dimensionalized as fast, medium, or slow . Such categorization helps differentiate between different kinds of communication media and enables researchers identify patterns in the data, such as which communication media is used for which types of tasks.
The second phase of grounded theory is axial coding , where the categories and subcategories are assembled into causal relationships or hypotheses that can tentatively explain the phenomenon of interest. Although distinct from open coding, axial coding can be performed simultaneously with open coding. The relationships between categories may be clearly evident in the data or may be more subtle and implicit. In the latter instance, researchers may use a coding scheme (often called a “coding paradigm”, but different from the paradigms discussed in Chapter 3) to understand which categories represent conditions (the circumstances in which the phenomenon is embedded), actions/interactions (the responses of individuals to events under these conditions), and consequences (the outcomes of actions/ interactions). As conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences are identified, theoretical propositions start to emerge, and researchers can start explaining why a phenomenon occurs, under what conditions, and with what consequences.
The third and final phase of grounded theory is selective coding , which involves identifying a central category or a core variable and systematically and logically relating this central category to other categories. The central category can evolve from existing categories or can be a higher order category that subsumes previously coded categories. New data is selectively sampled to validate the central category and its relationships to other categories (i.e., the tentative theory). Selective coding limits the range of analysis, and makes it move fast. At the same time, the coder must watch out for other categories that may emerge from the new data that may be related to the phenomenon of interest (open coding), which may lead to further refinement of the initial theory. Hence, open, axial, and selective coding may proceed simultaneously. Coding of new data and theory refinement continues until theoretical saturation is reached, i.e., when additional data does not yield any marginal change in the core categories or the relationships.
The “constant comparison” process implies continuous rearrangement, aggregation, and refinement of categories, relationships, and interpretations based on increasing depth of understanding, and an iterative interplay of four stages of activities: (1) comparing incidents/texts assigned to each category (to validate the category), (2) integrating categories and their properties, (3) delimiting the theory (focusing on the core concepts and ignoring less relevant concepts), and (4) writing theory (using techniques like memoing, storylining, and diagramming that are discussed in the next chapter). Having a central category does not necessarily mean that all other categories can be integrated nicely around it. In order to identify key categories that are conditions, action/interactions, and consequences of the core category, Strauss and Corbin (1990) recommend several integration techniques, such as storylining, memoing, or concept mapping. In storylining , categories and relationships are used to explicate and/or refine a story of the observed phenomenon. Memos are theorized write-ups of ideas about substantive concepts and their theoretically coded relationships as they evolve during ground theory analysis, and are important tools to keep track of and refine ideas that develop during the analysis. Memoing is the process of using these memos to discover patterns and relationships between categories using two-by-two tables, diagrams, or figures, or other illustrative displays. Concept mapping is a graphical representation of concepts and relationships between those concepts (e.g., using boxes and arrows). The major concepts are typically laid out on one or more sheets of paper, blackboards, or using graphical software programs, linked to each other using arrows, and readjusted to best fit the observed data.
After a grounded theory is generated, it must be refined for internal consistency and logic. Researchers must ensure that the central construct has the stated characteristics and dimensions, and if not, the data analysis may be repeated. Researcher must then ensure that the characteristics and dimensions of all categories show variation. For example, if behavior frequency is one such category, then the data must provide evidence of both frequent performers and infrequent performers of the focal behavior. Finally, the theory must be validated by comparing it with raw data. If the theory contradicts with observed evidence, the coding process may be repeated to reconcile such contradictions or unexplained variations.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is the systematic analysis of the content of a text (e.g., who says what, to whom, why, and to what extent and with what effect) in a quantitative or qualitative manner. Content analysis typically conducted as follows. First, when there are many texts to analyze (e.g., newspaper stories, financial reports, blog postings, online reviews, etc.), the researcher begins by sampling a selected set of texts from the population of texts for analysis. This process is not random, but instead, texts that have more pertinent content should be chosen selectively. Second, the researcher identifies and applies rules to divide each text into segments or “chunks” that can be treated as separate units of analysis. This process is called unitizing . For example, a ssumptions, effects, enablers, and barriers in texts may constitute such units. Third, the researcher constructs and applies one or more concepts to each unitized text segment in a process called coding . For coding purposes, a coding scheme is used based on the themes the researcher is searching for or uncovers as she classifies the text. Finally, the coded data is analyzed, often both quantitatively and qualitatively, to determine which themes occur most frequently, in what contexts, and how they are related to each other.
A simple type of content analysis is sentiment analysis – a technique used to capture people’s opinion or attitude toward an object, person, or phenomenon. Reading online messages about a political candidate posted on an online forum and classifying each message as positive, negative, or neutral is an example of such an analysis. In this case, each message represents one unit of analysis. This analysis will help identify whether the sample as a whole is positively or negatively disposed or neutral towards that candidate. Examining the content of online reviews in a similar manner is another example. Though this analysis can be done manually, for very large data sets (millions of text records), natural language processing and text analytics based software programs are available to automate the coding process, and maintain a record of how people sentiments fluctuate with time.
A frequent criticism of content analysis is that it lacks a set of systematic procedures that would allow the analysis to be replicated by other researchers. Schilling (2006) [20] addressed this criticism by organizing different content analytic procedures into a spiral model. This model consists of five levels or phases in interpreting text: (1) convert recorded tapes into raw text data or transcripts for content analysis, (2) convert raw data into condensed protocols, (3) convert condensed protocols into a preliminary category system, (4) use the preliminary category system to generate coded protocols, and (5) analyze coded protocols to generate interpretations about the phenomenon of interest.
Content analysis has several limitations. First, the coding process is restricted to the information available in text form. For instance, if a researcher is interested in studying people’s views on capital punishment, but no such archive of text documents is available, then the analysis cannot be done. Second, sampling must be done carefully to avoid sampling bias. For instance, if your population is the published research literature on a given topic, then you have systematically omitted unpublished research or the most recent work that is yet to be published.
Hermeneutic Analysis
Hermeneutic analysis is a special type of content analysis where the researcher tries to “interpret” the subjective meaning of a given text within its socio-historic context. Unlike grounded theory or content analysis, which ignores the context and meaning of text documents during the coding process, hermeneutic analysis is a truly interpretive technique for analyzing qualitative data. This method assumes that written texts narrate an author’s experience within a socio-historic context, and should be interpreted as such within that context. Therefore, the researcher continually iterates between singular interpretation of the text (the part) and a holistic understanding of the context (the whole) to develop a fuller understanding of the phenomenon in its situated context, which German philosopher Martin Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle. The word hermeneutic (singular) refers to one particular method or strand of interpretation.
More generally, hermeneutics is the study of interpretation and the theory and practice of interpretation. Derived from religious studies and linguistics, traditional hermeneutics, such as biblical hermeneutics , refers to the interpretation of written texts, especially in the areas of literature, religion and law (such as the Bible). In the 20th century, Heidegger suggested that a more direct, non-mediated, and authentic way of understanding social reality is to experience it, rather than simply observe it, and proposed philosophical hermeneutics , where the focus shifted from interpretation to existential understanding. Heidegger argued that texts are the means by which readers can not only read about an author’s experience, but also relive the author’s experiences. Contemporary or modern hermeneutics, developed by Heidegger’s students such as Hans-Georg Gadamer, further examined the limits of written texts for communicating social experiences, and went on to propose a framework of the interpretive process, encompassing all forms of communication, including written, verbal, and non-verbal, and exploring issues that restrict the communicative ability of written texts, such as presuppositions, language structures (e.g., grammar, syntax, etc.), and semiotics (the study of written signs such as symbolism, metaphor, analogy, and sarcasm). The term hermeneutics is sometimes used interchangeably and inaccurately with exegesis , which refers to the interpretation or critical explanation of written text only and especially religious texts.
Conclusions
Finally, standard software programs, such as ATLAS.ti.5, NVivo, and QDA Miner, can be used to automate coding processes in qualitative research methods. These programs can quickly and efficiently organize, search, sort, and process large volumes of text data using user-defined rules. To guide such automated analysis, a coding schema should be created, specifying the keywords or codes to search for in the text, based on an initial manual examination of sample text data. The schema can be organized in a hierarchical manner to organize codes into higher-order codes or constructs. The coding schema should be validated using a different sample of texts for accuracy and adequacy. However, if the coding schema is biased or incorrect, the resulting analysis of the entire population of text may be flawed and non-interpretable. However, software programs cannot decipher the meaning behind the certain words or phrases or the context within which these words or phrases are used (such as those in sarcasms or metaphors), which may lead to significant misinterpretation in large scale qualitative analysis.
[17] Miles M. B., Huberman A. M. (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
[18] Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research , Chicago: Aldine.
[19] Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques , Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
[20] Schilling, J. (2006). “On the Pragmatics of Qualitative Assessment: Designing the Process for Content Analysis,” European Journal of Psychological Assessment (22:1), 28-37.


Administer Books
As a network manager of a Pressbooks network, you have access to tools that allow you to control book creation, deactivate or delete books, publish or unpublish books, add or remove books to/from your network catalog, and search and filter the books that have been created on your network.
Create New Books
New books can be created by network managers or by regular users, depending on the settings you’ve chosen for the network. For more information on book registration network settings, see the Adjust Network Settings chapter of this guide.
To create a book, you can use the ‘Create Book’ button in the top nav bar:
Or you can use the ‘Create a book’ button in the ‘My Books’ dashboard:
You will be brought to the Create a New Book form.
1. Enter the URL you’d like the book to have on your network in the Site Name field – this will be the permanent link to the new book.
3. Enter the title of the book in the Book Title field.
4. Select the language the book will be written in from the Book Language drop-down menu.
5. Set the book’s visibility to public or private. This can always be changed later.
6. Click Create Book. After the command is processed, you will be brought to the dashboard of your new book.
You can watch this video to see a walkthrough of how to create a book:
Use the Book List
Pressbooks networks have a Book List menu, which provides you with a filterable, sortable list of all books on your network. Network managers can use this menu to administer the books on your network, as well as sort and filter books by license, subject, and more. To find the Book List, access your Administer Network dashboard, then click Books.
The first thing you’ll see is a statement of the total number of books on your network and how much storage space they’ve taken up. You’ll also see the timestamp for when the information in the table was last updated.
Beneath that, you’ll find a set of filters and a dynamic table displaying all the books on your network. For each book, you’ll see the following columns:
- Cover
- Book title
- Last edited date
- Created date
- Word Count
- Number of authors (total # of users with a contributor or greater role)
- Number of readers (total # of users with the subscriber role)
- Book Admins (email addresses of users with the administrator role in that book)
- Storage size
- Language
- Subject
- Theme
- License
- Global privacy status
- In catalog status
Each of the columns in the book list is sortable. To sort by a specific column, click that column’s title. The direction of the arrow next to the title shows the direction the results will be sorted. Click the column title a second time to reverse the sort order for a given column.
You can resize column width by clicking and dragging the ends of the column header. To increase or decrease the width of a column, hover your cursor between that column and the next. A left-right arrow will appear. Click and drag this arrow to resize the column as desired. You can also reorder columns by clicking and dragging their headings into a different position. Columns should be ‘sticky’ once moved. (NOTE: This behavior may be affected by your browser settings.)
Depending on column width and screen size, you may need to scroll left or right to see all the information available in the table. You can also choose to see fewer or more results by picking your page size. By default, the table will show 25 results at a time, and allow you to click through to subsequent pages of your results. However, you can also set the table to show 10, 50, or 100 results at a time using the “Page Size” drown down at the bottom of the display table.
Deactivate a Book
Deactivating a book removes it from public and private access (and user catalogs) while keeping it on your network. Once a book has been deactivated, no visitors will be able to view the webbook, and no users on your network will be able to edit the book. Network managers can continue to view, edit, and reactivate the book, however. Deactivated books will be highlighted in red in your booklist and their URLs will be reserved (meaning they cannot be used by another book on your network).
To deactivate a book:
- Click the ‘Deactivate‘ link
- When you click the link, you’ll be brought to a new page and asked to confirm your action. Click Confirm to complete the deactivation.
- When you return to the Book List, the book will now display highlighted in red to show that it has been deactivated.
- If the user attempts to visit a deactivated book, they will see a “This site is no longer available.” message
Reactivate a Deactivated Book
If a book has been deactivated or deleted by a user, network managers can reactivate the book and make it available to be edited or read once again. To reactivate a user-deleted or administrator-deactivated book:
- Click Administer Network > Books and find a deactivated book you’d like to restore
- Click Activate
- Confirm your action on the next page
Delete a Book
Deleting a book permanently removes a book from your network and frees up its URL to be used by another book on your network. Deletion of books by network managers is final: books which you delete cannot be retrieved! To delete a book:
- Click the ‘Delete‘ link
- When you click the link, you’ll be brought to a new page and asked to confirm your action. Click Confirm to complete the deactivation.
- When you return to the book list, this book will no longer appear because it has been permanently deleted from your network.
Publish and Unpublish Books
As a network manager, you can instantly toggle the Global Privacy status and In Catalog status for books on your network by clicking the relevant value in the ‘Public’ and ‘In Catalog’ columns. Learn more about how users can modify their books’ Global Privacy Status.
The X symbol represents private books in the Public column and non-cataloged books in the In Catalog column. The √ symbol represents public books in the Public column and cataloged books in the In Catalog column. To publish a book, click the X in the Public column of a private book to change the symbol to a √. To add a book to your network catalog, Click the X symbol in the In Catalog column. Doing so will publish the book (if it is not already public) and change the In Catalog symbol to a √.
To make a previously published book private, click the click the √ symbol in the Public column to change the symbol to a X. Unpublishing a book will also remove it from your network catalog, if it was listed there. To remove a public book from your catalog without unpublishing it, simply click the the √ symbol in the In Catalog column to change it to a X.
Administer Books in Bulk
As a network manager, you can also perform delete, publish/unpublish, and add/remove from the catalog actions for multiple books at once. To perform a bulk action:
- Select the checkbox for each book you want the action applied to
- Open the Bulk Actions dropdown menu at the bottom of the book list
- Select the Action you’d like to perform
- Click Apply
The action will be applied to every book selected.
You can select all books on a page by selecting the checkbox in the title row. Note that this only selects the books on the page you’re seeing. If your network has 274 books and your page size is set to 25, using the Select All option only selects the first 25. You can use the ‘page size’ setting to change how many books display on a single page of the book list.
Filter the Book List
You can search or filter the book list display to view subsets of books on your network that satisfy various criteria. You can choose to apply multiple filters from different tabs simultaneously. Filters are cumulative across tabs, meaning that if you add a filter in one tab and then switch to another tab, the list will still apply the filters from both tabs. Results must meet the criteria of all unique filters in order to appear, though you may be able to choose a larger range of options within a filter. You’ll see the number of active filters on a tab next to the tab’s title.
When you’ve selected the filters you want, click Apply Filters to display the results. To start over, select the Reset Filters button.
Book Properties Filters
Book Status
This filter allows you to choose from four options:
- Is public
- Is private
- Is original
- Is cloned
The first two pertain to a book’s global privacy setting. The second two are determined by if a book was cloned and adopted from another Pressbooks book or not. You can only choose “Is public” or “Is private” because a book cannot be both. If neither is chosen, all books on the network will display.
Similarly, you can only choose “Is original” or “Is cloned” because a book cannot be both. If neither is chosen, all books on the network will display. You can, however, choose an option from both the first set and from the second set.
License
Select the licenses you want to filter by. This tool can be convenient if you need to know how many openly licensed texts you currently host on your network, or need to specifically find texts which allow derivatives.
Plugins & Features
Filter by the following features and plugins on Pressbooks:
- Akismet
- Parsedown Party
- QuickLaTeX
- Glossary
- H5P
- TablePress
The Glossary, H5P, and TablePress filters allow you to filter books by a certain quantity. For example, if you wanted to know how many books on your network contained more than 20 H5P activities, you could input: ‘H5P Activities > 20‘ and then click ‘Apply Filters‘. Only books with at least 20 H5P activities will display in the resulting list.
Language & Subject Filters
Filter by the language and subject that have been determined in a book’s metadata. Only languages and subjects which appear in at least one book on the network will appear. Choose more than one language and subject at a time; the table will show all results which include any of the languages or subjects you’ve chosen.
Language
Pressbooks currently offers 140 metadata languages, including several national or regional variants of specific languages. Only languages which appear in at least one book on your network will appear in the filter list. If more than one language is selected as a filter, the table will show all books which include any of the languages you’ve chosen.
Subject
Filter by the subject of books on your network. Book administrators can select a subject for their book from the Thema subject category scheme for global book trade. Thema offers thousands of subjects to choose from. Only the top-level subjects which appear in at least one book on the network will appear in the tab.
Size & Storage Filters
Filter results by the following criteria:
- Word Count
- Book Storage
You can enter the amount you want to use as the standard of your search, then choose to see results that are more than (>) or less than (<) that number. For example, if you only wanted to see books which were less than 40,000 words but which took up at least 250MB, your search would look like:
Word Count < 40000
Book Storage > 250 MB
Select Apply Filters. The table will show only those books which meet those two criteria.
Themes & Exports Filters
Filter results by what type of formats are being created and how recently a book has seen export activity.
Current Theme
Filter by theme to see only books which currently have that theme applied. Only themes which are active on at least one book on the network will appear as an option. Choose multiple themes at once to see all books which have any of those themes applied.
Export Availability
Filter the book list by the following criteria:
- Has produced exports
- Allows downloads of exports
- Has produced exports since [date]
- Edited since [date]
This feature can be convenient if you want to know which books on your network have been updated within a certain time frame. As an example, if you needed to find out which books that allow free public downloads of exports have been edited in the last semester, your search may look like
[√] Has produced exports
[√] Allows downloads of exports
Edited since: 2019-01-01
You could then check those books to see if they need new files exported.
Exports by Format
Pressbooks produces exports for roughly a dozen different file formats, not including the digital webbook format. You can filter all book on the network by which ones have had specific file formats exported.
This can be helpful, for example, if you need to know which or what quantity of the books on your network have been available in PDF format. These results can also be limited to a specific time frame using the filters in the Export Availability section. If you wanted to know how many books on your network had exported print PDF files in the last six months, your search may look like:
[√] Print PDF
Has produced exports since: 2019-01-01
Download Book Lists as CSV Files
You can download a CSV file of your book list (with or without filters applied) to your computer to be viewed and sorted. To do so, apply your desired filters and click the Download CSV button beneath the filter panel.
NOTE: To make sure that the results viewed in your book list match the results downloaded in your CSV file, be sure to click Apply Filters before you click Download CSV.


Chapter 6. The War Years, 1914–45
6.15 The Home Front
As was the case in what was now described as the “First World War” or “World War I,” the Second World War called for sweeping civilian resources and involvement. The lessons of 1914-1918 were near enough in people’s memories that the idea of Victory Bonds or women working in munitions factories needed little introduction. It is unlikely that “Rosie the Riveter” did the same job in both wars, but entirely feasible that she was doing the sort of work in the 1940s that her mother, or at least women of her mother’s generation, performed two decades earlier.
The extent of Canadians’ engagement in the war was largely a function of numbers. Out of a population of 11 million, only 8 million were over the age of 18 years. This was not enough to meet both the need for a million-man army and the rapid increase in demand for food exports and munitions headed for Britain. Able-bodied men were forced out of what were now regarded as non-essential jobs (like taxi driving, the production of sporting goods, and the sale of real estate) so that they could tackle war industries or service in the forces.[1] Conscription might be an issue that the government wished to avoid but enlisting workers from non-traditional sources was a task they hurried to manage.
Women in Industry
In March 1942, Ottawa took the unprecedented step of registering every woman born between 1918 and 1922 under an order-in-council called the National Selective Service Regulations. (Similar orders were passed that identified and regulated men from 17 to 70 years of age, and ensured that key industries — including school teaching — would not be abandoned by workers too eager to join up or find better paying work as it came along.) Within a year there were 373,000 women in manufacturing jobs (of which 261,000 worked in munitions) and another 439,000 in the service sector. Nearly one-in-three workers in Canada’s aviation industry — mostly dedicated at this time, of course, to fighter and transport aircraft — were women.[2] Overall it has been reckoned that there were more than a million women in the full-time workforce, and that figure does not include women in the agricultural sector, nor does it include women in part-time paid labour.[3]
One area of spectacular expansion was shipbuilding. The collapsed economy of the 1930s witnessed a running down of capacity along the nation’s waterfronts. It was thought that there were, on the eve of the war, three active shipyards in the whole country and these employed fewer than 4,000 men. This expanded to 90 yards employing over 126,000 women and men.[4] Shipyards in wartime Vancouver alone employed some 17,000 workers — perhaps half of them women — and the several slipways were launching a Victory Ship a week between them. The Canadian fleet was, by the end of the war, probably the 5th largest on earth, a position onto which it would not hold.
The war opened opportunities, too, for women at levels above the shop floor. Probably the best known and most honoured example is Elsie “Queen of the Hurricanes” MacGill (1905-80), the world’s first female aeronautical engineer. She was the daughter of a prominent lawyer father and a feminist/suffragette mother — Helen Gregory MacGill — who was a pioneer woman on the British Columbian bench. Elsie MacGill’s transition into management of the Canadian Car and Foundry company put her in charge of a mainly female workforce that churned out more than 1,400 fighter aircraft (Hawker Hurricanes) before the end of the war.
Sea blockades meant that raw materials necessary to war industries were feared to be in jeopardy from 1939 on. Women were tasked with organizing scrap drives, salvaging metals and rubber in particular but also kitchen scraps. Bones and fat — used in the production of ammunition — were a special target; scavenging families in Winnipeg accumulated more than a million pounds of fat and bones over the course of the war.[5] In practice, it was the children of urban areas who took the lead on salvage crusades, rather naturally lending it a competitive flavour.
The careful management of resources extended to the food supply. Britain’s trade corridors were cut off so Canadian food production had to increase (difficult to do in times of labour shortages) and more had to be diverted to exports. As early as 1941, Canada was providing 77% of Britain’s flour and wheat. By the end of the war a quarter of the cheese, two-fifths of the bacon, and 15% of the eggs consumed in Britain came from Canadian farms.[6] While the Wartime Prices and Trade Board (WPTB) established limits on consumption and price-gouging, Ottawa’s various agencies encouraged Canadians to turn their gardens into small farms.
Canadians could feel the war in their stomachs and see it on their plates. They could also wear the war effort because of restrictions on fabric for clothing. Excessive trim was pared back, leading to narrower lapels on men’s suits and a narrower cut on women’s clothes along with shorter hems. One explanation for the so-called zoot suit riots of the closing years of the war was the apparent — and unpatriotic — use of too much cloth on the exaggerated shoulders and thighs of the zoot suiters’ eponymous jackets and trousers. (The fact that Vancouver’s zoot suiters were mainly drawn from the Italian community in the East End may have been another local factor.)[7]
Wartime Cultures
While escapism defined much of the entertainment produced in the 1930s, the war provided subject matter galore. Canadian comic books enjoyed a brief period of popularity as competitive American publications were frozen out of the market. The most successful of these, Johnny Canuck, appeared in 1941 but did not survive the war years. Hollywood movies had all but completely superseded vaudeville by 1939; feature films and short (generally cheaply made) serials were an important means of transmitting anti-German and anti-Japanese sentiment. They sometimes featured Canadian characters (usually played by Americans) so as to give American audiences a sense of the role played by allies. The 1943 war-thriller, Northern Pursuit, featured the great matinee idol and action actor, Errol Flynn, portraying a Mountie who captures German saboteurs determined to disrupt Canadian-American supply lines. What is noteworthy about this film is that Flynn plays a German-Canadian whose ethnicity draws the suspicion of his RCMP colleagues until his loyalty to Canada is made clear. The Canadian film industry, small though it was, produced propaganda-inflected films, including the National Film Board’s Canada Carries On series (many of which were narrated by Lorne Greene). Warclouds over the Pacific, for example, was released on 1 December 1941, days before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, but it made clear Canada’s official perspective on the dangers coming from that direction.
Radio was, in the 1930s and 1940s, at its peak as an electronic media. The presence of the CBC at this time provided another — government-controlled — means of being bombarded with news about the war and further demands for personal sacrifice. Radio waves were not as respectful of borders as print media, so American programming and propaganda was part and parcel of most urban Canadians’ listening diet.
Many of these media traded in fear as a means of whipping up support for the war. Routine precautions — training children on the east and west coast on what to expect in the event of a surprise German or Japanese attack, or the mandatory use of black-out blinds and headlamp covers so as to confuse aerial scouts from Japan — added to the sense that there was real danger nearby and not only on the war front.
In a multitude of ways, then, the Second World War certainly felt more like a total war. It was impossible to avoid news, film, rationing, restrictions, admonitions, salvage drives, calls for volunteers, and requests for more Victory Bonds. Canadians experienced it with a mixture of emotions, though, including grateful relief that the Depression years were finally over (although fearful they might return). Full employment — even at a time of rationing and very little in the way of consumer goods to purchase — was a good thing.
Key Points
- As a total war, WWII made greater demands on Canadians on the home front than was the case in 1914-18.
- Ottawa introduced regulations to manage the supply of labour and to ensure the continuation of essential industries.
- Women entered waged labour in war industries in large numbers, taking jobs that were vacated by servicemen and newly created positions as well.
- Scrap drives were a means of obtaining scarce materials and directly involving women and children in the war effort.
- Film and radio — both mostly interwar innovations — contributed significantly to the propaganda campaign.
Long Descriptions
Figure 6.27 long description: Poster from World War II. It depicts three women in skirts and blouses marching down the street with broad smiles.  A Scottish terrier trots alongside the women with a bone in its mouth.
At the top, the poster says “We’re in the army now,” surrounded by musical notes to indicate that the women are singing these words. At the bottom, it says “Your aid is vital! Save metals, rags, paper, bones, rubber, glass. They are used in war supplies. Get in touch with your local committee. Issued by Public Information, for National Salvage Office, Ottawa; under authority of Hon. J. G. Gardiner, Minister of National War Services.” [Return to Figure 6.27]
Media Attributions
- Attack on all Fronts: war propaganda campaign — World War II © Library and Archives Canada (MIKAN no. 2860024) is licensed under a Public Domain license
- Shop Stewards at Burrard Drydock, ca. 1942 is licensed under a Public Domain license
- Elsie MacGill, April 1938 is licensed under a Public Domain license
- We’re in the Army Now © Toronto Public Library (1939-45. Salvage. Item 12. L) is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
- Commentator Lorne Greene broadcasting over the C.B.C. national network, Dec. 1942 © Ronny Jaques, National Film Board of Canada, Library and Archives Canada (PA-116178) is licensed under a Public Domain license
- Desmond Morton, A Military History of Canada, 5th edition (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2007), 184-5. ↵
- Canadian War Museum, “Democracy at War”, accessed 15 November 2015, http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/canadawar/women_e.shtml. ↵
- Ruth Roach Pierson, "They're Still Women After All," The Second World War and Canadian Womanhood (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986): 9. ↵
- Canadian War Museum, “Democracy at War”, accessed 16 November 2015, http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/canadawar/shipping_e.shtml. ↵
- Ian Mosby, “Food on the Home Front during the Second World War”, Wartime Canada, accessed 15 November 2015, http://wartimecanada.ca/essay/eating/food-home-front-during-second-world-war. ↵
- Ian Mosby, Food Will Win the War: The Politics, Culture, and Science of Food on Canada’s Home Front (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2014), 4. ↵
- ”Zoot Suit Riots,” Past Tense: Vancouver History, Lani Russwurm, accessed 17 November 2015, https://pasttensevancouver.wordpress.com/2008/03/03/zoot-suit-riots-2/. ↵


Operating from your Values
So far, you have identified the values that underpin your work, the kind of faculty member you currently are and aspire to be, and created your own personal definitions for the values that are important to you. You will want to refer to your work in this section throughout the rest of this manual, as you continuously link your values to your ongoing reflective practice and learning.
Our values inform how we see ourselves. Our collective challenge is to act in ways that express these values every day so that they shine through to those around us. If we can succeed at this, we model a powerful ethic of integrity that has the power to be instilled in our students, our colleagues, even the leaders we look up to.
Activity


4 Military Hardware: Jet Engines and Radar
William Young
4.1 Introduction
Keywords
- Radar – a system for detecting the presence, direction, distance, and speed of aircraft, ships, and other objects, by sending out pulses of high-frequency electromagnetic waves that are reflected off the object back to the source.
- Jet Engine- an engine using jet propulsion for forward thrust, mainly used for aircraft.
- Silent Generation- the generation of people born before that of the baby boomers (roughly from the mid 1920s to the mid 1940s), perceived to tend towards conformism or restraint in their outlook and behavior.
Learning Objectives
- Reader should be able to understand more about the technologies used in the military during the Silent Generation
- Will be able to understand the creation of military technology during this time period and what the use of these technologies were
- The affects that the technologies had on the people during this time period
The time of the Silent Generation ranged from 1928-1945 and has had a big impact on today’s society. During the Silent Generation there were many different advancements in the technology used throughout the generation. During this time there were many advancements with technology involving military equipment. The time of the silent generation was during some of the most difficult times for people including the Great Depression and World War II. Growing up and living through these times would be very tough and people knew there needed to be advancements to eventually get out of these times alive. All the technology played a big role in getting through these times and with the military being very involved, the technology they used was very important.
Some of the technologies that were included in the military were things like radar, jet powered engines, and rifles. The technologies during this time don’t just narrow down to those three but those are some of the biggest of the silent generation. For years prior there was a lot of research and funding put into these technologies, but they did not become popular until the Silent Generation.
4.2 Specific Technology Used
Key Takeaway(s)
In this section we are going to go more in depth on what specific military hardware there was during the Silent Generation.
4.2.1 Specific military hardware during the silent generation
During the Silent Generation there was specific hardware that the military used that had never been seen or used before. Radar was one of the most famous military devices that became popular during the Silent Generation, the radar helped them track people and things like they had never been able to before. The idea behind is to be able to track or detect anybody that would be around them and be prepared for what they were going to face. The use of this radar in planes and in other situations made it very easy to find the enemy and protect themselves. As of now, there has been much improvement in radar devices and all the things that they can do with it, but, during this time, it was a very big step in the right direction for technology used by the military.
Radar was not the only highly used technology during the Silent Generation, but it was also known as the “Jet Age” for the invention of the jet engine. Everyone at the time had heard of the Wright brothers, who wanted to be able to travel places by air. Years before the Silent Generation, everyone was trying to make history and fly as far as possible around the world. They originally would use one engine and then it increased to two and as time went on the idea of the jet engine continued to improve. With all the improvements of the jet engine, during the time frame of the Silent Generation, the U.S. military began to take advantage of this technology and began to travel by air rather than just land or water. The idea of technology like this was brought about way before the time of the Silent Generation, but during this period they used this technology in many ways to benefit a large amount of people.
“French Factories Make British Jet Engines” by The U.S. National Archives is in the Public Domain
4.3 History of the Technologies
Key Takeaways
Technologies like the ones that were used by the military during the Silent Generation weren’t just made overnight but had to be fine-tuned for many years before they were able to be utilized. The technologies, like radar and jet engines, had been around for years but during the Silent Generation people began using them in ways which nobody had thought of before.
4.3.1 The History of the Radar and Jet Engines
The idea of having something that could track anybody that would try to attack your military was something many didn’t think about during this generation. But, in 1935, the first radar system was produced by Sir Robert Watson-Watt and this device took off after it was created. The first radar device was used on the coast and the main reason for it being there was to track people moving toward them, by air or sea. Not only did this make it way easier for the military to be aware of where the enemy was and how far away they were, but it also helped people feel safer because of this knowledge. Originally the idea of a radar seemed to be ridiculous and something that would waste money, but, as time went on, the technology behind it advanced and the radar became more popular. In today’s time we see things involving radar technologies everyday, like weather, but when it first came out it was used only by the military for its benefits in that area.
“US Radar Navy Equipment” by National Museum of the U.S. Navy is in the Public Domain
The creation of the jet engine was in the making for many years, starting with the Wright brothers, trying to make a device so they could fly. Once they found out the right technology and mechanisms needed to fly in the air, the idea of travel by air became more popular. The first ever jet engine was created years after the Wright brothers had the technology of being able to fly. In 1941, the first ever jet engine was designed and was performed in a flight test. After many years of creating this technology, it was finally used by the military during the Silent Generation. The idea behind being able to travel in the air rather than on the ground was incredible and a lot of people were on board with how much it could help people everywhere. At first the jet engine was not too great and had many flaws, but, after the first ever jet engine, people started to discover more and more technology to improve it and how to use it to help the military.
4.4 The Impact of These Technologies on the Social Generation
Key Takeaways
4.4.1 Intended Consequences
During this generation, people went through bad times, including the Great Depression and wars. The people of this generation were known as the Silent Generation, because they kept their heads down and worked hard without boasting about their accomplishments. All the technology throughout this time with the military were strictly meant to help everyone and they seemed to do so. The things that came about because of the jet engine and the radar helped out not only the military but the community in general. These inventions were created to make everyday life easier for everyone that used these them and helped develop a purpose for the generation. Of course, the creation of these things was not initially perfect, but having this technology helped a lot of people within the military. The technologies created during this time seemed to outweigh all the bad during this time period.
“Government Press Office” by Government Press Office is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
4.4.2 Unintended Consequences
The Silent Generation was negatively affected in some ways by the technologies that came about during this time. The people of did not know what the impact of the radar and jet engine were going to have whenever they first started using the technology and it shows. When technologies like these started to come out, they were not convinced of their effectiveness or advantages. Many feared others being able to use it against them, because of the power of these technologies, and were not sure if the technology would really help everyone in the long run; many were skeptical and wanted to change the technology back to what they knew and already liked.. There were many times that, when using this technology, it was not successful and got people hurt or even killed. This idea of people being able to see others from miles away from radar and people being able to fly across the world in a short period of time for them was very overwhelming.
4.5 How Technology Evolved and How it is Still Useful Today
4.5.1 Improvement of Military Technology Since the Silent Generation.
The technology that was created during the Silent Generation and was used in the military has been improved multiple times throughout history. The two main technologies that were used during this time were radar and the jet engine. When the technology first came about the radar was useful but not anywhere close to what it is today. Throughout history radar kept improving and now people use radar for a lot more than they think. It was originally created for the military so that they can find enemies and improve their ways of fighting in war but that is not all its used for today. There have been great improvements for our military and many different types of it for different situations. In today’s generation we use this technology to find out what the weather is, and law enforcement also uses it to track how fast someone is going while driving. It is incredible how much technology can change over time and the uses that can come about from it.
When it comes to the other technology that was very big during this time, like the jet engine, we can see so much improvement throughout the years. When jet engines were first becoming popular during the Silent Generation, people were surprised to see that they could fly even halfway across the world without it failing on them. Over the years more people would try to fly further and see just how far they could get before something went wrong. Nowadays, people don’t really think about these things, like if their plane can make it all the way to their destination, when they board. To go from only having a couple of planes during the Silent Generation to having millions of planes fly everyday across the world today just shows how much technology has improved over time and the advancements that have been made. Being able to hop on a plane and fly wherever you want whenever you want was something people never would have dreamed of when they were first developing and using the plane. The use of this technology today would have never been come about if it wasn’t for the hard work put in by people of the Silent Generation.
Technology’s effect on life or death
The effects of the technology during the Silent Generation was seen by many people and some believed it kept them alive. The idea of having radar to see when enemies were coming in the air or by land was something that kept many people alive during this time. Around the time of 1935-1940 many people believed that they needed to have radar signals to see when planes were coming so that they could be prepared for the enemy and survive through what was coming their way. The advancement during this time was also something that affected all the people within these communities by allowing them more time to be prepared and knowing which direction to expect people from. The thought of not knowing when a plane was coming was terrifying, so they also used it in their favor when fighting other people. They were also able to fly and sneak up on others that did not have advanced radar systems, which made it easier for them to attack somebody.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, we talked a lot about how military technologies affected the people during the Silent Generation and how they how they were advanced and still used around the world today. The idea of having to create a technology from scratch is something that is hard to comprehend and, during this time, they did it with a lot less resources than people have today. The ultimate impact of technology like the Jet Engine and RJet engineadar normalized for use in today’s world but hard to come by during the Silent Generation. Not only are people affected in many ways by these technologies, but many would claim they would not be alive if it wasn’t for some of the development of these technologies. This chapter should make you think of the development of technology that we now use in our daily lives daily and how it has advanced to make our lives easier.
Review Questions
1. When was the Silent Generation?
-
- 1946-1964
- 1928-1945
- 1965-1980
- 1900-1927
2. What were the two main technologies that were big during this time with the military?
-
- Cell phones and the internet
- The microscope
- Jet engine and radar
- The radio
3. When was the first jet engine tested out?
-
- 1938
- 1945
- 1940
- 1941
Answers:
-
- 1928-1945
- Jet engines and radar
- 1941
Food For Thought
- Have you ever thought about how technology has affected you in your lifetime? If so, how do you think it would be different without the technology you have?
- Do you think the people during the Silent Generation reacted the same way that we react to hearing about new developments of technology? Why?
References
History of Radar, https://training.weather.gov/nwstc/NEXRAD/RADAR/Section1-1.html.
Marshall, Michael. “Timeline: Weapons Technology.” New Scientist, New Scientist, 12 Mar. 2019, https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17423-timeline-weapons-technology/.
Intriago, Joy. “The Silent Generation – They Kept Heads down, Transformed the World.” Seasons, 31 Mar. 2022, https://www.seasons.com/silent-generation-kept-heads-transformed-world/2492134/.
“The Jet Age.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-age.
Kagan, Julia. “The Greatest Generation: Definition and Characteristics.” Investopedia, Investopedia, 3 Nov. 2022, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/the_greatest_generation.asp.
Silent Generation / Traditionalists (Born before 1946). https://extension.missouri.edu/extcouncil/documents/ecyl/meet-the-generations.pdf.
“The Development of Jet Engines .” Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery. . Encyclopedia.com. 16 Nov. 2022 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
Williams, Yolanda. “The Silent Generation: Definition, Characteristics, and Facts.” Study.com | Take Online Courses. Earn College Credit. Research Schools, Degrees & Careers, https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-silent-generation-definition-characteristics-facts.html.
a type of reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion.


3.1 Chapter Learning Objectives and Overview
Kelly Szott and Kimberly Puttman
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
- Summarize how sociological theory helps us to understand and explain our world.
- Describe key theories of sociologists, particularly the scholars and scientists who are traditionally ignored.
- Explain how the social location of a sociologist might impact what they see.
Chapter Overview
With gratitude to my teachers, my students, Open Oregon, and my co-author for support in this attempt to re-craft the standard narrative of sociological theory.
– Kelly Szott
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqDWGgvpWnY
In the video that opens this chapter, we see that something as simple as where to go to the bathroom can be very complicated (Figure 3.1). Writing in 1892, Black feminist scholar Anna Julia Cooper noted a dilemma she encountered while traveling by train in the South. When her train stopped at a station, Cooper wrote, “I see two dingy little rooms with ‘FOR LADIES’ swinging over one and ‘FOR COLORED PEOPLE’ over the other; while wondering under which head I come” (1892:96). It is this precise dilemma that Black feminist theorists of intersectionality dealt with 100 years later when they pointed out the law’s inability to address the intersection of racial and gender discrimination.
Bathrooms have also emerged as a controversial space more recently with attacks on policies that allow gender-expansive individuals to use restrooms that align with their gender identity (Schilt and Westbrook 2015). We can see that then and now something that seems so mundane—bathrooms—can produce rich theoretical insights about society, a group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with one another, and who share a common culture.
The study of social problems is based in the wider field of sociology, the systematic study of society and social interactions to understand individuals, groups, and institutions through data collection and analysis. Sociologists study human interactions from the level of two people talking to systems that span the globe. In this chapter, we explore how sociological theories help to understand why our world works the way it does.
Focusing Questions
The following questions will help us understand how sociology is a science:
- How does sociological theory help us to understand and explain our world?
- Who are sociologists, particularly scholars and scientists who are traditionally ignored?
- How does the social location of sociologists influence what they see?
Let’s start by sorting out how we know what we know!
Licenses and Attributions for Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives
Open Content, Original
“Chapter Overview” by Kelly Szott and Kimberly Puttman is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Open Content, Shared Previously
“Society” definition from Introduction to Sociology 3e by Tonja R. Conerly, Kathleen Holmes, Asha Lal Tamang, Introduction to Sociology 3e, Openstax is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
“Sociology” definition adapted from the Open Education Sociological Dictionary edited by Kenton Bell is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
All Rights Reserved Content
Figure 3.1. “Texas State Rep. Gives Powerful Testimony on the History of Bathroom Laws” © Washington Post is licensed under the Standard YouTube License.
a social condition or pattern of behavior that has negative consequences for individuals, our social world, or our physical world
overlapping social identities produce unique inequities that influence the lives of people and groups.
a social expression of a person’s sexual identity that influences the status, roles, and norms of their behavior.
the unequal treatment of an individual or group based on their statuses (e.g., age, beliefs, ethnicity, sex)
one’s innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both or neither – how individuals perceive themselves and what they call themselves. One's gender identity can be the same or different from their sex assigned at birth.


172 Star Clusters
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how star clusters help us understand the stages of stellar evolution
- List the different types of star clusters and describe how they differ in number of stars, structure, and age
- Explain why the chemical composition of globular clusters is different from that of open clusters
The preceding description of stellar evolution is based on calculations. However, no star completes its main-sequence lifetime or its evolution to a red giant quickly enough for us to observe these structural changes as they happen. Fortunately, nature has provided us with an indirect way to test our calculations.
Instead of observing the evolution of a single star, we can look at a group or cluster of stars. We look for a group of stars that is very close together in space, held together by gravity, often moving around a common center. Then it is reasonable to assume that the individual stars in the group all formed at nearly the same time, from the same cloud, and with the same composition. We expect that these stars will differ only in mass. And their masses determine how quickly they go through each stage of their lives.
Since stars with higher masses evolve more quickly, we can find clusters in which massive stars have already completed their main-sequence phase of evolution and become red giants, while stars of lower mass in the same cluster are still on the main sequence, or even—if the cluster is very young—undergoing pre-main-sequence gravitational contraction. We can see many stages of stellar evolution among the members of a single cluster, and we can see whether our models can explain why the H–R diagrams of clusters of different ages look the way they do.
The three basic types of clusters astronomers have discovered are globular clusters, open clusters, and stellar associations. Their properties are summarized in Table 1. As we will see in the next section of this chapter, globular clusters contain only very old stars, whereas open clusters and associations contain young stars.
| Table 1. Characteristics of Star Clusters | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | Globular Clusters | Open Clusters | Associations |
| Number in the Galaxy | 150 | Thousands | Thousands |
| Location in the Galaxy | Halo and central bulge | Disk (and spiral arms) | Spiral arms |
| Diameter (in light-years) | 50–450 | <30 | 100–500 |
| Mass MSun | 104–106 | 102–103 | 102–103 |
| Number of stars | 104–106 | 50–1000 | 102–104 |
| Color of brightest stars | Red | Red or blue | Blue |
| Luminosity of cluster (LSun) | 104–106 | 102–106 | 104–107 |
| Typical ages | Billions of years | A few hundred million years to, in the case of unusually large clusters, more than a billion years | Up to about 107 years |
Globular Clusters
Globular clusters were given this name because they are nearly symmetrical round systems of, typically, hundreds of thousands of stars. The most massive globular cluster in our own Galaxy is Omega Centauri, which is about 16,000 light-years away and contains several million stars (Figure 1). Note that the brightest stars in this cluster, which are red giants that have already completed the main-sequence phase of their evolution, are red-orange in color. These stars have typical surface temperatures around 4000 K. As we will see, globular clusters are among the oldest parts of our Milky Way Galaxy.
What would it be like to live inside a globular cluster? In the dense central regions, the stars would be roughly a million times closer together than in our own neighborhood. If Earth orbited one of the inner stars in a globular cluster, the nearest stars would be light-months, not light-years, away. They would still appear as points of light, but would be brighter than any of the stars we see in our own sky. The Milky Way would probably be difficult to see through the bright haze of starlight produced by the cluster.
About 150 globular clusters are known in our Galaxy. Most of them are in a spherical halo (or cloud) surrounding the flat disk formed by the majority of our Galaxy’s stars. All the globular clusters are very far from the Sun, and some are found at distances of 60,000 light-years or more from the main disk of the Milky Way. The diameters of globular star clusters range from 50 light-years to more than 450 light-years.
Open Clusters
Open clusters are found in the disk of the Galaxy. They have a range of ages, some as old as, or even older than, our Sun. The youngest open clusters are still associated with the interstellar matter from which they formed. Open clusters are smaller than globular clusters, usually having diameters of less than 30 light-years, and they typically contain only several dozen to several hundreds of stars (Figure 2). The stars in open clusters usually appear well separated from one another, even in the central regions, which explains why they are called “open.” Our Galaxy contains thousands of open clusters, but we can see only a small fraction of them. Interstellar dust, which is also concentrated in the disk, dims the light of more distant clusters so much that they are undetectable.
Although the individual stars in an open cluster can survive for billions of years, they typically remain together as a cluster for only a few million years, or at most, a few hundred million years. There are several reasons for this. In small open clusters, the average speed of the member stars within the cluster may be higher than the cluster’s escape velocity[1], and the stars will gradually “evaporate” from the cluster. Close encounters of member stars may also increase the velocity of one of the members beyond the escape velocity. Every few hundred million years or so, the cluster may have a close encounter with a giant molecular cloud, and the gravitational force exerted by the cloud may tear the cluster apart.
Several open clusters are visible to the unaided eye. Most famous among them is the Pleiades (see Figure 5 in Cosmic Dust), which appears as a tiny group of six stars (some people can see even more than six, and the Pleiades is sometimes called the Seven Sisters). This cluster is arranged like a small dipping spoon and is seen in the constellation of Taurus, the bull. A good pair of binoculars shows dozens of stars in the cluster, and a telescope reveals hundreds. (A car company, Subaru, takes its name from the Japanese term for this cluster; you can see the star group on the Subaru logo.)
The Hyades is another famous open cluster in Taurus. To the naked eye, it appears as a V-shaped group of faint stars marking the face of the bull. Telescopes show that Hyades actually contains more than 200 stars.
Stellar Associations
An association is a group of extremely young stars, typically containing 5 to 50 hot, bright O and B stars scattered over a region of space some 100–500 light-years in diameter. As an example, most of the stars in the constellation Orion form one of the nearest stellar associations. Associations also contain hundreds to thousands of low-mass stars, but these are much fainter and less conspicuous. The presence of really hot, luminous stars indicates that star formation in the association has occurred in the last million years or so. Since O stars go through their entire lives in only about a million years, they would not still be around unless star formation has occurred recently. It is therefore not surprising that associations are found in regions rich in the gas and dust required to form new stars. It’s like a brand new building still surrounded by some of the construction materials used to build it and with the landscape still showing signs of construction. On the other hand, because associations, like ordinary open clusters, lie in regions occupied by dusty interstellar matter, many are hidden from our view.
Key Concepts and Summary
Star clusters provide one of the best tests of our calculations of what happens as stars age. The stars in a given cluster were formed at about the same time and have the same composition, so they differ mainly in mass, and thus, in their life stage. There are three types of star clusters: globular, open, and associations. Globular clusters have diameters of 50–450 light-years, contain hundreds of thousands of stars, and are distributed in a halo around the Galaxy. Open clusters typically contain hundreds of stars, are located in the plane of the Galaxy, and have diameters less than 30 light-years. Associations are found in regions of gas and dust and contain extremely young stars.
Glossary
association: a loose group of young stars whose spectral types, motions, and positions in the sky indicate a common origin
globular cluster: one of about 150 large, spherical star clusters (each with hundreds of thousands of stars) that form a system of clusters in the center of our Galaxy
open cluster: a comparatively loose cluster of stars, containing from a few dozen to a few thousand members, located in the spiral arms or disk of our Galaxy; sometimes referred to as a galactic cluster
- Escape velocity is the speed needed to overcome the gravity of some object or group of objects. The rockets we send up from Earth, for example, must travel faster than the escape velocity of our planet to be able to get to other worlds. ↵


Dashboard
Dashboard
Once successfully logged into Moodle, you will first land on the Dashboard page. This is your point of entry or homepage that provides you with an overview of your courses as well as “Announcements” sent out by CTLT or IT. The Dashboard is a personal homepage and is customizable according to your needs.
You can customize your Dashboard by adding or removing blocks and changing block positions:
- First endure your ‘Edit mode’ is ON.
- Select the
.
2. Select the type of Block you want to add to your Dashboard.
3. You can revert your Dashboard to the default set by UNBC by selecting the “Revert page to default”.
You will also find a Timeline on your Moodle Dashboard. The Timeline provides an overview of deadlines and actions in a clean interface.


Practice Time
Exercise 1. The following sentences are taken from Swiss Sonata by Gwethalyn Graham, which is in the Public Domain in Canada. For each sentence, use as many constituency tests as are appropriate to determine whether the underlined portion is a constituent of that sentence.
- She was wearing a shabby, unbecoming black dress.
- One of the maids knocked on the door and entered with a telegram.
- Vicky stopped in her room to brush her hair slowly and carefully.
- Vicky stopped in her room to brush her hair slowly and carefully.
Exercise 2. For each of the following sentences, identify the subcategory of each verb and identify the grammatical role of each NP.
- Simon knew his parents would be angry.
- Senate will discuss the new bill in Parliament after the holiday.
- Gwen phoned her grandmother on the weekend.
- Amani realized Genet had finished the project without her.
Exercise 3. Draw tree diagrams consistent with x-bar principles to illustrate the structure of each of the sentences in Exercise 2.
Exercise 4. Draw tree diagrams consistent with x-bar principles to illustrate the Deep and Surface Structures of the following questions:
- Who will you vote for in the next election?
- What did the waiter say the specials were tonight?
- Does Resa know where your parents live?


Primary Navigation
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Book Contents Navigation
Introduction
Chapter 1 Setting
Chapter 1 Character
Chapter 1 Plot
Chapter 1 Vocabulary
Chapter 1 Critical Thinking
Chapter 1 Journal
Chapter 2 Setting
Chapter 2 Characters
Chapter 2 Plot
Chapter 2 Vocabulary
Chapter 2 Critical Thinking
Chapter 2 Journal
Chapter 3 Setting
Chapter 3 Characters
Chapter 3 Plot
Chapter 3 Vocabulary
Chapter 3 Critical Thinking
Chapter 3 Journal
Chapter 4 Setting
Chapter 4 Characters
Chapter 4 Plot
Chapter 4 Vocabulary
Chapter 4 Critical Thinking
Chapter 4 Journal
Chapter 5 Setting
Chapter 5 Characters
Chapter 5 Plot
Chapter 5 Vocabulary
Chapter 5 Critical Thinking
Chapter 5 Journal
Chapter 6 Setting
Chapter 6 Characters
Chapter 6 Plot
Chapter 6 Vocabulary
Chapter 6 Critical Thinking
Chapter 6 Journal
Chapter 7 Setting
Chapter 7 Characters
Chapter 7 Plot
Chapter 7 Vocabulary
Chapter 7 Critical Thinking
Chapter 7 Journal
Chapter 8 Setting
Chapter 8 Characters
Chapter 8 Plot
Chapter 8 Vocabulary
Chapter 8 Critical Thinking
Chapter 8 Journal
Chapter 9 Setting
Chapter 9 Characters
Chapter 9 Plot
Chapter 9 Vocabulary
Chapter 9 Critical Thinking
Chapter 9 Journal
Chapter 10 Setting
Chapter 10 Characters
Chapter 10 Plot
Chapter 10 Vocabulary
Chapter 10 Critical Thinking
Chapter 10 Journal
Chapter 11 Setting
Chapter 11 Characters
Chapter 11 Plot
Chapter 11 Critical Thinking
Chapter 11 Journal
Chapter 12 Setting
Chapter 12 Characters
Chapter 12 Plot
Chapter 12 Critical Thinking
Chapter 12 Journal
Chapter 13 Setting
Chapter 13 Character
Chapter 13 Plot
Chapter 13 Critical Thinking
Chapter 13 Journal
Chapter 14 Setting
Chapter 14 Character
Chapter 14 Plot
Chapter 14 Critical Thinking
Chapter 14 Journal
Chapter 15 Setting
Chapter 15 Character
Chapter 15 Plot
Chapter 15 Critical Thinking
Chapter 15 Journal
Book Review
Chapter 13
Write it down
In what ways does Walter show personal growth in this chapter?
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The Way It Works: A Workbook Copyright © 2024 by Shantel Ivits is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.


96 Reading: Mary Kelly’s Post-Partum Document
Anyone who has been in the unpleasant position of changing a dirty nappy will know that normally your first instinct is to get it as far away from it as possible. So it might seem strange that American artist Mary Kelly (born 1941) took the liners of her son’s used cloth nappies, printed them with details of his diet, and displayed them as artworks. Causing some controversy at their debut exhibition, the nappy liners formed the first part of the epic and fascinating Post-Partum Document (1973-79)
Kelly has made works that examine complicated social issues such as the ramifications of war, and the politics of how our identities are constructed. In Post-Partum Document, she was engaging in a discussion that was happening at the emergence of second-wave feminism about the way in which women worked in the home. At a time where many feminist artists were looking at reclaiming the body through performance – such as Marina Abramovic and Carole Schneeman – or revising history in order to incorporate our foremothers – such as Judy Chicago – Kelly looked more directly at the invisible daily experience of women engaged in domestic labour.
Post-Partum Document consists of six sections of documentation that follow the development of Kelly’s son, Kelly Barrie, from birth until the age of five. Kelly intricately charts her relationship with her son, and her changing role as a mother by writing on artefacts associated with child care: baby clothes, his drawings, items he collects, and his first efforts at writing. In addition, there are detailed analytical texts that exist in parallel to the objects.
In “Documentation III: Analysed Markings and Diary Perspective Schema,” Kelly includes three types of text. She describes them in the documentation that accompanies their exhibition as:
R1 A condensed transcription of the child’s conversation, playing it back immediately following the recording session
R2 A transcription of the mother’s inner speech in relation to R1, recalling it during a playback later the same day
R3 A secondary revision of R2, one week later, locating the conversation (as object) within a specific time interval (as spatial metaphor) and rendering it “in perspective” (as a mnemic system)
Kelly’s documentations that accompany the work are heavily indebted to Lacanian psychoanalysis, which conceives of the unconscious as being structured like a language. This is interesting in relation to Post-Partum Document because it is so layered with text. The quote above strongly contrasts with extracts taken from column R1 (the transcripts) from the piece dated 27.9.75, which is written in lowercase on a typewriter. They state:
Come’n do it (wants to fly the kite)
Down dis, its falling. (I’m pretending to fly the kite)]
Ask Daddy flying the kite, go ask him (I say Daddy will fly it tomorrow)
We can see how much range there is in the text that she uses. Adding to this, there are the sections in R2 that provide a picture of an adult’s day to day interaction with a small child. This column is typed in capital letters, using the aesthetic of the text in order to separate the voices. From the same piece R2 reads:
I say it would be nice to take it outside as it’s very windy but it’s also very late so I try to change the subject.
As I started this game of pretending to fly the kite standing on a chair holding it and making sounds like wind, now I’m stuck with it.
He remembers promises very well.
Finally, in section R3, Kelly describes her anxiety following an accident in which her son drank liquid aspirin and had to be rushed to hospital. This section is handwritten and is much longer, with candid text that explores the difficulties of childrearing. A part of this section states:
Sometimes I forget to give him his medicine which makes me feel totally irresponsible or I just feel I wish it was all over i.e. he was “grown up” but my mother says it never ends the worry just goes on and on
Over the top of all this worry and analysis are Kelly Barrie’s drawings. They are typical of the drawings made by a young child, not much more than scribbles on rice paper. However, his lines cut over his mother’s careful work; their carelessness seems all the more free when contrasted with her deliberations.
What makes this piece important is the way in which motherhood – so often seen in art history as a sentimental connection between mother and child – is shown as a difficult and complex relationship. Kelly’s voice does not overbear her son’s, instead it exists in tandem; we see Kelly developing and adapting as much as her child.
This is an extensive project (comprising in total of 139 individual parts) and Kelly’s attention to the material qualities of these mundane objects is outstanding.


130 11.7 Plagiarism
As we have discussed in previous lessons, it is critical for you to give appropriate credit through footnotes or source attribution for ideas and information that you use in your writing. Further, the issue of plagiarism is very serious. It is crucial, then, that you learn the proper method for crediting the source of your information, no matter where it came from.
Ignorance about what is and is not plagiarism is not a good excuse for committing plagiarism, nor is it likely to stand up as an excuse that others will believe. In cases where you are not sure if you’re drifting into the realm of plagiarizing material, you are much better off citing the information and providing quotation marks when appropriate rather than making it seem as if you are representing another’s work as your own.
The synthesis step provides you with the last chance to identify missing information, catch errors, and make final decisions about the shape of the message. Along with the message analysis step that starts the information strategy process, the synthesis step is the most difficult task you face in your message process.


125 Pulmonary / Respiratory
Textbooks
Breathe Easy: RT Student Resource for Mechanical Ventilation by Yvonne Drasovean (CC BY-NC-SA).
A primer on mechanical ventilation intended for respiratory therapy students. Offering a blend of theoretical principles and practical illustrations, this book provides an engaging platform for students to develop the essential skills necessary for the effective application of mechanical ventilation in clinical practice.
Pulmonary Pathophysiology for Pre-Clinical Students by Andrew P. Binks (CC BY-NC-SA).
This text is an undergraduate medical-level resource for foundational knowledge of pulmonary pathophysiology. This text is designed for a pre-clinical undergraduate medical curriculum and is aligned to USMLE(r) (United States Medical Licensing Examination) content guidelines. The text is meant to provide the essential information in a concise format that would allow learner preparation to engage in an active classroom. Clinical correlates and additional application of content is intended to be provided in the classroom experience. The text assumes that the students will have an understanding of basic pulmonary physiology that will be helpful to understand the content presented here. This resource should be assistive to the learner later in medical school and for exam preparation given the material is presented in a succinct manner, with a focus on high-yield concepts.
Pulmonary Physiology for Pre-Clinical Students by Andrew P. Binks (CC BY-NC-SA).
This text is an undergraduate medical-level resource for foundational knowledge of pulmonary physiology. This text is designed for a pre-clinical medical curriculum and is aligned to USMLE(r) (United States Medical Licensing Examination) content guidelines. The text is meant to provide the essential information in a concise format that would allow learner preparation to engage in an active classroom. Clinical correlates and additional application of content is intended to be provided in the classroom experience. This resource should be assistive to the learner later in medical school and for exam preparation given the material is presented in a succinct manner, with a focus on high-yield concepts.


Sources and Suggested Readings
I recommend Dwight Drake’s book Business Planning: Closely Held Enterprises as Professor Drake covers more than what I cover here, including the use of insurance and trusts.
Cisco Palao-Ricketts, Stock option grant checklist for startups, DLA Piper.
Noel P. Brock, Treating partners as employees: Risks to consider, Journal of Accountancy.
Dana S. Fried, Always Consider the Tax Aspects of Employer-Employee Loans, CohnReznick.
Sample Stock Option Plan, Jackson Walker L.L.P.
26 U.S.C. § 707.
26 U.S.C. § 162.
26 U.S.C. § 263.
26 U.S.C. § 125.
26 U.S.C. § 83.
26 U.S.C. § 421–422.


Contemporary Context
1861 – “Miss Emily Faithfull”
Context
This article, published in The Illustrated London News on November 30, 1861, describes Emily Faithfull’s efforts to found a printing press run and staffed by women. Notably, this essay appeared during a time when popular sentiment about women’s employment was beginning to shift. Of course, women had long been working to earn a living, but many of the avenues open to them were in ‘domestic’ trades—being a servant, laundress, or lacemaker among them. Professions in the “public sphere”—including positions in law, medicine, or the navy, were generally seen as out-of-bounds for women because of a fear that they would neglect their duties to their families. In this article, we can see a distinction between the domestic labor open to women and the so-called “skilled labor” that many felt was unsuitable for women.
If you are interested in reader history, this article may give you a sense of some of the dominant attitudes that a middle-class Victorian woman might face—or challenge—during the late 1850s and early 1860s. Some questions you might consider:
- Are there any moments in this article when the writer seems to be describing Emily Faithfull in particularly gendered ways (masculine or feminine)?
- What strikes you as significant about the arguments in favor of women learning this trade?
- Do you see any common themes arising in the titles of the tracts that her press publishes?
- Are there any attitudes depicted in this article that affect your thoughts about Marian Halcombe’s portrayal in The Woman in White? If so, how do they do so?
Miss Emily Faithfull
This lady, whose Portrait, engraved from a photograph by Mr. Herbert Watkins, we this week present to our readers, is the youngest daughter of the Rev. Ferdinand Faithfull, Rector of Headley, Surrey, where she was born, on the 27th of May, 1836. Although she is only in her 26th year, she has for some time led a life of active public usefulness, and has already laid the foundation of an establishment the social importance of which it is difficult to overrate.
When the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women was established, in August, 1859, she became a member of the first committee, and she subsequently acted as secretary and superintended the practical working of the society. Early in the year 1860 the council of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science appointed a committee to “consider and report to the council on the best means which the association could adopt to assess the present movement for increasing the industrial employment of women.” The members of this committee were the Right Hon. the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Hon. A. Kinnaird, M.P., Mr. E. Ackroyd, Mr. Hastings, Mr. Horace Malin, Mr. W. S. Cookson, Mrs. Jameson, Miss Parkes, Miss Adelaide Proctor, Miss Bouchet, Miss Craig, and Miss Emily Faithfull.[1]
As the labors of the committee proceeded it became evident to all the members, but especially to Miss Faithfull, that women wanted only training to become qualified to act as compositors for the press, and that, provided this training could be given, a new and extensive field for skilled female labour might be opened. Miss Faithfull, whose active and energetic mind delighted rather in the practical development than in the tranquil discussion of a theory, seized upon the idea thus presented to her, and at once proceeded to test its value by establishing a printing-press for the employment of women in Great Coramstreet, on March 25, 1860.
Her project was first viewed with considerable distrust. The advocates of the “family principle” contended that the proper sphere of women’s usefulness was her home, and that her duty was the ministration to the comfort of her husband and children. Those who used this argument forgot, conveniently enough, that all women are not blessed with husbands and children; and that a large majority of those who are married must themselves labour constantly if they would preserve home in comfort for those who are dear to them.
There were other opponents who did not deny that women must work, but objected to the occupation which Miss Faithfull had selected for them as being unfeminine. This objection, however, on being analyzed, was found to mean merely that the occupation now provided for women had not previously been open to them. It could not be denied that women had been employed for many years on tasks little suited to them. There had long been a great and constant demand for unskilled labour of all kinds, but the market for skilled labour had been closed to women. The novelty of Miss Faithfull’s proceedings lay in her endeavor to open the market of skilled labour to her countrywomen, and to find for them an occupation which is in reality more feminine than many to which they had long been accustomed.
After a little while the public, guided by the press, began to perceive the social importance of Miss Faithfull’s undertaking; the objectors were silenced, offers of assistance were mad, and work was freely given to her, and, in two or three months after the establishment of the press, her Majesty signified her gracious approval of the press which is called by her name.
Difficulties of another kind, however, had yet to be overcome. Miss Faithfull had contended that women are fitted equally with men to become skillful compositors; but neither men nor women are instinctively compositors, and Miss Faithfull found herself compelled either to abandon her undertaking, or to employ persons unfamiliar with the work allotted to them, and train them under the heavy pressure of daily duties, and in spite of the jealous opposition of the trade.
That these difficulties have been successfully overcome—that the press has been firmly established—that a number of women have become skillful compositors, and have performed a large amount of work to the entire satisfaction of their employers, are facts worthy of attentive consideration, even in this great age of undertakings. But that all this should have been done by a young lady bred up in the seclusion of a country vicarage, and not previously acquainted with the business, is a fact more noticeable still.
Having now succeeded in establishing the Victoria Press, Miss Faithfull is now seeking to give it a special character, and to make it auxiliary to the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, for which she is an active member, in the public proceedings of which she has frequently taken part, and in which her own undertaking had its origin. She proposes, by the issue of cheap and simple tracts, to call public attention from time to time to great social improvements. She has already published a tract on Post Office Savings-banks, of which more than 60,000 have been sold; and a tract entitled “Friendless Girls, and How to Help Them.” To these she contemplates adding tracts on “Prison Discipline,” on the “Poor Laws and Workhouses,” on the “Emigration of Educated Women,” and on “Life Insurance by Small Payments,” all of which will be written by persons thoroughly acquainted with the subjects of which they treat.
At present, however, she has in hand a work of more pretension. The “Victoria Regia,” a Christmas book of prose and verse, will shortly be issued from her press. It will contain contributions from nearly all of the most eminent authors of our day who, with generous willingness to aid the cause which she has at heart, have placed their time and their talent at her service. Amongst these contributors are the Poet Laureate, Mr. Thackeray, Mr. John Forster, Mr. Trollope, miss Mulock, Mr. Henry Reeve, Mr. Chorley, Mr. Monckton Milnes, Coventry pat more, Mr. Venables, Owen Meredith, Mr. Dobell, Miss Procter, and many others. The initial letters and the tailpieces to the articles have been designed and carved in wood by ladies, and the editorial superintendence has been undertaken by Miss Procter, who, with a talent which few possess, and a philanthropic heartiness of which even fewer persons can boast, has labored unremittingly to make the work worthy of the cause it is intended to promote, and of the Sovereign who has already signified her approbation of its progress.
Source
“Miss Emily Faithfull.” The Illustrated London News, London, Vol. 39 No. 1119, 11 November 1861, p. 538. Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/illustratedlondov39lond/page/n525.
- This list testifies to some of the ways that gender and class cropped up in everyday writing. Here, people are organized by gender and status. Higher-status men appear first, followed by untitled men. Next comes a married woman. The last to appear are the five unmarried women on the committee—including Emily Faithfull. ↵


18 Five Rules of Textbook Development
The below list provides five rules that help guide the development of a good textbook.[1]
1. Rule of frameworks
Memory and understanding are promoted by the use of a structure that mimics the structures we all use within our minds to store information. Before we can use or master a subject, we have to have a mental road map that allows us to navigate within and through the subject domain. The text can best aid understanding by making this framework visible early on within each section or topic. The extent to which the student understands that they are using a framework, and knows what that framework is, is important as they internalize and make use of the material presented.
2. Rule of meaningful names
Everything we know is tagged with an index or a title. These indices are critical to the ability to recall or retrieve the things we know and remember. Each concept, process, technique or fact presented should aid the student to assign a meaningful name for it in their own mental organization of the material. To be most useful, these names shouldn’t have to be relearned at higher levels of study. The names assigned by the text should be useful in that they support some future activities: communication with other practitioners, reference within the text to earlier mastered material, and conformity to the framework used for the subject. Each unique element of the subject domain should have a unique name, and each name should be used for only one element.
3. Rule of manageable numbers
When we learn from an outline, an illustration, or an example, most of us are limited in our ability to absorb new material. As we become familiar with part of a subject domain this number expands, but for new material four to six new elements is a reasonable limit. If a chapter outline contains twelve items, the student will have forgotten the outline before getting to the last item. When a text fails to support this rule, it requires even a diligent student to needlessly repeat material.
4. Rule of hierarchy
Our mental frameworks are hierarchical. Learning is aided by using the student’s ability to couple or link new material with that already mastered. When presenting new domains for hierarchical understanding, the rules for meaningful names and manageable numbers have increased importance and more limited application. A maximum of three levels of hierarchy should be presented at one time. The root should be already mastered, the current element under consideration clearly examined, and lower levels outlined only to the extent that they help the student understand the scope or importance of the current element. This area is supplemented by two more rules within this rule: those of Connectivity and Cohesion. Connectivity requires consideration of what the student likely knows at this point. The more already mastered elements that one can connect with a new element, the easier it is to retain. Cohesion requires that the characteristics of new elements as they are presented be tightly coupled.
5. Rule of repetition
Most people learn by repetition, and only a few with native genius can achieve mastery without it. There is a pattern of repetition that aids in promoting the elements of a subject from short-term to long-term memory. Implementations of this rule may mean that frameworks and important hierarchies are repeated as many as five or six times, while frequently used elements are repeated three or four times, and elements of lesser utility may not be repeated at all. The first repetition should normally occur within a day of first presentation, followed by a gradually decreasing frequency. Exercises and review sections are ideally contributing to a designed repetition pattern.
Attributions
The content in this chapter comes from Wikibooks:Textbook considerations and is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 Licence.
Long Descriptions
5 Rules of Textbook Development long description:
- The rule of frameworks means maintain a consistent structure. The text can best aid understanding by making this framework visible early on.
- The rule of meaningful names means create and use consistent titles and terminologies. The names are critical to the ability to recall or retrieve the things we know and remember.
- The rule of manageable numbers means limit the amount of new information introduced at one time.
- Rule of hierarchy means new knowledge builds on learned knowledge. The student needs to understand the foundational knowledge before being introduced to a new concept. When new concepts are introduced the should be explicitly connected to the foundational material.
- The rule of repetition means repeat important concepts. There is a pattern of repetition that aids in promoting the elements of a subject from short-term to long-term memory.
[Return to 5 rules of textbook development image]
- "Wikibooks:Textbooks considerations," Wikibooks, https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Textbook_considerations (accessed January 24, 2018). ↵