Chapter 5. Electric Charges and Fields
5.7 Electric Dipoles
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe a permanent dipole
- Describe an induced dipole
- Define and calculate an electric dipole moment
- Explain the physical meaning of the dipole moment
Earlier we discussed, and calculated, the electric field of a dipole: two equal and opposite charges that are “close” to each other. (In this context, “close” means that the distance d between the two charges is much, much less than the distance of the field point P, the location where you are calculating the field.) Let’s now consider what happens to a dipole when it is placed in an external field [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}[/latex]. We assume that the dipole is a permanent dipole; it exists without the field, and does not break apart in the external field.
Rotation of a Dipole due to an Electric Field
For now, we deal with only the simplest case: The external field is uniform in space. Suppose we have the situation depicted in Figure 5.32, where we denote the distance between the charges as the vector [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{d}},[/latex] pointing from the negative charge to the positive charge. The forces on the two charges are equal and opposite, so there is no net force on the dipole. However, there is a torque:
The quantity [latex]q\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{d}}[/latex] (the magnitude of each charge multiplied by the vector distance between them) is a property of the dipole; its value, as you can see, determines the torque that the dipole experiences in the external field. It is useful, therefore, to define this product as the so-called dipole moment of the dipole:
We can therefore write
Recall that a torque changes the angular velocity of an object, the dipole, in this case. In this situation, the effect is to rotate the dipole (that is, align the direction of [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{p}}[/latex]) so that it is parallel to the direction of the external field.
Induced Dipoles
Neutral atoms are, by definition, electrically neutral; they have equal amounts of positive and negative charge. Furthermore, since they are spherically symmetrical, they do not have a “built-in” dipole moment the way most asymmetrical molecules do. They obtain one, however, when placed in an external electric field, because the external field causes oppositely directed forces on the positive nucleus of the atom versus the negative electrons that surround the nucleus. The result is a new charge distribution of the atom, and therefore, an induced dipole moment (Figure 5.33).
An important fact here is that, just as for a rotated polar molecule, the result is that the dipole moment ends up aligned parallel to the external electric field. Generally, the magnitude of an induced dipole is much smaller than that of an inherent dipole. For both kinds of dipoles, notice that once the alignment of the dipole (rotated or induced) is complete, the net effect is to decrease the total electric field [latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{\text{total}}={\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{\text{external}}+{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{\text{dipole}}[/latex] in the regions inside the dipole charges (Figure 5.34). By “inside” we mean in between the charges. This effect is crucial for capacitors, as you will see in Capacitance.
Recall that we found the electric field of a dipole in Equation 5.7. If we rewrite it in terms of the dipole moment we get:
The form of this field is shown in Figure 5.34. Notice that along the plane perpendicular to the axis of the dipole and midway between the charges, the direction of the electric field is opposite that of the dipole and gets weaker the further from the axis one goes. Similarly, on the axis of the dipole (but outside it), the field points in the same direction as the dipole, again getting weaker the further one gets from the charges.
Summary
- If a permanent dipole is placed in an external electric field, it results in a torque that aligns it with the external field.
- If a nonpolar atom (or molecule) is placed in an external field, it gains an induced dipole that is aligned with the external field.
- The net field is the vector sum of the external field plus the field of the dipole (physical or induced).
- The strength of the polarization is described by the dipole moment of the dipole, [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{p}}=q\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{d}}[/latex].
Key Equations
| Coulomb’s law | [latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}}_{12}\left(r\right)=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{{q}_{1}{q}_{2}}{{r}_{12}^{2}}{\hat{\textbf{r}}}_{12}[/latex] |
| Superposition of electric forces | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}\left(r\right)=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}Q\sum _{i=1}^{N}\frac{{q}_{i}}{{r}_{i}^{2}}{\hat{\textbf{r}}}_{i}[/latex] |
| Electric force due to an electric field | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}=Q\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}[/latex] |
| Electric field at point P | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}\left(P\right)\equiv \frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}\frac{{q}_{i}}{{r}_{i}^{2}}{\hat{\textbf{r}}}_{i}[/latex] |
| Field of an infinite wire | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}\left(z\right)=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{2\lambda }{z}\hat{\textbf{k}}[/latex] |
| Field of an infinite plane | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}=\frac{\sigma }{2{\epsilon }_{0}}\hat{\textbf{k}}[/latex] |
| Dipole moment | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{p}}\equiv q\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{d}}[/latex] |
| Torque on dipole in external E-field | [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\pmb{\tau }}=\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{p}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}[/latex] |
Conceptual Questions
What are the stable orientation(s) for a dipole in an external electric field? What happens if the dipole is slightly perturbed from these orientations?
Problems
Consider the equal and opposite charges shown below. (a) Show that at all points on the x-axis for which [latex]|x|\gg a,E\approx {Qa\text{/}2\pi \epsilon }_{0}{x}^{3}.[/latex] (b) Show that at all points on the y-axis for which [latex]|y|\gg a,E\approx {Qa\text{/}\pi \epsilon }_{0}{y}^{3}.[/latex]
Show Solution
[latex]{E}_{x}=0,[/latex]
[latex]{E}_{y}=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\left[\frac{2q}{\left({x}^{2}+{a}^{2}\right)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{a}{\sqrt{\left({x}^{2}+{a}^{2}\right)}}\right][/latex]
[latex]⇒x\gg a⇒\frac{1}{2\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{qa}{{x}^{3}}[/latex],
[latex]{E}_{y}=\frac{q}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\left[\frac{2ya+2ya}{{\left(y-a\right)}^{2}{\left(y+a\right)}^{2}}\right][/latex]
[latex]⇒y\gg a⇒\frac{1}{\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{qa}{{y}^{3}}[/latex]
(a) What is the dipole moment of the configuration shown above? If [latex]Q=4.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C}[/latex], (b) what is the torque on this dipole with an electric field of [latex]4.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{5}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N/C}\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex]? (c) What is the torque on this dipole with an electric field of [latex]-4.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{5}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N/C}\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex]? (d) What is the torque on this dipole with an electric field of [latex]±4.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{5}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N/C}\hat{\textbf{j}}[/latex]?
A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded with one oxygen atom. The bond angle between the two hydrogen atoms is [latex]104\text{°}[/latex] (see below). Calculate the net dipole moment of a water molecule that is placed in a uniform, horizontal electric field of magnitude [latex]2.3\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-8}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N/C}.[/latex] (You are missing some information for solving this problem; you will need to determine what information you need, and look it up.)
Show Solution
The net dipole moment of the molecule is the vector sum of the individual dipole moments between the two O-H. The separation O-H is 0.9578 angstroms:
[latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{p}}=1.889\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-29}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Cm}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex]
Additional Problems
Point charges [latex]{q}_{1}=2.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C}[/latex] and [latex]{q}_{1}=4.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C}[/latex] are located at [latex]{r}_{1}=\left(4.0\hat{\textbf{i}}-2.0\hat{\textbf{j}}+2.0\hat{\textbf{k}}\right)\text{m}[/latex] and [latex]{r}_{2}=\left(8.0\hat{\textbf{i}}+5.0\hat{\textbf{j}}-9.0\hat{\textbf{k}}\right)\text{m}[/latex]. What is the force of [latex]{q}_{2}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{on}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{q}_{1}?[/latex]
What is the force on the [latex]5.0\text{-}\mu \text{C}[/latex] charge shown below?
Show Solution
[latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}}_{\text{net}}=\left[-8.99\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{9}\frac{3.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\left(5.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\right)}{{\left(3.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{m}\right)}^{2}}-8.99\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{9}\frac{9.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\left(5.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\right)}{{\left(3.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{m}\right)}^{2}}\right]\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex],
[latex]-8.99\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{9}\frac{6.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\left(5.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\right)}{{\left(3.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{m}\right)}^{2}}\hat{\textbf{j}}=-0.06\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N}\hat{\textbf{i}}-0.03\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N}\hat{\textbf{j}}[/latex]
What is the force on the [latex]2.0\text{-}\mu \text{C}[/latex] charge placed at the center of the square shown below?
Four charged particles are positioned at the corners of a parallelogram as shown below. If [latex]q=5.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C}[/latex] and [latex]Q=8.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C},[/latex] what is the net force on q?
Show Solution
Charges Q and q form a right triangle of sides 1 m and [latex]3+\sqrt{3}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{m}.[/latex] Charges 2Q and q form a right triangle of sides 1 m and [latex]\sqrt{3}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{m}.[/latex]
[latex]\begin{array}{cc}{F}_{x}\hfill & =0.049\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N},\hfill \end{array}[/latex]
[latex]{F}_{y}=0.093\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N}[/latex],
[latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}}_{\text{net}}=0.036\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\hat{\textbf{i}}+0.09\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{N}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\hat{\textbf{j}}[/latex]
A charge Q is fixed at the origin and a second charge q moves along the x-axis, as shown below. How much work is done on q by the electric force when q moves from [latex]{x}_{1}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{to}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{x}_{2}?[/latex]
A charge [latex]q=-2.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C}[/latex] is released from rest when it is 2.0 m from a fixed charge [latex]Q=6.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C}.[/latex] What is the kinetic energy of q when it is 1.0 m from Q?
Show Solution
[latex]W=0.054\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{J}[/latex]
What is the electric field at the midpoint M of the hypotenuse of the triangle shown below?
Find the electric field at P for the charge configurations shown below.
Show Solution
a. [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\left(\frac{q}{{\left(2a\right)}^{2}}-\frac{q}{{a}^{2}}\right)\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex]; b. [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}=\frac{\sqrt{3}}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{q}{{a}^{2}}\left(\text{−}\hat{\textbf{j}}\right)[/latex]; c. [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}=\frac{2}{\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{q}{{a}^{2}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\text{−}\hat{\textbf{j}}\right)[/latex]
(a) What is the electric field at the lower-right-hand corner of the square shown below? (b) What is the force on a charge q placed at that point?
Point charges are placed at the four corners of a rectangle as shown below: [latex]{q}_{1}=2.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{C},[/latex] [latex]{q}_{2}=-2.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{C,}[/latex] [latex]{q}_{3}=4.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{C,}[/latex] and [latex]{q}_{4}=1.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{10}^{-6}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{C}.[/latex] What is the electric field at P?
Show Solution
[latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{\text{net}}={\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{1}+{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{2}+{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{3}+{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{4}=\left(4.65\hat{\textbf{i}}+1.44\hat{\textbf{j}}\right)×{10}^{7}N/C[/latex]
Three charges are positioned at the corners of a parallelogram as shown below. (a) If [latex]Q=8.0\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\mu \text{C},[/latex] what is the electric field at the unoccupied corner? (b) What is the force on a [latex]5.0\text{-}\mu \text{C}[/latex] charge placed at this corner?
A positive charge q is released from rest at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system and moves under the influence of the electric field [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}={E}_{0}\left(1+x\text{/}a\right)\hat{\textbf{i}}.[/latex] What is the kinetic energy of q when it passes through [latex]x=3a?[/latex]
Show Solution
[latex]F=q{E}_{0}\left(1+x\text{/}a\right)\phantom{\rule{0.5em}{0ex}}W=\frac{1}{2}m\left({v}^{2}-{v}_{0}^{2}\right)[/latex],
[latex]\frac{1}{2}m{v}^{2}=q{E}_{0}\left(\frac{15a}{2}\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{J}[/latex]
A particle of charge [latex]\text{−}q[/latex] and mass m is placed at the center of a uniformaly charged ring of total charge Q and radius R. The particle is displaced a small distance along the axis perpendicular to the plane of the ring and released. Assuming that the particle is constrained to move along the axis, show that the particle oscillates in simple harmonic motion with a frequency [latex]f=\frac{1}{2\pi }\sqrt{\frac{qQ}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}m{R}^{3}}}.[/latex]
Charge is distributed uniformly along the entire y-axis with a density [latex]{\lambda }_{y}[/latex] and along the positive x-axis from [latex]x=a\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{to}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}x=b[/latex] with a density [latex]{\lambda }_{x}.[/latex] What is the force between the two distributions?
Show Solution
Electric field of wire at x: [latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}\left(x\right)=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{2{\lambda }_{y}}{x}\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex],
[latex]dF=\frac{{\lambda }_{y}{\lambda }_{x}}{2\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\left(\text{ln}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}b-\text{ln}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}a\right)[/latex]
The circular arc shown below carries a charge per unit length [latex]\lambda ={\lambda }_{0}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{cos}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\theta ,[/latex] where [latex]\theta[/latex] is measured from the x-axis. What is the electric field at the origin?
Calculate the electric field due to a uniformly charged rod of length L, aligned with the x-axis with one end at the origin; at a point P on the z-axis.
Show Solution
[latex]d{E}_{x}=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{\lambda dx}{\left({x}^{2}+{a}^{2}\right)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{x}{\sqrt{{x}^{2}+{a}^{2}}}[/latex],
[latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{x}=\frac{\lambda }{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\left[\frac{1}{\sqrt{{L}^{2}+{a}^{2}}}-\frac{1}{a}\right]\hat{\textbf{i}}[/latex],
[latex]d{E}_{z}=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{\lambda dx}{\left({x}^{2}+{a}^{2}\right)}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{a}{\sqrt{{x}^{2}+{a}^{2}}}[/latex],
[latex]{\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}}_{z}=\frac{\lambda }{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}a}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{L}{\sqrt{{L}^{2}+{a}^{2}}}\hat{\textbf{k}}[/latex],
Substituting z for a, we have:
[latex]\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{E}}\left(z\right)=\frac{\lambda }{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\left[\frac{1}{\sqrt{{L}^{2}+{z}^{2}}}-\frac{1}{z}\right]\hat{\textbf{i}}+\frac{\lambda }{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}z}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{L}{\sqrt{{L}^{2}+{z}^{2}}}\hat{\textbf{k}}[/latex]
The charge per unit length on the thin rod shown below is [latex]\lambda .[/latex] What is the electric force on the point charge q? Solve this problem by first considering the electric force [latex]d\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}[/latex] on q due to a small segment [latex]dx[/latex] of the rod, which contains charge [latex]\lambda dx.[/latex] Then, find the net force by integrating [latex]d\stackrel{\to }{\textbf{F}}[/latex] over the length of the rod.
The charge per unit length on the thin rod shown here is [latex]\lambda .[/latex] What is the electric force on the point charge q? (See the preceding problem.)
Show Solution
There is a net force only in the y-direction. Let [latex]\theta[/latex] be the angle the vector from dx to q makes with the x-axis. The components along the x-axis cancel due to symmetry, leaving the y-component of the force.
[latex]d{F}_{\text{y}}=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{aq\lambda dx}{{\left({x}^{2}+{a}^{2}\right)}^{3\text{/}2}}[/latex],
[latex]{F}_{y}=\frac{1}{2\pi {\epsilon }_{0}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{q\lambda }{a}\left[\frac{l\text{/}2}{{\left({\left(l\text{/}2\right)}^{2}+{a}^{2}\right)}^{1\text{/}2}}\right][/latex]
The charge per unit length on the thin semicircular wire shown below is [latex]\lambda .[/latex] What is the electric force on the point charge q? (See the preceding problems.)
Glossary
- dipole moment
- property of a dipole; it characterizes the combination of distance between the opposite charges, and the magnitude of the charges
- induced dipole
- typically an atom, or a spherically symmetric molecule; a dipole created due to opposite forces displacing the positive and negative charges
- permanent dipole
- typically a molecule; a dipole created by the arrangement of the charged particles from which the dipole is created
Licenses and Attributions
Electric Dipoles. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-2/pages/5-7-electric-dipoles. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-2/pages/1-introduction


11.4 The Tory Oligarchy
The Château Clique
In Lower Canada the political elite that controlled the executive and legislative councils met at the governor’s château and were known as the Château Clique. Their other label, the “British Party,” reveals a second distinguishing feature. In a colony dominated demographically by French-speaking Catholics, the Tory leadership was drawn with few exceptions from the anglophone and Anglican population. A few francophone seigneurs rounded out the councils, but otherwise the voice of the Canadien majority was heard only in the assembly. As well, the councils controlled appointments to the judiciary and the civil service so they were in a good position to reward friends and punish opponents.
The most prominent members of the Clique were John Molson and James McGill, although McGill (a key player in the NWC) died in 1813. Their influence was powerful and typical of the Tory leadership. Even when Britain seemed likely to make concessions to the assembly, the Clique stood in its way. As merchants based mainly in Montreal, this tight network of friends and relations sought to perpetuate and expand their influence in the colony. They regarded the Catholic Church with suspicion (as did perhaps most Protestants), and they were continually concerned that the French culture represented a weakness, the soft underbelly of British North America. Keeping in mind that these Tories came of age in the years when France was supporting the American Revolution and throughout the Napoleonic Wars, it is easy to see how they might fear a reassertion of French power in Lower Canada. Their ongoing attempts after 1791 to undermine French and Catholic culture must be viewed in that context.
Supported by the governors,the Clique was able to deflect opposition from the assembly. Delay tactics by the elected members could only hold things up so long, and Britain’s interests were best served by the Clique. While the reformers were building momentum in the 1820s and 1830s, it was the Clique that would emerge intact and its assimilationist plans evidently realized in the Act of Union (1841).
The Family Compact
The situation was different in Upper Canada. There, the same instruments of government were in place: assembly, two councils, and (reporting to the governor general) a lieutenant-governor. The newness of Upper Canada ensured that there was nothing like a seigneurial class that might act as a lightening rod in opposition to the councils. Nor, of course, was there a linguistic/cultural divide across the colony to match the gulf between the anglophone Protestant elites and the francophone Catholics in Lower Canada. There were, however, important class, denominational, and geographic divisions.
The political elite in Upper Canada was strong on loyalism and fearful of change. Governor John Graves Simcoe brought together a group of leaders made up of Loyalists whom he knew were solidly Church of England men of wealth and aristocratic aspirations if not actual breeding. With these individuals he populated the executive and legislative councils. Simcoe’s successors went one step further: they used bullying and fear tactics to ensure that the assembly, as well, was dominated by their people. All four levels of the Upper Canadian government, then, was part of what would come to be called the Family Compact. They weren’t concerned about a return of French power, but they shared a collective dread of American republicanism and expansionism. This anxiety was matched by a fierce loyalty to the Crown and the ideals of a hierarchical society.
The institutions they built in these years were mainly geared to perpetuating their privilege while strengthening the colonial economy. The Bank of Upper Canada, the canal companies, King’s College (later the University of Toronto), and Upper Canada College were instruments for economic growth and the preservation of the Anglican ethos of the Family Compact. Under Bishop Strachan of Toronto, the Family Compact consolidated its authority through the Church, the judiciary, the government, and the support of those Upper Canadians for whom loyalism became a watchword after the War of 1812. These initiatives were part of a strategy and were not incremental or coincidental. An education system that perpetuated Tory values among an elite of young men, a patronage system that rewarded loyalism, and an economic strategy that reinforced consistently the central authority of Toronto and Kingston met the needs of the Family Compact first and foremost. Consider where their budgets and initiatives did not go: they avoided investment in education for the general public, there were no educational institutions for women, and they purposefully neglected the road system so as to force wheat traffic into the Great Lakes and canals corridor. These strategies were clearly meant to reinforce the status and authority of the colony’s elite and simultaneously stifle opposition.[1] On this latter point, vandalism and assaults on critics of the regime were further instruments of Tory power.
In some respects both the Château Clique and the Compact could not resist the liberal trends of the day. These were men who might like to see themselves as part of a Canadian aristocracy, but they were mostly merchants and investors – capitalists and entrepreneurs – who mostly made their fortunes through commerce, finance, and shipping.[2] Few belonged to the emergent professional classes and fewer still were Methodists or Presbyterians. Their Tory ideals attracted sufficient support because of their commitment to a hierarchy that was meant to look after the weak (noblesse oblige) while expecting deference in return. These leading families were, after all, at the forefront of philanthropy. And yet there was a “best-before date” on Toryism. Larger towns and a more complex judiciary necessitated the creation of a professional class of lawyers, surveyors, engineers, journalists, etc. However indebted to Toryism these professionals might have been for their income, they would come to represent an alternative voice, even for conservatism in Upper Canada.
Key Points
- The Family Compact and the Château Clique were cabals of the most powerful figures in the colonies outside of imperial administrators.
- Governors might come and go but the oligarchs were an element of continuity in the colonies.
- The Tory elites depended on and developed a class of liberal professionals whose services they needed and whose loyalty they often commanded, but this middle-class cohort was also the most vocal source of criticism of the oligarchies.
- G. M. Craig, “STRACHAN, JOHN,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 9, (University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003). Accessed March 25, 2015, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/strachan_john_9E.html ↵
- Jane Errington, The Lion, the Eagle, and Upper Canada: A Developing Colonial Ideology, 2nd edition (Montréal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press, 2012), 220-21. ↵


3.7 Limits of Democracy
The 1850s and 1860s witnessed the rise of a new class of political leaders and a new style of politics in British North America. The aristocratic airs of the Family Compact in Upper Canada and the HBC squirearchy on Vancouver Island were trademarks of a leadership caste on whom the sun was setting. In their place were men — and they were all men — of business, the law, and journalism. They were very much unlike their predecessors: wheelers, dealers, and professionals practiced at speaking and arguing a point. They weren’t without airs but they were willing to wade into a crowd and take on the mantle of populism. They were also men on the make; corruption, graft, and bribery were mainstays of Canadian politics. The Pacific Scandal was only the most consequential of what would be generations of pay-offs associated with the “railway hucksters” whose avarice and ambition, according to one historian, “plunged Canada into an orgy of railway overproduction.”[1] These conditions were not exclusive to Ottawa and federal politics: the railway binge in British Columbia that began in the 1890s and accelerated under Premier Richard McBride’s Conservatives was no less dubious in its ethics.
The culture of democracy in Victorian and Edwardian Canada was, effectively, an exclusive club. The federal government represented landowning farmers, merchants, and professionals — people who, by dint of their investment in the economy, were seen as stakeholders in the running of the country. And their qualifications were gilded, generally, by a better education. This is what privilege looked like in the late 19th century, and it helps to explain why the thought of overthrowing rather than voting out the government appealed to so many radicals in the labour movement and political activists on the left. It simply wasn’t their government.
The Franchise
The ballot box and Canadian-style parliamentary democracy held out the promise of an empowered public. The principle of responsible government was a premise of membership in the Dominion: it was seized upon by British Columbia when the colony became a province in 1871 and would be part of the package that created Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905. What remained at issue was how to define that public. Who was the electorate and how (and when) should they be allowed to express their preferences and cast their votes?
For working people these questions were extremely important. An electorate made up of the wealthy would result in governments that were bound to be unsympathetic to workers’ concerns. As workers’ populations increased in urban areas, the disconnect between governments (civic, provincial, and federal) that represented economic elites rather than the majority of city-dwellers became more apparent. As well, urban working people sometimes found themselves at odds with rural Canadians.
In large measure these conditions arose because of property qualifications and other limits on the electorate. During the period from 1867-1920 the provinces decided their own electoral rules and, for many of these years, they determined the federal qualifications as well. These were based first and foremost on race and gender. With few exceptions, Aboriginal people simply did not have the vote. Nor did Asians. Nor, until the Great War, did women of any ethnicity or social class. What most constrained the size of the (male) electorate, however, were qualifications based on property and income.
In 1885 the Macdonald government brought control of the federal franchise back to Ottawa. Adulthood was defined as 21 years and an income qualification was added at this time: $150 annually for rural Canadians; $300 for urban Canadians. At this time $2 a day in factory wages was fairly good for men working a six-day week.[2] Keep in mind that stoppages occurred for many reasons, including weather conditions. To take one example, the relatively well-paid coal miners of Vancouver Island appear to have only worked a 222-day work-year on average, which severely cut into their apparent high wages of $3 a day. In short, while some working men might have made the income target, many others did not. Property-ownership requirements were a further, and longer-standing restriction on working people, the majority of whom rented their homes. Technically the 1885 Electoral Franchise Act made allowances for tenants but this, too, was deceptive. Federally and provincially, what appears to be universal male suffrage was in fact only extended to males who satisfied residence requirements. While this might be an easy bar to reach in rural areas and small towns, it was much more elusive in areas of high labour mobility. Where seasonal labour prevailed, conditions might be worse still. In an environment where winter conditions prohibited work year-round in the forests, on the seas, along canals, and in the fields, the requirement of 12 months residence in the constituency was for many working people the last and highest hurdle.
Whole classes of men were excluded from the franchise for reasons beyond their control. Legal barriers were erected to prevent Aboriginal men from voting in several provinces, and in British Columbia it was illegal for Chinese men to vote, regardless of their wealth. Macdonald’s Electoral Franchise Act, 1885 took on these limitations and extended them to Aboriginal peoples who had earlier been able to vote. What’s more, Macdonald exploited provisions for a federally-managed voters’ list that would be assembled by party loyalists. This had predictable results. Voter fraud and impersonation, arbitrary and purposeful sabotage of voters’ names on the electoral rolls (which could leave them unqualified to vote), and the buying and selling of votes continued to be part and parcel of Canadian elections well into the 1890s.
The Liberal government under Wilfrid Laurier was more favourably disposed to decentralized management of elections and passed the voters’ rolls back to the provinces. This time, however, the ability to discriminate on the basis of local biases was curtailed. Aboriginal voting rights remained entangled in a complex of rules but the direct obstacles to Asians voting were lifted and then re-imposed via literacy requirements. Manitoba similarly restricted Slavic voters by requiring literacy in English, German, French, or a Scandinavian language. Putting the provinces in charge meant inevitable national disparities. Property qualifications remained in place in Quebec and the three Maritime provinces. The overall effect was to create and to entrench rules that ostensibly gave the vote to every male, aged 21 or more, who was a British subject (Canadian citizenship having not yet been invented), but to perpetuate local quirks that could strip a Canadian of his federal vote the moment he crossed a provincial boundary line.
Labour’s Parties
Internationalism was a tenet of the socialist movement in the 19th century. But forging connections with labour organizations in Britain, let alone France or Germany, was an improbable task for Canadian workers. By default international became continental, as Canadian associations partnered up with larger American organizations. As a threat to the Canadian political elite, this was a kind of double-jeopardy: not only did the unions pose an apparent threat to the profit margin of Canadian businesses, they were aligned with organizations based in what many Canadians regarded as a (commercially and politically) hostile neighbour.
Despite the impediments, popular interest in electoral politics grew and by the 1880s the working class was making forays into electoral politics. One way they did so was through an American organization: Knights of Labor candidates began to run in Canadian elections. At the same time, middle-class Liberal and Conservative candidates were cutting their own cloth so as to appeal to workers, adopting policies and taking positions that echoed working-class concerns. The Tories and the Grits even endorsed working men in single-industry towns to run for office under their respective banners. The mainstream parties certainly made efforts to attract worker votes, and they embraced a more inclusive political rhetoric to that end.
For a while something similar happened in Britain and the other White Dominions. The Liberal government of Prime Minister William Gladstone won the loyalty of more than a generation of working-class British voters by significantly broadening the franchise to working men. In response, in the 1880s, British trade unionists and social reform-oriented intellectuals made their way into Gladstone’s Liberal Party and ran for election (with some success) as Liberal-Labour (Lib-Lab) candidates. More definitively, working-class parties also emerged: the Scottish Labour Party was founded in 1888 and the Independent Labour Party in 1893. In 1900, the Trades Union Congress (the British equivalent of the TLC) established the foundation of what later became the Labour Party in 1906. Parallel events occurred in Australia (from 1891) and New Zealand (between 1901 and 1916) but not in Canada. Why did turn-of-the-century Canadian labour move in a different direction?
The TLC’s close ties with the AFL offers an explanation. In the United States, the AFL favoured a strategy of pitting the Democrats against the Republicans on workers’ issues. The AFL’s leader, Samuel Gompers, took the view that labour should “reward its friends and punish its enemies” at the ballot box, and did not offer up an independent partisan alternative. As the AFL’s influence over the TLC grew, the door closed on a labour-left political alliance in Canada. Gompers regarded the socialists with contempt, describing them as “political healers,” akin to faith healers and mystics whose commitment to workers’ conditions was secondary to winning power. He was in favour, instead, of getting trade unionists elected to office who would then change the attitudes of the major North American political parties from the inside. The TLC followed this course and in 1902 voted the Knights out of the Congress’ membership and kept the SPC at bay. Direct involvement in politics by the TLC would have to wait until the 1960s.
The TLC’s strategy in the early 1900s was to run sympathetic candidates in the Liberal Party (generally regarded as more favourably disposed toward unions, at least until about 1906) and this met with some success. Canadian Lib-Lab candidates promoted an agenda of labourism, which consisted mostly of democratic reforms, the eight-hour day, a minimum wage, and educational opportunities for all.[3] The TLC in 1906 considered establishing a Labour Party but the British Columbian delegates saw this as too moderate an approach and established the Socialist Party of BC (SPBC). Other provincial labour centres then began generating parties of their own. In Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, Independent Labour Parties appeared. Credible candidates ran successfully in urban and mining districts. A Labour Party competed in elections in Quebec, principally in Montreal.
Ideological differences separated these various tactics and parties. As each organization grew stronger and as factionalism continued to grow, the opportunities for forging a national alliance receded. The first two decades of the 20th century would see the emergence of a distinct strain of revolutionary socialism on the West Coast that was profoundly out of sync with the rest of Canada’s labour movement, particularly those elements most influenced by what was going on in Britain.[4] This left wing of labour’s political arm rejected reformism and was stridently uncompromising when it came to capitalism and even more so when it came to labourist gradualism — and it was popular. Between 1907-1909 the SPBC’s support grew from 10% to 22% of the provincial vote and it elected two members of the legislative assembly. Its career thereafter is considered further in Chapter 8.
One Man, One Vote
If ever there was a golden age of Canadian democracy, it won’t be found in the years before the Great War. Middle-class arguments for inclusion in a democratic order revolved around the idea of being invested in a community: having a home, a residence, a business, and being part of that wealth-generating class that at first drove the market towns and was now building the industrial cities. Giving the vote to working men who lacked wealth, education, and property, not to mention a permanent residence in the community in which they proposed to vote, required a significant readjustment of principles. There were, too, those who expected working men to vote as their employer told them to. This was, in fact, how things worked in the days before the secret ballot, which only arrived in most parts of Canada in 1874.
In short, democratic avenues to social and political change were not especially welcoming to working people. Efforts were made to make it otherwise, but it would take the transformative power of a World War to effect real changes. Organizations like the Knights stand out as an early attempt to lay claim to the politics of identity: they articulated a kind of class consciousness — one based on the dignity of labour — but they were not socialists. Where the impact of the Knights was more lasting was in its role as a movement of reform. It offered a critique of the values of late Victorian capitalism that survived in various forms for generations.
Key Points
- Democracy in early post-Confederation Canada was limited by income, property, residence, race, and gender.
- Provincial restrictions on the franchise influenced federal rules as well.
- Political organizations representing labour and/or working people did not develop in Canada the same way they did in other parts of the British Empire.
- Labour’s political strategies often involved supporting the Liberal or Conservative parties, although the hard left ran socialist candidates.
Attributions
Figure 3.38
A Vote for the National Policy (Online MIKAN no.3939876) by Library and Archives Canada, 1983-33-1095 is in the public domain.
- Bryan D. Palmer, Working-Class Experience: Rethinking the History of Canadian Labour, 1800-1991, 2nd ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), 82-3. ↵
- Information on wages in the 19th century is difficult to come by and few studies extant offer comprehensive data. The Royal Commission on the Relations of Labor and Capital of 1889 interviewed workers and supervisors who generally placed men’s wages between $7 and $15 per week. Women’s wages were typically half that of men, and children’s wages sometimes half again. ↵
- Palmer, Working-Class Experience, 177. ↵
- Donald Avery, Reluctant Host: Canada's Response to Immigrant Workers, 1896-1994 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1995), 64-5. ↵


129 The Core of Keynesian Analysis
Learning Objectives
- Describe the Keynesian view of recessions through an understanding of sticky wages, prices, and aggregate demand
- Explain the coordination argument, menu costs, and macroeconomic externalities as they relate to Keynesian economics
The Building Blocks of Keynesian Analysis
Now that we have a clear understanding of what constitutes aggregate demand, we return to the Keynesian argument using the model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply (AD–AS).
Keynesian economics focuses on explaining why recessions and depressions occur and offers a policy prescription for minimizing their effects. The Keynesian view of recession is based on two key building blocks:
- First, aggregate demand is not always automatically high enough to provide firms with an incentive to hire enough workers to reach full employment.
- Second, the macroeconomy may adjust only slowly to shifts in aggregate demand because of sticky wages and prices, which are wages and prices that do not respond quickly to decreases or increases in demand. We will consider these two claims in turn, and then see how they are represented in the AS–AD model.
Low Aggregate Demand
The first building block of the Keynesian diagnosis is that recessions occur when the level of household and business sector demand for goods and services is less than what is produced when labor is fully employed. In other words, the intersection of aggregate demand and aggregate supply occurs at a level of output less than the level of GDP consistent with full employment. Suppose the stock market crashes, as occurred in 1929. Or, suppose the housing market collapses, as occurred in 2008. In either case, household wealth will decline, and consumption expenditure will follow. Suppose businesses see that consumer spending is falling. That will reduce expectations of the profitability of investment, so businesses will decrease investment expenditure.This seemed to be the case during the Great Depression, since the physical capacity of the economy to supply goods did not alter much. No flood or earthquake or other natural disaster ruined factories in 1929 or 1930. No outbreak of disease decimated the ranks of workers. No key input price, like the price of oil, soared on world markets.
The U.S. economy in 1933 had just about the same factories, workers, and state of technology as it had had four years earlier in 1929—and yet the economy had shrunk dramatically. This also seems to be what happened in 2008. Although production capacity existed, businesses were not able to sell their products at the same rate. As a result, real GDP fell below potential GDP.
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Wage and Price Stickiness
Keynes also pointed out that although AD fell, prices and wages did not immediately respond as economists often expected. Instead, prices and wages are “sticky,” making it difficult to restore the economy to full employment and potential GDP. Keynes emphasized one particular reason why wages were sticky: the coordination argument. This argument points out that, even if most people would be willing—at least hypothetically—to see a decline in their own wages in bad economic times as long as everyone else also experienced such a decline, a market-oriented economy has no obvious way to implement a plan of coordinated wage reductions. Our earlier discussion of cyclical unemployment offered a number of reasons why wages might be sticky downward, most of which center on the argument that businesses avoid wage cuts because they may in one way or another depress morale and hurt the productivity of the existing workers.
Some modern economists have argued in a Keynesian spirit that, along with wages, other prices may be sticky, too. Many firms do not change their prices every day or even every month. When a firm considers changing prices, it must consider two sets of costs. First, changing prices uses company resources: managers must analyze the competition and market demand and decide what the new prices will be, sales materials must be updated, billing records will change, and product labels and price labels must be redone. Second, frequent price changes may leave customers confused or angry—especially if they find out that a product now costs more than expected. These costs of changing prices are called menu costs—like the costs of printing up a new set of menus with different prices in a restaurant. Prices do respond to forces of supply and demand, but from a macroeconomic perspective, the process of changing all prices throughout the economy takes time.
To understand the effect of sticky wages and prices in the economy, consider Figure 1(a) illustrating the overall labor market, while Figure 1(b) illustrates a market for a specific good or service. The original equilibrium (E0) in each market occurs at the intersection of the demand curve (D0) and supply curve (S0). When aggregate demand declines, the demand for labor shifts to the left (to D1) in Figure 1(a) and the demand for goods shifts to the left (to D1) in Figure 1(b). However, because of sticky wages and prices, the wage remains at its original level (W0) for a period of time and the price remains at its original level (P0).
As a result, a situation of excess supply—where the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded at the existing wage or price—exists in markets for both labor and goods, and Q1 is less than Q0 in both Figure 1(a) and Figure 1(b). When many labor markets and many goods markets all across the economy find themselves in this position, the economy is in a recession; that is, firms cannot sell what they wish to produce at the existing market price and do not wish to hire all who are willing to work at the existing market wage.
WHY IS THE PACE OF WAGE ADJUSTMENTS SLOW?
The recovery after the Great Recession in the United States has been slow, with wages stagnant, if not declining. In fact, many low-wage workers at McDonalds, Dominos, and Walmart have threatened to strike for higher wages. Their plight is part of a larger trend in job growth and pay in the post–recession recovery.
The National Employment Law Project compiled data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics and found that, during the Great Recession, 60% of job losses were in medium-wage occupations. Most of them were replaced during the recovery period with lower-wage jobs in the service, retail, and food industries. This data is illustrated in Figure 2.
Wages in the service, retail, and food industries are at or near minimum wage and tend to be both downwardly and upwardly “sticky.” Wages are downwardly sticky due to minimum wage laws; they may be upwardly sticky if insufficient competition in low-skilled labor markets enables employers to avoid raising wages that would reduce their profits. At the same time, however, the Consumer Price Index increased 11% between 2007 and 2012, pushing real wages down.
The Two Keynesian Assumptions in the AS–AD Model
These two Keynesian assumptions—the importance of aggregate demand in causing recession and the stickiness of wages and prices—are illustrated by the AD–AS diagram in Figure 3. Note that because of the stickiness of wages and prices, the aggregate supply curve is flatter than either supply curve (labor or specific good). In fact, if wages and prices were so sticky that they did not fall at all, the aggregate supply curve would be completely flat below potential GDP, as shown in Figure 3. This outcome is an important example of a macroeconomic externality, where what happens at the macro level is different from the sum of what happens at the micro level.
The original equilibrium of this economy occurs where the aggregate demand function (AD0) intersects with AS. Since this intersection occurs at potential GDP (Yp), the economy is operating at full employment. When aggregate demand shifts to the left, all the adjustment occurs through decreased real GDP. There is no decrease in the price level. Since the equilibrium occurs at Y1, the economy experiences substantial unemployment.
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Watch It
Watch the selected portion of this video to learn about the basic assumptions and recommendations of Keynesian analysis.
Learning Objectives
- coordination argument:
- downward wage and price flexibility requires perfect information about the level of lower compensation acceptable to other laborers and market participants
- expenditure multiplier:
- Keynesian concept that asserts that a change in autonomous spending causes a more than proportionate change in real GDP
- macroeconomic externality:
- occurs when what happens at the macro level is different from and inferior to what happens at the micro level; an example would be where upward sloping supply curves for firms become a flat aggregate supply curve, illustrating that the price level cannot fall to stimulate aggregate demand
- menu costs:
- costs firms face in changing prices
- sticky wages and prices:
- a situation where wages and prices do not fall in response to a decrease in demand, or do not rise in response to an increase in demand


Health and Medicine
96 The Effects of Drugs in STS
Gabi Oaks
Introduction
Illegal drugs have impacted society, science, and technology in many ways. The effects on society are ruthless, but the advancements of science and technology have made it easier to detect these illegal substances and expand treatment options for substance users. As more and more people are introduced to illegal substances, it is important to know how it has changed technology, implemented science, and impacted the people around us. Throughout this chapter, the science behind factors influencing drug use and reasons why, the categories of effects, and ways technology has improved and deteriorated drug use will be discussed.
Connection to STS
Illegal substances are connected to every part of STS. The societal effects are what people are most familiar with. Two of the most alarming societal issues around drug use is the decreasing age of first-time users and the negative drug stigma. Those that use are referred to as druggies, worthless, addicts, a waste of time, and hopeless. As a society that should be supporting them and helping them, we have pushed drug users away by giving them no support and calling them terrible names. As a way of attempting to improve the stigma around drug use, people are starting to rename one’s “addiction” or “problem” as a substance use disorder. However, STS isn’t just about society. Science and technology intertwine and have affected the drug industry tremendously. Science is used for drug research, making treatment options, and learning about how drugs affect others. Technological uses that involve substance use includes selling/transportation of drugs, finding ways to decrease use, improving communication, etc. Throughout the rest of the chapter, these connections will be explained.
What Influences Drug Use
According to the book, Drugs Across the Spectrum, there are 3 main influences of drug use. These influences/factors include individual, interpersonal, and institutional. Almost all influencers can fall under these categories (Goldberg, 2023).
Individual factors include one’s genetic makeup, attitudes, coping skills, etc. Genetics is a main influence in individual factors of drug use. In addition to a parents’ relationship with drugs, the traits they pass down to their children can also influence drug use. Those who have parents with substance disorders also tend to have addictive personalities. Therefore, they are at higher risk of using drugs. There is also a connection between personality and drug use. The 4 most related personality traits with drug use are rebelliousness, delinquency, psychopathology, and impulsivity (Brook et al. 2001). These negative personality traits are associated with drug users, especially adolescents.
Interpersonal factors include relationships with close friends, family, peers, etc. Although many people say that drug use is always “a person’s choice”, it is not as simple as it seems. A major influence of drug use is your relationship with your family, and if they have been involved in drug use. Those that are in healthy relationships and have good communication with their family members tend to steer away from drugs. Those that were in abusive households, neglected, or high-drug activity neighborhoods are at greater risk to take drugs. Also, parents that struggle with substance use are associated with lack of parenting skills, housing insecurity, and neglecting their children (Goldberg, 2023). Also, according to the article, Adolescents who used illegal drugs, as compared to those who did not, were 3x as likely to have family members who had problems with illegal drug use (Brook et al. 2001).
Institutional factors include things that promote/constrict health. A popular institutional factor, and hard to control for younger users, is your location. Being in a known drug neighborhood gives one easier access, more exposure/comfortability, and encourages drug normality. According to a survey conducted on over 200 kids, most of those that live in high-activity neighborhoods for drug abuse say that it is almost unavoidable (Mcintosh et al. 2005). Referring back to the stigma paragraph earlier, many see no hope for these areas of high drug activity, and they tend to have less maintenance and access to sports, clubs, and life outside of their neighborhood.  Things that could promote health in these areas are playgrounds, club sports/teams, counseling, and religious meetings.
In addition to these main influential factors, there is another influencer that plays a major role in teenagers. Peer pressure/peer influence happens when someone feels pressured to fit in or is coerced into doing what others are doing, directly or indirectly. During the teenage years, we go through a lot of changes. One of them is shifting our focus from our own/our parents’ opinions to our peers. We start to care more about what we look like and what others are doing in order to try and “find a sense of belonging” (Goldberg, 2023). During high school and college, partying is looked at as a popular social gathering, and most adolescents strive to be popular and liked. Also, according to a survey of adolescents, the best way to resist drug use is to be associated with non-drug users, which eliminates the opportunities of peer pressure.
REASONS TO USE
There can be many influencers of drugs, however that does not guarantee drug use. There have to be reasons why one might have a substance use disorder. Some of the most common ones are stress management, boredom, experimentation or curiosity, and enjoyment.
Stress comes from a multitude of things and comes in different amplitudes depending on the person. Those that cope with stress by using substances often do so because of academics/job and familial struggles. For people, academics and jobs are a major stress trigger in our lives. They both can be a career, take a lot of time and effort, and determine our future. This amount of pressure causes stress in our lives, which as humans, we try to get rid of. Substance users turn to drugs because of immediacy, which is needing something to get done fast. In these cases, using substances can be a quick and easy fix to stress. Using substances for stress immediacy can be identified as a circumstantial-situational pattern (Goldberg, 2023). Basically, the more stress one might have, or think they have, the higher urge to use substances. This is most common in adults (Goldberg, 2023). Although academics can be a stressor for drug use, drug use also has an effect on academics. Out of those that cope with illegal drug use, they were 2x more likely to drop out compared to non-users (reasons why).
One of the most popular reasons to use, especially among adolescents, is due to boredom. Using substances creates a surreal experience, often seen as entertaining or enjoyable to younger audiences. According to Drugs Across the spectrum, ¼ of highschoolers participate in drug use because they are bored. Referring back to the partying environment, using drugs in a “party” setting helps those be more social, be relaxed, have a good laugh, and makes you feel happy (Mcintosh et al. 2005). Another reason why they may be used for teenage entertainment is because drugs/alcohol can be seen as more rewarding. (Goldberg, 2023). The minds of adolescents are underdeveloped and hyper-sensitive. Therefore, substances will have different effects on younger audiences compared to adults. To adolescents, the effects of drugs are more positive and enhanced compared to adults. In fact, 49% of high schoolers use drugs because “it feels good” (Goldberg, 2023).
As the saying goes, curiosity killed the cat. Many people use drugs for the first time because they want to see what it is like. They all have similar questions like why are other people doing this? What is this? What does this do? This category consists of the one or few-time users, who genuinely just wanted to see what it does. This usage normally doesn’t come from peer-pressure or triggers, considering these people only use a handful of times. On a survey out of 52 children, the majority of them (28) used it because they were curious and didn’t try it again (Mcintosh et al. 2005). If you think about it, a child’s curiosity of drugs can be sparked in elementary school. Raising awareness about “say no to drugs” and things like red ribbon week can cause curiosity in kids. Although for the right reasons, no matter how much you can tell someone no, it doesn’t guarantee anything. Also, through the rise of social media, kids are introduced to violence, drugs, sex, and alcohol earlier than older generations. They are more familiar with these substances, see others use it, (like in movies and videos) and think it is okay for them to (Goldberg, 2023).
The health Effects of Drug use
In STS, there is a lot that can affect a society. A society is a group of people that have a connection, like a community. Where we live, what we do, and what we contribute all affect society. The effects of illegal drug use are detrimental and widespread to people in a society. The short-term effects vary depending on what type of substance you take. The 3 most common types of drugs are depressants, stimulants, and opioids (Alcohol and Drug Foundation, 2023). Depressants can make someone feel drowsy, decreased coordination, less stimulated, and have altered perceptions. Depressants include drugs like alcohol, Xanax, and tranquilizers. Stimulants do the opposite of depressants. They make someone feel “happy” or energized, less hungry, more confident, and alert/awake (Alcohol and Drug Foundation, 2023). Stimulants include drugs like cocaine, meth, and nicotine. Opioids are different than stimulants and depressants. Their job is to relieve pain and release dopamine, which is a chemical in the body that causes happiness (Alcohol and Drug Foundation, 2023). Opioids make someone “feel good”. Opioids include oxycodone, heroin, and fentanyl. Although it depends on the drug, some common effects are anxiety, increased heart rate/blood pressure and euphoria. Also, all of these drugs have a “crash” or “come down” period that can leave people worse off than before they took the drug. This crash consists of extreme depression, confusion, fatigue, nausea, and headaches. Although drugs can provide a temporary relief, the downsides outweigh the good effects (Alcohol and Drug Foundation, 2023).
According to the book, Drugs Across the Spectrum, some of the physical effects of any type of long-term drug use include violence, physical dependency, physical strains, and even death (Goldberg, 2023). Physical dependency is described as what happens when the drug is taken away, which can also be called withdrawal. The body has gotten so used to the drug, that it messes up its function without it. A person may be extremely agitated, nervous, nauseated, etc. Physical strain can be described as the chronic pain conditions associated from drug use/abuse. Some users develop diseases (especially those who smoke things), chronic back pain or headaches, and disorders. These are mostly long-term effects of drug use. Most physical effects can be simplified for drug use. As stated, most have headaches, withdrawals, euphoria, etc. However, mental effects are different from person to person. Another effect of drug use is higher incarceration rates. Although arrest isn’t a bodily effect, those that use drugs tend to have higher crime/arrest rates (Caulkins, 2009).
The mental health of a person is what keeps one stable. When the mind is influenced by drugs, everything can change.  Those who take drugs tend to intentionally, or unintentionally, stray away from family and friends. Pushing people away while also having depression alters one’s mental health. In fact, one of the biggest reasons why people continue to use drugs is the psychological dependency (Goldberg, 2023). Financial hardships are very common among those who have substance use disorders. Many people tend to abuse their money, spend it rapidly, and contribute most of their money to supporting their drug use. As stated earlier, drugs are very easy to become mentally dependent on. A lot of times, people begin to feel like it is “the only thing there for them” or it is the only thing that can bring them happiness. Therefore, addiction is very easy to form. Lastly, using drugs and academics have a very negative relationship. The detention/drop out rates increase, test scores drop, and motives/drives for school decrease (Goldberg, 2023).
The mental and physical effects of drugs can also affect the relationships in the users’ life. Drugs can cause bad relationships with work, family, and friends. Obviously, using illegal substances at most businesses/jobs are prohibited. Therefore, one could get fired and lose their source of income. However, if no one knows, some signs of drug use are increased absences, less accountability, and decreased productivity. Also, if someone gets arrested, they could have a drug charge on their record and become less appealing to businesses when hiring. As stated above, family is one of the biggest influences on drug use. However, it is also affected the most by drugs. Family relationships tend to be strained when finding out a loved one is using. Although their relationship may be healthy, it is a tough situation to navigate. According to a study of almost 3,000 adolescents and their immediate families, a positive mother-child relationship decreases the chance of drug use (Brook et al. 2001). Also, maternal satisfaction from the child can serve as a buffer on drug use. Lastly, the use of drugs also impacts friend relationships. Depending on the situation, using drugs can break trust, reliability, and cause more arguments. The use of drugs can end a life-long friendship easily (Brook et al. 2001).
TECHNOLOGICAL USES
Technology in STS is limitless. When we think of technology, most people think of inventions and digital devices. However, technology is anything that can advance (or hurt) our way of living. Therefore, an important part of technology in the effects of drug use is how it is distributed. Distribution involves ways of transporting and selling things, which is a technological use. The most common form of distribution is selling in person. As said above, there are areas in our community that are known for high-drug activity. This can include selling, advertising, and even making substances in neighborhoods. Another way that technology influences people is how it is advertised. Although tobacco and nicotine are legal drugs, they are made to look appealing so people buy them. For example, e-cigarettes used to be advertised as “better for your health”. E-cigarettes, packaged in bright colors and flavors, are made to interest younger audiences as well (Goldberg, 2023).
Another form of distribution is across seas. After 110 interviews of incarcerated drug smugglers, ¾ of them used courier-based operations (Caulkins, 2009). A courier is a person/people who conceal drugs while traveling among the general public. Their job is to blend in and not be suspicious. The two types of “courier operations” or type of transport are by airline and by ferries. An airline courier operation is the most simple, easiest to conceal, and has the least amount of barriers before the final destination (Caulkins, 2009). However, as technology and security in airlines increase, courier operations are starting to become more risky. The second most common type is couriers by ferry. The only concern with this type of transportation is that it will cost the courier more money. Although they have less eyes on them and more places to conceal drugs, they have to pay for gas/tickets out of pocket. Other options of distribution require more time and effort; however the risks are lower. These include using lorry drivers, intermingling drugs with legitimate commerce, mailing drugs, and smuggling via boats between ports (Caulkins, 2009). By using lorry drivers, there would be “dummy trucks” that have drivers known for drug activity. They would come late at night and distract officers so that drivers with the real drugs would look less suspicious. Although mixing drugs and commerce together may seem risky, through this technique, one organization actually imported about ½ of total estimated UK heroin consumption at one point (Caulkins, 2009). Mailing drugs has also become a popular distribution tactic. By shipping directly to consumers, they get the product faster. Also, if multiple packages were coming to one location, it would look sketchy.
As technology has advanced, many things have shifted to being online. Education, Occupations, shopping, etc. can all be done online in today’s society. This can also include drug operations. When doing virtual drug deals, it decreases the chance of being busted by cops, it is more convenient, and easier to talk to consumers. When dealing online, the websites are harder to shut down. A website that delivered straight to your door, called silk road, was introduced in 2011. After 2 years, it was shut down. However, silk 2.0 was introduced months later (Hawdon, et al. 2002). Although drug operations were familiar with being online, after COVID hit, everyone became familiar with operating virtually. Before COVID, between 2011-2017 drug sales reached about $80 million a year online. Between 2018-2020, drug sales reached a total of $315 million a year (Hawdon, et al. 2002). People were more likely to buy online than face to face. Another advantage of online technology is social media. By using media like Facebook, messenger, and Instagram, people all over the world are able to connect with each other. In 2021, On average, it took just 2 clicks to be connected with a drug dealer, due to the algorithm of making it easier to search/find local dealers (Goldberg, 2023).
Treatment and alternatives
Contrary to popular belief, there are multiple “treatment” options. Treatment is in quotation marks because addiction is something that you are never fully treated for. It is an active battle everyday. However, treatments are just things you can do to make it easier. The most common, and probably one of the most expensive, is an inpatient/residential rehab facility. During this rehab, patients are able to stay 24 hours, have supervised treatments, and live with others that are struggling as well. During the first few weeks of rehab, people go through detoxification. The main goal is to stabilize and become comfortable with patients who are going through withdrawals. After detoxification, they go to weekly, if not daily, meetings to help take steps towards sobriety. These steps can be described as the 12 step-facilitation (Miller, 2023). Patients make care plans with other peers in order to help for accountability and support. Although rehab can be an effective treatment option, there are therapies that can help.
 A popular therapy is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. The purpose of this therapy is to teach patients how to navigate negative, recurring thoughts in order to change their behaviors. This therapy helps with developing healthy coping mechanisms, identifying risky situations, and prevention of relapse (Miller, 2023). Another therapy that is effective is contingency management. It reinforces the positive things about sobriety by presenting awards, like sobriety chips. This method results in a reduction in the 2 biggest issues of treatment: dropping out and relapsing (Miller, 2023). There are even therapies that help those with mental health diseases more, like dialectical behavioral therapy. It helps patients learn how to regulate their emotions in order to reduce self-destructing behaviors. Although therapy can be expensive, it is normally cheaper than rehab and it gives others another option.
In addition to therapy and rehab, there are alternatives. These are not technically treatment options, but they do help relieve stress, produce serotonin, and it keeps the mind busy (Miller, 2023). These alternatives are also very cheap, which is good for those that are on budget. Exercise is a great stress reliever and it is good for your physical health. Meditation relaxes the mind and body, and also gives yourself a minute to “cool down”. Yoga can keep you distracted, and it is also good for flexibility. You can also do yoga with animals, which is proven to keep you more engaged and happier (Miller, 2023).
CONCLUSION
The impact of illegal drugs on society, science, and technology is extensive and diverse. The societal effects of the negative drug stigma contribute to a never-ending hopeless cycle for those struggling with substance use. This doesn’t affect just the users, but the families and communities, relationships, education, and overall well-being. However, advancements in science and technology help dismantle this perception of substance users by providing tools for detection, treatment, and understanding of the complex factors influencing drug use. In order to help those in need and spread awareness, we have to step up. By dismantling stigmas, promoting understanding, and leveraging advancements in science and technology, we can create a healthier, happier, and more supportive society.
Chapter Questions
- What is the consistent use of drugs referred to in modern-day times?
- Substance Abuse Disorder
- Substance Use Disorder
- Substance Dependence
- Addiction
- Which one of these is not a main influential factor of drugs?
- Individual
- Interpersonal
- Community
- Peer Influence
- What is the circumstantial-use pattern of drugs?
- The use of drugs for stress immediacy
- The use of drugs around certain people
- The use of drugs periodically
- The use of drugs only in party settings
- What is one of the biggest reasons people continue to use drugs?
- Stress Management
- Boredom
- Experimentation
- Psychological Dependency
- What is the most frequently used type of distribution?
- Couriers
- In person
- Online
- Mailing
- Which of these treatments options reduces the 2 biggest issues/roadblocks in recovery?
- Inpatient rehab
- Dialectal Behavioral Therapy
- Medications
- Contingence Management Therapy
AI use disclosure
I used ChatGPT for an outline of my chapter and used it as a guide to form paragraphs and transition from one paragraph to another.
chatGPT. (2023) chatGPT (beta version) [Large Language Model]. ChatGPT (openai.com)
REFERENCES
Alcohol and Drug Foundation. 2023. Drug Facts. Alcohol and Drug Foundation. https://adf.org.au/drug-facts/.
Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., De La Rosa, M., Whiteman, M., Johnson, E., & Montoya, I. (2001). Adolescent illegal drug use: The impact of personality, family, and environmental factors. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 24(2), 183-203. doi:https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010714715534
Caulkins, J. (2009). “How illegal drugs enter an island country: insights from interviews with incarcerated smugglers”. Global Crime: Illegal Markets and the Economics of Organized Crime, (10) 69-93,https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17440570902782477
Goldberg, R. (2023). Drugs Across the Spectrum. Cengage Learning. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=EhqjEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=illicit+drugs+and+effects+on+society&ots=X7F6e1w310&sig=tC45b_ooK7ZQq3nzcUNI-ZaRlGk#v=onepage&q=illicit%20drugs%20and%20effects%20on%20society&f=false
Hawdon, J., Parti, K., & Dearden, T. (2022). “Changes in Online Illegal Drug Buying during COVID-19: Assessing Effects due to a Changing Market or Changes in Strain using a Longitudinal Sample Design”. American journal of criminal justice, 47(4) 712–734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-022-09698-1
Mclntosh, J., MacDonald, F., & McKegany, N. (2005). “The reasons why children in their pre and early teenage years do or do not use illegal drugs”. International Journal of Drug Policy. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0955395905000757
Miller, L. (2023). Substance Abuse Treatment Types & Therapy Programs. American Addiction Centers. https://americanaddictioncenters.org/therapy-treatment
IMAGES CITED


68 Set of Instructions Example
Take a few minutes to compare the following draft and final version of a press release:
DRAFT:
How to Record Official Minutes
Official minutes for any public body are vital to the overall success of the organization. If minutes are not taken properly, vital records will be skewed, which can lead to serious legal problems if contested. Following a series of simple but important steps can ensure that the most accurate minutes will be recorded.
Prior to the meeting, make sure that you have the following items:
- One notepad
- Two to three sharpened pencils with functioning erasers
- Minutes from the previous meeting
- An up-to-date agenda
- Any necessary handouts for the body
- One bottle of water
CAUTION: Make sure you keep the water bottle cap tightly sealed when not taking a drink. Spilling water on any recorded minutes could prove disastrous.
Complete these steps in order; do not stray from the chronological list provided:
1. Choose a seat that is both close to the chairperson and is facing the audience.
2. Open the notepad to the first page and place a heading at the top of the page that identifies the organization’s name and the meeting date.
3. Note the official time when the chair calls the meeting to order. Take a quick tally of the number of members present.
4. Following the agenda, create headings for each topic to be discussed and then summarize any main points introduced by the chair and the body. Identify each speaker by name.
CAUTION: Do not try to record comments verbatim. This will only lead to disaster when you find you cannot keep up with the spoken word.
5. Ask speakers to repeat comments if you feel they are worth recording.
6. Capitalize the names of any members who make motions and the members who second motions. If asked by the chair, count the number of yes and no votes for each motion. If not asked, then simply identify whether the motion passes or fails. If a motion is passed unanimously, say so.
7. Note the official time when a member moves to adjourn. Note the person’s name.
8. Transfer written notes to the word processor as quickly as possible following the meeting.
9. Submit the typed minutes to the body for consideration prior to the next meeting.
It is difficult to take minutes without error, but practice makes the process easier with time. Don’t be afraid to ask for help, but go into each meeting with confidence that you can do the job successfully.
FINAL VERSION:
How to Record Official Minutes
Official minutes for any public body are vital to the overall success of the organization. If minutes are not taken properly, vital records will be skewed, which can lead to serious legal problems if contested. Following a series of simple but important steps can ensure the most accurate minutes are recorded.
Prior to the meeting, make sure you have the following items:
· One notepad (the size you choose is up to you- whatever you feel comfortable with will work best for you).
· Two to three sharpened pencils with functioning erasers.
· Minutes from the previous meeting.
· An up-to-date agenda (make sure you check with the chair prior to the meeting to ensure it’s the most recent agenda- chairs are notorious for updating at the last minute).
· Any necessary handouts for the body.
· One bottle of water (it has been proven that a well-hydrated secretary functions more accurately).
CAUTION: Make sure you keep the water bottle cap tightly sealed when not taking a drink. Spilling water on any recorded minutes could prove disastrous.
Complete these steps in order; do not stray from the chronological list provided:
1. Choose a seat that is both close to the chairperson and is facing the audience. You need to hear clearly from both directions.
2. Open the notepad to the first page and place a heading at the top of the page that identifies the organization’s name and the meeting date. You may want to circle the date to ensure proper filing when you finalize the minutes.
3. Note the official time when the chair calls the meeting to order. Take a quick tally of the number of members present. Do not worry if members arrive after the meeting has been opened.
4. Following the agenda, create headings for each topic to be discussed and then summarize any main points introduced by the chair and the body. Identify each speaker by name.
CAUTION: Do not try to record comments verbatim. This will only lead to disaster when you find you cannot keep up with the spoken word.
5. Ask speakers to repeat comments if you feel they are worth recording. They will not mind that you interrupt them to verify accurate minutes.
6. Capitalize the names of any members who make motions and the members who second motions. If asked by the chair, count the number of yes and no votes for each motion. If not asked, then simply identify whether the motion passes or fails. If a motion is passed unanimously, say so.
7. Note the official time when a member moves to adjourn. Note the person’s name.
8. Transfer written notes to the word processor as quickly as possible following the meeting.
9. Submit the typed minutes to the body for consideration prior to the next meeting.
It is difficult to take minutes without error, but practice makes the process easier with time. Don’t be afraid to ask for help, but go into each meeting with confidence that you can do the job successfully.


4.2 Owned, Paid and Earned Marketing
Planning for success
Everyone plans to succeed in online marketing: create a few good blogs, a website, social media accounts and then sit back and relax, right? Well, no. It is not enough to have the owned media (the website, accounts, SM, landing pages, etc.). You also need a clear plan for paid marketing and an idea of how to harness earned media.
A comprehensive marketing plan acts as the sieve through which all content, social media platform choices, and key stories run. With prior planning of messaging and story, content creates cohesion and clarity for a customer. But before we get to creating a social plan, let’s take a look at two campaign routes that both need to be taken into consideration in every successful marking plan.
Paid marketing campaigns
Most social media platforms are set up to allow businesses to purchase advertisements. The campaign typically works by utilizing a pay-per-click (PPC) model: Choose the demographic, interests, and likes of target customers and pay each time your add is clicked/tapped-on. A brand should target within 2-4% of the broader market to get the most return on their advertising efforts. Paid advertising can drive traffic to your channels or website (i.e., through Google Ad words) and this can create measurable conversions (getting visitors to buy/connect). This method typically gives immediate results, and by setting the maximum amount you are willing to spend for each click, you can get a realistic bid and budget that is right for your organization.
For example, if you bid $1.50 maximum on the keyword ‘widgets’, and that’s the highest bid, you’ll probably show up first in line. If 100 people click on your PPC listing, then the search engine or PPC service will charge you a maximum of $150.
Depending on the platform, set-up and cost can vary significantly when it comes to PPC or any paid advertising.
The most important thing to remember when considering paid advertising on social media is to invest in advertising and marketing where your audience will actually find it! For example, if a business’ target audience is 50-65 years old then it doesn’t make sense to promote your brand on SnapChat because that is not where this demographic typically interacts. Furthermore, it is important to assess the return on investment (ROI), carefully: Is the result worth the cost, particularly with regard to conversions (i.e. calls or leads to actions). If the ROI is not adequate, then the campaign will need to be modified for future use. This kind of tweaking will result in the optimize your marketing budget.
Of course, other forms of paid advertising also fall into the overall marketing budget such as TV, billboard, radio ads, etc.
Earned or Organic marketing Campaigns
Earned marketing happens when content, a video or a photo that has been created and shared is seen as valuable to others. Often sharing and giving value through information and product tips for free, will get a business’ attention.
Social media marketers often hear their bosses telling them to make a post, blog article or video “go viral”. Brands often have a very hard time of this because the modern consumer is very wary of any content that is sale-sy or overly humanistic. Emotion is a powerful motivator. Apple Inc. has done an amazing job, year after year of making us believe their products will make a happier, merrier Christmas for everyone with their video advertisements. Businesses need to be very careful and wary of this technique to ensure an attempt at pulling heartstrings doesn’t backfire and result in negative reactions. (Remember the Kendall Jenner Pepsi Ad?)
People and companies want to see the personality and authenticity behind a brand. Personal messages and carefully curated content can be a magic combination.
EXERCISE 4.1 Reflect on a social ad you saw recently
Think of a time when you saw a social media advertisement – a reel, story, clip, photo, etc. Briefly reflect on how relevant the post was to you by considering the following questions:
- What was the post’s goal?
- What was your alignment with the business?
- Was the outcome successful, did you click through the ad?
- If you clicked-through did you find what you expected at the end of the link?
- What do you think the business could have done better to capture your attention?
Media Attributions
- Digital_marketing-trifecta