Teaching
9 Lectures
Rhiannon Pollard
Guidelines for Good Lectures | PowerPoint Presentations
Guidelines for Good Lectures
A good lecturer presents the audience with opportunities for meaningful engagement with the subject material and with the lecturer. Frame your lecture plans using these questions:
- What do you want the audience to learn?
- What are the key concepts that need to be addressed?
- What essential skills and competencies should participants have upon leaving the lecture?
- How will all this be clearly communicated to the audience?
Be Clear
- State your objectives and why the students need to know the information you are about to present.
- Keep the flow of the material logical.
- Pace the delivery so that students have a chance to take notes.
- Speak clearly and use a high-quality microphone (headset).
Quality Over Quantity
It’s not how much is delivered but how much is understood and retained that is most important. A 1984 study by Russell et al. found that students learned and retained the lecture information better the lower the level of new content.
After briefly presenting new ideas, the remaining time was filled by restating, reinforcing, and relating the material to the students’ prior learning.
 Visuals should illustrate and expand on your narration, not provide you with karaoke prompts!
- There are documented negative effects to reading and hearing the same information simultaneously, aka cognitive load theory.
- Provide real-world examples of the points you are making.
- Use analogies to explain new concepts in terms of familiar ones.
- Present the information stated in your objectives.
- Recap your main points and provide questions for further thinking.
- Incorporate video, audio, and images when appropriate and relevant. Save extraneous resources for post-lecture activities.
- Believe it or not, students prefer to SEE you (not just hear you)! Record yourself whenever possible, even if you have to use your phone to do it.
Remember the Context
While some lectures can be used as standalone modules, for the most part your lectures will be framed within a course which has learning objectives and activities. Be sure every lecture has a clear relationship to the larger course objectives– if it doesn’t, why are you presenting it? Follow up with your objectives by providing an activity that displays their understanding of the content.
PowerPoint Presentations
The look and feel of your presentation speaks volumes, and an unpolished or boring PowerPoint can damage students’ perceptions of even the best and most well-articulated content. Use these tips to improve your presentations.
#1 Design Your Own Template or Ask for Help!
Built-in design layouts in PowerPoint are a dime-a-dozen and your students (and colleagues) have seen them all before. Even if your design is simply solid colors with no frills, that’s OK! In fact, solid colors can impart a very professional, modern impression. Try to use the same layout for all presentations in a single course.
#2 Readability Matters
Be sure that your images and text do not blend together and that text colors and backgrounds contrast sufficiently. This is not just good design but part of ADA standards compliance as well. Dark backgrounds are best for visibility and focusing attention.
#3 Use Quality Images
A bad picture is worse than no picture at all when it comes to presentations. Go for high-impact, high-quality images which you can find for free through:
- CreativeCommons.org
- Unsplash
- Thenounproject.com
- UF Libraries provides a site license for Artstor.org (this requires access through UF IP address or VPN)
Remember to give credit to the site where you found your images!
#4 Simpler is Better
One to three ideas per slide is ideal. Visuals do have much greater impact than text, so use them, but avoid unnecessary animations. Go for bold or italics when needed but skip drop-shadows, underlines, and other text decorations. Use contrast to your advantage and emphasize and stylize sparsely for greater impact.
#5 Don’t Overuse Text (or Bullets)
Always remember that the slide should not be the ultimate source of content and information. Your speech should be! If you are saying everything you need to say through text on the slides, what’s the point of presenting it?
For more help with PowerPoint, view the LinkedIn Learning videos. Access them through the e-Learning @ UF website.
Student Recording of Lectures
House Bill 233 Intellectual and Viewpoint Diversity Act was signed into law and took effect on July 1, 2021. Universities across the state have collaborated in efforts to uniformly implement, to the extent possible, the various portions of the law. We are providing initial guidance regarding practical applications of a portion of the law (recording lectures) based on these conversations and UF’s legal review. Please note that the new legislation affects courses offered at all campuses and instructional sites and in all modalities (e.g., face-to-face, online, hybrid).
The following statements provide guidance to students and instructors.
- A Student may record a class lecture for three specified purposes as outlined in House Bill 233/Section 1004.097, Florida Statutes:
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- For the student’s own personal educational use;
- In connection with a complaint to the University where the recording is made
- As evidence in, or in preparation for, a criminal or civil proceeding.
- Students may audio or video record a class lecture for a class in which the student is enrolled. Students do not need advance permission, or to provide notice, to record.
- A class lecture is defined as an educational presentation delivered by faculty (instructor of record) or guest lecturer, as part of a University of Florida course, intended to inform or teach enrolled students about a particular subject. Lecture is inclusive of faculty-led discussions that are integrated into the educational presentation.
- A class lecture does not include lab sessions, student presentations, clinical presentations such as patient history, academic exercises involving student participation, assessments (quizzes, tests, exams), field trips, private conversations between students in the class or between a student and the faculty or lecturer during a class session.
- A recording of a class lecture may not be published without the consent of the lecturer.
- Publish is defined as sharing, transmitting, circulating, distributing, or providing access to a Recording, regardless of format or medium, to another person (or persons), including but not limited to another student within the same class section.
- A recording, or transcript of the recording, is considered to be published if it is posted on or uploaded to, in whole or part, any media platform, including but not limited to social media, book, magazine, newspaper, or leaflet.
- A student who publishes a recording without written consent may be subject to a civil cause of action instituted by a person injured by the publication and/or discipline under UF Regulation 4.040 Student Honor Code and Student Conduct Code.
To help inform and guide faculty, additional information can be found on the Provost Office website and an optional syllabus statement is under review by the Faculty Senate.


Volume IV
Chapter IX
Give thy thoughts no tongue.
Shakespeare
The Baron St. Foix, whom anxiety for his friend had kept awake, rose early to enquire the event of the night, when, as he passed the Count’s closet, hearing steps within, he knocked at the door, and it was opened by his friend himself. Rejoicing to see him in safety, and curious to learn the occurrences of the night, he had not immediately leisure to observe the unusual gravity, that overspread the features of the Count, whose reserved answers first occasioned him to notice it. The Count, then smiling, endeavoured to treat the subject of his curiosity with levity, but the Baron was serious, and pursued his enquiries so closely, that the Count, at length, resuming his gravity, said, ‘Well, my friend, press the subject no further, I entreat you; and let me request also, that you will hereafter be silent upon any thing you may think extraordinary in my future conduct. I do not scruple to tell you, that I am unhappy, and that the watch of the last night has not assisted me to discover Ludovico; upon every occurrence of the night you must excuse my reserve.’
‘But where is Henri?’ said the Baron, with surprise and disappointment at this denial.
‘He is well in his own apartment,’ replied the Count. ‘You will not question him on this topic, my friend, since you know my wish.’
‘Certainly not,’ said the Baron, somewhat chagrined, ‘since it would be displeasing to you; but methinks, my friend, you might rely on my discretion, and drop this unusual reserve. However, you must allow me to suspect, that you have seen reason to become a convert to my system, and are no longer the incredulous knight you lately appeared to be.’
‘Let us talk no more upon this subject,’ said the Count; ‘you may be assured, that no ordinary circumstance has imposed this silence upon me towards a friend, whom I have called so for near thirty years; and my present reserve cannot make you question either my esteem, or the sincerity of my friendship.’
‘I will not doubt either,’ said the Baron, ‘though you must allow me to express my surprise, at this silence.’
‘To me I will allow it,’ replied the Count, ‘but I earnestly entreat that you will forbear to notice it to my family, as well as every thing remarkable you may observe in my conduct towards them.’
The Baron readily promised this, and, after conversing for some time on general topics, they descended to the breakfast-room, where the Count met his family with a cheerful countenance, and evaded their enquiries by employing light ridicule, and assuming an air of uncommon gaiety, while he assured them, that they need not apprehend any evil from the north chambers, since Henri and himself had been permitted to return from them in safety.
Henri, however, was less successful in disguising his feelings. From his countenance an expression of terror was not entirely faded; he was often silent and thoughtful, and when he attempted to laugh at the eager enquiries of Mademoiselle Bearn, it was evidently only an attempt.
In the evening, the Count called, as he had promised, at the convent, and Emily was surprised to perceive a mixture of playful ridicule and of reserve in his mention of the north apartment. Of what had occurred there, however, he said nothing, and, when she ventured to remind him of his promise to tell her the result of his enquiries, and to ask if he had received any proof, that those chambers were haunted, his look became solemn, for a moment, then, seeming to recollect himself, he smiled, and said, ‘My dear Emily, do not suffer my lady abbess to infect your good understanding with these fancies; she will teach you to expect a ghost in every dark room. But believe me,’ added he, with a profound sigh, ‘the apparition of the dead comes not on light, or sportive errands, to terrify, or to surprise the timid.’ He paused, and fell into a momentary thoughtfulness, and then added, ‘We will say no more on this subject.’
Soon after, he took leave, and, when Emily joined some of the nuns, she was surprised to find them acquainted with a circumstance, which she had carefully avoided to mention, and expressing their admiration of his intrepidity in having dared to pass a night in the apartment, whence Ludovico had disappeared; for she had not considered with what rapidity a tale of wonder circulates. The nuns had acquired their information from peasants, who brought fruit to the monastery, and whose whole attention had been fixed, since the disappearance of Ludovico, on what was passing in the castle.
Emily listened in silence to the various opinions of the nuns, concerning the conduct of the Count, most of whom condemned it as rash and presumptuous, affirming, that it was provoking the vengeance of an evil spirit, thus to intrude upon its haunts.
Sister Frances contended, that the Count had acted with the bravery of a virtuous mind. He knew himself guiltless of aught, that should provoke a good spirit, and did not fear the spells of an evil one, since he could claim the protection of an higher Power, of Him, who can command the wicked, and will protect the innocent.
‘The guilty cannot claim that protection!’ said sister Agnes, ‘let the Count look to his conduct, that he do not forfeit his claim! Yet who is he, that shall dare to call himself innocent!—all earthly innocence is but comparative. Yet still how wide asunder are the extremes of guilt, and to what an horrible depth may we fall! Oh!’—
The nun, as she concluded, uttered a shuddering sigh, that startled Emily, who, looking up, perceived the eyes of Agnes fixed on hers, after which the sister rose, took her hand, gazed earnestly upon her countenance, for some moments, in silence, and then said,
‘You are young—you are innocent!
Emily, affected by these words and by the solemnity, with which they were delivered, could not suppress her tears.
‘Ah! is it so?’ exclaimed Agnes, her countenance softening from its sternness—’so young, and so unfortunate! We are sisters, then indeed. Yet, there is no bond of kindness among the guilty,’ she added, while her eyes resumed their wild expression, ‘no gentleness,—no peace, no hope! I knew them all once—my eyes could weep—but now they burn, for now, my soul is fixed, and fearless!—I lament no more!’
‘Rather let us repent, and pray,’ said another nun. ‘We are taught to hope, that prayer and penitence will work our salvation. There is hope for all who repent!’
‘Who repent and turn to the true faith,’ observed sister Frances.
‘For all but me!’ replied Agnes solemnly, who paused, and then abruptly added, ‘My head burns, I believe I am not well. O! could I strike from my memory all former scenes—the figures, that rise up, like furies, to torment me!—I see them, when I sleep, and, when I am awake, they are still before my eyes! I see them now—now!’
She stood in a fixed attitude of horror, her straining eyes moving slowly round the room, as if they followed something. One of the nuns gently took her hand, to lead her from the parlour. Agnes became calm, drew her other hand across her eyes, looked again, and, sighing deeply, said, ‘They are gone—they are gone! I am feverish, I know not what I say. I am thus, sometimes, but it will go off again, I shall soon be better. Was not that the vesper-bell?’
‘No,’ replied Frances, ‘the evening service is passed. Let Margaret lead you to your cell.’
‘You are right,’ replied sister Agnes, ‘I shall be better there. Good night, my sisters, remember me in your orisons.’
When they had withdrawn, Frances, observing Emily’s emotion, said, ‘Do not be alarmed, our sister is often thus deranged, though I have not lately seen her so frantic; her usual mood is melancholy. This fit has been coming on, for several days; seclusion and the customary treatment will restore her.’
‘But how rationally she conversed, at first!’ observed Emily, ‘her ideas followed each other in perfect order.’
‘Yes,’ replied the nun, ‘this is nothing new; nay, I have sometimes known her argue not only with method, but with acuteness, and then, in a moment, start off into madness.’
‘Her conscience seems afflicted,’ said Emily, ‘did you ever hear what circumstance reduced her to this deplorable condition?’
‘I have,’ replied the nun, who said no more till Emily repeated the question, when she added in a low voice, and looking significantly towards the other boarders, ‘I cannot tell you now, but, if you think it worth your while, come to my cell, to-night, when our sisterhood are at rest, and you shall hear more; but remember we rise to midnight prayers, and come either before, or after midnight.’
Emily promised to remember, and, the abbess soon after appearing, they spoke no more of the unhappy nun.
The Count meanwhile, on his return home, had found M. Du Pont in one of those fits of despondency, which his attachment to Emily frequently occasioned him, an attachment, that had subsisted too long to be easily subdued, and which had already outlived the opposition of his friends. M. Du Pont had first seen Emily in Gascony, during the lifetime of his parent, who, on discovering his son’s partiality for Mademoiselle St. Aubert, his inferior in point of fortune, forbade him to declare it to her family, or to think of her more. During the life of his father, he had observed the first command, but had found it impracticable to obey the second, and had, sometimes, soothed his passion by visiting her favourite haunts, among which was the fishing-house, where, once or twice, he addressed her in verse, concealing his name, in obedience to the promise he had given his father. There too he played the pathetic air, to which she had listened with such surprise and admiration; and there he found the miniature, that had since cherished a passion fatal to his repose. During his expedition into Italy, his father died; but he received his liberty at a moment, when he was the least enabled to profit by it, since the object, that rendered it most valuable, was no longer within the reach of his vows. By what accident he discovered Emily, and assisted to release her from a terrible imprisonment, has already appeared, and also the unavailing hope, with which he then encouraged his love, and the fruitless efforts, that he had since made to overcome it.
The Count still endeavoured, with friendly zeal, to sooth him with a belief, that patience, perseverance and prudence would finally obtain for him happiness and Emily: ‘Time,’ said he, ‘will wear away the melancholy impression, which disappointment has left on her mind, and she will be sensible of your merit. Your services have already awakened her gratitude, and your sufferings her pity; and trust me, my friend, in a heart so sensible as hers, gratitude and pity lead to love. When her imagination is rescued from its present delusion, she will readily accept the homage of a mind like yours.’
Du Pont sighed, while he listened to these words; and, endeavouring to hope what his friend believed, he willingly yielded to an invitation to prolong his visit at the chateau, which we now leave for the monastery of St. Claire.
When the nuns had retired to rest, Emily stole to her appointment with sister Frances, whom she found in her cell, engaged in prayer, before a little table, where appeared the image she was addressing, and, above, the dim lamp that gave light to the place. Turning her eyes, as the door opened, she beckoned to Emily to come in, who, having done so, seated herself in silence beside the nun’s little mattress of straw, till her orisons should conclude. The latter soon rose from her knees, and, taking down the lamp and placing it on the table, Emily perceived there a human skull and bones, lying beside an hour-glass; but the nun, without observing her emotion, sat down on the mattress by her, saying, ‘Your curiosity, sister, has made you punctual, but you have nothing remarkable to hear in the history of poor Agnes, of whom I avoided to speak in the presence of my lay-sisters, only because I would not publish her crime to them.’
‘I shall consider your confidence in me as a favour,’ said Emily, ‘and will not misuse it.’
‘Sister Agnes,’ resumed the nun, ‘is of a noble family, as the dignity of her air must already have informed you, but I will not dishonour their name so much as to reveal it. Love was the occasion of her crime and of her madness. She was beloved by a gentleman of inferior fortune, and her father, as I have heard, bestowing her on a nobleman, whom she disliked, an ill-governed passion proved her destruction.—Every obligation of virtue and of duty was forgotten, and she prophaned her marriage vows; but her guilt was soon detected, and she would have fallen a sacrifice to the vengeance of her husband, had not her father contrived to convey her from his power. By what means he did this, I never could learn; but he secreted her in this convent, where he afterwards prevailed with her to take the veil, while a report was circulated in the world, that she was dead, and the father, to save his daughter, assisted the rumour, and employed such means as induced her husband to believe she had become a victim to his jealousy. You look surprised,’ added the nun, observing Emily’s countenance; ‘I allow the story is uncommon, but not, I believe, without a parallel.’
‘Pray proceed,’ said Emily, ‘I am interested.’
‘The story is already told,’ resumed the nun, ‘I have only to mention, that the long struggle, which Agnes suffered, between love, remorse and a sense of the duties she had taken upon herself in becoming of our order, at length unsettled her reason. At first, she was frantic and melancholy by quick alternatives; then, she sunk into a deep and settled melancholy, which still, however, has, at times, been interrupted by fits of wildness, and, of late, these have again been frequent.’
Emily was affected by the history of the sister, some parts of whose story brought to her remembrance that of the Marchioness de Villeroi, who had also been compelled by her father to forsake the object of her affections, for a nobleman of his choice; but, from what Dorothee had related, there appeared no reason to suppose, that she had escaped the vengeance of a jealous husband, or to doubt for a moment the innocence of her conduct. But Emily, while she sighed over the misery of the nun, could not forbear shedding a few tears to the misfortunes of the Marchioness; and, when she returned to the mention of sister Agnes, she asked Frances if she remembered her in her youth, and whether she was then beautiful.
‘I was not here at the time, when she took the vows,’ replied Frances, ‘which is so long ago, that few of the present sisterhood, I believe, were witnesses of the ceremony; nay, ever our lady mother did not then preside over the convent: but I can remember, when sister Agnes was a very beautiful woman. She retains that air of high rank, which always distinguished her, but her beauty, you must perceive, is fled; I can scarcely discover even a vestige of the loveliness, that once animated her features.’
‘It is strange,’ said Emily, ‘but there are moments, when her countenance has appeared familiar to my memory! You will think me fanciful, and I think myself so, for I certainly never saw sister Agnes, before I came to this convent, and I must, therefore, have seen some person, whom she strongly resembles, though of this I have no recollection.’
‘You have been interested by the deep melancholy of her countenance,’ said Frances, ‘and its impression has probably deluded your imagination; for I might as reasonably think I perceive a likeness between you and Agnes, as you, that you have seen her any where but in this convent, since this has been her place of refuge, for nearly as many years as make your age.’
‘Indeed!’ said Emily.
‘Yes,’ rejoined Frances, ‘and why does that circumstance excite your surprise?’
Emily did not appear to notice this question, but remained thoughtful, for a few moments, and then said, ‘It was about that same period that the Marchioness de Villeroi expired.’
‘That is an odd remark,’ said Frances.
Emily, recalled from her reverie, smiled, and gave the conversation another turn, but it soon came back to the subject of the unhappy nun, and Emily remained in the cell of sister Frances, till the mid-night bell aroused her; when, apologizing for having interrupted the sister’s repose, till this late hour, they quitted the cell together. Emily returned to her chamber, and the nun, bearing a glimmering taper, went to her devotion in the chapel.
Several days followed, during which Emily saw neither the Count, or any of his family; and, when, at length, he appeared, she remarked, with concern, that his air was unusually disturbed.
‘My spirits are harassed,’ said he, in answer to her anxious enquiries, ‘and I mean to change my residence, for a little while, an experiment, which, I hope, will restore my mind to its usual tranquillity. My daughter and myself will accompany the Baron St. Foix to his chateau. It lies in a valley of the Pyrenees, that opens towards Gascony, and I have been thinking, Emily, that, when you set out for La Vallee, we may go part of the way together; it would be a satisfaction to me to guard you towards your home.’
She thanked the Count for his friendly consideration, and lamented, that the necessity for her going first to Tholouse would render this plan impracticable. ‘But, when you are at the Baron’s residence,’ she added, ‘you will be only a short journey from La Vallee, and I think, sir, you will not leave the country without visiting me; it is unnecessary to say with what pleasure I should receive you and the Lady Blanche.’
‘I do not doubt it,’ replied the Count, ‘and I will not deny myself and Blanche the pleasure of visiting you, if your affairs should allow you to be at La Vallee, about the time when we can meet you there.’
When Emily said that she should hope to see the Countess also, she was not sorry to learn that this lady was going, accompanied by Mademoiselle Bearn, to pay a visit, for a few weeks, to a family in lower Languedoc.
The Count, after some further conversation on his intended journey and on the arrangement of Emily’s, took leave; and many days did not succeed this visit, before a second letter from M. Quesnel informed her, that he was then at Tholouse, that La Vallee was at liberty, and that he wished her to set off for the former place, where he awaited her arrival, with all possible dispatch, since his own affairs pressed him to return to Gascony. Emily did not hesitate to obey him, and, having taken an affecting leave of the Count’s family, in which M. Du Pont was still included, and of her friends at the convent, she set out for Tholouse, attended by the unhappy Annette, and guarded by a steady servant of the Count.


Problematic Histories of Engagement: The “White Saviour” Complex
The term ‘white saviour’ is itself a notion of altruism that follows the contemporary desire to ‘help others’ based on the idea of a universal human “compassion in us for others, sometimes despite a risk and cost to the self” (Burr, 2010, p. 1). Hughey (2014, p. 7) further described the ‘white savior’ as “characters whose innate sense of justice drives these tales of racial cooperation, nonwhite uplift, and White redemption” that ultimately reinforce “normal and natural White paternalism.”
The term is meant to draw attention to the way this approach reproduces the problematic dynamics of colonialism. It refers to when privileged, often white, individuals enter communities (both domestically or abroad) with the intention of “saving” them. It is harmful because it patronizes communities by suggesting they need outside intervention to identify and solve their problems.
While the conversation about the saviour complex often centres around privileged, white individuals going overseas, this concept also applies more broadly. The same issues can arise for outsiders with various identities going into any community that is not their own.
As Teju Cole (2012, p. 5) succinctly puts it:
“One song we hear too often is the one in which Africa serves as a backdrop for white fantasies of conquest and heroism. From the colonial project to Out of Africa to The Constant Gardener, and Kony 2012, Africa has provided a space onto which white egos can conveniently be projected. It is a liberated space in which the usual rules do not apply: a nobody from America or Europe can go to Africa and become a godlike savior or, at the very least, have his or her emotional needs satisfied. Many have done it under the banner of ‘making a difference’.”
Real-world Example of the White Saviour Complex: Voluntouring
‘Voluntouring’ — is a slang word used to describe taking a short trip which combines volunteer work with tourism. However, it often focuses more on what the volunteer gains from the experience than any lasting benefit to the communities they aim to help.
Volunteers often attempt to support communities without any researched knowledge, meaningful collaboration, or consideration of what those communities need. Often, they also lack specialized experience or skills.
For example, building a house or school is an undertaking that requires specialized knowledge and skill, in order to ensure the integrity and safety of the building. Using a different example, spending just a few short weeks volunteering in an orphanage or children’s home may have more negative side effects for children who’ve already experienced plenty of grief and loss. Children who become attached to volunteers might experience further trauma and separation anxiety when those volunteers return home.
Before taking a voluntour trip, ask yourself:
- Have community members openly expressed their need?
- What kind of support have community members asked for? Does it align with this initiative?
- Do I have the skills and experience needed for the job?
- Could I use the money I’m spending more efficiently by directly donating to the organization I want to support?
- Am I taking paid work opportunities from people in the community?
How you approach your work and knowledge of a community matters. As discussed earlier in this course, it is critical to remember that community members are the experts about their community and what may need to be done. Moreover, individuals should never do anything in another community that they would not be permitted to do back in their home community.


The Book of Small
Time
Father was a stern straight man. Straight legs and shoulders; straight side-trim to his beard, the ends of which were straight-cut across his chest. From under heavy eyebrows his look was direct, though once in a rare while a little twinkle forced its way through. Then something was likely to happen.
Our family had to whiz around Father like a top round its peg.
It was Sunday. Father was carving the saddle of mutton. Everybody was helped. Father’s plate had gone up for vegetables. Uncle and Auntie Hays were visiting us from San Francisco.
Father’s twinkle ran up the table to Mother and zig-zagged back, skipping Auntie, who was fixing her napkin over her large front with a diamond pin.
Father said, “What about a picnic on Saturday, Mother? We will have the omnibus and go to Mill Stream.”
The two big sisters, we three little girls and the small brother were glad. Mother beamed on us all. Auntie attended to her mutton. Uncle never did have anything to say. He was like the long cushion in the church pew—made to be sat on.
All week we stared at the clock, but, for all she ticked, her hands stuck; it took ages for her to register even a minute. But Saturday did come at last and with it, sharp at ten, the yellow bus.
Uncle Hays made a nest of cushions in one corner of the bus for Auntie. Pies and cakes, white-wrapped and tucked into baskets like babies, the tea-billy wrapped in a newspaper petticoat—all were loaded in and we took our places and rattled away.
The bus had two horses and carpet seats. Its wheels were iron-bound and made a terrible racket over the stones.
Only the very middle of our town was paved and sprinkled; beyond the town was dust and bumps.
The seats of the bus were high. We three little girls discovered that we bumped less if we did not dangle, so we knelt on the seat and rested our arms on the open window ledges, till Auntie told Uncle he must shut all the windows except one, or the dust would ruin her new dust coat. After that we dangled and bumped.
Auntie grumbled all the way about Victoria’s poor little blue water-barrel cart, that could only do the middle of the town, and told us of the splendid water-wagons of San Francisco.
At last we drove through a gate and down a lane and stopped. The driver opened the door and we all spilled out onto the grass beside a beautiful stream.
Uncle built a new nest for Auntie. There were pine boughs as well as pillows to it now, and she looked like a great fat bird sitting there peeping and cooing at uncle over the edge.
The table-cloth was spread on the grass close to Auntie’s nest. As soon as lunch was over Mother said, “Now children, run along. Don’t go into the thick woods, keep by the stream.”
Father looked at his watch and said, “It’s now one o’clock—you have till five.”
Downwards the stream broadened into a meadow; upstream it bored a green tunnel through the forest, a tunnel crooked as a bed-spring. It curled round and round because there were so many boulders and trees and dams in the way. The sides of the tunnel were forest, the top overhanging trees, the floor racing water.
We could not have squeezed into the woods had we tried because they were so thick, and we could not have seen where to put our feet, nor could we have seen over the top, because the undergrowth was so high.
Every twist the stream took it sang a different tune and kept different time. It would rush around the corner of a great boulder and pour bubbling into a still pool, lie there pretending it had come to be still, but all the time it was going round and round as if it was learning to write “O’s”; then it would pour itself smoothly over a wedged log and go purling over the pebbles, quiet and dreamy. Suddenly it would rush for another turn, and roar into a rocky basin trickling out of that again into a wide singing place. It had to do all these queer things and use force and roughness to get by some of the obstacles. But sometimes the stream was very gentle, and its round stones were covered with a fine brown moss. When the moss was wet it looked just like babies’ hair. You could pretend the stones were babies in their bath and the stream was sponging water over their heads.
Five-finger maidenhair ferns grew all along the banks. Some of them spread their thin black arms over the edge and, dipping their fingers in the water, washed them gently to and fro. Then the wind lifted them and tossed them in the air like thousands of waving hands. All kinds of mosses grew by the stream—tufty, flat, ferny, and curly, green, yellow and a whitish kind that was tipped with scarlet sealing wax.
Yellow eyes of musk blossoms peeped from crannies. They had a thick, soft smell. The smell of the earth was rich. The pines and the cedars smelled spicy. The wind mixed all the smells into a great, grand smell that made you love everything. There were immense sober pines whose tops you could not see, and little pines, fluffed out ready to dance. The drooping boughs of the cedars formed a thatch so thick and tight that creatures could shelter under it no matter how hard it rained. The bushes did not grow tight to the cedars because it was too dry and dark under them. Even their own lower limbs were red-brown and the earth bare underneath.
The wind sauntered up the stream bumping into everything. It was not strong enough to sweep boldly up the tunnel, but quivered along, giving bluffs and boulders playful little whacks before turning the next corner and crumpling the surface of that pool.
There was much to see as we went up the river, and we went slowly because there were so many things to get over and under. Sometimes there were little rims of muddy beach, pocked with the dent of deer hooves. Except for the stream the place was very quiet. It was like the stillness of a bird held in the hand with just its heart throbbing.
Sometimes a kingfisher screamed or a squirrel scolded and made you jump. I heard a plop down at my feet—it was a great golden-brown toad. I took him in my hands.
One sister said, “Ugh!” The other said, “Warts”.
I put him in a tin and weighted it with a stone and hid it under a skunk-cabbage.
We were very, very far up the stream, though it had not seemed a long way at all, when our big sister came around the bend behind us.
“Come children,” she called. “It is time to go home.”
We looked at each other. What did she mean? Time to go home? We had only just come.
I faced about.
“It is not,” I said rudely, and received a smart box on the ear. But it was not our sister’s word we doubted, it was Time.
I lagged behind to pick up the toad, wondering deeply about Time. What was Time anyway, that things could play such tricks with it? A stream could squeeze a whole afternoon into one minute. A clock could spread one week out into a whole year.
The baskets were packed. Uncle was building another nest for Auntie. Mother was seated in the bus looking very tired.
I stared at the watch hard. The hands were at the same place they were when we started in the morning. Play things were always truer than real.
The bus started bumping along and the dust rolled behind. I sat opposite Auntie. I had draped a skunk-cabbage leaf over the toad’s tin.
“See dear, you will have to throw that leaf out of the window; the smell of it upsets Auntie.” She detested me, and always tacked on that hypocritical “dear”.
The leaf fluttered out of the window. I put my hand over the top of the tin.
“What have you got in the tin, dear? Let Auntie see.”
I shot it under her nose, hoping it would scare her. It did. She gave a regular parrot-screech. The big sister reached across, seized the tin, looked, and flung tin, golden toad and all, out of the window.
Then suddenly those gone hours pulled out and out like taffy. It was late. The bus wheels started to roll quietly because we were in town now and under Mr. Redfern’s big clock, which gave six slow sad strikes.
Father pulled out his big silver watch. Uncle pulled out a gold one. Auntie fussed with a fancy thing all wound up in lace and gold chains.

Throb-throb-throb—was that Father’s watch eating up minutes or was it hop-hop-hop, my golden toad, making his patient way down the long dusty road, back to the lovely stream where there was no time?


1. Cell structure and Function
1.4.Animal cell
Animal cell
Dr V Malathi and Mrs Sushumna Rao
Animal cells are the fundamental units of animal tissues and organs.
They are eukaryotic cells and therefore have membrane-bound organelles suspended in the cytoplasm enveloped by a.
Animal cells have (or a pair of centrioles), and which the plant cells do not possess.
A typical structure of an animal cell includes Organelles ( We will discuss about this in chapter 1.5) , cytoplasmic structures, Cytosol and Cell membrane .
The cell organelles like Centrosomes and lysosomes are found only in animal cells, but do not exist within plant cells
“Animal cell “ by OpenStax,via Wiki media commons is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Cell Membrane or the Plasma membrane
The cell membrane of an animal cell is a lipid bilayer which is embedded with other molecules like proteins, cholesterol and with some carbohydrates attached.
It separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.
The cell membrane is semipermeable. The cell membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
The plasma membrane as it is other wise called permits the entry of small non polar molecules with ease, while large , polar molecules requires the help of transporters like membrane proteins .
The cholesterol embedded in the membrane provides structural integrity and support. Furthermore, the presence of cholesterol makes the membrane fluid rather than rigid, and renders them the capability of movement.
“Cell membrane “ by Openstax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
The membrane proteins are of two categories namely Integral membrane proteins and peripheral membrane proteins
Integral membrane proteins
These are otherwise called as Intrinsic proteins . These are proteins that are permanently attached to the cell membrane.
Their functions include : channeling or transport molecules across the membrane , cell receptors, cell adhesion
They are further classified as
- Transmembrane proteins : these span the entire plasma membrane and are found in all types of biological membranes
- Integral monotypic proteins : these are permanently attached to the membrane from only one side.
Peripheral membrane proteins
These are proteins that are only temporarily associated with the membrane.
They can be easily removed,
Peripheral proteins can also be attached to integral membrane proteins or they can be stick to the lipid bilayer.
They are mostly hydrophilic.
Their functions include cell signaling, they are often associated with ion channels and transmembrane receptors.
The Fluid Mosaic Model
This model about membrane structure was proposed by S.J.Singe and G.L.Nicolson in the year 1972.
This model is now widely accepted .
The postulates of this model are:
- The plasma membrane comprises a phospholipid bilayer
- The integral membrane proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer,
- Some of these proteins extend all through the bilayer ( Integral proteins), and some only partially across it ( peripheral proteins). These membrane proteins act as transport proteins and receptors proteins.
- The proteins and lipids of the membrane move around the membrane. Such movement causes a constant change in the “mosaic pattern” of the plasma membrane.
Test your understanding about the structure of plasma membrane
Extensions of the Plasma Membrane
and are extensions of the plasma membrane of many cells.
These membrane extensions may help the prokaryotic/ single cell organisms move.
Cilia: Brush -like projections of the plasma membrane . Cilia for example can be found on human lung cells and they help to sweep foreign particles , inhaled dust, smoke and harmful microbes from entering the lungs. In fallopian tubes they move the ovum towards the uterus. Cilia generate water currents to carry food and oxygen past the gills of clams . They transport food through the digestive system of snails. Protozoans belonging to the phylum ciliophora are covered with cilia.
“Cilia on Bronchiolar epithelium” by Charles Daghlian via Wikimedia Commons is in the Public Domain, CC0
Flagella : These are the whip-like extensions of the plasma membrane . They are found on gametes . They create the water currents necessary for respiration and circulation in sponges and coelenterates . Flagella are characteristic of the protozoan group Mastigophora
“Flagella” by Mike Jones, CC BY 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons
: These are finger-like projections of the plasma membrane and are found in cells specialised in absorption . Such cells are found lining the small intestine, they help to absorbs nutrients from digested food.
“Microvilli” by OpenStax CNX is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Cytoplasm
The entire region of the cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope is filled filled with a jelly-like substance called the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm provides the fluid medium necessary for biochemical reactions like Glycolysis, Protein synthesis .
The cytoplasm consists of 70to 80 percent water .
The semi-solid consistency of the cytosol is due to its protein content.
The other organic constituents of the cytoplasm includes Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, Glycerol and its derivatives.
Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm.
The Cytoskeleton
These are the network of protein fibers within the cytoplasm
They help to maintain the shape of the cell, hold certain organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move independently.
This network of protein fibers is collectively known as the cytoskeleton.
There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, also known as actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
: These are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers . They help in moving cellular components, for example, during cell division. They also maintain the structure of microvilli. These components are also common in muscle cells and are responsible for muscle cell contraction.
Intermediate filaments : These are of intermediate diameter. They maintain the shape of the cell and anchor organelles .Example of intermediate filament is Keratin, the compound that strengthens hair and nails.
: These are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are hollow tubes . They can dissolve and reform quickly. They help in organelle movement. They pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division. They are also the structural components of flagella and cilia
In cilia and flagella these are are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules on the outside and two microtubules in the center .
Test your understanding
The plasma membrane, also called the cell membrane, is the membrane found in all cells that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment. In bacterial and plant cells, a cell wall is attached to the plasma membrane on its outside surface
The centrosome is an organelle present in an animal cell that acts as the microtubule-organizing center of the cell. It also regulates the cell cycle
A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are involved in various cell processes like break down excess or worn-out cell parts, destroying invading viruses and bacteria,programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
Brush-like projections of plasma membrane
Whip-like extensions of the plasma membrane
Finger-like projections of plasma membrane . They help in absorption
These are thin cytoskeletal fibres and they help in cellular components movements
These are thickest cytoskeletal fibres ,they help in organelle movement . The pull the chromosomes to their poles during cell division


13.1 History of CAC-A
Stephanie Oostman
The use of carbon rods make a sizeable impact in welding’s history in 1800 with Sir Humphrey Davy who created an arc between to carbon rods and again 1881 with Nikolay Benardos & Stanisław Olszewski who used that discovery to create Carbon Arc Welding (CAW). The use of carbon rods have been the kick off of welding. But they were late in the game when it came to their use as a cutting process. Air carbon arc cutting originated in the 1940’s. The process was used to cut away rivets in the overhead and vertical positions in hopes that gravity would then assist with the molten material to drop from place. This was a time consuming and erratic process. Not only was the molten dross or sparks unpredictable, but the rivets would not always fall away as planned. Sometimes they would reweld themselves back in place. (The History of Welding, 2020)
In 1948 a local Washingtonian named Myron Stepath added compressed air to the carbon arc process (Arcair, 2010). The streams of high-pressurized compressed air act as a blower to push the molten dross, sparks, and material to be removed, away from the cutting area. This not only was more efficient but allowed the workers to increase their speed and expand the process to flat positions as well. The process then became known as air arc cutting (aac). AAC required two workers, one to operate the carbon arc, and the other to operate the compressed air needed to blow away the molten metal.
In 1956 the process was then refined even further with the development of the electrode holder we use today (Arcair, n.d.). This development brought the compressed air stream into an easy to use handheld electrode holder, eliminating the need for two people for the job.
Basics of the process
Carbon Arc is an electric arc process where the heat generated from the arc of a carbon electrode melts the base metal it comes in contact with. Carbon arc welding is one of the oldest versions of welding, and in its day was called atomic hydrogen carbon arc welding or AHW for short (“Atomic Hydrogen Welding,” 2023). However, CAW aka AHW has become largely obsolete. The cutting technique (CAC) which uses carbon electrodes to cut and gouge parent material is still very popular in fabrication, welding and thermal cutting industries today.
Carbon arc cutting is used to cut away unwanted material by means of a carbon coated consumable rod or electrode held in the jaws of a holder that looks very similar to the holder used in shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). There are a few key differences with the equipment and the process. The biggest is, that unlike welding where we are adding metal, CAC-A removes metal, welds, cracks and helps bevel grooves in fit up operations.
The bottom or lower jaw of the holder used in carbon arc cutting has a head that rotates to insure accuracy and is outfitted with several holes in the head for the compressed air to pass through. Recall that compressed air is needed to blow away molten metal from the cutting area. There is an air valve on the handle to turn the air on or off to the head. When positioned correctly and with the right air pressure, the compressed air then blasts the molten metal away from the site directly under the electrode.
There is no shielding gas used or needed, but as the carbon rod is consumed it produces both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gas which is also blasted away by the air stream. Because this process uses carbon electrodes, carbon deposits are left behind on the surface metal. It is important to take care in cleaning the surface afterwards with a grinder to avoid brittleness and cracking should the area need to be rewelded, or backwelded.
Carbon arc cutting does not require that the carbon electrode react to the base metal. Which allows for more versatility than oxy-acetylene cutting (OAC), which is only effective on metals that can be oxidized. Stainless steel, carbon steel, titanium, copper alloys, nickel alloys, and aluminum alloys are just a few of the materials an individual may use CAC-A process with.
Carbon arc cutting can be used in all positions. The process can be done fully manual or semi-automatic when connected to a carriage or machine that controls the speed and movements. The cutting process requires a constant current (CC) power source capable of an operating voltage of at least 28 volts or higher. Carbon arc cutting can be operated with AC or DCEP, however DCEN should be avoided, as the arc is too unstable.
Uses of CAC-A in industry today
- Boilermakers
- Railway
- Steel mills
- Steel Fabrication
- Construction
- Chemical and Petroleum industry
- Casting finishing
- Mining industry
- Foundries
- Lumber industry
- Military
The streams of high-pressurized compressed air act as a blower to push the molten dross, sparks, and material to be removed, away from the cutting area. This not only was more efficient but allowed the workers to increase their speed and expand the process to flat positions as well.


4.3 Developmental Domains
Angela Blums, Ph.D.
Although development is complex, four domains have been identified: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional. This section will introduce each of these developmental domains and explain some important features of each domain. Keep in mind that developmental domains are interrelated, so consider as you read the next sections how one aspect of development could affect another.
Physical Development
Physical development includes all things related to the body. Sometimes this domain is called biological development because it also encompasses processes that occur inside the body at the biological level. Physical development includes brain development and motor skills.
Brain Development
Infant brains begin to develop while still in utero. Because of this, it is important to support fetal brain development through proper nutrition and care of the mother. Once the baby is born, infant brains develop rapidly. Brain connections, called synapses, develop rapidly during the first few months to the first three years of life, making this period critical for healthy brain development.
During infancy, babies require responsive interactions with trusted caregivers that include verbal, expressive, face-to-face engagement (National Research Council, & Institute of Medicine Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development, 2000; Tierney & Nelson, 2009). Additionally, and above all, they require a safe and secure home environment for healthy brain development.
Motor Skills
Children’s bodies are designed to wriggle and move. Motor skills refer to a child’s ability to move and coordinate motion using their bodies. Motor skills are generally organized into two categories: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills Movement related to the large muscle groups in the body] are related to the large muscle groups in the body: walking, running, climbing, balancing, and jumping are examples of gross motor skills. Fine motor skills Movement related to small muscle groups in the body] are related to small muscle groups in the body. Grasping a spoon, holding a pencil, stringing beads, and stacking blocks are examples of fine motor skills.
In order for gross motor skills to develop successfully, infants and children must be given opportunities to move their bodies freely, safely, and without restriction (Adolph & Robinson, 2015). This is why most pediatric physical therapists recommend against the use of so-called “baby containers” – chairs, bouncy seats, swings, and jumpers that place an infant in an upright position before their body is ready to do so on its own. These devices can hinder development. Instead, babies should play on a blanket or mat and have a few minutes of “tummy time” each day starting at birth (Adolph & Robinson, 2015). This helps to strengthen neck and shoulder muscles that will later be used in crawling. As children begin to crawl and walk, soft climbers (play structures made of foam or soft materials) can help to develop gross motor skills.
Children need opportunities to practice running, jumping, balancing, and climbing. This is why daily outdoor play is vital. Playgrounds can be great places for children to experiment with gross motor skills. Outdoor play in natural areas is also important. Consider the difference between climbing stairs or monkey bars on a playground versus climbing the branches of a strong, low, tree. Both offer opportunities for using arms and legs, but tree climbing allows children to use muscle groups in new positions and learn to balance in an irregular position (Haywood & Getchell, 2014). Tree climbing also engages their brain to plan and consider which moves to make (Allen et al., 2011). If no safe climbing trees are available, learning to walk or run on uneven ground in a field or meadow can also be beneficial. It is important for children to move their bodies in many different ways.
Playing outdoors on playgrounds and in nature provides children opportunities to take risks. When children climb, they not only build muscle and coordination, but also learn to overcome fears. This can lead to greater self-confidence that carries over into other areas as well (Gull et al., 2018). This is one way in which outdoor activity supports not only physical but also emotional development.
Fine motor skills begin to develop in infancy when the child first learns to grasp a toy such as a rattle or a cloth. Later, they learn to throw a ball, hold a crayon, and use scissors. Children can be given opportunities to use their hands in a variety of ways using age-appropriate materials. Young children love to practice fine motor skills using real-life items, such as buckling the clasp of a highchair strap or zipping a zipper. This has the added benefit of fostering independence, which supports emotional development. Children can coordinate their finger movements while learning a zipper, and they can also feel proud when they can zip their own jacket to go outside.
Opportunities for fine motor development are everywhere and can be as simple as picking up a leaf and ripping it into tiny pieces. Teachers can foster fine motor skills by making sure to create challenging activities based on each child’s developmental level.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development includes all things related to thinking and learning. The following section will discuss executive functioning, problem solving, theory of mind, self-reflection, and language acquisition.
Executive Function
One key area of cognitive development is called executive function Collection of processes that encompass attention, working memory, and inhibition]. Executive function is the collection of processes that encompasses attention, working memory, and inhibition, and it develops between the ages of about three and six years (Best & Miller, 2020; Zelazo & Müller, 2010). Attention is the ability of a child to focus on something, like carefully concentrating on a picture in a book. Working memory refers to the ability of a child to maintain several pieces of information in the mind for a short period of time. This could be recalling some items present in the picture in the book, such as a tree, a bird, and a house.
Inhibition is the ability to block out distractions, such as other background designs in the book or even the sounds of other children playing in the classroom. Development of executive function is key to building social relationships, acquiring, and maintaining learning, and eventual academic success (Zelazo & Müller, 2010). For example, if a child is learning how to add using blocks, she might first pay attention to the blocks in front of her, remember that she had three blocks on one side and one block on the other side, and inhibit the distraction of other toys on the table. All of these components come together with executive function.
Because executive function is developing between the ages of about three and six years, young children do not have the ability to pay attention to things for long periods of time. Nor do they have the ability to remember multiple pieces of information or to block out distractions. This is important when planning activities for young children. Setting the expectation that young children should sit at a table and focus on one activity will result in frustration of both children and teachers; children will communicate their lack of executive function with a lot of wriggles and movement! This is healthy, and teachers should keep this in mind when planning activities that require concentration.
Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) A diagnosable condition in which an individual has difficulty concentrating and inhibiting behaviors] need extra support to develop executive function, as concentration and inhibition are particularly difficult. Children who are in chaotic environments or those who have experienced toxic stress and trauma may struggle with the development of healthy executive function.
Games and activities that practice concentration and task-switching are successful in promoting executive function (Center on the Developing Child, 2014). Such games need to be fun and not tied to punishment or reward. Deep breathing and meditation also have been shown to aid in the development of executive function for children who are struggling.
Problem Solving
When children encounter a challenge, they learn to practice problem solving. Problem solving A system by which children use step-by-step strategies and logic to complete cognitive tasks] involves assessing the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and reflecting on the outcome. Children may do this without actively knowing that they are carrying out these four steps. For instance, if a child is building a block tower on a soft carpet, it might be unstable and fall down. The child might think of a solution: get a tray or a large book to set on the carpet to create a flat surface. The child then gets the tray, builds the block tower, and then checks to see if it is wobbly or stable. Problem solved! Children solve many such problems each day during play.
It is helpful for teachers to facilitate problem solving by asking open-ended questions Questions that do not have a yes or no answer; used to facilitate thinking], or questions that do not have a yes or no answer. This type of question helps the child see the main features and problems in the situation, encourages thinking about solutions, and suggests solutions, all without giving the answer. An exchange might look like the following:
Example
Teacher: “It looks like your block tower is falling down a lot. I wonder why?”
Child “Because the carpet is bumpy and soft.”
Teacher: “How can you make a more stable base for your tower?”
Child: “I could put a tray underneath it!”
Teacher: “Want to try that and see what happens?”
This exchange of open-ended questions helps the child learn to problem solve on their own. The use of the phrase “see what happens” encourages the child to engage in the fourth step of problem solving, assessing the outcome. After all, a problem-solving strategy may not succeed, and the child might have to try something else. This is all part of the process of learning.
Theory of Mind
As young as 2 ½ years old most children start to figure out how other people are thinking and feeling. The study of this ability is referred to as theory of mind, a cognitive ability supporting social development. One of the hallmarks of theory of mind ability for a child to infer the thoughts and feelings of others] is the ability to pick up cues and understand the mental states of others. For example, if a child sees a friend crying, he might infer that the friend is sad. It is challenging for a young child to get out of their own head. Children see things from their own perspective and have a difficult time understanding the perspectives of others. So, if a child is happily playing and sees another child crying, it takes some time before they can understand that what they are thinking and feeling is not the same as what others are thinking and feeling. The connection between this cognitive ability and building social relationships is clear (Lecce et al., 2015).
Children with autism A diagnosable condition in which children have difficulty with social interactions and communication, sometimes with rigid behaviors] have difficulty with theory of mind, and many children with autism do not develop it at all. For this reason, autism interventions include instruction on how to read the mental states of others (Askham, 2022; Beeger et al., 2011).
Self-reflection
Self-reflection is the ability to think about one’s own thoughts. This is sometimes referred to as metacognition An ability to think about one’s own thoughts], which develops between middle childhood and adolescence. However, during early childhood there are signs of self-reflection, or thinking back on one’s thoughts. Self-reflection is helpful in problem solving and emotional development. If a child has solved a problem such as mixing the colors just right for a painting, the teacher might ask, “Why did you decide to do it this way?” or “Tell me about why you chose to mix those colors?” This helps children to think through their process and helps them remember the strategy for next time (Bebko et al., 2014). Self-reflection in early childhood is best facilitated by teachers using probing questions, such as the questions in the examples above, but older children can engage in self-reflection through journaling or planned exchanges with peers.
Language Acquisition
Language development is a very broad and rich area of development that encompasses much more than the scope of this section. Nevertheless, this section will highlight the key points of language development in early childhood.
Children learn to understand language in infancy through responsive interactions with adults. Adults should speak with and listen to infants starting at birth, making eye contact and using a gentle tone. When infants begin to babble, adults can take turns talking and letting the baby babble. This sets up the format for later turn taking in conversation. Throughout childhood, children will usually understand more words than they can speak. As children begin to understand language, they can answer simple questions with a yes or no response by shaking their heads or using simple sign language. It has become a common practice to teach hearing infants a few common signs to facilitate communication earlier than when they begin speaking (Rymanowicz & Cox, 2020; Thompson et al, 2007). Infants with hearing impairments can be taught sign language as soon as challenges are detected.
***Books should be read and stories told to children starting in infancy, as this helps develop new vocabulary and creates a connection to literature that will later be important for learning. Reading stories together also helps strengthen the relationship of the child and adult. Joint attention The action of a child and a caregiver focusing on the same object or concept at the same time] is the action of a child and a caregiver focusing on the same object or concept at the same time. This shared experience helps to form new vocabulary. Children learn new words much more quickly and efficiently with joint attention than they ever could by viewing a video. In fact, there is evidence that suggests that television can actually hinder language development rather than help (Byeon & Hong, 2015; Chonchaiya & Pruksananonda, 2008; Zimmerman et al., 2007). Here is an example of joint attention in action.
Example
Joint Attention
Setting: Teacher Tanisha and 18-month-old Sofia are looking out the window. Teacher Tanisha sees some autumn leaves falling from the tree.
Teacher Tanisha: “Look Sofia, leaves are falling from the tree.”
[Sofia looks at the leaves.]
[Teacher Tanisha and Sofia look at each other and make eye contact.]
Sofia: Smiles and says “leaves!”
This action has three steps: adult and child focus on the same object, adult and child make eye contact, adult names the object. In this way, children add many new words to their vocabulary. The words are presented in a real-life context, and they strengthen social relationships with their caregivers.
Once children begin to speak, language use should be encouraged through open-ended questions and topics that interest the child (Bebko et al., 2014). Songs, rhymes, and books are all effective and fun ways to encourage language, but everyday conversation is also helpful. Children like to be involved in the real-life daily activities of adults, so engaging a child while doing tasks around the classroom is a good way to support language (Golubović et al., 2022; Guidepost Montessori, n.d.). Mealtimes are another opportunity for language development, as eye contact is easy while sitting at a table.
When learning to speak, children will inevitably make errors with grammar and syntax. The best way to support language development is to model the correct grammar and word order rather than correcting the child. This avoids the embarrassment that might come with being called out on making a mistake, and language modeling is simply a better way for the brain to remember how to use grammar (Leung et al., 2021). An exchange might look something like this:
Example
Child: “After breakfast, I goed outside.”
Teacher: “After breakfast you went outside? How fun! What did you do outside?”
Child: “I played with Weihua out there.”
Gently modeling correct language usage is more effective than correcting children’s grammar.
By using language modeling, the teacher provides an example of when and how to use the word in a certain situation, thus helping the child remember it for next time.
Social Development
Social development includes all things related to interacting with others. Parents, family, teachers, and peers all have special relationships with children, and those relationships are also related to one another. Teachers form relationships with parents, which benefits the child, and adults can facilitate communication between children. At the center of this is the child, who is driven to form relationships with adults and children.
Relationships with Caregivers
Infants begin to form relationships with caregivers at birth. Forming a strong relationship with a primary caregiver gives a baby a feeling of safety and security. The primary caregiver is typically the mother, but can also be the father, a relative or other person who is central in the infant’s life. Eventually, infants form relationships with secondary caregivers like relatives and teachers. Healthy relationships are characterized by things like reciprocal interactions Back and forth communication between a child and caregiver can be verbal or nonverbal], sensitivity to emotions, a warm, calm, voice, and lots of positive language. These are good ways to interact with children of all ages but are particularly important with infants as toddlers. Children may form preferences to particular caregivers and be upset when one is not available. Similarly, children 9 to 18 months of age may go through separation anxiety A fear of being separated from their primary caregiver], or a fear of being separated from their primary caregiver (Swanson, 2021). This is normal, and children’s emotions should be respected during this time. They do not understand that their mother will return later, which can be upsetting. Teachers can provide support by recognizing the child’s emotions and providing physical comfort (if the child wants it). Using phrases like “I see you are sad that mommy has left” or “You are feeling upset right now” are helpful in supporting the child through the tough time.
Fact
Infants and young children need lots of positive attention.
Have you ever heard the phrase, “Don’t hold the baby too much, you might spoil him”? Well, it was once widely believed that paying infants too much attention might “spoil” them. This has now been shown to be untrue. In fact, the best way to create a healthy social relationship with an infant is to engage in physical touch and face-to-face communication (Berecz et al., 2020; Bigelow & Williams, 2020; Norholt, 2020).
Back and forth, reciprocal communication is important for developing a trusting, healthy bond between a child and a caregiver. Sharing hugs, playing peek-a-boo, talking about what is going on, and narrating a child’s world (“We are going to change your diaper and then lay you down for a nap.”) can help babies feel a sense of security and safety with their caregiver. Bonus — these interactions also promote language development! The benefits of positive interactions are not limited to infants — older children also develop healthier bonds with their caregivers when they engage in positive, back-and-forth communication (Romeo et al., 2018; Walsh, 2018).
Temperament
Temperament An infant’s regular way of reacting with their environment] is a developmental characteristic that intersects social, emotional, and physical development. Because it has genetic underpinnings, it is thought to be inborn. When most people think of genetics, they think of physical traits such as eye color or hair texture. While these are genetically inherited characteristics, genetics are also involved in a child’s disposition, which can later become a key part of their personality.
Temperament is an infant’s regular way of reacting with their environment, and is categorized as either easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. This is measured by several factors including: smiling and laughter; regularity in eating and sleep habits; approach or withdrawal; adaptability to new situations; intensity of responsiveness; general cheerfulness or unpleasantness; distractibility or persistence, and soothability. Parents of multiple children often report how their first child’s temperament differed from their second: “Jorge was so quiet and peaceful as a baby. He slept all day and never cried! Carlo on the other hand, fussed and cried all day. We thought he might never grow out of it!” It is important to know that babies of all temperaments can grow up to be happy, healthy, and balanced individuals.
Children’s temperament does indeed impact their behavior as an infant and this is a good example of how children’s genetic disposition can interact with their environment to help them develop. This is also an example of how different developmental domains can overlap. What is biological can also be social and emotional. The relationship between a child’s temperament and a caregiver’s personality is sometimes referred to as goodness of fit. If an infant has a difficult temperament, she may have frequent periods of intense crying, be difficult to soothe, and may not fall asleep easily. If she has a primary caregiver who is ready for a challenge and sees this baby as an individual who needs love and understanding, then they have a good “goodness of fit” (Bird et al., 2006). On the other hand, if an infant has an easy temperament and a caregiver who does not share her sunny disposition, they may not have a “goodness of fit.”
That is why it is important for caregivers of multiple children to be adaptable to multiple infant temperaments. Each child is an individual, and no child is better or worse than another. Further, there is no perfect temperament. Children are who they are, and it is up to the important adults in their lives to respect that and treat all children with love and care.
Relationships with Peers
As children grow and mature, they begin to show interest in other children. At first, it may be just a 10-month-old watching other children playing on a playground. This may not seem like much but observing older children at play lays the groundwork for later social interactions. Later, children will play with toys alongside one another, but not yet interact. Adults may be eager for children to form friendships with others, but this time of play is important for children to experience before they move into play involving rules and negotiation.
A great deal of peer relationship building is in the context of play. Play is, after all, the work of childhood, and this is what children spend most of their waking time doing. During play, children learn the rules of games, how to read a peer’s emotions, and how to engage in social problem solving (Luckenbill et al., 2019). If a group of 5-year-old children are playing a game of hide and seek, younger children who are new to the game will quickly learn the rules from the others. If two children are playing with crayons and one takes the crayon from the other, the ensuing frustration will be evident. In this way, children learn to read the emotions of peers.
Perhaps the most interesting development is social problem solving. When children encounter a conflict, it can disrupt their play, and we know children do not like to have their play interrupted. For this reason, children are his motivated to solve the conflict as quickly as possible in order to continue play.
Imagine two children playing in the kitchen dramatic play area. Both children want to cook, but there are only enough materials for one to stir the soup. A conflict arises, and in order to navigate this, the children decide that one will stir the soup and the other will chop the vegetables. This is an example of sophisticated negotiations and problem solving. Both children need to regulate their emotions, come up with alternative activities, and decide who will do which activity. If they give up at any time during the process, then the game is over.
This type of problem-solving behavior in the context of play is highly complex and takes a lot of practice. Teachers can facilitate this by stepping in to help regulate emotions, brainstorm alternative activities, or help decide who will do which activity, but only if it seems that the children need help.
Emotional Development
Emotional development includes the development of feelings, emotion regulation, and sense of self. Emotional development is closely related to social development. They are so closely related, in fact, that some frameworks of child development refer to them as socioemotional development or social-emotional development. In this section we will discuss emotional development and regulation.
The Development of Emotions
When babies are born, they experience basic emotions such as contentment, interest, and distress. After a few months they begin to experience fear, anger, happiness, and surprise. Later, when a sense of self develops, more emotions come along such as guilt, pride, and embarrassment. Caregivers can allow children to express emotions freely and teach them to express emotions in socially appropriate ways. One good way to do this is through modeling. Teachers can express mild frustration and model strategies to overcome it. For example, a teacher may demonstrate frustration with difficulty opening a jar, and then take some deep breaths before asking another teacher for help. This is an effective way to teach children how to manage emotions.
Another way to teach children to manage emotions is to read books that depict children overcoming difficult emotions so that children have a benchmark that they can relate to. Yet another approach is to encourage the expression of emotions through dance and art. Children may also act out emotions through pretend play. Providing children space and time to work through feelings in a pretend setting can be very helpful for the development of emotions.
Emotion Regulation
Emotion regulation a child’s ability to control or modify their emotions] refers to a child’s ability to control or modify their emotions. It is closely tied to brain development. The underpinnings for emotion regulation begin in infancy with the infant’s primary caregiver (Thompson & Meyer, 2007). When a baby cries for attention and is soothed by the caregiver, this sends signals to the brain that help the child to calm down. With this repeated action of crying and receiving comfort from a caregiver, the baby’s brain slowly learns the process of how to regulate emotions.
Emotion regulation takes a very long time, and more sophisticated emotion regulation occurs alongside executive function. This means that between the ages of three and five years, children are able to learn to cope with frustrations in a socially acceptable way (Raising Children Network, 2022).
Reflection
What are some activities that you could create to support child development? On which developmental domains will your activities focus?
Children with ADHD can have persistent difficulty with emotion regulation, making it hard to succeed in school environments designed for typically developing children (van Stralen, 2016). These children need special support and understanding in order to work toward developing emotion coping strategies (Gomes da Silva, 2008).
Resource
Some additional resources for developmental milestones and child development are The Washington State Early Learning and Development Guidelines and the Harvard Center for the Developing Child.
Attributions
- Figure 4.2: Developmental Domains by Angela Blums, for WA Open ProfTech, © SBCTC, CC BY 4.0
- Figure 4.3: image released under the Pexels License
- Figure 4.4: image released under the Pexels License
- Figure 4.5: image released under the Unsplash License
- Figure 4.6: Children playing in the beach by Dhammika Heenpella is released under CC BY-NC 2.0
Movement related to the large muscle groups in the body.
Movement related to small muscle groups in the body.
Collection of processes that encompass attention, working memory, and inhibition.
Please look for related terms in the Glossary
A system by which children use step-by-step strategies and logic to complete cognitive tasks.
Questions that do not have a yes or no answer; used to facilitate thinking.
Ability for a child to infer the thoughts and feelings of others.
A diagnosable condition in which children have difficulty with social interactions and communication, sometimes with rigid behaviors
Self-reflection; an ability to think about one’s own thoughts.
The action of a child and a caregiver focusing on the same object or concept at the same time.
Back and forth communication between a child and caregiver. Can be verbal or nonverbal.
A fear of being separated from their primary caregiver.
A set of inborn traits that organize the way we approach the world.
A child’s ability to control or modify one’s own emotions