The University of Alberta invited us to be part of a provincial Pressbooks pilot project, in which we will gain access to the EDU Pressbook publishing service the UofA library will be hosting.
What that means for you is the easy and free adoption and modification of existing open textbooks or the new creation of media-rich open teaching resources. These also include interactive quizzing elements in addition to video, photo and simulation embeds. Furthermore, you can activate Hypothes.is – a web annotation tool that will allow your students to (collaboratively) annotate and highlight specific parts in your resource. Once you have created the digital resource, it can easily be updated, shared online as well as in print. For those of you teaching using specific characters and languages, Pressbook allows for a multitude of those including LaTex, phonetic alphabets and many languages worldwide.
Pressbooks is a user-friendly tool that doesn’t require a steep learning curve.
BC campus has worked with this educational Pressbooks installation for a number of years and all Higher Education educators in the province have free access to it. Thus, they can easily vet, adopt and modify existing open textbooks in their disciplines or create their own if nothing suitable exists. The creation of resources often happens in collectives where a team lead invites contributions from other academic content experts in the discipline. The BC campus collection currently holds 270 textbooks and you can have your resource added to the collection as an online resource or a document that can then be bought as a printed book for a (low) printing fee.
Please do reach out to me or the Teaching Centre if you are now curious to learn more and have an interest in the free access to the EDU software!
I hope that this project will eventually turn into a government-funded constant to which all Higher Education professionals in the province will have free and easy access. With your help, this can become a reality.
Please note that you can also apply for an Open Access Learning Resources Fund to help offset some of the cost involved in the creation process! Spread the word among your peers!
For inspiration, please browse some of the following resources that have been created with Pressbooks.
- Teaching in the Digital Age
- Introduction to Theater – Interactive Learning Content (a student-instructor co-created resource)
- Introduction to Sociology 2nd Canadian Edition
- [http://The Simple Math of Writing Well]The Simple Math of Writing Well – Writing in the 21st Century
- Mathematics for Elementary Teachers
- Antología abierta de literatura hispana
- Essentials of Linguistics
- Nature of Geographic Information
- Knowing Home: Braiding Indigenous Science with Western Science, Book 1
- Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology
- An Urgency of Teachers
- Pressbooks Guide


Putting it all Together: Multimodal Perception
Though we have spent the majority of this module covering the senses individually, our real-world experience is most often multimodal, involving combinations of our senses into one perceptual experience. This should be clear after reading the description of walking through the forest at the beginning of the module; it was the combination of senses that allowed for that experience. It shouldn’t shock you to find out that at some point information from each of our senses becomes integrated. Information from one sense has the potential to influence how we perceive information from another, a process called multimodal perception.
Interestingly, we actually respond more strongly to multimodal stimuli compared to the sum of each single modality together, an effect called the super additive effect of multisensory integration. This can explain how you’re still able to understand what friends are saying to you at a loud concert, as long as you are able to get visual cues from watching them speak. If you were having a quiet conversation at a café, you likely wouldn’t need these additional cues. In fact, the principle of inverse effectiveness states that you are less likely to benefit from additional cues from other modalities if the initial unimodal stimulus is strong enough (Stein & Meredith, 1993).
Because we are able to process multimodal sensory stimuli, and the results of those processes are qualitatively different from those of unimodal stimuli, it’s a fair assumption that the brain is doing something qualitatively different when they’re being processed. There has been a growing body of evidence since the mid-90’s on the neural correlates of multimodal perception. For example, neurons that respond to both visual and auditory stimuli have been identified in the superior temporal sulcus (Calvert, Hansen, Iversen, & Brammer, 2001). Additionally, multimodal “what” and “where” pathways have been proposed for auditory and tactile stimuli (Renier et al., 2009). We aren’t limited to reading about these regions of the brain and what they do; we can experience them with a few interesting examples (see Additional Resources for the “McGurk Effect,” the “Double Flash Illusion,” and the “Rubber Hand Illusion”).


Polynomials and Polynomial Functions
Dividing Polynomials
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Dividing monomials
- Dividing a polynomial by a monomial
- Dividing polynomials using long division
- Dividing polynomials using synthetic division
- Dividing polynomial functions
- Use the remainder and factor theorems
Before you get started, take this readiness quiz.
Dividing Monomials
We are now familiar with all the properties of exponents and used them to multiply polynomials. Next, we’ll use these properties to divide monomials and polynomials.
Find the quotient:
When we divide monomials with more than one variable, we write one fraction for each variable.
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
Once you become familiar with the process and have practiced it step by step several times, you may be able to simplify a fraction in one step.
Find the quotient:
Be very careful to simplify by dividing out a common factor, and to simplify the variables by subtracting their exponents.
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
Divide a Polynomial by a Monomial
Now that we know how to divide a monomial by a monomial, the next procedure is to divide a polynomial of two or more terms by a monomial.
The method we’ll use to divide a polynomial by a monomial is based on the properties of fraction addition. So we’ll start with an example to review fraction addition. The sum simplifies to
Now we will do this in reverse to split a single fraction into separate fractions. For example, can be written
This is the “reverse” of fraction addition and it states that if a, b, and c are numbers where then We will use this to divide polynomials by monomials.
To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the polynomial by the monomial.
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
Divide Polynomials Using Long Division
Divide a polynomial by a binomial, we follow a procedure very similar to long division of numbers. So let’s look carefully the steps we take when we divide a 3-digit number, 875, by a 2-digit number, 25.
We check division by multiplying the quotient by the divisor.
If we did the division correctly, the product should equal the dividend.
Now we will divide a trinomial by a binomial. As you read through the example, notice how similar the steps are to the numerical example above.
Find the quotient:
| Write it as a long division problem.
Be sure the dividend is in standard form. |
|
| Divide by It may help to ask yourself, “What do I need
to multiply by to get ?” |
|
| Put the answer, in the quotient over the term.
Multiply times Line up the like terms under the dividend. |
|
| Subtract from
You may find it easier to change the signs and then add. Then bring down the last term, 20. |
|
|
Divide by It may help to ask yourself, “What do I need to multiply by to get ?” Put the answer, , in the quotient over the constant term. |
|
| Multiply 4 times | |
| Subtract from | |
| Check:
Multiply the quotient by the divisor. You should get the dividend. |
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
When we divided 875 by 25, we had no remainder. But sometimes division of numbers does leave a remainder. The same is true when we divide polynomials. In the next example, we’ll have a division that leaves a remainder. We write the remainder as a fraction with the divisor as the denominator.
Look back at the dividends in previous examples. The terms were written in descending order of degrees, and there were no missing degrees. The dividend in this example will be It is missing an term. We will add in as a placeholder.
Find the quotient:
Notice that there is no term in the dividend. We will add as a placeholder.
| Write it as a long division problem. Be sure the dividend is in standard form with placeholders for missing terms. | |
| Divide by
Put the answer, in the quotient over the term. Multiply times Line up the like terms. Subtract and then bring down the next term. |
|
| Divide by
Put the answer, in the quotient over the term.  Multiply times Line up the like terms. Subtract and bring down the next term. |
|
| Divide by
Put the answer, in the quotient over the constant term. Multiply times Line up the like terms. Change the signs, add. Write the remainder as a fraction with the divisor as the denominator. |
|
| To check, multiply .
The result should be |
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
In the next example, we will divide by As we divide, we will have to consider the constants as well as the variables.
Find the quotient:
This time we will show the division all in one step. We need to add two placeholders in order to divide.
To check, multiply
The result should be
Find the quotient:
Find the quotient:
Divide Polynomials using Synthetic Division
As we have mentioned before, mathematicians like to find patterns to make their work easier. Since long division can be tedious, let’s look back at the long division we did in (Figure) and look for some patterns. We will use this as a basis for what is called synthetic division. The same problem in the synthetic division format is shown next.
Synthetic division basically just removes unnecessary repeated variables and numbers. Here all the and are removed. as well as the and as they are opposite the term above.
The first row of the synthetic division is the coefficients of the dividend. The is the opposite of the 5 in the divisor.
The second row of the synthetic division are the numbers shown in red in the division problem.
The third row of the synthetic division are the numbers shown in blue in the division problem.
Notice the quotient and remainder are shown in the third row.
The following example will explain the process.
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when is divided by
| Write the dividend with decreasing powers of | |
| Write the coefficients of the terms as the first
row of the synthetic division. |
|
| Write the divisor as and place c
in the synthetic division in the divisor box. |
|
| Bring down the first coefficient to the third row. | |
| Multiply that coefficient by the divisor and place the
result in the second row under the second coefficient. |
|
| Add the second column, putting the result in the third row. | |
| Multiply that result by the divisor and place the
result in the second row under the third coefficient. |
|
| Add the third column, putting the result in the third row. | |
| Multiply that result by the divisor and place the
result in the third row under the third coefficient. |
|
| Add the final column, putting the result in the third row. | |
| The quotient is and the remainder is 2. |
The division is complete. The numbers in the third row give us the result. The are the coefficients of the quotient. The quotient is The 2 in the box in the third row is the remainder.
Check:
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when is divided by
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when is divided by
In the next example, we will do all the steps together.
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when is divided by
The polynomial has its term in order with descending degree but we notice there is no term. We will add a 0 as a placeholder for the term. In form, the divisor is
We divided a 4th degree polynomial by a 1st degree polynomial so the quotient will be a 3rd degree polynomial.
Reading from the third row, the quotient has the coefficients which is The remainder
is 0.
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when is divided by
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when is divided by
Divide Polynomial Functions
Just as polynomials can be divided, polynomial functions can also be divided.
For functions and where
For functions and find: ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ In part ⓐ we found and now are asked to find
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ
Use the Remainder and Factor Theorem
Let’s look at the division problems we have just worked that ended up with a remainder. They are summarized in the chart below. If we take the dividend from each division problem and use it to define a function, we get the functions shown in the chart. When the divisor is written as the value of the function at is the same as the remainder from the division problem.
| Dividend | Divisor | Remainder | Function | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | 4 | |||
| 3 | 3 |
To see this more generally, we realize we can check a division problem by multiplying the quotient times the divisor and add the remainder. In function notation we could say, to get the dividend we multiply the quotient, times the divisor, and add the remainder, r.
| If we evaluate this at we get: | |
This leads us to the Remainder Theorem.
If the polynomial function is divided by then the remainder is
Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when is divided by
To use the Remainder Theorem, we must use the divisor in the form. We can write the divisor as So, our is
To find the remainder, we evaluate which is
| To evaluate substitute | |
| Simplify. | |
| The remainder is 5 when is divided by | |
| Check:
Use synthetic division to check. |
|
| The remainder is 5. |
Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when is divided by
Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when is divided by
When we divided by in (Figure) the result was To check our work, we multiply by to get .
Written this way, we can see that and are factors of When we did the division, the remainder was zero.
Whenever a divisor, divides a polynomial function, and resulting in a remainder of zero, we say is a factor of
The reverse is also true. If is a factor of then will divide the polynomial function resulting in a remainder of zero.
We will state this in the Factor Theorem.
For any polynomial function
- if is a factor of then
- if then is a factor of
Use the Remainder Theorem to determine if is a factor of
The Factor Theorem tells us that is a factor of if
Since is a factor of
Use the Factor Theorem to determine if is a factor of
yes
Use the Factor Theorem to determine if is a factor of
yes
Access these online resources for additional instruction and practice with dividing polynomials.
Key Concepts
- Division of a Polynomial by a Monomial
- To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the polynomial by the monomial.
- Division of Polynomial Functions
- For functions and where
- For functions and where
- Remainder Theorem
- If the polynomial function is divided by then the remainder is
- Factor Theorem: For any polynomial function
- if is a factor of then
- if then is a factor of
Section Exercises
Practice Makes Perfect
Divide Monomials
In the following exercises, divide the monomials.
Divide a Polynomial by a Monomial
In the following exercises, divide each polynomial by the monomial.
Divide Polynomials using Long Division
In the following exercises, divide each polynomial by the binomial.
Divide Polynomials using Synthetic Division
In the following exercises, use synthetic Division to find the quotient and remainder.
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
Divide Polynomial Functions
In the following exercises, divide.
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ ⓑ
Use the Remainder and Factor Theorem
In the following exercises, use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder.
is divided by
is divided by
divided by
divided by
−6
In the following exercises, use the Factor Theorem to determine if is a factor of the polynomial function.
Determine whether a factor of
Determine whether a factor of
no
Determine whether a factor of
Determine whether a factor of
yes
Writing Exercises
James divides by 6 this way: What is wrong with his reasoning?
Divide and explain with words how you get each term of the quotient.
answer will vary
Explain when you can use synthetic division.
In your own words, write the steps for synthetic division for divided by
Answers will vary.
Self Check
ⓐ After completing the exercises, use this checklist to evaluate your mastery of the objectives of this section
ⓑ On a scale of 1-10, how would you rate your mastery of this section in light of your responses on the checklist? How can you improve this?
Chapter Review Exercises
Add and Subtract Polynomials
Determine the Degree of Polynomials
In the following exercises, determine the type of polynomial.
binomial
other polynomial
Add and Subtract Polynomials
In the following exercises, add or subtract the polynomials.
Find the sum of and
Find the difference of and
In the following exercises, simplify.
Subtract from
Find the difference of and
Evaluate a Polynomial Function for a Given Value of the Variable
In the following exercises, find the function values for each polynomial function.
For the function find:
ⓐ ⓑ ⓒ
ⓐ 165 ⓑ 39 ⓒ 5
For the function find:
ⓐ ⓑ ⓒ
A pair of glasses is dropped off a bridge 640 feet above a river. The polynomial function gives the height of the glasses t seconds after they were dropped. Find the height of the glasses when
The height is .
A manufacturer of the latest soccer shoes has found that the revenue received from selling the shoes at a cost of dollars each is given by the polynomial Find the revenue received when dollars.
Add and Subtract Polynomial Functions
In the following exercises, find ⓐ (f + g)(x) ⓑ (f + g)(3) ⓒ (f − g)(x) ⓓ (f − g)(−2)
and
ⓐⓑ
ⓒ
ⓓ
and
Properties of Exponents and Scientific Notation
Simplify Expressions Using the Properties for Exponents
In the following exercises, simplify each expression using the properties for exponents.
1
Use the Definition of a Negative Exponent
In the following exercises, simplify each expression.
36
In the following exercises, simplify each expression using the Product Property.
In the following exercises, simplify each expression using the Power Property.
In the following exercises, simplify each expression using the Product to a Power Property.
1
In the following exercises, simplify each expression using the Quotient to a Power Property.
In the following exercises, simplify each expression by applying several properties.
In the following exercises, write each number in scientific notation.
5,300,000
In the following exercises, convert each number to decimal form.
In the following exercises, multiply or divide as indicated. Write your answer in decimal form.
Multiply Polynomials
Multiply Monomials
In the following exercises, multiply the monomials.
Multiply a Polynomial by a Monomial
In the following exercises, multiply.
Multiply a Binomial by a Binomial
In the following exercises, multiply the binomials using:
ⓐ the Distributive Property ⓑ the FOIL method ⓒ the Vertical Method.
In the following exercises, multiply the binomials. Use any method.
Multiply a Polynomial by a Polynomial
In the following exercises, multiply using ⓐ the Distributive Property ⓑ the Vertical Method.
In the following exercises, multiply. Use either method.
Multiply Special Products
In the following exercises, square each binomial using the Binomial Squares Pattern.
In the following exercises, multiply each pair of conjugates using the Product of Conjugates.
Divide Monomials
Divide Monomials
In the following exercises, divide the monomials.
Divide a Polynomial by a Monomial
In the following exercises, divide each polynomial by the monomial
Divide Polynomials using Long Division
In the following exercises, divide each polynomial by the binomial.
Divide Polynomials using Synthetic Division
In the following exercises, use synthetic Division to find the quotient and remainder.
is divided by
is divided by
is divided by
Divide Polynomial Functions
In the following exercises, divide.
For functions and find ⓐ
ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ
For functions and find ⓐ
ⓑ
Use the Remainder and Factor Theorem
In the following exercises, use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder.
is divided by
divided by
In the following exercises, use the Factor Theorem to determine if is a factor of the polynomial function.
Determine whether is a factor of .
no
Determine whether is a factor of .
Chapter Practice Test
For the polynomial
ⓐ Is it a monomial, binomial, or trinomial? ⓑ What is its degree?
ⓐ trinomial ⓑ 4
Use the Factor Theorem to determine if a factor of
yes
ⓐ Convert 112,000 to scientific notation. ⓑ Convert to decimal form.
In the following exercises, simplify and write your answer in decimal form.
For the function find:
ⓐ ⓑ ⓒ
ⓐⓑ
For and find
ⓐ ⓑ
ⓒ ⓓ
For functions
and
find
ⓐ ⓑ
ⓐ
ⓑ
A hiker drops a pebble from a bridge 240 feet above a canyon. The function gives the height of the pebble seconds after it was dropped. Find the height when


6.4 Citation & Documentation Basics
The Basics of Citing and Documenting Source Material
Research papers at the college level (and some workplace documents) require some kind of documentation style. Documentation styles provide students, teachers, and researchers standards and specifications to follow for paper set up, in-text documentation, and references. They also have recommendations for writing style, word choice, and, in some cases, organization.
The most common documentation styles are APA (from the American Psychological Association) and MLA (from the Modern Language Association). Some fields and publications require Chicago Style (from the University of Chicago Press).
While it may feel tedious learning the different aspects of a documentation style, it’s important to remember that following style guidelines helps add credibility to your writing by providing you with a structured method for sharing your research with your audience.
Watch this short video, “What is Citing?,” from Cathy Cox at the College of the Redwoods to learn what citing is, when, where, and how to cite, and why it’s important:
Additional Resources
The following resources will help you learn more about the three different documentation styles so that you may properly cite your sources and correctly format your paper:
-
-
- MLA 8th Edition Quick Reference Sheet, a handy reference guide for quick references to MLA formatting and citing rules
-
-
-
- APA 7th Edition Quick Guide, a brief guide from the APA on documenting sources
-
-
-
- The Chicago Manual of Style Online, a comprehensive website with everything you need to know about Chicago Style
-
-
-
- These websites can help you format your sources:
-
CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Citation & Documentation." OER Commons Excelsior Online Writing Lab. [License: CC BY 4.0] Cox, Cathy. "What is Citing?" Uploaded by SCCCLibrary, 16 Apr. 2016. Youtube.com. |


8.9 Glomerulonephritis
Glomerulonephritis refers to an inflammatory disease that specifically affects the kidney glomeruli. Glomeruli are tiny structures within the kidneys responsible for filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood to produce urine. In glomerulonephritis, the inflammation within the glomeruli impairs their ability to function properly. This condition can be acute and occur suddenly or develop gradually over time and become chronic.[1]
Pathophysiology and Risk Factors
There are several potential causes of acute glomerulonephritis. A common cause of acute glomerulonephritis is an immune system response triggered by Streptococcus bacterial infection (commonly referred to as strep throat). When the immune system produces antibodies to fight the infection, they mistakenly attack the glomeruli in the kidneys. This immune response leads to inflammation and damage to the glomeruli, affecting their ability to filter waste and fluids properly. Other common causes of acute glomerulonephritis include viral infections (like hepatitis B or C, HIV, or upper respiratory infections) and certain medications or toxins.
Chronic glomerulonephritis develops from sustained inflammatory processes that occur over time. Conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), vasculitis, or other autoimmune diseases can cause ongoing inflammation and damage the kidneys.[2],[3]
Assessment
Assessment findings across different body systems can help clinicians identify and monitor the effects of glomerulonephritis on a client’s overall health. See Table 8.9 for clinical manifestations of glomerulonephritis across body systems.
Table 8.9. Clinical Manifestations of Glomerulonephritis Across Body Systems[4],[5]
| Body System | Assessment Findings |
|---|---|
| Urinary | Hematuria, proteinuria, and oliguria |
| Cardiovascular | Hypertension and fluid overload (edema, heart murmurs, jugular venous distention) |
| Hematologic | Anemia due to decreased production of erythropoietin by the kidneys, bleeding tendencies due to platelet dysfunction, and increased susceptibility to infections |
| Neurologic | Confusion and altered mental status (in severe cases with uremia) |
| Gastrointestinal | Nausea, vomiting, and poor appetite due to uremia, signs of gastrointestinal bleeding (if severe kidney impairment), and metallic taste in the mouth |
| Musculoskeletal | Muscle weakness and cramping (related to electrolyte imbalances) |
| Dermatologic | Pallor due to anemia, pruritus due to uremic toxins accumulating in the skin, easy bruising, and petechiae (if platelet dysfunction present) |
Diagnostic Testing
Diagnostic testing for glomerulonephritis includes laboratory and imaging studies to confirm the diagnosis and determine the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Laboratory tests often include BUN, creatinine, glomerular filtration rate, and electrolyte panel. Creatinine and BUN results are typically increased and GFR is decreased. In the electrolyte panel results, the potassium and phosphorous may be elevated and the calcium level may be decreased. Complete blood counts are also monitored for signs of anemia (decreased red blood cells) due to decreased erythropoietin production. A urinalysis is typically performed to assess the presence of infection. Review normal reference ranges for common diagnostic tests in “Appendix A – Normal Reference Ranges.”
A kidney biopsy may be performed to determine the cause of the nephritis. Additionally, imaging studies such as a CT scan and renal ultrasound may be performed to identify inflammation within the kidneys and structural abnormalities.[6]
Nursing Diagnoses
Nursing diagnoses for clients with glomerulonephritis help guide nursing care and address the specific needs of these individuals.
Common nursing diagnoses include the following:
- Excess Fluid Volume
- Acute Pain
- Impaired Urinary Elimination
- Readiness for Enhanced Knowledge
- Imbalanced Nutrition
Outcome Identification
Outcome identification includes setting short- and long-term goals and creating expected outcome statements customized for the client’s specific needs. Expected outcomes are statements of measurable action for the client within a specific time frame that are responsive to nursing interventions. Examples of expected outcomes for clients with acute glomerulonephritis are as follows:
- The client will exhibit a reduction in fluid retention within 48 hours, as evidenced by decreased edema in the extremities and a weight decrease of at least two pounds.
- The client will exhibit improved urinary output, achieving at least 75% of the expected urine output for age and body weight within 72 hours.
- The client will verbalize an understanding of glomerulonephritis, its causes, treatment regimen, and recommended lifestyle modifications.
Interventions
Medical Interventions
Medical interventions for glomerulonephritis aim to treat any underlying infection, alleviate symptoms, and prevent recurrence. Common medical interventions include medication therapy, dialysis, plasmapheresis, and treating underlying conditions.
Medication Therapy
Medication therapy for glomerulonephritis may include several classes of medications:
- Antibiotics: When glomerulonephritis is caused by a bacterial infection, antibiotics are prescribed to eliminate the infection.
- Immunosuppressants: In cases of autoimmune or immune-mediated glomerulonephritis, medications that suppress the immune system, such as corticosteroids or other immunosuppressants, may be used to reduce inflammation and immune response attacking the kidneys.
- Diuretics: To manage excess fluid volume and edema, diuretics may be prescribed to increase urine output and reduce fluid retention.
- Antihypertensives: Controlling high blood pressure is crucial to prevent further kidney damage. Medications like ACE inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) are commonly used to manage hypertension and reduce proteinuria (excessive protein in the urine).
Dialysis
When glomerulonephritis results in acute kidney failure, dialysis may be required to restore fluid and electrolyte balance. (Review information about types of dialysis under the “Chronic Kidney Disease” section.)
Plasmapheresis
If excessive antibodies or immune response complexes are formed as the result of the glomerulonephritis, plasmapheresis may be required. Plasmapheresis involves removal of blood plasma and replacement with donor plasma.
Treatment of Underlying Conditions
Treating underlying conditions that contribute to glomerulonephritis, such as diabetes or infections, is essential to prevent further kidney damage.[7],[8]
Nursing Interventions
Nursing interventions for glomerulonephritis focus on management of infection, prevention of complications, and health teaching.
Management of Infection
Nurses monitor the client’s temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate to monitor for signs of worsening infection and promptly report changes in condition. They ensure timely administration of prescribed antibiotics to treat underlying bacterial infections that are causing glomerulonephritis. They monitor white blood cell count levels to assess the body’s response to infection and the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. The client, family, and caregivers are educated on infection control practices and proper hand hygiene to prevent the spread of infections.
Prevention and Management of Fluid Imbalances
Nurses monitor daily weights, fluid intake and output, and 24-hour I/O trends for indications of fluid overload. Blood pressure is monitored, and antihypertensive medications are administered as prescribed to maintain optimal blood pressure levels and prevent further kidney damage. Health teaching is provided to the client on elevating extremities to reduce edema, if present. If prescribed, information on fluid restrictions and limited sodium intake is provided.
Health Teaching
Health teaching is provided about the importance of adhering to prescribed antibiotic regimens and other medications (such as immunosuppressants or antihypertensives) to manage the condition effectively. Individuals with kidney disorders may need guidance for carefully managing their protein intake. The level of recommended protein intake varies depending on the stage of kidney disease and individual health conditions.
Clients are taught about symptoms of worsening kidney function to report to the health care provider, such as increased edema and decreased urine output. The importance of adhering to follow-up appointments for monitoring kidney function, blood pressure, and overall health status is emphasized.
Evaluation
During the evaluation stage, nurses determine the effectiveness of nursing interventions for a specific client. The previously identified expected outcomes are reviewed to determine if they were met, partially met, or not met by the time frames indicated. If outcomes are not met or only partially met by the time frame indicated, the nursing care plan is revised. Evaluation should occur every time the nurse implements interventions with a client, reviews updated laboratory or diagnostic test results, or discusses the care plan with other members of the interprofessional team.
RN Recap: Glomerulonephritis
View a brief YouTube video overview of glomerulonephritis[9]:
- Radhakrishnan, J. (2022). Glomerular disease. Evaluation and differential diagnoses in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/ ↵
- Radhakrishnan, J. (2022). Glomerular disease. Evaluation and differential diagnoses in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/ ↵
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2022). Glomerular disease. National Institutes of Health. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/glomerular-disease ↵
- Radhakrishnan, J. (2022). Glomerular disease. Evaluation and differential diagnoses in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/ ↵
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2022). Glomerular disease. National Institutes of Health. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/glomerular-disease ↵
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2022). Glomerular disease. National Institutes of Health. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/glomerular-disease ↵
- Radhakrishnan, J. (2022). Glomerular disease. Evaluation and differential diagnoses in adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/ ↵
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2022). Glomerular disease. National Institutes of Health. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/glomerular-disease ↵
- Open RN Project. (2024, June 23). Health Alterations - Chapter 8 - Glomerulonephritis [Video]. You Tube. CC BY-NC 4.0 https://youtu.be/JPanSdCW7Ac?si=peZQOoxnuUMhS06L ↵
An inflammatory disease that specifically affects the kidney glomeruli.
Tiny structures within the kidneys responsible for filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood to produce urine.
The withdrawal of whole blood and the removal of red blood cells and then reinfusion of the plasma back into the client.


2.4 Long-Term Care
Brandon Censon MPH, CPH, RRT-NPS, CPFT, CPT
It is important to understand the difference between long-term care and acute care. Unlike acute care settings, long-term care primarily provides care for patients with chronic illnesses and offers a wide range of services. In this unit, we will explore these services in greater detail.
Skilled Nursing Facilities
Skilled nursing facilities primarily provide care for the elderly and disabled who have complex medical problems that prevent them from caring for themselves. The length of a patient’s stay can vary. For example, if a patient needs extended care for an acute medical problem—longer than a hospital can offer—they may be discharged once their treatment is complete. Conversely, some patients may remain in a skilled nursing facility for the rest of their lives due to chronic and complex medical problems.
Assisted-Living Facilities
Assisted-living facilities typically serve people who need assistance with activities of daily living (ADLs), as well as those with mental health problems, developmental disabilities, or dementia. These facilities are residential, and they offer residents apartment-style homes and common areas for social and recreational activities.
Rehabilitation Facilities
Rehabilitation facilities provide acute care that may include various therapy professionals, such as physical therapists, occupational therapists, and speech therapists. This care focuses on restoring a patient’s functional and cognitive skills following disturbances that affect their ability to perform ADLs. Conditions treated in rehabilitation facilities include strokes, spinal cord and brain injuries, and surgical replacements or repairs of large joints, such as the hip. The overarching goal at rehabilitation facilities is short-term care that helps patients recover from injuries, medical procedures, or other significant health events.
Attributions
- Figure 2.3: image released under the Pexels License
- Figure 2.4: image released under the Pexels License
Refers to a condition that last longer than 1 or more years and impacts an individual's activities of daily living.
refers to a patient being released from healthcare services.


Module 12: Linear Regression and Correlation
Outliers
Barbara Illowsky & OpenStax et al.
outlier is an observation of data that does not fit the rest of the data. It is sometimes called an extreme value. When you graph an outlier, it will appear not to fit the pattern of the graph. Some outliers are due to mistakes (for example, writing down 50 instead of 500) while others may indicate that something unusual is happening.
The following video gives an introduction to the idea of an outlier in a set of data.
Note
A potential outlier is a data point that is significantly different from the other data points. These special data points may be errors or some kind of abnormality or they may be a key to understanding the data.
example
For the following 13 real estate prices, calculate the IQR and determine if any prices are potential outliers. Prices are in dollars.
389,950; 230,500; 158,000; 479,000; 639,000; 114,950; 5,500,000; 387,000; 659,000; 529,000; 575,000; 488,800; 1,095,000
Solution:
Order the data from smallest to largest.
114,950; 158,000; 230,500; 387,000; 389,950; 479,000; 488,800; 529,000; 575,000; 639,000; 659,000; 1,095,000; 5,500,000
M = 488,800
Q1 = [latex]displaystylefrac{{{230},{500}+{387},{000}}}{{2}}[/latex] = 308,750
Q3 = [latex]displaystylefrac{{{639},{000}+{659},{000}}}{{2}}[/latex] = 649,000
IQR = 649,000 – 308,750 = 340,250
(1.5)(IQR) = (1.5)(340,250) = 510,375
Q1 – (1.5)(IQR) = 308,750 – 510,375 = –201,625
Q3 + (1.5)(IQR) = 649,000 + 510,375 = 1,159,375
No house price is less than –201,625. However, 5,500,000 is more than 1,159,375. Therefore, 5,500,000 is a potential outlier.


13 Intermediate
Niel Anthon Ombajen
Chapter 5:
Learning Objectives
- Analyze the various roles and contributions of community members, fostering an understanding of interdependence and collaboration within the community.
- Identify the basic parts of a news articles developing a further understanding on the structure of news articles.
- Know how to summarize a story coherently, from identifying the main points to the sequence of events, improving the clarity and conciseness.
Vocabulary
- Community – is a group of people who share the same interests, values, and have something in common.
- Roles – is a set of connected behaviors, rights, obligations, beliefs, and norms as conceptualized by people in a social situation.
- News – is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events.
- Summarize – give a brief statement of the main points of a story, article, movies, events, etc.
Essential Knowledge
What is a community? A community is a group of people who share the same location, interest, and goals. A community can interact with each other to be able to create bond, develop connections and build relationships with one another. Within a community, various individuals are involved where they also have their roles. These roles have their own specific functions that they need to execute so that the community will function accordingly as well. The following are the types of communities where certain individuals belong:
1. Urban Community: An urban community is a group of people living in a specific area, and it has its own distinct needs and structure. These communities are often crowded and depend on surrounding areas for food and resources, while they provide various services to those areas in exchange.
Here examples of common members in urban communities:
- City Officials – they are the ones who govern and make policies to ensure the peace and harmony of the community.
- Artists and Performers – these people can be musicians, painters, and actors who contribute to the cultural scene.
- Company and Business Employees – they work for companies that run business that contributes to a larger scope of the operations in the community.
2. Rural Community: Rural communities often focus on agricultural lifestyles and face specific challenges, like getting access to healthcare and services since they are far from providers. Additionally, these areas usually lean more conservatively, as residents tend to rely on themselves and their neighbors rather than the government.
Here are examples of common member in rural communities:
- Farmers – these people manage agriculture-related activities such as planting crops and tending livestock used for consumption.
- Forestry Workers – They are involved in conservation efforts. They maintain the balance of the environment where they prohibit denuding the forest to prevent environmental disasters.
- Local Artisans – they create handmade crafts which they sell to the market in exchange for money.
3. Neighborhood: A neighborhood is a smaller part of any of these types of communities. It consists of people living close together who might share local services, like shops or an elementary school nearby.
Here are examples of common member of a neighborhood:
- Families – a family is a group of people connected by blood, marriage, or adoption, and they often share a home together.
- Neighbors – these are the people who live nearby and build friendships through casual chats, shared experiences, and everyday interactions. They often help each other out, whether it is lending a cup of sugar, watching each other’s kids, or just being there to listen. This kind of support creates a close-knit community where everyone feels a little more at home.
Activities
General Instruction: Please read the following activities and carefully read the instructions. These activities will enhance your skills in reading and writing in the target language, and will develop your creativity.  Kindly pay attention on the specific instructions given on each activity of this course.
Conversational
Instruction: Now that you have learned the various members of a community and their roles, you will collaborate with two people (3 members each group), and discuss the following questions:
- Kindly describe your role in the community where you belong right now.
- How do you think you are making a difference for the people around you?
- How do you see your role in your community, and what do you think is the most important part of it?
- If you could be anyone in your community (or in any community mentioned in the discussion) for a day, what would it be and why?
After discussing with your groupmates, you will choose a person who will share what the group has discussed with the class briefly.
Technical
Technical: Dissecting a News Article
A news article is a written piece that shares important information about current events or issues that matter to people. You can usually find these articles in newspapers, magazines, and online.
The main goal is to provide readers with clear, factual details, often answering questions like who, what, where, when, why, and how. While the format can change, good news articles focus on being clear and on point, which makes it easier for readers to understand and stay interested. A news article is aligned to a specific structure, and it usually begins with a lead that catches the overall substance of the story. Most importantly, it proceeds with laying out supporting information in a coherent manner. Consider the following structure below:
The Inverted Pyramid Structure
LEAD
In the first paragraphs of a new article, it contains the most crucial information where it needs to answer the 5Ws and 1H (What, Who, Where, When, Why, and How). It is important that a news article answers these questions to get the reader’s attention by giving them a concise summary of the news.
BODY
The body is where the supporting details can be found. It provides the story with the important context of the story. Typically, the information being presented here is structured in a descending order of importance (eyewitness accounts, Official Statements)
TAIL
This part of the news usually contains the least important information. It simply provides the background and other related context of the story. This can be modified and will not affect the gist of the story or the entirety itself.
Activity
Instruction: Now that you have learned the basic parts of a news article, you are going to read and identify the different parts of the story by answering the given questions below:
Two students from Sta. Cruz win medals in Math Olympiad
BEA Shyne N. Betonio and Princess Jeth Avrielle M. Alcuizar won bronze medals at the recently concluded Philippine International Mathematical Olympiad Final Round (PhIMO 2024) held at the EVM Convention Center in Quezon City from September 20-23, 2024.
Both Betonio and Alcuizar hail from Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur. Betonio, who studies at Sta. Cruz National High School, claimed victory in the Secondary 2 category, while Alcuizar, from Sta. Cruz Central Elementary School, won in the Kindergarten category.
Teacher Queency Faith Alcuizar, who coached both students to success, was also recognized with the Outstanding Coach award.
Ms. Queency Faith, from Sta. Cruz National High School, is the Math 8 and Advanced Geometry teacher of Bea, as well as the mother of Princess.
Bea and Princess had previously won bronze medals in the Hong Kong International Math Olympiad Final Round (HKIMO) – Online Round in the same categories.
PhIMO and HKIMO are competitions under the Math Olympiads Training League Inc. (MOTLI). Only those who win medals in the national rounds are eligible to participate in the final or international round.
“As first-time delegates of Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur, we are hoping to inspire others that Math is fun and could bring us to places. May this also open the doors para mas suportahan din ang academic competitions especially math olympiads. Yung goal ko po talaga ay ma-prove na kaya din ng mga Sta Cruzians makipagsabayan sa private and science high schools despite being novice in joining global competitions like these,” Coach Queency told Superbalita Davao in an interview. JRN
Creative
Creative: Let’s make a summary!
What is a summary? A summary is a brief explanation of a larger text piece. It is typically used to make a quick run-through of what the whole text is all about without having to read it again from the start to the last. A summary encompasses wide range of subjects. It could be a summary of a book, article, story, movie etc. Now let us learn the five (5) simple steps on how to make a summary.
- Read and take notes.
First things first, you need to read or watch the original text fully before you can make a summary out of it. While reading, you may also take a break to jot down the important parts and then continue again with the process. This will help your summarization clear and easy.
- Start with introductory sentences.
In school or formal settings, summaries usually start with a sentence that tells the title of the work and its author. This helps the reader know what the summary is about right away. But if the work has already been mentioned, you might not need to say the title and author again. For instance, if your class is already talking about Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, you can skip that part in your summary.
- Explain the main points.
You need to take notes of the main points and the sequence where they appear. By doing this, it allows your summary to be more cohesive and easier to understand. You may use the WHW method or the what, how, and why:
- What are the key ideas or events?
- How do they develop throughout the work?
- Why are they important to the work’s overall message?
Remember, you should be selective on the point that you include. Summaries are about the bigger picture, not the small details.
- Organize your summary to ensure a smooth flow.
Your summary should be clear and easy to follow. Use words that help connect your ideas so they flow smoothly from one to the next. Try to organize your summary like the original work. Even though it’s shorter, it should still feel complete on its own. In simple terms, make sure it has a clear beginning, middle, and end.
- Conclude by restating the author’s thesis
Finish your summary with a clear statement that effectively captures the author’s main argument or purpose. Remember, in making a conclusion you should not include another information as this may result to confusion to the readers. In concluding your summary, you may want to have a sense of closure so that the reader will know that it is the end part of what happened in the original text.
 After, watching the video, you are going to make a one-paragraph summary of the story. In writing the summary of the story, you must use the English language.
Let’s Check!
Key Takeaways
Type your key takeaways here.
- Within a community, every member has a role to execute which is significant in maintaining the operation and balance of the community.
- A news article is a written piece that shares important information about current events or issues that matter to people.
- A summary provides a clear and concise explanation of a bigger text without having to read it from the start.


Chapter 1: Workplace Environment
4 Speaking
Pronunciation
Task 1
Listen to the pronunciation of the words and phrases in the audio for Task 1. Repeat and practise.
| accountable | empower | monitor | release |
| adapt | encourage | onboarding | rewarding |
| appropriate | foremost in mind | ongoing | shifts |
| attitude | good fit for | performance review | soft skills |
| button | hard skills | position | strict |
| carpool | identifier | potential | sustainability |
| conform | identify | press | trait |
| core | influence | probation | two-way radio |
| demonstrate | introduce | procedure | values |
| diversity | keep up | promote | |
| earn a raise | mentor | promotion | |
| emergency contacts | mission statement | raise |
Task 2
Listen to the audio for Task 2. Pay attention to how the speaker groups words together. Mark any pauses you hear with a /. Discuss the pauses you marked. Practise reading along with the audio, pausing where the reader pauses.
A company’s values are also important when employers make decisions to retain employees. Employers expect employees to show the right attitude and to demonstrate these values once they hire them. They expect employees to conform to the company’s culture and adopt its values. Many successful employees use these values to set goals for improving their soft skills. They know that many companies promote from within. They know that they have a better chance of getting a higher position in the company if they can demonstrate these values along with their hard skills.
Speaking practice
Complete the following
- a.) The table contains pieces of a dialogue between Paul and Kevin, another employee at CDN Malls. The pieces of dialogue are not in order. Put the pieces of the dialogue in order. Number them to show the correct sequence. Discuss why you arranged the dialogue the way you did.
b.) Check your answers in the answer key.
| Kevin: | Well, it’s been close to seven years. | |
| Kevin: | The Regal? | |
| Paul: | Seven years? You must enjoy your job! Oh, sorry, but I have to rush. I just realized it’s almost one. I promised to meet
someone at the reception. It’s been great talking to you, Kevin. Bye. |
|
| Kevin: | How’s it going? | |
| Kevin: | Oh, yeah. You’ll really enjoy working here. It’s well run, and all the supervisors are great. They really are about empowering everyone to do their best. | |
| Paul: | Yeah. And, after lunch, we get to observe people doing the tasks we will be performing. What a great idea—watching the people in action and easing into it like this. I didn’t have this at my last job. | |
| Kevin: | See you later! | |
| Paul: | At the Regal. | |
| Paul: | From Finance? Nice to meet you. I’m Paul. Guest Services. This is my first day here. | |
| Paul: | Yeah. It’s a boutique hotel in Calgary. Have you worked here long? | |
| Kevin: | Hi, you must be new here. I haven’t seen you before. I’m Kevin from Finance. Pleased to meet you. | |
| Paul: | Great, actually. I thought it would be information overload, and I was prepared for that. But it is all very well organized here. | |
| Kevin: | And where was that? |
- Listen to the audio for this task. Listen for the pronunciation of the words and the thought groups. Practise reading along with the audio, pausing where the reader pauses. Listen for and identify examples of clarifying information.
- Practise the dialogue with a partner. Pay attention to eye contact and body language.
- Discuss the dialogue.
a) Did Kevin and Paul discuss anything personal? Why/Why not?
b) What are some appropriate topics to talk about when you meet someone for the first time at a new job?
c) Did Kevin and Paul always speak in full sentences? Why/Why not?
d) What are three questions you could ask a co-worker on your first day?
e) What are three ways to clarify some information you do not understand?
f) What are three ways you can close a conversation politely?
Speaking progress check
Rubric
Read the information in the rubric to the right. It explains what you need to focus on in this activity.
Complete the speaking task on the next page with your instructor or a classmate, paying attention to the expectations in the rubric.
| Chapter 1: Speaking progress check | |||||||
|
Name:
Date: |
||||||
| Criteria | Yes | Almost | No | How can you improve? | |||
| You responded to a greeting appropriately. | |||||||
| You asked a question to get the information you needed. | |||||||
| You clarified the information. | |||||||
| You closed the interaction with appropriate details. | |||||||
| You maintained appropriate eye contact throughout the interaction. |
Task
| Context
You are a new employee at CDN Malls, and you are looking for the conference room where you are going to have your orientation. Ask the receptionist for the information. Your instructor or a classmate will play the role of the receptionist.
Instructions
|
|
| (Receptionist) | Good morning. Can I help you? |
| You | • Respond appropriately.
• Ask a relevant question. |
| (Receptionist) | It’s on the third floor. Turn right after you exit the elevator. It’s the last room on the right. |
| You | • Ask a question to clarify the information. |
| (Receptionist) | [Answer question] |
| You | Close the conversation appropriately. |


1
Scott Ferrari, Alexa Ricci, Robert Mitchell
A country’s wage structure depends on multiple variables such as if their economy is going through an expansion period, the type of industries they specialize in, trade policies, policies based on gender discrimination, and the level of educational attainment throughout the country. This chapter will analyze the factors that affect inter-industry wage differentials, gender wage differentials, CEO compensation, the effects of immigration, education and skills across different countries. Making these international comparisons will help explain why workers experience different degrees of wage dispersion and it also provides a reason as to why wages may be more polarized in certain countries. This paper will examine the existence and extent of wage inequality in different countries.
Review Of Literature
Inter-Industry Wage Differentials
Wage disparities still exist amongst workers with similar characteristics employed in firms that operate in different sectors of the economy. A common belief is that industry affiliation, trade openness, and capital openness are the main factors that cause wage differentials in a country (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 404). Other causes are different industry-level productivity performance, compensation for unmeasured working conditions, and matching highly competent workers to high wage firms (Papapetrou, 51). Wage structure is subject to change across any growing economy over time and wage inequality is bound to occur. The cause of this dispersion is to be inspected along with the degree of its effect on different industries.
Wang, Milner and Scheffel examined Chinese household survey data; the individual wages were regressed against worker-specific and job-related characteristics to yield an estimated industry wage premium. This premium measures the part of wage variation explained by industry affiliation in China. The second stage of their study was to use the estimated industry premium and pool it across previous years and have it be regressed on various globalization variables at the industry level. The theoretical predictions and results are shown below.
When a country is unskilled labor abundant, the increased specialization in their comparative advantage raises the relative demand and wages of unskilled labor in all industries (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 406). An increase in exports means that more labor would be required by firms to reach their required output for the specialized good. A rising relative wage for unskilled workers caused by trade expansion forces these unskilled labor-intensive industries to raise their wages. An impactful factor that explains wage inequality across industries is trade-induced productivity changes, along with technological changes (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 407). This causes an increase in output capabilities which can raise wages for workers due to higher productivity. Trading turns out to be an impactful factor on wages in China. It was found that wage levels are positively correlated with the import of intermediate goods or export of final goods (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 419). The estimated wage premium regressed against trade-openness and capital-openness exhibits that it is mainly exposure to trade in final goods that drives industry wage differentials (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 427). The effects of intermediate imports and exports were found to be insignificant. The unskilled labor abundance in China, which exports many goods, increases the demand for labor in export industries and for relatively low-skill intensive activities (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 418). On the other hand, the productivity-enhancement effects of exporting industries are biased towards skilled workers, which raises their wages but lowers the wage of unskilled workers. The data ended up revealing that industry affiliation explains a relatively small proportion of actual wage variations (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 405). Men, white collar workers, workers in large firms, people satisfied with their jobs, and those with a higher social/economic status tend to earn more than other workers in China (Wang,Milner, and Scheffel, 427). We can conclude that the wage premium level tends to be larger the more that the industry’s involved in the exporting of final goods.
Next, to see if wage dispersion exists amongst different sectors and the extent of those gaps, Belgium and Greece will be examined. Previous studies have suggested that sectoral effects are greater in countries with little corporatism no matter what time period was studied (Barth and Zweimüller 1994) and Belgium ranks as intermediate or high on the level of corporatism while America is at the bottom of the scale. The reasons behind inter-industry wage differentials include that there are specific characteristics of employers in different sectors and individual characteristics of employees are not distributed randomly among industries.
Different sectors in the economy have different levels of productivity and some require a higher skill/risk and some only require low-skill intensive work. First, we must examine to see if there are actually differences in wages among sectors in Belgium. The telecommunications sector is the best paid, earning fifty-eight percent more than the average worker in Belgium, followed by the electricity/gas/hot water supply sector, then the manufacturers of petroleum and nuclear fuel, financial intermediaries, and finally the hotel and restaurant sector which earns thirty percent less than the average worker in the economy (Rycx, 562). These results show that the inter-industry wage differentials do exist in Belgium and are the result of characteristics of employers in each sector, and that the determination of wages in each sector is influenced by technological and organizational characteristics of the firms making it up. This data also agrees with the theory of the existence of a negative relationship between this wage gap and the degree of corporatism. Overall, the evidence showed that the size of firms, level of wage bargaining, and the skills of the labor force affects their wages; as the least skilled jobs earn between twenty-four and thirty percent less than the average worker in Belgium (Rycx, 562). After examining Greece, there was also evidence of high wage dispersion across industries. The best-paying industries dealt with manufacturing of things such as coke, refined petroleum, water, and tobacco products (Papapetrou and Tsalaporta, 58). Other high paying industries included electricity, gas, steam and air supply, water collection, and telecommunications (Papapetrou and Tsalaporta, 58). While the lowest paying industries were comprised of office administrative work, office support, security and investigation, cleaning, hairdressing, information service, and food service activities (Papapetrou and Tsalaporta, 58). The wages earned in each of these industries differ because of how much revenue certain sectors make as compared to others, and the skill or risk involved in completing the demanded tasks from the employers. Inter-industry wage differentials will continue to exist as sectors require different levels of skill and people will continue to fill in any jobs that they can match their services with.
Taking a look at another country that has high wage differentials for different industries is urban China.In urban China, pay differs depending on industry. Service workers get 20.2% less pay than professionals and technicians for male migrants and for females the gap is 31%. Meanwhile, the greatest wage gap is in the finance, insurance, and real estate industry in urban China. Only 5.4% of males and 2.1% of females have professional or technical positions (Magnani and Zhu 782). It is difficult for people in urban China to find jobs in the public sector or foreign sector with low schooling levels. The returns for schooling are about 4% for both male and female migrants (Magnani and Zhu 784). Wholesale, retail and food services, and the social service sector are the major employers of migrants in China (Magnani and Zhu 782). People who immigrate to China are more likely to work in an industry of retail or food services. The industry people work in depends on their schooling. Those who work in the wholesale, retail, and food services do not need a very high level of schooling to get a job in these industries because it is not required. Certain industries require more schooling or skill, therefore, this contributes to wage differentials.
CEO Compensation
CEO compensation occurs due to an employee’s set of skills, schooling, and prior work experience, but the structure of their wages can differ across countries. For this section an in depth analysis of Japan and the United States is conducted. The structure of CEO pay in Japan and the United States of America is drastically different (Zhou and Pan, 2261). These two systems both compensate CEOs with much higher pay than the average employee of the firm, but differ in how they hire their CEO and the way in which they receive their income.
The sample being looked at covered 424 companies in Japan from 2010 to 2015 and 274 pairs of one-for-one matched Japan and U.S firms. Overall the data proved CEO compensation to be substantially different from the United States (Zhou and Pan, 2261). It was found that Japanese CEO’s base salaries accounted for seventy-one percent of their total compensation while in the United States their base salary represented only twenty-one percent of their total compensation (Zhou and Pan, 2263). Bonuses and stock options proved to account for much more when it comes to American CEOs, making up more than seventy-three percent of their earnings while in Japan it makes up merely twenty-three percent of their net compensation (Zhou and Pan, 2263). This is one example of how Japan and America differ in the structure of how CEOs are paid. Another between these two countries is that CEO pay in Japan is relatively insensitive to firm size and performance as compared to the United States. The elasticity of CEO total compensation with respect to sales in Japan was only 0.13, but in the U.S the elasticity was much larger at 0.45 (Zhou and Pan, 2263). Regarding performance, in Japan there is a five-cent change in CEO pay for every thousand-dollar change in shareholder value, while in the United States it is a fourteen-cent change per thousand dollar change (Zhou and Pan, 2263). One final statistic, that might be the most crucial, is the total compensation paid to the average CEO in each country. In Japan their average chief executive officer receives 1.1 million dollars a year and in the United States their average was 4.8 million dollars a year (Zhou and Pan, 2263). That is 3.4 times higher than Japan and helps prove that international wage differentials have not decreased or vanished between all countries. CEO pay and firm size have a relationship that can vary significantly from country to country; this means that when examining larger sized firms, international wage differentials could be much greater as compared to average sized companies, which proved to be true in this case. The reasoning behind such a large gap such as this could be accredited to unique Japanese culture and tradition which is difficult to quantify and model. They have long-term employment relationships in Japan with an average CEO tenure of 20 years compared to 12 years in the U.S and focus on internal promotions and even post-CEO positions. In America one-third of new CEOs come from outside the company as compared to just seven-percent in Japan (Zhou and Pan, 2264). These reasons can explain that in Japan it could be more about the reputation and hard work that comes with earning the position of chief executive officer internally, while in America they must offer incentives of higher earnings.
The American CEO Education, Pay and Performance
Looking at the educational attainment of 6,305 CEO’s from top American universities compiled by Forbes over a ten-year period from 1997-2006 and comparing these with certain characteristics included with CEO compensation. A second data set has been used to compare the CEO’s compensation and their performance,using this information the study was able to determine whether the CEO’s pay is scaled to their investors return (Furumo, Jalbert and Terrance). Higher pay would be assumed to be tied with higher returns of assets, equity and investments. Several studies have been done looking at the effects of the Stock returns on CEO compensation. Pennathur and Shelor have found there to be a positive relationship between the stock returns in the real estate market and the CEO compensation within that market. Dechow (2006) concluded that the compensation of a CEO is more sensitive to a negative stock return than a positive return on stock. When looking at the wage differential among CEOs an important factor is to look at the negative relationship between the CEO’s age and risk as discovered by (Furumo, Jalbert and Terrance 5).
When looking at how bonuses are impacted by previously attending a top university, we can see that the bonuses are not simply impacted by obtaining an undergraduate or graduate degree. Salary overall is significantly impacted by the undergraduate degree but not a graduate degree.
Using these together we are able to see that graduate schooling is a heavy influencer on the overall salary of CEOs. However, bonuses and overall compensation are impacted by performance and not attributed to the schooling of CEO’s as much as the base salary. Harvard accounts for 11.5% of all CEO’s and counts for 12.5% of CEO’s that hold degrees. Harvard has grown to the number one provider of degree wielding CEOs. Despite this fact the study has found that Harvard graduates actually have a lower return for their investors when compared to the other top Universities (Furumo, Jalbert and Terrance 20). This study shows how even among CEOs there is a wage disparity, CEOs who have graduated from CUNY Queens and CUNY CITY earn the highest total compensation of all CEO’s.
Gender Wage Differentials
There are numerous factors that go into gender wage differentials. Some think that gender differentials can be explained by individual characteristics, education, effort, employment experience, skill difference, and industry (Schafer and Gottschall 468). It also has been found that women-friendly policies, labor market structure, wage-setting institutions, industry and sector employment and regulation all contribute to the gender earnings gap (Schafer and Gottschall 469).
Industry Gender Discrimination
There tends to be inter-industry segregation and intra-industry segregation for women. Women tend to concentrate in lower-paying jobs or have lower-paying occupations in firms (Schafer and Gottschall 468). Especially among the private sector industries, including the manufacturing and finance industries. These industries have less enforcement on equal pay policies (Schafer and Gottschall 474). Women in these fields will obtain less earnings than their male counterparts even if they have the same skills and education. There is a smaller gap in gender earnings in the public sector, because of wage policies. An example of a wage policy that lessens the gap is a more compressed overall wage structure (Schafer and Gottschall 470).
Looking at three different industries among 25 European countries, Schafer and Gottschall found that the largest gender gap was in the manufacturing industry, then finance, and the lowest gap in the health industry. This shows that there is a larger gender earning gap in private market sectors compared to the public non-market sector of employment. The extent of gender wage differentials does vary by country, but there is a trend throughout that the private market sectors have larger wage gaps. There could be less enforcement of equal pay policies in these industries. Some of the larger gaps in the manufacturing industry are found in Cyprus, Norway, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Poland, Malta, and Hungary (Schafer and Gottschall 479). In the health industry, Finland, Czech Republic, Latvia, Luxembourg, France and Spain have high gender wage gaps (Schafer and Gottschall 480). Countries where gender composition influences wages in industries show higher wage levels in male dominated industries compared to female-dominant industries. Women tend to be underrepresented in the industries that have higher gender gaps, and the women working in the industries they are underrepresented in are being underpaid compared to their male counterparts.
Gender wage differentials vary based on industry. Two of the main influences on the gender wage gap is that industries with less emphasis on equal pay policies will pay women less and private market sectors will most likely underpay women compared to their male counterparts. Also, there are larger gender wage gaps in some countries because women are usually underrepresented in those industries.
Collective Bargaining, Wage Policies, and Centralization Effect on Gender Differentials
Countries that have high collective bargaining coverage rates and a high minimum wage relative to median earnings have a lower gender wage gap, especially among the manufacturing, finance, and health industries (Schafer and Gottschall 481). If women can negotiate their wages, then they are more likely to receive a wage closer to their male counterpart. Moreover, labor force participation is strongly and positively related to predictors of earnings. The payoffs for participating in the labor force are significantly higher for men than women. More men tend to make up the labor force because they get more out of it then than their female counterparts.
Additionally, egalitarian earnings distributions can decrease the gender wage gap. Lower gender gaps are shown in countries with egalitarian earnings distributions when measured in nominal terms (Mandel and Semyonov 957). There is more emphasis on equal rights and equal pay among genders. The gender gap is considerably lower in liberal states, except Australia (Mandel and Semyonov 960).
Another factor that contributes to the gender wage gap is centralization. The higher the degree of centralization in a country, the less women will earn, leading to a higher gender wage gap (Schafer and Gottschall 483). Countries that have high degrees of centralization are Austria, Sweden, the Netherlands, Norway, Germany, Slovakia, and Latvia. Women tend to have lower odds at earning a living wage compared to their male colleagues. Across European countries women suffer a significant gender earnings gap.
In some countries, discrimination is prohibited based on gender, and it is state in their constitution’s. Some of these countries include Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and to some extent Belgium (Schafer and Gottschall 473). The gender earnings gap will be lower in these countries because there is an emphasis on equal rights and the government enforces it.
Gender Differentials Based on Family Policies
Family policies are expected to affect the earnings inequality between women and men in different countries. In a study among 20 countries, family policies were grouped into two indicators (Mandel and Semyonov 955). One indicator is the number of fully paid weeks on maternity leave and the other being the percentage of preschool children in publicly funded childcare facilities (Mandel and Semyonov 955). A third factor, but is not as prominent, is included which is the percentage of the total workforce employed in the public social service sector, such as Health, Education, and Welfare. This measures the availability of public services that are provided by the state and as the employer, the role of the welfare state.
Countries with well-developed family policies tend to have more equal wage systems, leading to a lower gender earnings gap (Mandel and Semyonov 959). When looking at maternity leave policies, it shows these policies have a considerable and positive effect on gender earning inequality. Family-supportive policies, such as long lasting maternity leave policies, can affect women’s opportunities negatively. Employers are discouraged from hiring women if the maternity leave will interrupt work significantly. This deters employers from hiring women for high-status and managerial positions, because they fear they will have children and stay home with them for long periods of time (Mandel and Semyonov 963). Women can barely compete with men for high paying jobs in these countries. Equal paying wage systems decrease the gender earnings inequality, but family-friendly policies do not lead to a reduction in gender gap.
Gender Differentials Based on Educational Attainment
Males and females tend to obtain degrees in different fields. Based on the degrees received, can contribute to the gap in gender wage differentials. A study conducted in the United Kingdom looked at degrees from elite schools versus non-elite schools and the degree obtained had created a gender wage differential (Sullivan 667). The degrees were grouped into three main categories: STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics), LEM (Law, Economics, and Management), and OSSAH (Other Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities which includes languages). An OSSAH degree from a non-elite university was more common for women than men (Sullivan 669). Women tend to go into fields of social sciences, arts, and humanities, which also tend to be lower paying jobs.
From this study, men were twice as likely to obtain a STEM degree from a non-elite university than women were (6% vs 3%). There was a smaller gap for elite universities and STEM degrees (3% vs 2%). At an elite school, there was a smaller gap between men and women for obtaining a STEM degree (Sullivan 669). However, the gender differential in STEM was greater at non-elite universities. There was no substantial gender difference in LEM degrees from elite and non-elite universities.
Overall, more men tend to graduate with a STEM degree than women. Women tend to graduate with an OSSAH degree, and this contributes to the gender wage gap because higher paying jobs are often in the STEM field.
Studies
In a study of full-time workers among 25 European countries, the gender earnings gap was the smallest in Italy at 9.4% and the highest was Cyprus at 28.3% (Schafer and Gottschall 479). Countries like Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Germany have some of the highest gender earning gaps. Belgium, Poland, Hungary, Spain, Slovenia, Italy, and Ireland are some of the countries that had the lowest gender wage gap (Schafer and Gottschall 479).
In a study done among 20 countries, the average wages of males were higher by 26% than the average wages of females with the same characteristics (Mandel and Semyonov 956). Even if a female has the same characteristics as a male in the same field, the female is still subject to lower earnings. Furthermore, inequalities in gender earnings are the most prominent in the Netherlands (.48) and Germany (.46). They were the least prominent in Hungary (.12), Italy (.15), and Finland (.17). Hungary remains to be the most equal rights and opportunity country, followed by Israel and France. In these countries the percentile earnings gap between men and women is less than 10 percentiles (Mandel and Semyonov 956). In the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden these gaps are twice as large.
Additionally, in a sample that consisted of 51% males and 49% female (Sullivan 667). Of the males, 8% were in the top 5% of earners at age 42, while only 3% of women were in the top 5% of earners by this age. This means that 76% of the top earners were males. Women are much less likely to be top earners than men.
In every country there are gender wage gaps. There are numerous factors that lead to these gaps such as women being underrepresented in some industries, family policies being less developed, and the degrees received among males and females are different. Some countries do have larger gaps than others because these factors are more heightened. Overall, the general trend in each country is that males earn more than females.
Effect of Education and Skills
Education can have a significant effect on wages earned. In 2018, a study was conducted in the United Kingdom to determine if those with characteristics of degrees from elite schools versus non-elite schools and the degree obtained created a wage differential (Sullivan 667). The three main degrees looked at were STEM, LEM, and OSSAH.
People who attended private schools rather than public school were more likely to obtain a degree (66% vs 21%). People who went to private schools to obtain a degree in OSSAH and STEM are more likely to gain these degrees from elite universities rather than non-elite universities (Sullivan 670).
Those who did not obtain a degree were least likely to be in the top 5% of earners (2%), then people who obtained an OSSAH degree from a non-elite institution (5%), and also those who achieved a STEM degree from a non-elite institution (14%). From elite universities, those who obtained a degree in OSSAH could only account for 17% of the top 5% of earners. Most commonly, the degrees held by the top earners were LEM from elite institutions (32%), then STEM from elite institutions (22%), and LEM from a non-elite institution (21%). The majority of top earners are from STEM and LEM fields, and not OSSAH fields, even if the degree was received from an elite institution (Sullivan 672).
Moreover, socio-economic background is important as well. People with graduate parents made up 12% of the top earners, compared to those whose parents had no qualifications at 1%. 41% of the top earners came from a household of graduates. It is found that individuals who grow up in high-income families are more likely to make it to the top 5% than those who come from lower income families. Often, high-income families will send their children to elite universities, which often leads to higher earnings. The people who did not attain a degree were shown to be at a disadvantage due to their childhood social origins (Sullivan 677). Family background can contribute to getting an education, which then affects the wage gap for educational attainment.
Entry Level: Gender and Education Differences in Switzerland
In Switzerland the educational wage gap has been coming to a close. Despite Switzerland being one of the “later” countries to promote women’s rights for their nations women. Swedish women have been recently added to the voting scene as they received voting rights in 1971 (Bertschy 10). When looking at the gender wage differential, occupational differences are estimated to make up 10-12% of the wage differential. Switzerland has an average as high as 19% gender wage differential when compared to the OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries average less than 16 % gender wage differential. (Liebig 159). Using data from the Swiss Youth Panel and TREE (Transitions from Education to Employment) is used to see the career entry wages, wage discrimination and salary increases within the time frame of the first few years with their job. The TREE study is a data set of 6,000 young people who entered into the Programme for International Student Assessment survey (PISA) during the year 2000 and left the required schooling by law that year. During the time frame ending in 2007 these young people were annually interviewed concerning their transition from their required schooling to the labor force. This resulted in an average monthly wage for Men of 4,058 CHF and 3,753 CHF for Women with a total average of 3,908 CHF. The gender difference is 305 CHF with men making 150 above the total monthly average and women making 155 CHF below the monthly average (Liebig 165).
The data set also contains the human capital achieved by these young adults via their PISA Reading Literacy Score as well as their highest level of education received. (Bertschy 159). 75% of both male and females have completed an apprenticeship, 16% of both have completed vocational baccalaureate and 5% of all completing a University of Applied Sciences Degree. While the gender differences for completions are very similar, women have better formal qualifications and have better Reading Literacy than the males (Liebig 165).
This study does back up the findings of the previous article with the Canadian education system. It has been found that women at entry levels experience an estimated wage iscrimination of about 7.3% (Liebig 170). This discrimination is not based on risk, occupation or productivity. Rather based of gender discrimination as a whole (Liebig 170). When compared to Europe Switzerland shows great respect for gender equality and female labor force participation is marked as some of the highest in European countries. Switzerland holds an even household distribution of unpaid and paid labor when compared to more traditionalist countries (Bertschy 11). This study looks at entry level positions to try and eliminate the “Human capital factor” and given that the educational gender gap has been shortened with many young women obtaining an education compared to men, according to this there should not be a pay gap.
Looking at the segregational effects of the starting wages among industries that hold 70% of each respective gender, defined as “Male or Female Professions”. Women make 3,824 CHF per month, this is more than the average wage of the total entry level women. While men working in male dominated industries make less in these male dominated industries on average per month at 4,028 CHF (Bertschy 165). Males working in female dominated industries tend to make a higher salary, the same is not said for the reserved roles as women may occupy niche jobs in those industries. The data presents a wage gap that is found to be linked to women accepting and picking professions or training that are paid at a lesser rate in the labor market (Bertschy 11).
Immigrant Wage Differentials
Every country has people who immigrate from another country and try to find work in the country they reside in. There is a wage differential among migrants and natives. Migrants are defined as people who were born overseas and natives were born in that country (Islam and Parasnis 3). Migrants often choose to enter a labor market where the economy is booming, and their skills are in high demand.
Based on experience, the language, and minority status, wage differences can be determined among varying ethnicities. There is a high correlation between immigration, language, and minority status that needs to be accounted for to estimate ethnic wage differentials (Fang and Heywood 114). Also, migrants may not have the skills that the country’s labor market requires, and they will have to gain the skills over time. For example, more recent immigrant minorities who use a foreign language at home do earn less (Fang and Heywood 120). They may not know how to fluently and effectively communicate with others because of a language barrier. Migrants who speak the language of the place they reside in will obtain higher wages than their migrant counterparts who do not speak the language at all or fluently.
It takes time for migrants to learn the work culture, language, and gain the skills needed to succeed in the country. More experienced immigrant workers can work their way up and potentially make significant earnings.
Wage Differentials Among Migrants and Natives: White Collar and Blue Collar Workers
When looking at two different categories of occupations, white collar and blue collar, there is a difference in wages for migrants and natives. White collar workers consist of managers and professionals while blue collar workers consisted of technicians, trade workers, community and personal service workers, clerical and administrative workers, sales workers, machinery operators and drives, and labors (Islam and Parasnis 3). In general, migrants tend to have higher rates of unemployment compared to natives. It may be harder for migrants that do not have skills to find a job in another country.
There is a greater proportion of migrants that have white collar occupations. Migrants tend to earn higher wages than natives in white collar jobs. Education is one factor that can explain the migrant wage advantage in these jobs. Migrants are more qualified than natives for white collar jobs, and have a higher education compared to natives (Islam and Parasnis 14). However, in blue collar occupations, migrants earn less than their native counterparts (3%). If a migrant and a native have the same educational attainment, the migrant earns less than the native in blue collar and white collar occupations. It is not statistically significant among white collar individuals though.
Conclusion
After drawing comparisons across multiple countries, using the analysis from above, these were the factors found across different countries that had the largest impact on the wages that workers experience:
- The size of firms, level of wage bargaining, and the skills of the labor force affect sectoral wage differences.
- Trade-openness and technological advancements have a positive impact on wages.
- Inter-industry wage differentials are the result of characteristics of employers in each sector.
- The CEO to worker pay ratio differs between countries, especially Japan and the United States.
- Women tend to be more concentrated in lower wage fields, creating a gender wage gap based on industry.
- Collective bargaining, egalitarian wage systems, high minimum wage, a lower degree of centralization, and more well-developed family policies lead to smaller gender wage gaps.
- The gender wage gap is generally smaller in more progresive decentralized countries. This implies that the governing policies of these progressive countries have a negative relationship with the gender wage gap.
- The international average from OECD Countries regarding the gender wage gap is less than 16%. Women are less likely to be in the top 5% of earners compared to men. Several studies have suggested gender discrimination to be a major component to the wage gap, we have collectively concluded this to be case.
- Those who obtain a STEM or LEM degree from an elite institution are more likely to earn more throughout industries and nations. Higher education may affect base salaries but not success or rates of performance.
- Socio-economic conditions surrounding education and before entering the labor force also have a large effect on the attainment of higher income. Migrants will tend to make less than natives because migrants do not have the skills yet to succeed in a different country.
References
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Implications.” Gender Equality in Context: Policies and Practices in Switzerland, edited by Brigitte Liebig et al., 1st ed., Verlag Barbara Budrich, Opladen; Berlin; Toronto, 2018, pp. 159–180. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvbj7k3q.10.
Fang, Tony, and John S. Heywood. “Immigration, Ethnic Wage Differentials and Output Pay in
Canada.(Report).” British Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 48, no. 1, Blackwell Publishers Ltd., Mar. 2010, pp. 109–30, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8543.2009.00740.x.
Islam, Asad, and Jaai Parasnis. “Native-Migrant Wage Differential Across Occupations:
Evidence from Australia.” International Migration, vol. 54, no. 3, 2016, pp. 89–109, doi:10.1111/imig.12236.
Jalbert, Terrance, Kimberly Furumo, and Mercedes Jalbert. “Does Educational Background
Affect CEO Compensation and Firm Performance?” Journal of Applied Business Research 27.1 (2011): 15-39. ProQuest. Web. 23 Mar. 2020.
Kelly, Khim, and Jean Lin Seow. “Investor Reactions to Company Disclosure of High CEO Pay and High CEO-to-Employee Pay Ratio: An Experimental Investigation.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2014, doi:10.2139/ssrn.2498308.
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What is tone?
Tone can be broadly defined as the overall impression that a message’s receiver captures from a particular communication.
In visual, oral communications contexts such as in person or virtual discussions, meetings, or presentations, tone is signaled through vocal inflections, body language, and word choice.
In written communication, tone is signalled through word choice, sentence structure, and content included in the message.
What is an appropriate tone in business contexts?
A variety of tones are suitable for business contexts. Which tone to use is determined by analyzing the audience and purpose of an intended communication. The selected tone should remain fairly consistent throughout the message.
Tone for routine business communications
For routine business communications such as internal or external emails, a conversational, polite, and concise tone is suitable.
To achieve a conversational tone, keep the following in mind.
- Use correct grammar and punctuation (contractions such as I’ll or won’t are acceptable).
- Include a variety of sentence types.
- Keep sentences to a manageable length (25 words or less or 1-3 clauses per sentence).
- Use plain language (avoid slang, legalese, or outdated language).
- Use inclusive language when possible.
- Use professional jargon only if the audience understands it.
Word Choice
Linguists differentiate between two types of language: denotative and connotative.
A word’s denotation is its literal meaning. In other words, it is the dictionary definition of a word.
A word’s connotation is the associated meaning of a word that can trigger either positive or negative emotional responses.
The word unskilled, as in unskilled labourer, for example is a fairly neutral word that is used in English to differentiate labourers who possess certain skills from general labourers.
Look at some synonyms for unskilled. Can you see that each word imparts a different connotation?
amateur, amateurish, dilettante, dilettantish, inexperienced, inexpert, nonprofessional, unprofessional, incapable, untrained
Details on polite and positive language
Business communications include making requests, giving directives, providing feedback, and negating issues. In such contexts politeness plays an important role.
Requests
To make a request, use please. Also include a reason for your request if possible.
Examples of Polite Requests
Please provide me with access to the costing files so that I can include the information in my budget projections.
Please sign and send the approved specs to the renovation team so that they can begin work.
Directives
To give directives, use the infinitive and state the benefit.
Examples of Directives
To access your account, please enter your PIN number.
To ensure that you are allotted your preferred vacation days, complete the attached form by Thursday.
Feedback
To provide constructive feedback use balanced, precise language. Avoid emotive, blaming language.
- You neglected to turn off the warming oven when you left yesterday. (emotive, blaming)
Examples of Balanced, Precise Language in Feedback
Please remember to turn off the warming oven before you leave everyday.

Inclusivity
To maintain a positive rapport with colleagues, use reader-centred language when possible.
| Writer-centred language | I oiled the stamping machine, I recalibrated the command, and assembled the materials for input; Lillian helped me. | I am hosting a luncheon at the Carlton Ritz on June 15 at noon, and I am inviting all sales representatives to attend. |
|---|---|---|
| Reader-centred language | Lillian and I oiled the stamping machine, recalibrated the command, and assembled the materials for input. | As a sales representative, you are invited to a luncheon at the Carlton Ritz on June 15 at noon. |
Positive Language
Use positive language when possible.
| Negative language | You cannot receive a refund unless you provide a proof of purchase receipt. | Do not enter through this door. | If I don’t get your product analysis report today, I won’t be able to continue my work. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Positive language | You will receive your refund once you provide a proof of purchase receipt. | Please enter from the front door. | Please provide me with your product analysis report today so that I can continue working on the project. |
Slang or Jargon
Avoid slang and overuse of jargon.
| Slang or jargon | If you select our ergonomic chair, you’ll get more bang for your buck. | Our renovation cost a chunk of change; it, nevertheless, improved energy consumption. |
|---|---|---|
| Plain language | If you select our ergonomic chair, you’ll get more value for your money. | Our renovation was costly; it, nevertheless, improved energy consumption. |
Be Confident
When making a request, do not overuse words and phrases such as “please, sorry to trouble you, I know you’re busy”.
| Tentative | I know that you are very busy. Nevertheless, could you please review the adjustment to our marketing proposal. Sorry for the trouble; it’s on page 4. | Some of you will undoubtedly be unhappy about the change. From now on all employees will have to use a dual authentication system to log onto their work stations. Sorry for the inconvenience, but we are doing this to prevent a cyber attack. |
|---|---|---|
| Confident | When you have a minute, please review the page-four adjustment to our marketing proposal. | To help prevent against cyber security attacks, all employees will now use a dual authentication system when logging on to their work stations. |