There is a spectrum of psychotic disorders, and schizophrenia is one of the disorders on the spectrum. Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. It also affects the person’s ability to recognize their symptoms as problematic, referred to as a “lack of insight.” Continuous signs of the disturbance must be present for at least six months in order for schizophrenia to be diagnosed, and potential medical conditions that could be causing delirium must be ruled out.[1],[2]
Schizophrenia is typically diagnosed in the late teen years to the early thirties and tends to emerge earlier in males than females. A diagnosis of schizophrenia often follows the first episode of psychosis when individuals first display symptoms of schizophrenia. Gradual changes in thinking, mood, and social functioning often begin before the first episode of psychosis, usually starting in mid-adolescence. (See “Early Signs of Psychosis” in the previous section.) Schizophrenia can occur in younger children, but it is rare for it to occur before late adolescence.[3]
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Symptoms of schizophrenia are classified by three categories: positive, negative, and cognitive.[4]
- Positive symptoms: Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, thought disorders, disorganized speech, and alterations in behaviors. Read more about delusions and hallucinations in the “Thoughts and Perceptions” subsection of the “Assessment” section of the “Application of the Nursing Process in Mental Health Care” chapter. The most common types of delusions experienced by individuals with schizophrenia are paranoia, persecutory, grandiose, or religious ideas. For example, an individual with persecutory delusions may feel the nursing staff is trying to poison them when they administer medications. People with psychotic symptoms lose a shared sense of reality and experience the world in a distorted way.[5]
- Negative symptoms: Negative symptoms refer to loss of motivation, disinterest or lack of enjoyment in daily activities, social withdrawal, difficulty showing emotions, and difficulty functioning normally. Individuals typically experience the following negative symptoms[6]:
- Reduced motivation and difficulty planning, beginning, and sustaining activities (i.e., avolition)
- Diminished feelings of pleasure in everyday life (i.e., anhedonia)
- Flat affect (i.e., reduced expression of emotions via facial expression or voice tone)
- Reduced speaking
- Cognitive symptoms: Cognitive symptoms refer to problems in attention, concentration, and memory. For some individuals, the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia are subtle, but for others, they are more prominent and interfere with activities like following conversations, learning new things, or remembering appointments. Individuals typically experience symptoms such as these[7]:
- Difficulty processing information to make decisions
- Problems using information immediately after learning it
- Trouble focusing or paying attention
See the following box for signs and symptoms for the diagnosis of schizophrenia according to the DSM-5.
DSM5: Symptoms of Schizophrenia[8]
Schizophrenia is diagnosed when two (or more) of the following characteristics are present for a significant portion of time during a one-month period (or less if successfully treated). At least one symptom is delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech:
- Delusions
- Hallucinations
- Disorganized speech (i.e., frequent derailment or incoherence)
- Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior. (Catatonia is a state of unresponsiveness.)
- Negative symptoms (i.e., diminished emotional expression or avolition.) Avolition refers to reduced motivation or goal-directed behavior.
Additionally, for a significant portion of time, the client’s level of functioning in one or more areas, such as work, interpersonal relations, or self-care, is significantly below their prior level of functioning. Continuous signs of schizophrenia persist for at least six months (or less if it is successfully treated). Depressive or bipolar disorders with psychotic features must have been previously ruled out, and the disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or other medical condition. The provider may specify if this is the first episode or multiple episodes and if it is an acute episode, in partial remission, or in full remission.[9]
See Figure 11.2[10] for an artwork depiction of the thought disorders associated with schizophrenia.
Risk Factors for Schizophrenia
It is believed that several factors contribute to the risk of developing schizophrenia, including genetics, environment, and brain structure and function.[11]
Genetics
Schizophrenia tends to run in families. Genetic studies strongly suggest that many different genes increase the risk of developing schizophrenia, but that no single gene causes the disorder by itself. It is not yet possible to use genetic information to predict who will develop schizophrenia.[12]A systematic review found that cannabis (marijuana) worsens symptoms of psychosis in genetically predisposed individuals and causes more relapses and hospitalizations.[13]
Environment
Scientists think that interactions between genetic risk and aspects of an individual’s environment play a role in the development of schizophrenia. Environmental factors that may be involved include adverse childhood experiences (ACE) or exposure to viruses or nutritional problems before birth.[14]
Brain Structure and Function
Scientists think that differences in brain structure, function, and interactions among neurotransmitters may contribute to the development of schizophrenia. For example, differences in the volumes of specific components of the brain, the manner in which regions of the brain are connected and work together, and neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are found in people with schizophrenia. Differences in brain connections and brain circuits seen in people with schizophrenia may begin developing before birth. Changes to the brain that occur during puberty may trigger psychotic episodes in people who are already vulnerable due to genetics, environmental exposures, or the types of brain differences mentioned previously.[15]
View the following YouTube video on an individual’s experience with psychosis[16]: What is Psychosis?
Treatment
Early treatment of psychosis increases the chance of a successful remission.[17] Treatments focus on managing symptoms and solving problems related to day-to-day functioning and include antipsychotic medications, psychosocial treatments, family education and support, coordinated specialty care, and assertive community treatment.[18]
Antipsychotic Medications
Antipsychotic medications reduce the intensity and frequency of psychotic symptoms by inhibiting dopamine receptors. Certain symptoms of psychosis, such as feeling agitated and having hallucinations, resolve within days of starting an antipsychotic medication. Symptoms like delusions usually resolve within a few weeks, but the full effects of the medication may not be seen for up to six weeks.[19]
Antipsychotic medicines are also used to treat other mental health disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), severe depression, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and generalized anxiety disorder.[20]
First-generation antipsychotics(also called “typical antipsychotics”) treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia and have several potential adverse effects due to their tight binding to dopamine receptors. Medication is prescribed based on the client’s ability to tolerate the adverse effects. Second-generation antipsychotics(also referred to as “atypical antipsychotics”) treat both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. They have fewer adverse effects because they block selective dopamine D2 receptors, as well as serotonin, so they are generally better tolerated than first-generation antipsychotics. Clients respond differently to antipsychotic medications, so it may take several trials of different medications to find the one that works best for their symptoms.[21]
See Table 11.3 for a list of common antipsychotic medications. They are usually taken daily in pill or liquid form. Some antipsychotic medications can also be administered as injections twice a month, monthly, every three months, or every six months, which can be more convenient and improve medication adherence.
Table 11.3 Common Antipsychotic Medications[22],[23],[24]
| Medication Class | Mechanism of Action | Adverse Effects |
|---|---|---|
| First-Generation (Typical)
Examples: Chlorpromazine Haloperidol Perphenazine Fluphenazine |
Postsynaptic blockade of dopamine receptors in the brain |
|
| Second-Generation (Atypical)
Examples: Risperidone Olanzapine Quetiapine Ziprasidone Aripiprazole Paliperidone Lurasidone Clozapine |
Postsynaptic blockade of dopamine receptors in the brain |
|
Clozapine
Patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia may be prescribed clozapine, a specific type of atypical antipsychotic medication. However, people treated with clozapine must undergo routine blood testing to detect a potentially dangerous side effect called agranulocytosis (extremely low white blood cell count). Clozapine also has strong anticholinergic, sedative, cardiac, and hypotensive properties and frequent drug-drug interactions.[25]
Black Box Warning
A Black Box Warning states that elderly clients with dementia-related psychosis treated with antipsychotic drugs are at an increased risk of death.[26]
Adverse Effects
Common side effects of both first- and second-generation antipsychotics include the following[27]:
- Anticholinergic symptoms: dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, or urinary retention[28]
- Drowsiness
- Dizziness
- Restlessness
- Weight gain
- Nausea or vomiting
- Low blood pressure
First-generation antipsychotics, also known as neuroleptics or typical antipsychotics, have significant potential to cause extrapyramidal side effects and tardive dyskinesia due to their tight binding to dopamine receptors. The risk for developing these movement disorders is the primary difference between first-generation antipsychotics and second-generation antipsychotics (also known as atypical antipsychotics). In other respects, the two classes of medication have similar side effects and mechanisms of action.[29]
Extrapyramidal (EPS) side effects refer to akathisia (psychomotor restlessness), rigidity, bradykinesia (slowed movement), tremor, and dystonia (involuntary contractions of muscles of the extremities, face, neck, abdomen, pelvis, or larynx in either sustained or intermittent patterns that lead to abnormal movements or postures). See Figure 11.3[30] for an image of dystonia. Anticholinergic side effects (e.g., dry mouth, constipation, and urinary retention) are common, and histamine blockage causes sedation, with chlorpromazine being the most sedating.[31]
Acute dystonic reactions affecting the larynx can be a medical emergency requiring intubation and mechanical ventilation. EPS symptoms usually resolve dramatically within 10 to 30 minutes of administration of parenteral anticholinergics such as diphenhydramine and benztropine.[32]
Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a syndrome of movement disorders that can occur in clients taking first-generation antipsychotics. Hallmark symptoms are smacking and puckering lips, eye blinking, grimacing, and twitching. TD persists for at least one month and can last up to several years despite discontinuation of the medications. Primary treatment of TD includes discontinuation of first-generation antipsychotics and may include the addition of another medication. Second-generation VMAT2 inhibitors such as deutetrabenazine and valbenazine are considered first-line treatment for TD. Clonazepam and ginkgo biloba have also shown good effectiveness for improving symptoms of TD.[33],[34]
View the following YouTube video on tardive dyskinesia[35]: Understanding Tardive Dyskinesia.
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare but fatal adverse effect that can occur at any time during treatment with antipsychotics. It typically develops over a period of days to weeks and resolves in approximately nine days with treatment. Signs include increased temperature, severe muscular rigidity, confusion, agitation, hyperreflexia, elevation in white blood cell count, elevated creatinine phosphokinase, elevated liver enzymes, myoglobinuria, and acute renal failure. The antipsychotic should be immediately discontinued when signs occur. Dantrolene is typically prescribed for treatment. Nursing interventions include adequate hydration, cooling, and close monitoring of vital signs and serum electrolytes.[36]
Second-generation antipsychotics have a significantly decreased risk of extrapyramidal side effects but are associated with weight gain and the development of metabolic syndrome.[37] Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of conditions that occur together, increasing the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. Symptoms include increased blood pressure; high blood sugar; excess body fat around the waist (also referred to as having an “apple waistline”); and abnormal cholesterol, triglyceride levels, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. Weight, glucose levels, and lipid levels should be monitored before treatment is initiated then annually.
View a YouTube video[38] on metabolic syndrome: What is Metabolic Syndrome?
View this PDF: Adverse Effects of Antipsychotic Medications.
Patient Teaching and Education
Clients should be advised to contact their provider if involuntary or uncontrollable movements occur. They should be warned to not suddenly stop taking the medication because abrupt withdrawal can cause dizziness; nausea and vomiting; and uncontrolled movements of the mouth, tongue, or jaw. Clients should be warned to not consume alcohol or other CNS depressants because their ability to operate machinery or drive may be impaired.
Relapse
Some people may experience relapse, meaning their psychosis symptoms come back or get worse. Relapses typically occur when people stop taking their prescribed antipsychotic medication or when they take it sporadically. Some people stop taking prescribed medications because they feel better or they feel that they don’t need it anymore, but medication should never be stopped suddenly. After talking with a prescriber, patients can gradually taper their medications in some situations. Psychosocial Treatments
Cognitive behavioral therapy, behavioral skills training, supported employment, and cognitive remediation interventions are types of psychosocial treatments that can help address the negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. A combination of these therapies and antipsychotic medication is a common treatment approach for schizophrenia. Psychosocial treatments can help improve an individual’s coping skills with the everyday challenges of schizophrenia. Therapies can also help people pursue their life goals, such as attending school, working, or forming relationships. Individuals who participate in regular psychosocial treatments are less likely to relapse or be hospitalized.[40]
Family Education and Support
Psychosis and schizophrenia can take a heavy toll on a client’s family members, significant others, and friends. Educational programs offer instruction about schizophrenia symptoms, treatments, and strategies for assisting their loved one experiencing psychosis and schizophrenia. Increasing their understanding of psychotic symptoms, treatment options, and the course of recovery can lessen their distress, bolster their own coping strategies, and empower them to offer effective assistance to their loved one. Family-based services may be provided on an individual basis or through multi-family workshops and support groups.
For more information about family-based services in your area, visit the family education and support groups page on the National Alliance on Mental Illness website.[41]
Coordinated Specialty Care
Coordinated specialty care (CSC) is a general term used to describe recovery-oriented treatment programs for people with first-episode psychosis, an early stage of schizophrenia. A team of health professionals and specialists deliver CSC that includes psychotherapy, medication management, case management, employment and education support, and family education and support. The person with early psychosis and the team work together in a patient-centered and family-centered approach to make treatment decisions. Compared to typical care for early psychosis, CSC is more effective at reducing symptoms, improving quality of life, and increasing involvement in work or school.[42]
The goal is to link the individual with a CSC team as soon as possible after psychotic symptoms begin. There are many different programs that are considered CSC in the United States, including (but are not limited to) Comprehensive Community Support (CCS), Community Support Programs (CSP), NAVIGATE, Connection Program, OnTrackNY, Specialized Treatment Early in Psychosis (STEP) program, and Early Assessment and Support Alliance (EASA). Supported Employment/Education (SEE) is an important part of CSC that helps individuals return to work or school because it addresses the client’s personal goals. A SEE specialist helps clients develop the skills they need to achieve school and work goals. In addition, the specialist can be a bridge between clients and educators or employers.[43]
Research from the RAISE project (Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode) has shown that treatments for psychosis work better when they are delivered closer to the time when psychotic symptoms first appear. The goal of the RAISE project is to help decrease the likelihood of future episodes of psychosis, reduce long-term disability, and help people to get their lives back on track so they can pursue their goals.[44]
Read more about the RAISE project at RAISE Questions and Answers web page.
With early diagnosis and appropriate treatment, it is possible to recover from psychosis. Many people who receive early treatment never have another psychotic episode. For other people, recovery means the ability to live a fulfilling and productive life, even if psychotic symptoms return at times. However, if untreated, psychotic symptoms can cause disruptions in school and work, strained family relations, and separation from friends. The longer the symptoms go untreated, the greater the risk for developing additional problems. These problems can include abusing substances, having legal trouble, or becoming homeless.[45]
Assertive Community Treatment
Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) is designed for individuals with schizophrenia who are at risk for repeated hospitalizations or homelessness. Research has demonstrated a prevalence of psychosis as high as 21% among homeless people living on the street.[46] See Figure 11.4[47] for an image of a homeless man. ACT is based on a multidisciplinary team approach, including a medication prescriber, a shared caseload among team members, direct service provision by team members, high frequency of patient contact, low patient to staff ratios, and outreach to patients in the community. ACT has been shown to reduce hospitalizations and homelessness among individuals with schizophrenia.[48]
Read more information about ACT programs on the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) website.
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Desk reference to the diagnostic criteria from DSM-5. ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Desk reference to the diagnostic criteria from DSM-5. ↵
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Desk reference to the diagnostic criteria from DSM-5. ↵
- “Schizophrenia.png” by William A. Ursprung is in the Public Domain ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- Patel, S., Khan, M.S., & Hamid, P. (2020). The association between cannabis use and schizophrenia: Causative or curative? A systematic review, Cureus, 12(7), e9309. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.9309 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- Living Well with Schizophrenia. (2019, July 17). What is psychosis? [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/Pgsujx2UQl8 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, October). Mental health medications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/mental-health-medications#part_2362 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, October). Mental health medications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/mental-health-medications#part_2362 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, October). Mental health medications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/mental-health-medications#part_2362 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, October). Mental health medications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/mental-health-medications#part_2362 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Vasan and Padhy and is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- Jibson, M. D. (2021). Second-generation antipsychotic medications: Pharmacology, administration, and side effects. UpToDate. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from www.uptodate.com ↵
- Jibson, M. D. (2021). Second-generation antipsychotic medications: Pharmacology, administration, and side effects. UpToDate. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from www.uptodate.com ↵
- This work is a derivative of DailyMed by U.S. National Library of Medicine and is available in the Public Domain ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, October). Mental health medications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/mental-health-medications#part_2362 ↵
- Jibson, M. D. (2021). Second-generation antipsychotic medications: Pharmacology, administration, and side effects. UpToDate. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from www.uptodate.com ↵
- Jibson, M. D. (2021). Second-generation antipsychotic medications: Pharmacology, administration, and side effects. UpToDate. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from www.uptodate.com ↵
- “Dystonia2010.JPG” by James Heilman, MD is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Chokhawala and Stevens and is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Lewis and O’Day and is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Vasan and Padhy and is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- Pontone, G. (2020, January 3). Treating Tardive Dyskinesia: A Clinical Conundrum and New Approaches. Drug Induced Disorders: The Clinical Essentials. Psychopharmacology Institute. https://psychopharmacologyinstitute.com/section/treating-tardive-dyskinesia-a-clinical-conundrum-and-new-approaches-2557-4810#:~:text=Clonazepam%20probably%20improves%20tardiv ↵
- Alliance for Patient Access. (2019, October 14). Understanding tardive dyskinesia [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/gBCiWt-4Cm4 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Chokhawala and Stevens and is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Chokhawala and Stevens and is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- Health Link. (2019, December 31). What is metabolic Syndrome? [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/fVMvY_Lsqzw ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, October). Mental health medications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/mental-health-medications#part_2362 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.). What is psychosis? U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/raise/what-is-psychosis ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.). Raise researchers. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.). What is psychosis? U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/raise/what-is-psychosis ↵
- Ayano, G., Tesfaw, G., & Shumet, S. (2019). The prevalence of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders among homeless people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 19(370). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2361-7 ↵
- “HomelessParis_7032101.jpg” by Eric Pouhier is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5 ↵
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2020, May). Schizophrenia. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia ↵
Mental illness characterized by periods of psychosis for at least six months.
Include hallucinations, delusions, thought disorders, disorganized speech, and alterations in behaviors.
Refers to loss of motivation, disinterest or lack of enjoyment in daily activities, social withdrawal, difficulty showing emotions, and difficulty functioning normally.
Refers to problems in attention, concentration, and memory.
A state of unresponsiveness due to a person’s mental state.
Reduced motivation or goal-directed behavior.
Treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia and have several potential adverse effects due to their tight binding to dopamine receptors.
Treat both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
Extremely low white blood cell count.
Refer to akathisia (agitation, distress, and restlessness), rigidity, bradykinesia (slowed movement), tremor, and dystonia (involuntary contractions of muscles of the extremities, face, neck, abdomen, pelvis, or larynx in either sustained or intermittent patterns that lead to abnormal movements or postures).
Motor restlessness.
Slowed movement.
Involuntary contractions of muscles of the extremities, face, neck, abdomen, pelvis, or larynx in either sustained or intermittent patterns that lead to abnormal movements or postures.
A syndrome of movement disorders that can occur in clients taking first-generation antipsychotics.
A rare but fatal adverse effect that can occur at any time during treatment with antipsychotics. Signs include increased temperature, severe muscular rigidity, confusion, agitation, hyperreflexia, elevation in white blood cell count, elevate creatinine phosphokinase, elevated liver enzymes, myoglobinuria, and acute renal failure.
A cluster of conditions that occur together, increasing the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.
Recovery-oriented treatment programs for people with first-episode psychosis, an early stage of schizophrenia.


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175 Elliptical Galaxies
Elliptical galaxies are those galaxies classified according to their shape and size. The shapes go from round – soccer-ball like – to extreme elongated – football-like – and are classified E0 (soccer ball shapes) to E5 (football shapes).Elliptical galaxies have very little dust and gas, and appear to be the oldest class of galaxies. They are not the dominant type of galaxy found in the Universe; some estimates place Elliptical populations are at around 10% to 15% of all galaxies.


2.2 Historical Overview And Current Landscape Of Recreation, Park, And Leisure Services
Early Forms Of Recreation And Leisure
Gaining greater familiarity with the history of recreation and leisure is akin to unraveling the threads of a tapestry woven through time. The early manifestations of recreational activities were not only a means of entertainment but also vessels for social cohesion and cultural expression. In ancient civilizations, communal gatherings and festivities formed the cornerstone of leisure, fostering bonds among individuals and communities.
The ancient Greeks, for instance, embraced the Olympic Games not merely as a display of physical prowess, but as a celebration of human achievement and a platform for friendly competition. Similarly, the Romans reveled in the spectacles of gladiatorial combat and chariot races that united citizens in shared experiences of exhilaration. Such examples of early recreation evidence the importance of cultural traditions and rituals in this field.
Across civilizations, the realm of leisure was intertwined with cultural traditions and rituals. Festivals, ceremonies, and feasts were pivotal to the rhythm of life, punctuating the ordinary with extraordinary moments. These events were not only a means of celebration but also a means of preserving heritage and passing down cultural narratives.
The medieval European fairs exemplified this fusion of leisure and cultural expression. These bustling events were a nexus of commerce and entertainment. Recreation provided respite from daily routines while offering an array of experiences. The traditions of music, dance, and storytelling took center stage. These served as conduits for the transmission of societal values.
Emerging from medieval times was the Renaissance. Recreation emerged in alignment with the Grand Tour (Chaney, 1998), evidencing the symbiotic relationship and a similar historical foundation between recreation and tourism, each of which is a primary example of leisure.
The Renaissance marked a pivotal turning point, where leisure transcended mere communal activities to encompass intellectual and artistic pursuits. The birth of modernity saw an elevation of the individual experience, with leisure emerging as a catalyst for personal growth and self-discovery. The flourishing of arts, literature, and philosophy during this period bore witness to the transformative potential of leisure as a realm of exploration and enlightenment.
The early forms of recreation and leisure serve as beacons illuminating the path to understanding their current role in our societies. The tapestry of history reveals that these activities have always been essential threads woven into the fabric of human life. They’ve fostered connection, celebrated diversity, and nurtured personal growth, reflecting the very essence of what hospitality and tourism seek to offer in the present day.
As we explore the current state of modern recreation, park, and leisure services, the historical insights gleaned from early forms of leisure guide us, shaping the way we conceptualize, design, and offer experiences to individuals seeking respite, engagement, and enrichment. The continuum of leisure’s evolution, coupled with its inseparable connection to hospitality and tourism, invites us to honor the past as we shape the experiences of the future.
Games and Sports: Early Beginnings
The historical canvas of human societies reveals a captivating interplay between popular games and cultural dynamics. These early games, often viewed through the lens of sport, encompassed a spectrum of meanings – from symbolizing struggles between good and evil to emulating life and death scenarios. These leisurely pursuits, once intertwined with warfare, hold intriguing insights into the evolution of recreation and the emergence of contemporary leisure practices.
One illustrative example that transcends time and geography is the ancient game of tlachtli. This Central American contest not only served as a form of sport but also carried profound symbolic significance (Villanueva, 1998). Archaeological findings have illuminated the practices of tlachtli, with thousand-year-old figurines portraying ball players equipped with knee pads, gloves, and other gear tailored for the game. The historical roots of tlachtli trace back to the southern Mexican state of Chiapas, where the earliest ball courts, constructed around 700-550 B.C.E., still stand as silent witnesses to the legacy of this sport.
The narrative of tlachtli is one of resilience and revival (Villanueva, 1998). The impact of Spanish conquistadors largely erased this ancient sport, yet its echoes continue to reverberate through the revival of indigenous cultural practices. In the present day, tlachtli is more than a game; it embodies a bridge connecting ancient traditions with contemporary aspirations. Passed-down cultural knowledge, enriched by insights from researchers who decipher the sport’s rules from architectural remains, has breathed life into this once-forgotten pastime.
Tlachtli, in its ancient manifestation, encapsulates the complexities of human existence – a convergence of sport, spirituality, and societal norms. The survival of its legacy serves as a testament to the indomitable spirit of human culture. The game’s revival sparks a rekindling of indigenous pride and fosters an appreciation for the enduring significance of recreation within the larger context of society.
The historical evolution of games and sports in the Americas unveils a complex interplay of sociocultural factors, tracing the contours of leisure experiences that were inextricably woven into the fabric of work and community life. As we explore this narrative, we navigate a landscape shaped by shifting demographics, urbanization, and the transformative waves of industrialization. These waves of change not only altered the economic landscape but also forged the distinct patterns of leisure and recreation that have left an indelible mark on the American story. These waves of change were a prelude to the industrial revolution and a sign of things to come in leisure.
Before the reverberations of industrialization began echoing through the American economy in the 19th century, the landscape of leisure was intertwined with the rhythms of work. The types of employment, spanning from agricultural to manufacturing sectors, laid the foundation for the leisure activities embraced by Americans of the time. A spectrum of laborers, from merchants and artisans to craftsmen, designated breaks in their workday, seizing moments for camaraderie and socializing.
In a fascinating snapshot of history, these laborers set aside Saturdays and Sundays for recreation and amusement. These intervals often featured the consumption of copious amounts of alcohol, a practice that entrenched itself as a cornerstone of leisure within the Anglo-American tradition. This rhythm of leisure reverberated through time, giving rise to the concept of “St. Monday” – a day when artisans, recovering from the excesses of the weekend, either took time off or chose not to work at all.
Thomas Cook as the Father of Tourism
The trajectory of leisure, recreation, and park services took a transformative leap in the mid-19th century, driven by the visionary endeavors of British businessman Thomas Cook. Thomas Cook was touched upon in Chapter 1. His alignment with the emergence of leisure was profound and is thus worthy of revisitation. With an indomitable spirit and a pioneering vision, Cook steered travel from being a mere necessity to a leisure pursuit. He reshaped the landscape of recreation and leisure experiences as we know them today.
In the annals of history, 1841 marks a pivotal moment when Thomas Cook embarked on a journey that would redefine travel and its profound impact on leisure (Smith, 1998). Cook opened the doors to the first leisure travel agency fueled by an unswerving commitment to enriching lives through tourism as a leisure activity. This audacious step paved the way for individuals to venture beyond their familiar confines and explore the world, underlining travel as a transformative agent of leisure and enrichment.
A defining facet of Cook’s endeavors was his alignment with the temperance movement. The temperance movement was a social initiative advocating for moderation in alcohol consumption. This alignment further solidified the idea of travel as a moral and character-building endeavor that aligned with the principles of self-improvement and growth. Through effective marketing techniques, Thomas Cook placed tourism intrinsically as integral to the essence of leisure.
Cook’s pioneering spirit did not stop at opening a travel agency; it extended to the travel experiences he crafted. For example, he introduced the groundbreaking concept of commercially packaged tours in 1845. This innovative approach marked a departure from the conventional notions of travel (Smith, 1998). Cook transformed travel from an arduous and mostly utilitarian journey into a meticulously curated leisure pursuit.
Cook’s inaugural commercial packaged tour was a testament to his meticulous planning. This comprehensive package included railway tickets and a printed guide. Having travel booked for you in advance, the emergence of the travel agent, was a new concept. This marked a pivotal shift. Travel now emphasized comfort, convenience, and enrichment. Travel was no longer mere transportation, rather, it was tourism.
Cook’s contributions were instrumental in redefining travel as a leisure pursuit intertwined with the human spirit of exploration. Travel ceased to be a functional act of reaching a destination; it became a transformative experience where individuals embarked on a voyage of self-discovery, cultural immersion, and connection. This is how tourism is mostly understood today.
Cook introduced an experiential narrative that transcended geographical boundaries through his endeavors. He extended the horizons of leisure by fostering the belief that travel was a means of not only escaping the humdrum of daily life but also expanding one’s horizons and horizons of understanding.
The legacy of Thomas Cook reverberates through time. His legacy casts an influence on the contemporary landscape of recreation, park, and leisure services as well as hospitality and tourism. His visionary approach laid the groundwork for the tourism industry as we recognize it today. The very concept of a curated travel experience, designed to enrich lives through exploration and engagement, bears his indelible mark.
Cook’s ethos of connecting people to the world through leisurely travel continues to shape the hospitality and tourism industry. The idea of a journey as a transformative, immersive experience is an indicator of his pioneering spirit, echoing in the diverse range of leisure experiences offered today – from curated cultural tours to adventure escapades and wellness retreats.
The evolution of leisure, recreation, and park services found an unexpected catalyst in the form of Thomas Cook’s visionary contributions. By redefining travel from a utilitarian endeavor to a leisurely pursuit, Cook reshaped the contours of recreation and leisure experiences. His commitment to enrichment, cultural exploration, and self-improvement laid the foundation for the modern travel industry, inviting individuals to embark on journeys of both geographical and personal discovery.
As we navigate the contemporary landscape of recreation and leisure, we tread upon a path illuminated by Cook’s trailblazing spirit. His legacy serves as a constant reminder that travel is not just a physical journey; it is an odyssey of the mind, heart, and soul, fostering an eternal connection between leisure and the quest for meaningful experiences.
Early History of Parks and Recreation Areas: Pioneering Spaces of Leisure and Respite
The history of parks and recreation areas unfurls a narrative of urban evolution, societal dynamics, and the innate human yearning for leisure and respite. The contours of this journey, spanning from the Middle Ages to the threshold of modernity, offer a profound understanding of the symbiotic relationship between recreation, park spaces, and the fabric of society. The pioneering of leisure spaces began with the evolution of urban areas including feelings of an enclosed cityscape for those residing in cities.
The Middle Ages marked an era of fortification and compact urban planning. The protective walls encircled cities were created as defensive cocoons against external threats. This architectural necessity did safeguard the city but it created implications for the allocation of space within city limits. The limited expanse available within the protective walls meant that public gardens and recreational areas found minimal footing in these urban designs.
The once-impregnable walled cities became less defensible as the echoes of gunpowder and cannon transformed the art of warfare. A migration phenomenon emerged from modern warfare. Residents were driven to venture beyond the walls and initiate the development of satellite communities. This urban expansion was a catalyst for the emergence of recreational spaces beyond the confines of the city walls. This heralded a shift toward a more expansive approach to leisure. This was in alignment with the emergence of Renaissance ideals.
The Renaissance era signaled a paradigm shift in town planning across Europe. Urban landscapes adorned themselves with wide streets, ornate buildings, and an abundance of monuments. The privileged upper class turned their attention to vast estates. These estates were adorned them with opulent gardens. Some of these gardens opened their gates to the public, bestowing upon them a taste of leisure amidst nature’s splendor. Residents sought out additional spaces once they experiences that green spaces offered.
The emergence of country clubs in history is intricately woven with the tapestry of Renaissance ideals, reflecting a response to the prevailing urban landscape and the yearning for respite from the confines of city life. During the Renaissance era, cities were often characterized by cramped quarters, lack of hygiene, and bustling thoroughfares that sometimes veered toward chaos. The very notion of a city represented a dichotomy – a space teeming with energy and opportunity, yet ensnared by the drawbacks of overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. As cities grew increasingly dingy and claustrophobic, individuals who shared similar affinities and societal strata sought solace in the creation of green spaces that aligned with their shared interests.
Country clubs emerged as havens of leisure and recreation, offering a haven that allowed individuals to escape the hustle and bustle of urban life (Moss, 2001). The allure lay not just in the escape, but in the promise of pristine expanses that stood in stark contrast to the gritty realities of city living. Within the confines of these green enclaves, the privileged could revel in open spaces that were meticulously cultivated, offering a serene sanctuary where they could indulge in their passions and forge connections with those who shared similar interests.
In this context, country clubs functioned as exclusive retreats that facilitated access to the beauty of nature while allowing individuals to maintain a distance from the often squalid conditions that characterized urban existence. The divide between the wealthy elite and the common masses was visually underscored by the boundaries of these clubs. These enclaves not only provided access to cleaner, more manicured landscapes, but they also offered a social platform where like-minded individuals could mingle, share ideas, and partake in recreational pursuits that reinforced their sense of camaraderie. The emergence of country clubs, then, represents not just a desire for green spaces, but a reflection of the Renaissance spirit – an aspiration to harmonize leisure, aesthetics, and exclusivity amidst a changing urban backdrop.
Religious groups, too, played a role in fostering leisure opportunities. Clubhouses, gardens, and shooting stands for archery practice emerged as recreational spaces used by townsfolk for amusement. These were similar to country clubs in many ways. This fusion of spiritual and recreational pursuits laid the foundation for the multipurpose nature of leisure spaces, where physical activity intertwined with communal engagement.
As the Renaissance period unfolded, parks evolved into diverse forms, each catering to unique sensibilities and purposes. Royal hunting preserves, such as the Prater in Vienna and the Tiergarten in Berlin, became testaments to the synergy between leisure and aristocratic pursuits. Ornate and formal garden parks, designed by French architects, became oases of beauty and serenity.
The English garden park, in contrast, embraced the concept of naturalistic landscapes, creating environments that mirrored the untamed beauty of nature. These parks transcended the structured formality of their counterparts, offering visitors an immersive experience in nature’s embrace, where leisure and contemplation merged seamlessly. Ideas of modern wellness were a force driving people to seek green spaces.
The 18th century saw England grapple with urban planning in the wake of recurring plague outbreaks. The correlation between overcrowding and disease was a catalyst for change, spurring efforts to create parks and convert open squares into gardens. This conscious investment in public spaces heralded a transformation in public health.
As sanitation and ventilation improved within cities, contagious disease fatalities began to decline. The emergence of accessible parks and open spaces became emblematic of progress, symbolizing a holistic approach to societal well-being. The evolution of these spaces became intrinsically tied to the narrative of public health, positioning recreation and leisure as foundational elements in the pursuit of a healthier, more balanced society.
The early history of parks and recreation areas bears witness to a profound interplay between urban dynamics, societal needs, and the pursuit of leisure. From the fortified walls of medieval cities to the expansive green realms of the Renaissance and beyond, these spaces evolved from being mere respites to becoming intricate components of holistic well-being.
As we navigate the intricate landscapes of modern recreation, park, and leisure services, we draw inspiration from the evolution of these spaces. They are not just physical environments; they are expressions of human ingenuity, embodying the desire for respite, connection, and renewal. The early history of parks and recreation areas reminds us that these spaces are not just patches of land; they are embodiments of the evolving human quest for balance, beauty, and a meaningful connection with the world around us.
Class Differences in Leisure
The historical narrative of recreation and leisure is intricately woven with the threads of societal structure and class disparities. Delving into the dynamics of class differences in leisure provides a multifaceted glimpse into the evolution of recreation, park, and leisure services, highlighting how access, opportunity, and experiences have been shaped by the contours of privilege and disparity. This is perhaps best exampled via the ascendance of country clubs. These clubs offered exclusivity amidst greenery.
One of the most iconic manifestations of class distinctions in leisure is embodied by the emergence of country clubs. These enclaves of exclusivity epitomize the divide between the haves and have-nots. Clubs provided an avenue for the privileged to escape the urban hustle and immerse themselves in meticulously maintained green spaces. Country clubs offered an oasis of respite in an era where cities were often synonymous with cramped living conditions and lack of hygiene.
Country clubs served as sanctuaries where they could relish the beauty of nature in pristine settings for the elite class. Such clubs were far removed from the grit and grime of urban centers. These clubs not only provided a physical escape, but they also became epicenters of social interactions. Clubs fostered connections among those who shared similar societal strata. The allure of country clubs was not just in the leisure opportunities they provided, but also in the subtle reinforcement of class divisions that they represented.
The emergence of sports and athletics also played a significant role in dissecting class distinctions in leisure, similar to country clubs in some ways. Sports often mirror broader societal stratifications even though athletics has a potential to serve as a unifying force. Sports were accessible to a narrower demographic (i.e., the aristocratic class) in their nascent stages. For example, equestrian events exemplified the convergence of leisure and aristocracy. Events involving horses were often reserved for the upper echelons of society due to price and availability of time, money, and green space.
Over time, however, the democratization of sports began to unfold. The proliferation of public schools introduced sports as an integral part of education. This gradually expanded the accessibility of sports to wider segments of the population. This marked a pivotal shift, as sports ceased to be the exclusive domain of the elite and started to permeate various strata of society. Yet, even within this transformation, vestiges of class distinctions persisted, with access to advanced training, coaching, and high-quality facilities still often favoring those with greater resources. 18th century athletics are often referred to as class-based leisurescapes, meaning it was technically leisure available in society but it was enjoyed differently depending on one’s class.
The 18th century offers a compelling window into the dichotomy of class-based leisure opportunities. In France, the disparities in leisure experiences were starkly pronounced. The upper class reveled in a panorama of amusement options throughout the week, from social visits to indulgent dining, and evenings spent at theaters, ballets, operas, and exclusive clubs. This kaleidoscope of leisure experiences was a testament to privilege and affluence.
In sharp contrast, the working class was allocated only Sundays and designated fête days for moments of leisure. Even special celebrations required the approval of the Catholic Church, underscoring the layers of control and constraint imposed on leisure activities. Economists and thinkers of the time, like Voltaire, voiced concerns about the sheer number of holidays. Such individuals argued for reductions to mitigate what they perceived as idleness and dissipation among the working masses. This was a movement toward a more balanced leisurescape.
Efforts to bridge the gaps in class-based leisure emerged as societies continued to evolve. Education, urban planning, and a growing emphasis on accessibility gradually transformed the landscape of leisure. The democratization of sports and the emergence of public parks endeavored to level the playing field, offering leisure opportunities that transcended social strata.
Today, the legacy of class-based distinctions in leisure resonates in various forms. Class dynamics still ripple through the contemporary leisure landscape even though strides have been made to broaden access. The echoes of the past serve as a reminder that the pursuit of equitable leisure remains an ongoing endeavor, where the intertwining forces of privilege, inclusivity, and societal change continue to shape the narrative of recreation, park, and leisure services. This is evidence a nuanced past is actively a driving force even today.
The narrative of class distinctions in leisure is a tapestry woven with threads of privilege, aspiration, and the dynamics of change. From the exclusivity of country clubs to the transformation of sports and the 18th-century socio-cultural prism, this journey offers a profound understanding of how leisure has not only reflected, but also shaped, societal hierarchies.
As we traverse the landscapes of modern recreation, park, and leisure services, these historical contours remind us of the imperative to craft a more inclusive and equitable future. The echoes of the past, while resonating through time, serve as beacons guiding us toward a vision where the joys of leisure are accessible to all, transcending the confines of class and celebrating the shared human quest for meaningful, enriching experiences.
Leisure Moves from Application to a Study
Leisure and recreation have long been important aspects of human life, but the academic study of leisure is a relatively recent phenomenon. The field of leisure studies emerged in the late 19th century as scholars from various disciplines began examining the meaning, role, and value of free time and recreational activities in modern society.
The roots of leisure studies stretch back to the late 19th century, as scholars and reformers began grappling with the impacts of industrialization and urbanization on society. In the 1880s, early researchers like Josiah Strong and Washington Gladden examined the need for wholesome recreation and leisure opportunities for working-class city residents (Regan, 1996). This laid the groundwork for the early American “playground movement,” which sought to provide parks, playgrounds and recreation facilities, especially in crowded immigrant neighborhoods.
In the 1920s and 1930s, social scientists like Robert and Helen Lynd conducted pioneering sociological research on patterns of leisure, values, and suburban lifestyles in Middletown, America (1929). Their studies revealed class-based differences in leisure attitudes and behaviors. In the 1940s, philosophers like Josef Pieper wrote on the meaning of leisure in the modern world (1952). Pieper saw leisure as an attitude of mind rather than just free time.
The academic field of leisure studies really blossomed in the postwar period. The industrial revolution and rise of a middle class with more disposable income and vacation time created a context for examining modern leisure. In the 1950s, University of California sociologist Robert Rapoport studied patterns and impacts of increased leisure time (Rapoport & Rapoport, 1975). In 1952, the first academic program in recreation and park management was established at the University of Illinois (Unzicker, 1983).
The 1960s saw expanded scholarship on defining and understanding leisure. Sociologist Sebastian de Grazia’s book Of Time, Work, and Leisure (1962) analyzed historical changes in time use and the emergence of modern leisure. In fields like social psychology, scholars like Stuart W. Cook (1962) began empirically studying effects of leisure attitudes and motivation.
Max Kaplan’s influential book Leisure in America (1960) examined meanings, ethics, and societal impacts of leisure. Kaplan saw leisure as a context for human development and democratic citizenship. Other 1960s researchers like Margaret Mead, Sally Stebbins, and Agnes F. Wells explored leisure’s role in culture, values, and quality of life.
In the 1970s and 1980s, critical turns developed in leisure scholarship. Sociologist John Neulinger (1976) defined leisure as a perceived state of freedom and intrinsic motivation. Geoffrey Godbey’s research viewed leisure as free time used freely (Dustin, 2017; Godbey, 1993). Philosopher John Kelly introduced ideas of leisure subcultures and the social world of leisure (1982). Feminist scholars like Karla Henderson and Diana Parry highlighted gender and family issues (Henderson et al., 2004). Critical theorists examined the political economy and structural constraints shaping leisure.
Debates emerged between classical leisure theorists like Robert Stebbins (1982), who saw leisure as virtuous, developmental activity, and contemporary theorists who argued leisure was freedom from work and obligation. Interdisciplinary approaches blossomed, integrating leisure with fields like geography, tourism, and developmental psychology. Increasing numbers of academic programs, journals, and associations institutionalized leisure studies.
From the 1990s onward, leisure scholarship expanded further to encompass critical race theory, postmodernism, disability studies, youth perspectives, and emerging technologies. Sociologist Thomas Goodale argued that leisure had become a dominant metaphor for modern life and values (Goodale & Godbey, 1988). Research into serious leisure, optimal experiences, and leisure’s relation to health and well-being blossomed. Global perspectives analyzed leisure patterns and meanings across cultures.
As we entered the 21st century, academic leisure studies broadened to engage with a multifaceted, evolving modern society. Topics like urban green spaces, digital media, lifestyle sports, sustainability, social justice, leisure across the lifespan, and more reflect contemporary concerns. While definitions and frameworks continue to be debated, leisure studies provides an interdisciplinary lens for examining a central aspect of human life. Robust scholarship from diverse vantage points ensures this academic field will remain relevant into the future.
Leisure Studies
Leisure studies is a discipline that examines the relationship between people and their free time. It is concerned with how people spend their leisure time, what activities they enjoy, and how leisure can contribute to their overall well-being.
One of the key themes in leisure studies is the human-nature bond (Figure below). This refers to the connection that people feel to nature and the outdoors. Leisure studies scholars argue that spending time in nature can have a number of benefits for physical and mental health, including reducing stress, improving mood, and boosting creativity. This is particularly pertinent to this chapter as we study recreation and parks.
Leisure studies can help us to understand the importance of parks and the human-nature bond. It can also help us to develop policies and programs that promote the creation and maintenance of parks and green spaces. By understanding the benefits of spending time in nature, we can create a more sustainable and healthy world for ourselves and future generations. This is the application of academic studies stemming from the field of leisure studies.
The authors below are some of the most important people who have assisted us in building a comprehension of the human-nature bond, particularly within how we relate to these green spaces in our leisure time.
|
Author |
Primary Ideas |
Importance to this HTM |
|---|---|---|
|
Demeritt |
1. Relationship between environment and people is socially constructed. This is why a single definition of “nature” is difficult to ascertain; 2. Two types of constructions of “nature”: construction-as-refutation and construction-as-philosophical-critique. |
The construction-as-refutation analysis of nature can be used to understand nature tourism. |
|
Leopold |
1. Leopold is recognized as the first person to identify the term “wilderness” as a preservation concept; 2. famous during his lifetime as a multi-million selling author, academic specializing in environmental ethics and wildlife management, and nature writer. |
Leopold is the father of modern ecology according to the Sierra Club, Nash (1982), and Yale University’s School of Forestry. He shaped “wilderness” and “nature” as concepts. |
|
Luks |
Provided “sustainable natural capital” to explain human-nature bond. He explains capital is the stock of goods in an economy that have the ability to become wealth, and nature is such a good. |
Ecological modernization, a seminal idea in this paper, is built on a foundation of Luks’ “sustainable natural capital”. |
|
Nash |
1. Presented his ideas of the natural environment as “wilderness” rather than “nature”; 2. argues that wilderness is socially constructed; 3. We are afraid of wilderness and wish to conquer it. wilderness is symbolic, personal, and in a constant state of flux |
His view of nature is important to current ideas of nature and is often referred to as a seminal turning point in the modern environmental movement. |
|
Rutherford |
1. Relies on philosophical ideas to verify nature is socially constructed through elements of power stemming from politics, culture, and trends; 2. Changes in human-environmental relations are steps backward in modernity; 3. Environmental movements are against modernization. |
Rutherford’s thoughts of how power influences nature, which may be a socially constructed reified product, produce insightful ideas for mgt. |
|
Thoreau |
1. Broke from modern capitalist ideas of wealth accumulation and nature as a tool to obtain such wealth; 2. He focused on what nature can mean to the soul; 3. Believes a person must free themselves from the constraints of modern society or they become a slave to their surroundings (e.g. pop culture). |
Thoreau believed the emotional bond between human and nature cannot be valued monetarily. It is a feeling, which stood in contrast to financially-oriented understandings of his time. |
|
West |
1. Understands nature will be viewed as economic, but believes there is space for protected areas to exist without a pricetag; 2. Believes nature is socially constructed; |
Her stance on applied understandings of nature by decision-makers. Basically, if nature is socially constructed then how can policy be dictated and “nature” assigned a value? |
Emergence Of Parks And Public Spaces
The history of America’s national park system contains ideals of exploration, cultural transformation, and a profound reverence for the wild landscapes that grace the nation. As settlers ventured across the expanse of the continent, an awareness emerged that the wilderness, far from being an endless resource, was finite and deserving of protection. This realization marked the inception of an enduring journey towards the creation of a system that would stand as a testament to the nation’s commitment to safeguarding its natural wonders.
The narrative of the national park system finds its nascent roots in the early periods of colonization, as European settlers encountered the vastness of the North American continent. Faced with landscapes of unprecedented grandeur and biodiversity, these explorers encountered the spectacles of untamed wilderness that would ultimately shape their perceptions of the land.
However, alongside awe and admiration, this encounter also brought forth actions steeped in superiority and fear. This marked the beginning of a complex relationship between humans and the wilderness, as settlers both marveled at its beauty and sought to exert control over its untamed forces. This paradox of reverence and domination would set the stage for the centuries-long journey towards establishing a national park system.
Westward Expansion and the Idea of Public Domain
America’s vast western territories came to be regarded as public domain as the United States expanded its borders. The newcomers to the Americas mostly dismissed the long-standing presence of First Nation communities. The government’s perspective on these lands was characterized by a vision of untouched wilderness, primed for resource exploitation and settlement. The concept of wilderness as public domain provided the ideological foundation for the establishment of the national park system, as these protected areas were intended to remain uninhabited and preserved in their natural state (Duncan & Burns, 2009).
The nation took a historic stride by designating Yellowstone as the country’s first national park in 1872. Yellowstone’s declaration marked a paradigm shift, heralding the idea that some landscapes were not only worthy of preservation but were also capable of becoming repositories of national pride and wonder. The concept of preservation was ignited, driven by a collective recognition that the beauty and ecological richness of these landscapes deserved to be protected for future generations (Henry, 2022; Quammen, 2016).
Mackinac Island, proclaimed the second national park in 1875, represented a pivotal moment in the nation’s conservation journey (Mackinac Island Tourism Bureau, 2023). Situated in Lake Huron, the island’s unique geological formations and diverse ecosystems captivated the imagination of the public. Its designation as a national park was a testament to the belief that natural wonders transcended regional boundaries and held significance worthy of national recognition. This early decision underscored the evolving ethos of preservation, emphasizing the intrinsic value of landscapes that bore witness to the eons and encompassed stories of geological and ecological history.
Sequoia and Yosemite, designated as the third and fourth national parks in 1890, respectively, extended the conservation movement’s reach to the majestic landscapes of the West (National Park Service [NPS], 2007, 2010). The towering sequoias of Sequoia National Park and the breathtaking vistas of Yosemite National Park became emblematic of the nation’s commitment to safeguarding treasures that stirred the human spirit. These parks not only showcased the nation’s natural grandeur but also provided windows into the intricate workings of Earth’s ecosystems. The recognition that these landscapes were irreplaceable repositories of biodiversity and geological history elevated the importance of preservation on a national scale.
Mount Rainier, declared the fifth national park in 1899, continued the legacy of conservation, embracing the grandeur of the Cascade Range (NPS, n.d.). This designation reflected a deepening understanding that the protection of diverse landscapes was a reflection of the nation’s values. Mount Rainier’s glaciers, meadows, and pristine wilderness resonated with the public’s sense of awe and appreciation for the natural world. Its designation as a national park affirmed the principle that preservation was not only an act of environmental stewardship but a testament to the nation’s commitment to fostering a harmonious relationship between humanity and nature. For this reason, locations within the park are named after John Muir and Gifford Pinchot, named after them to showcase how preservation and conservation ideals can co-exist.
The journey of these early national parks exemplified the evolving understanding of the value of natural landscapes. Each designation marked a step towards a more holistic conservation ethic, emphasizing the intrinsic worth of nature and the responsibility to safeguard it for generations to come. Beginning with Yellowstone and moving to the shores of Mackinac Island to the towering sequoias, from the breathtaking vistas of Yosemite to the majestic presence of Mount Rainier, these national parks stood as emblems of a burgeoning movement that would shape the nation’s conservation ethos for years to come.
Yet, even as the foundation was laid for the national park system, conflicts of perspective emerged. First Nation communities, deeply connected to the land and viewing it as ancestral territory, saw the creation of Yellowstone as a disruption to their traditional ways of life (Stark et al., 2022). These lands were not just pristine wilderness to them; they were part of a sacred tapestry, deeply woven with cultural significance. The dispossession of these communities from their homelands revealed the tensions inherent in preserving wilderness while acknowledging the indigenous ties to these landscapes.
The dispossession of these communities from their homelands cast a shadow over the ideal of preservation. While the intent was to protect the land, the tension between conservation and the indigenous connection to the landscape surfaced in stark relief. As the national park system expanded, the echoes of this conflict reverberated, underscoring the complex interplay between preservation goals and the imperative to honor the rich history and cultural ties of the First Nation communities.
As the narrative of the national park system unfolds, it is imperative to embrace these multifaceted perspectives, recognizing the delicate balance between the call to protect nature and the imperative to honor the indigenous voices that resonate with the land’s spirit. The journey towards understanding and reconciliation continues, an essential component of an inclusive conservation ethos that harmonizes the preservation of wilderness with the preservation of diverse cultural heritage.
Yale’s Forestry Department, Conservationist Thought, and Gifford Pinchot
A pivotal chapter in conservation thought was scripted as the 19th century gave way to the 20th. This script was catalyzed in part by the establishment of Yale University’s groundbreaking School of Forestry (2023). This institution emerged as a crucible for shaping a new generation of conservationists. This first of its kind endowed the nation not only scientific acumen but also an unwavering passion for responsible stewardship of the nation’s natural heritage. Among the luminaries to emerge from these hallowed halls was Gifford Pinchot, a name destined to become synonymous with conservation leadership.
Yale’s School of Forestry was more than an academic institution; it was a dynamic forge where conservation principles were forged with scientific precision. Equipped with the knowledge of ecological systems and the ethical imperative to safeguard nature’s wonders, graduates of this pioneering program embarked on a journey to advocate for the preservation of America’s cherished landscapes.
In this sanctified academic environment, individuals were not just educated; they were galvanized to action. They imbibed a commitment to stewardship that transcended mere theory, underpinned by the belief that nature’s gifts were to be protected for generations yet unborn. This conviction birthed a generation of visionaries who would stand as sentinels in the movement to safeguard the nation’s natural treasures.
Among these visionary leaders was Gifford Pinchot, an individual whose impact on conservation and natural resource management reverberates through the annals of history. Pinchot, a dynamic force of nature himself, brought an indomitable spirit to the conservation ethos. His emergence from Yale’s School of Forestry was marked by an unquenchable curiosity and an ardent dedication to applying scientific principles to conservation challenges.
Pinchot’s ethos was one of pragmatic idealism. He believed that conservation was not merely an abstract concept; it was a concrete responsibility that demanded practical solutions. His vision of conservation was deeply rooted in the concept of sustainable resource management, where judicious use of nature’s bounty could coexist with the imperative of preservation. As a fervent advocate for the wise use of forests, Pinchot’s approach to conservation was imbued with a sense of balance, an approach that would profoundly influence the trajectory of the national park system and America’s broader conservation movement.
In this crucible of academia, the fusion of scientific rigor, ethical dedication, and visionary leadership forged a path forward that would shape the destiny of America’s natural heritage. Gifford Pinchot, a beacon of stewardship emerging from Yale’s School of Forestry, would go on to leave an indelible mark on the landscape of conservation, underscoring the profound impact of education and dedication in safeguarding the treasures of the nation. With this written, Pinchot’s ideals of conservation stood in stark contrast to ideals of preservation.
Pioneering Preservationist Ideals and John Muir
The early 20th century witnessed a profound shift in humanity’s relationship with nature. John Muir stood at the forefront of this transformation. Muir was a visionary who tirelessly championed preservationist ideals and brought them to the forefront of public consciousness. Muir’s journey from a young nature enthusiast to a dedicated advocate for wilderness preservation ignited a movement that altered the way society perceived and valued the natural world.
John Muir’s affinity for nature was ignited during his formative years, as he immersed himself in the beauty of the American landscapes that surrounded him. Muir developed a deep connection to the wilderness while growing up in the verdant backdrop of Wisconsin. He often found solace and inspiration in the pristine landscapes that beckoned him. This connection, coupled with his inquisitive nature, laid the foundation for his lifelong mission to preserve these natural wonders for future generations.
Muir’s passion for nature evolved into a resolute commitment to advocacy as he matured. Inspired by his travels to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, where he witnessed the majestic beauty of Yosemite Valley, Muir realized that the untamed wilderness faced imminent threats from encroaching development and exploitation. Muir embarked on a journey to raise awareness and rally public support for the preservation of pristine landscapes fueled by a profound desire to protect these natural sanctuaries,
Muir’s influence extended beyond his personal convictions. He recognized the power of the written word in stirring hearts and minds. Armed with his pen, he became a prolific writer and eloquent speaker (see the Sierra Club’s Writings of John Muir site). He learned to eloquently convey the inherent value of nature while urging its preservation. His essays and articles were published in prominent newspapers and magazines. The focus of his publications mostly served as a call to arms, compelling readers to reconsider their relationship with the natural world and recognize the importance of safeguarding it.
John Muir’s fervent advocacy for preservationist ideals was not confined to the realm of rhetoric. He translated his vision into tangible actions that would leave an indelible mark on the landscape of conservation. From influential collaborations to instrumental policy changes, Muir’s commitment to preserving nature took on a multifaceted form that shaped the trajectory of the preservation movement.
Muir’s unwavering dedication found a kindred spirit in President Theodore Roosevelt, who shared his passion for the natural world. Together, they embarked on a journey through Yosemite’s wilderness, engaging in a discourse that deepened their mutual understanding of the importance of preserving nature. This influential encounter not only solidified their bond but also catalyzed a series of policy decisions. These decisions would solidify the USA’s approach to the natural environment, putting the nation on a pathway to either conservation or preservation.
The Continuum of Exploitation, Conservation, and Preservation
The journey towards the national park system was punctuated by a continuum, oscillating between exploitation, conservation, and preservation. This trajectory reflected changing societal values and a growing recognition of the need to balance human advancement with the preservation of natural wonders. From the exploitation of resources to the conservation of landscapes and the eventual preservation of wilderness areas, the national park system encapsulated a multifaceted response to the evolving relationship between humans and nature.
The evolution of the national park system was accompanied by a chorus of voices advocating for change, from literary luminaries to pioneering environmentalists. Figures like John Muir, Henry David Thoreau, and Rachel Carson. Each played a pivotal role in shaping the discourse around nature, conservation, and the human impact on the environment. Their writings and activism resonated deeply, sparking a collective awakening to the urgent need to protect the Earth’s ecosystems.
Muir’s advocacy efforts first reached President Roosevelt. Eventually, these efforts yielded tangible outcomes including the establishment of policies vital to protecting the natural world. Muir played an instrumental role in lobbying for the creation of national parks such as the Grand Canyon and Mount Rainier. Through his efforts he showcased an ability to effect change on a grand scale. By showcasing the intrinsic value of these landscapes and emphasizing their irreplaceable worth, Muir played a pivotal role in ensuring their protection for future generations. Yet, the nation’s policies mostly aligned with conservation more than Muir’s preservationist approach.
Theodore Roosevelt’s tenure as President ushered in a new era of conservation leadership. Influenced by Gifford Pinchot (a conservationist and John Muir (a preservationist), Roosevelt’s policies emphasized sustainable resource management and the responsible use of natural resources (Westover, 2016). The pair’s guidance to President Roosevelt, and the President’s eventual alliance with Pinchot and conservationism, melded in a visionary approach that aimed to strike a harmonious balance between human needs and ecological integrity. John Muir and preservationists were not pleased with the outcome but a network of land set aside as wilderness was a welcome movement toward preservationist.
Although Muir fell short in his preservationist movement in some ways, his impact on the preservationist movement extended beyond his lifetime. His relentless efforts to forward preservationist ideals inspired a generation of activists, writers, and thinkers who sought to continue his legacy. Muir’s writings and advocacy resonated with the collective consciousness, fostering a deeper connection to nature and driving societal shifts in attitudes towards conservation.
Thomas Muir’s legacy endures as a testament to the power of an individual’s passion and conviction. His tireless dedication to the preservationist cause not only shaped the landscapes of conservation but also transformed the way society perceives and values the natural world. Muir’s unwavering belief in the importance of nature and his unyielding commitment to its preservation continue to inspire generations to embrace the stewardship of our planet, reminding us that the effort to protect and cherish our environment is a timeless endeavor.
In 1916, the National Park Service was established. This marked a seminal moment in the journey towards the national park system and a network of preserved lands. This landmark development solidified the nation’s commitment to preserving and safeguarding its natural wonders for present and future generations. Often hailed as “America’s Best Idea,” (Stegner, 1983), the National Park Service emerged as a custodian of natural landscapes, cultural heritage, and the shared national identity.
As the national park system evolved, so too did the challenges it faced. The tension between preservation and accessibility emerged as a central concern. In an increasingly connected world, the desire for comfortable lodging, internet access, and modern amenities often collides with the preservation imperative. The challenge lies in reconciling the expectations of contemporary visitors with the paramount goal of safeguarding these landscapes for generations to come.
The history of America’s national park system embodies an ongoing odyssey of stewardship and balance. From the pioneers who recognized wilderness’s finite nature to the luminaries who championed conservation and preservation, the legacy of these protected landscapes is etched into the nation’s identity. As the parks face evolving challenges, the journey continues, guided by the spirit of conservation and the commitment to safeguarding the extraordinary treasures that grace the American landscape.
Attributions
- Figure 2.3: Hotel Alpha-Palmiers Reception by fhotels is released under CC BY 2.0
- Figure 2.4: tlachtli field by kate mccarthy is released under CC BY-ND 2.0
- Figure 2.5: Tlachtli by Girvanator is released under CC BY-SA 3.0
- Figure 2.6: Enchanted Forest of Colombia by Joe Figel, for WA Open ProfTech, © SBCTC, CC BY 4.0
- Figure 2.7: Leisure by Familjen Helsingborg is released under CC BY 2.0
- Figure 2.8: John Muir c1902 by Unknown in the Public Domain; This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1929.
customs, rituals, beliefs, practices, or behaviors passed down from generation to generation within a society, community, or ethnic group.
symbolic actions, ceremonies, or behaviors performed in a prescribed manner according to tradition, cultural or religious beliefs, often serving social, spiritual, or ceremonial purposes.
organized celebrations, events, or gatherings held to commemorate religious, cultural, seasonal, or historical occasions, often featuring performances, parades, food, music, and other festivities.
formal or ritualized events or observances conducted to mark significant milestones, achievements, transitions, or rites of passage, often involving symbolic gestures, speeches, or rituals.
elaborate meals or banquets held to celebrate special occasions, holidays, or festivals, often featuring a variety of dishes, drinks, and communal dining experiences.
stories, myths, legends, or oral traditions passed down through generations within a culture or community, conveying shared beliefs, values, and identity.
are organized events or markets where vendors, merchants, or exhibitors gather to showcase and sell goods, products, or services, often featuring entertainment, attractions, and cultural activities.
An organized activity or competition, often involving rules and scoring, such as a sports game or board game.
organized physical activities or competitive games that involve skill, strategy, and physical exertion, often governed by rules and regulations.
(also known as the Mesoamerican ballgame) a ritualistic sport played by ancient civilizations such as the Aztecs, Maya, and Olmecs, involving a rubber ball and stone courts.
the study, excavation, and analysis of material remains, artifacts, or structures left behind by past human cultures and civilizations, providing insights into history, culture, and society.
the lasting impact, influence, or contributions of individuals, groups, or civilizations on future generations, culture, or society.
Spanish explorers and conquerors who sought to colonize and conquer territories in the Americas during the Age of Exploration, often through military conquest, colonization, and exploitation.
the process of population migration from rural areas to urban centers, resulting in the growth and expansion of cities and metropolitan areas.
a business or organization that specializes in providing travel-related services, including booking accommodations, transportation, tours, and activities for individual or group travelers.
prearranged travel packages offered by travel agencies or tour operators, typically including transportation, accommodations, meals, and guided activities or excursions for a fixed price.
designated areas of land reserved for exclusive hunting and recreational activities by royalty, nobility, or aristocrats, often containing abundant wildlife and natural resources.
the period of free or discretionary time available for rest, relaxation, and recreational activities outside of work, obligations, or responsibilities.
contemporary forms of leisure activities, pursuits, or lifestyles that have emerged in the context of industrialization, urbanization, and technological advancements.
the overall well-being, satisfaction, and happiness experienced by individuals or communities, often influenced by factors such as health, education, income, environment, and social relationships.
an academic framework and analytical approach that examines the intersection of race, power, and law, focusing on systemic racism, inequality, and social justice issues within society and institutions.
is a philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in the late 20th century, challenging traditional notions of truth, identity, and reality, and emphasizing the relativity, plurality, and complexity of human experiences and perspectives.
leisure activities or pursuits that individuals pursue passionately, systematically, and with a high degree of commitment, often involving skill development, personal growth, and identity formation.
moments of deep engagement, concentration, and fulfillment individuals experience when fully immersed in challenging and rewarding activities that match their skills and interests.
the state of physical, mental, and emotional health, happiness, and overall quality of life experienced by individuals or populations.
an interdisciplinary field of academic inquiry that examines the social, cultural, psychological, and economic aspects of leisure and recreation, including its impacts on individuals, communities, and societies.
the innate connection, relationship, and interdependence between humans and the natural world, encompassing spiritual, emotional, and ecological dimensions.
a network of protected areas, parks, and reserves established and managed by governments to preserve and conserve natural landscapes, biodiversity, and cultural heritage for public enjoyment, education, and stewardship.
A natural area that has not been significantly altered or developed by human activity, often protected for its ecological, scenic, or cultural value.
the variety and variability of life forms within ecosystems, including different species of plants, animals, microorganisms, and genetic diversity. Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem health, resilience, and ecosystem services.
Indigenous peoples in Canada, comprised of various Aboriginal groups, including the Inuit, Métis, and First Nations.
the harmful or unfair use of resources, people, or ecosystems for personal or commercial gain, often without regard for sustainability, equity, or ethical considerations.
Protected areas of natural or cultural significance designated by the government for preservation and enjoyment of the public.
The protection, conservation, and maintenance of natural and cultural resources within parks and recreational areas. It involves managing these areas in a way that ensures their ecological integrity, historical significance, and recreational value are sustained for present and future generations.
The protection, preservation, and sustainable management of natural resources, ecosystems, biodiversity, or cultural heritage to ensure their long-term viability and benefits for current and future generations.
Scottish-American naturalist, author, and environmental philosopher known as the "Father of the National Parks." He played a key role in the preservation of wilderness areas and the establishment of several national parks in the United States, including Yosemite and Sequoia.
American forester, conservationist, and politician who served as the first Chief of the United States Forest Service. He advocated for the sustainable management of forests and natural resources, promoting the concept of conservation as "the wise use of resources for the greatest good for the greatest number of people."
planning, allocation, utilization, and conservation of natural, human, and economic resources to achieve sustainable development goals and objectives.
complex, interconnected systems comprising living organisms (biotic) and their physical environment (abiotic), interacting within a defined geographical area. Ecosystems provide essential services such as clean air, water, food, and habitat, supporting life on Earth.
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an individual or organization committed to preserving and safeguarding cultural, historical, or architectural heritage sites, artifacts, and traditions for future generations.
a political, social, and philosophical movement advocating for the protection, conservation, and sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity, and the environment.
the degree to which something, such as a destination, facility, or service, is easily reachable, usable, or available to people, including those with disabilities or special needs.