7 3.1 Overview: Electromagnetic Energy
Introduction
You may be well aware of the importance of visible light for making observations in the geosciences. For example, the color of minerals and rocks can help us identify them (although it is not always the best identifier!). Color is determined by the relative absorbance or reflection of different wavelengths of visible light.
For example, a gem-quality emerald is a deep green color. This is because it is reflecting the green wavelengths of light to our eyes, and is absorbing the other visible wavelengths of light. Emerald is the mineral beryl, but it is trace Cr3+ in the mineral structure that causes the green color.
Visible light represents a small range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Even though no human can see beyond the visible range, we can still use technology to “see” the electromagnetic spectrum beyond anyone’s reach.
The electromagnetic energy we cannot see (but can detect with instrumentation) can be used to study the chemical composition of materials, can detect the vibrations of molecules and minerals, and can see the structure of solid materials, among other things.
This chapter provides a practical basis for applying knowledge of electromagnetic energy to optical microscopy.
Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students should be able to:
- Describe the categories of electromagnetic energy within the electromagnetic spectrum, and be able to place these categories relative to each other in wavelength and energy.
- Describe the wavelengths of visible light and name a color for a given wavelength range.
- Convert wavelengths of electromagnetic energy between commonly used units (meters, micrometers, nanometers, Angstroms).
- Describe the ways in which electromagnetic energy can behave when it interacts with an object.
- Define characteristics of light, including the speed of light, wave front, and light ray.
- Define refractive index.
- Differentiate between the electric and magnetic components of light.
- Use the electric (E) vector of light to describe the behavior of plane polarized light.
- Explain how the double slit experiment demonstrates wave-particle duality at the quantum scale.
- Describe the relationships between energy, wavelength, frequency, and wavenumber with the help of Planck’s equation.
- Convert wavelengths of electromagnetic energy between commonly used units.
- Convert the wavelength of electromagnetic energy to wavenumbers (cm-1), a commonly used unit in infrared and Raman spectroscopy.
Prior Knowledge and Skills
None


I. Fundamentals
American Standard Pitch Notation (ASPN)
Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes
Key Takeaways
- American Standard Pitch Notation (ASPN) provides labels for specific musical frequencies by combining a note name (such as C) with a subscript octave designation (such as 4).
- A pitch is a discrete tone with an individual frequency (e.g. C4), while a pitch class is less specific (e.g., C in general).
- ASPN differentiates between octaves, from C to B. The octaves are labeled from lowest to highest, beginning with 0 and continuing in ascending numerical order (1, 2, etc.).
- A piano keyboard primarily uses the ASPN octave designations 1 through 7, although small portions of octaves 0 and 8 are included.
- Middle C is C4 in ASPN. It is helpful to memorize the ASPN label of this note as a starting point.
American Standard Pitch Notation and Pitch versus Pitch Class
In order to discuss specific notes, or pitches, we will use American Standard Pitch Notation, abbreviated ASPN. ASPN designates specific musical pitches by combining a note name (such as C) with a subscript octave designation (such as 4), creating a bipartite label (for example, C4). ASPN labels are very useful, since they can identify every possible musical note within human hearing range, from the lowest pitches to the highest.
The Reading Clefs chapter introduced octave equivalence, the concept that explains why notes one or more octaves apart have the same letter name. Music theorists distinguish between a pitch, a discrete tone with an individual frequency (e.g. C4 using ASPN), versus a pitch class, which is less specific (e.g., C in general). A pitch class includes all the pitches with the same letter name, in any octave, along with their enharmonic equivalents. For example, all Cs are the same pitch class, and the enharmonically equivalent notes D𝄫 and B♯ are also part of the C pitch class. In this chapter we are naming specific pitches with ASPN.
ASPN and Octave Designations
ASPN differentiates between octaves, beginning with the pitch C and ending with the pitch B. This means that each new octave designation begins on the note C, as seen in . The octaves are labeled from lowest to highest, beginning with 0 and continuing in numerical order (1, 2, 3, etc.). The pitch middle C is C4, which is useful to memorize.
All letter names within an octave (below the C of the next octave) receive the same octave designation. For example, all of the notes in 5. Accidentals applied to a note do not have an effect on its ASPN number. For example, B♯3 and C4 have different octave numbers despite being enharmonically equivalent, because the B♯ is still considered part of the lower octave.
would be designated in the 4 octave, because they are above C4 but below CASPN and the Keyboard
ASPN labels are very helpful for finding specific notes on the piano keyboard.
depicts a piano keyboard with each octave labeled using ASPN notation. As you can see, the piano keyboard spans the full octaves 1 to 7. It also contains a small part of both octaves 0 and 8. ASPN labels are the same regardless of instrument or voice type. In other words, a C4 will always be labeled as such regardless of whether it is produced with a flute, trombone, violin, or voice.
ASPN and Staff Notation
shows ASPN labels for common notes in the treble, bass, alto, and tenor clefs. Memorizing the location of C4 in each clef can make finding ASPN labels quicker and easier.
- “Pitches, Pitch Classes, Octave Designation, Enharmonic Equivalence” (YouTube)
- Tutorial on ASPN Octave Labels (liveabout.com)
- Tutorial on ASPN Octave Labels (flutopedia.com)
- Helpful Graphic with ASPN Labels on the Grand Staff and Piano (Music Theory Tips)
- Flash Cards with ASPN Labels in Treble and Bass Clefs (quizlet.com)
- American Standard Pitch Notation (ASPN) (.pdf, .mscz). Asks students to identify pitches by ASPN label and write pitches in the correct octave from ASPN labels.
- American Standard Pitch Notation (ASPN), Treble and Bass Clef (.pdf, .mscz). Asks students to identify pitches by ASPN label and write pitches in the correct octave from ASPN labels. No C clefs.
Media Attributions
- Octave Designations © Wiki Commons is licensed under a Public Domain license
- Octave 4 ASPN Labels © Chelsey Hamm is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
- Piano ASPN Labels © AlwaysAngry adapted by Megan Lavengood is licensed under a Public Domain license
Designates specific musical frequencies by combining a note name (such as C) with an octave designation (such as 4), creating a bipartite label (C₄).
A discrete tone with an individual frequency.
A group of pitches that are octave equivalent and enharmonically equivalent.
An interval of twelve half steps between two notes with the same letter name. The frequencies of two notes related by octave form a 2:1 ratio. Abbreviated “8ve.”
C₄; the C near the middle of the piano keyboard, written on the first ledger line below the treble clef staff or the first ledger line above the bass clef staff.
A relationship between pitches that share a letter name but are separated by one or more octaves.


8 Biotechnology- Biology for Human Welfare
8.7 Vaccines
Vaccines
Dr V Malathi
Vaccines are biological preparations that are intended to produce immunity against particular illnesses. They stimulate the immune system to identify and combat the disease in the future by introducing antigens that are weakened, inactive, or fragments of a pathogen—into the body.
Type of Vaccines
Live Attenuated Vaccines
This type of vaccine contain a weakened (attenuated) form of the live pathogen. Though the pathogen is live it is altered so that it cannot cause disease in healthy individuals. Examples of such vaccines are Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine,Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV), Yellow Fever vaccine. These live attenuated vaccines are strong and long lasting. However these are not suitable for people with weakened immune systems and requires careful storage (cold chain).
Inactivated Vaccines
These vaccines are produced using a killed (inactivated) version of the pathogen. Examples:Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV),Hepatitis A vaccine ,Rabies vaccine. These vaccines are safer for people with weakened immune systems but usually requires multiple doses and booster shots for long-term protection.
Subunit, Recombinant, Polysaccharide, and Conjugate Vaccines
These vaccines are produced using specific pieces of the pathogen (like protein, sugar, or capsid). Examples: Hepatitis B vaccine,Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine,Pneumococcal vaccine,Meningococcal vaccine. These vaccines have a targeted immune response and usually exhibit fewer side effects. These vaccines also require multiple doses for complete protection.
Toxoid Vaccines
Toxoid vaccines use inactivated toxins (toxoids) produced by bacteria, which cause disease symptoms. Examples:Tetanus vaccine ,Diphtheria vaccine. These provide immunity against toxins and not against the pathogen itself. For sustained immunity booster doses are required.
mRNA Vaccines
This type of vaccines introduce the messenger RNA (mRNA) into cells, instructing them to produce a protein that triggers an immune response.Examples: Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.These are advantageous as no live virus is involved but require cold storage
Viral Vector Vaccines
This type of vaccines use a harmless virus (vector) to deliver genetic material from the target pathogen. Examples: AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine,Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine. These vaccines elicit a strong immune response but a pre-existing immunity to the vector may reduce effectiveness of the vaccine
DNA Vaccines (Emerging)
This type of vaccines use DNA plasmids to introduce genetic material coding for antigens.Examples include some experimental vaccines like Zydus Cadila’s COVID-19 vaccine. These vaccines are stable and still under extensive study.
Essential steps in vaccine production using Biotechnology
“Vaccines” by Katie L. Flanagan, Emma Best, Nigel W. Crawford, Michelle Giles, Archana Koirala, Kristine Macartney, Fiona Russell, Benjamin W. Teh, and Sophie CH Wen, on behalf of the Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases (ASID) Vaccination Special Interest group (VACSIG), creativecommons.org via wikimedia commons is licensed under CC BY 4.0
- Identifying the Antigen and Pathogen : To find the elements that can trigger a potent immune response, scientists investigate the target pathogen (bacteria, virus, or toxin).
Common targets include: surface proteins, such as the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Toxins from germs such as diphtheria or tetanus that have been inactivated. - Choosing a Production Platform :
a) Recombinant DNA Technology: The method involves identification of the genes encoding the target antigen. Plasmids (small, circular DNA) are used to introduce these genes into a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells. The antigen is produced in huge quantities by cultivating the host organism in bioreactors. For instance, the Hepatitis B vaccine is made by generating the Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) from yeast cells.
b) mRNA Technology: in this method the target antigen’s mRNA is produced in a laboratory. Lipid nanoparticles are used to transport the mRNA into human cells.Example: Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines.
c) Viral Vector Technology: A harmless virus, such as an adenovirus, is genetically altered to contain the targe antigen’s genetic material. The altered virus undergoes purification and culture. For instance, the COVID-19 vaccinations from AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson.
d) Protein Subunit Vaccines: In this method recombinant technologies or cell cultures are used to manufacture certain pathogen proteins. After purification, adjuvants are added to these proteins to strengthen the immune response. For instance, the COVID-19 vaccination Novavax.
3. Cultivation and Fermentation : In regulated bioreactors, large-scale cultures of host cells—such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells—are cultivated. The viral particles or antigen are captured, purified, and expressed.
4. Purification : Methods like chromatography and centrifugation are used to extract and purify the antigens or other vaccine components.This guarantees that there are no pollutants or impurities in the finished product.
5. Formulation : Stabilizers, preservatives, and adjuvants—substances that boost the immune response—are combined with the purified antigen. Certain vaccinations, like mRNA vaccines, are delivered by encapsulation in lipid nanoparticles.
6.Quality Control and Testing : Vaccines are put through extensive testing for safety and effectiveness (in clinical studies, animal models, and in vitro). The vaccines are checked for stability ,potency and batch-to-batch uniformity.
7. Packaging and Distribution : The vaccine is sterilely packed in syringes or vials. To preserve vaccine integrity, distribution adheres to stringent handling and temperature guidelines. or example cold chain requirements for mRNA vaccines).
Vaccine Components
| Component | Description |
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Antigen
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the vaccine’s active ingredient that triggers an immunological reaction.
|
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Adjuvants
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Component that increases the efficacy of the vaccinations. Adjuvants based on aluminum are used in most vaccinations. They aid the immune response by causing a variety of inflammatory substances to be produced at the injection site. The kidneys eliminate aluminum from the body through urine.
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Preservatives
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Preservatives prevent a vaccine from becoming unintentionally contaminated. 2-phenoxyethanol is the most widely used preservative and can also be found in a variety of cosmetics, baby care products, and ear and eye drops. Thimerosal, a preservative containing mercury that is used in multi-dose vaccines to stop pathogenic germs or fungi from contaminating them, may cause clients to worry. |
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Stabilizers
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Gelatin and other stabilizers prevent the vaccine’s constituents from separating and inhibit chemical reactions. Lactose, potassium, salt, and amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—are further stabilizers.
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Buffers
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When modest amounts of an acid or an alkali are introduced to a buffer solution, the pH of the solution does not change. Buffers maintain the vaccine’s pH close to that of the body. The buffer is frequently a salt.
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Adjusting tonicity
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A salt may be added to the vaccine to maintain its isotonicity and lessen local responses. Sodium chloride, or regular table salt is frequently used for this purpose
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Surfactants and emulsifiers
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These substances have a detergent-like effect. Polysorbate 80, also known as Tween®, is a surfactant that is frequently employed. Oleic acid, an omega fatty acid, and sorbitol, a sugar alcohol, are used to make this. Foods like ice cream frequently include polysorbate.
|
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Formaldehyde
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The live germ or toxin used in some vaccines is detoxified or rendered inactive by formaldehyde. Most of it is eliminated via the purifying procedure. It is significant to remember that all human bodies contain trace levels of formaldehyde, which is necessary for DNA synthesis. Formaldehyde degrades rapidly in the body and in the environment. Furthermore, a baby’s body contains roughly ten times as much formaldehyde as a vaccine does.
|
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Antibiotics
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Antibiotics are included in some vaccines to stop bacteria from growing while the vaccine is being stored.
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Vaccine components table adapted from Vaccine Practice for Health Professionals: 1st Canadian Edition
“Vaccines components” by Oona St-Amant; Jennifer Lapum; Vinita Dubey; Karen Beckermann; Che-Sheu Huang; Carly Weeks; Kate Leslie; and Kim is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0


16 Discussion Grading Rubric
Each discussion post is graded according to the following rubric.
Points Interpretation Grading criteria
4 Excellent (A) The comment is accurate, original, relevant, teaches us something new, and is well written. Four point comments add substantial teaching presence to the course, and stimulate additional thought about the issue under discussion.
3 Above Average (B) The comment lacks at least one of the above qualities, but is above average in quality. A three point comment makes a significant contribution to our understanding of the issue being discussed.
2 Average (C) The comment lacks two or three of the required qualities. Comments which are based upon personal opinion or personal experience often fall within this category.
1 Minimal (D) The comment presents little or no new information. However, one point comments may provide important social presence and contribute to a collegial atmosphere .
0 Unacceptable (F) The comment adds no value to the discussion.
Each forum is worth up to 12 points, and each entry is worth up to four points.Thus, you should have at least three entries per forum, more if you want to ensure that you reach 12 points.You should participate in dicussions on a regular basis (three days or more per discussion). Points will not be given to students who enter the discussions for the first time on the last two or three days.


Enhanced Instructional and Professional Growth through a Pragmatic Instructional Approach
Joanna Weaver, Ph.D.; Gabriel T. Matney, Ph.D.; Chloe Beeker; and Alex Zalar
Abstract
Finding a pragmatic process across university programs and disciplines that has the potential to strengthen programs and instruction has promise for adoption because of the possible impact and benefits. Jigsaw Lesson Study (JLS) has that potential and could be expanded into not only a teacher-education classroom but also into any discipline across a university campus. JLS offers opportunities for student engagement and professional development. Here, we used the JLS process, modified from Lesson Study (LS), to strengthen instructional decision-making, lesson planning, and student learning in a teacher-education course. We sought to determine the impact of JLS on teacher candidates’ professional growth. We determined that when participating in the JLS process, teacher candidates engaged more fully in their subject areas, grew as collaborative educators, and developed a heightened awareness of how students learn.
Keywords: lesson study, reflection, teacher candidates, inservice teachers, collaboration, teacher education, instruction, professional development
1. Introduction
Introducing a pragmatic process throughout university programs and disciplines holds promise for enhancing both programs and instruction, thus increasing its potential for widespread adoption due to its significant impact and benefits. Jigsaw Lesson Study (JLS) stands out as a potent tool for fortifying programs and instruction, concurrently offering avenues for deeper engagement and fostering professional development. In this qualitative study, we used JLS, a modification of Lesson Study (LS), in a teacher-education classroom to examine the impact of the JLS process. Researchers surmise that identifying opportunities to utilize JLS as a pragmatic instructional strategy is integral to teacher candidates’ professional growth.
2. Literature review
Lesson Study (LS), an educational practice with roots tracing back to Japan for over a century, stands as a pivotal element in the ongoing professional development endeavors of Japanese educators (Fernandez & Yoshida, 2004; Hervas, 2022; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). Over time, LS research has reflected its efficacy in the mathematics classroom (Bocala, 2015; Lee, 2019; Ganesh & Matteson, 2010; Shuilleabhain & Bjuland, 2019) with inservice teachers (Dudley et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2023; Rock & Wilson, 2005; Weaver et al., 2023) and with interdisciplinary teams of teacher educators (Weaver et al., 2023; Weaver et al., 2021; Weaver et al., 2023) because it focuses on team collaboration and reflection of student learning through observations (Lewis, 2002a; Lewis & Hurd, 2011).
The LS process includes four steps: Study, Plan, Teach, Reflect (Lewis, 2002a). In the initial step, participants assess challenges they may encounter and select a singular challenge to study and overcome. The LS team studies the challenge collaboratively and uses the findings to create a plan. Subsequently, the team develops a lesson focused on enhancing student learning by addressing the encountered challenge. Third, the team chooses one team member to teach the collaboratively developed lesson while being observed by their team members. Lastly, the group of teachers reconvene to discuss and reflect on the strengths and areas for improvement of their instruction (Ermeling & Ermeling, 2014; Hervas & Medina, 2020; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999; Takahashi & McDougal, 2016). The goal is that teachers choose to revise the lesson plan with their LS teams and conduct a second iteration of the research lesson with a different class, repeating steps three and four of the LS process.
Inservice teachers participating in the LS process have improved knowledge of instructional strategies and content as well as increased confidence levels (Ogegbo et al., 2019). Furthermore, researchers noted heightened enthusiasm for teaching and learning (Bautista & Banquied, 2021; Hervas & Medina, 2020; Ogegbo et al., 2019). A sense of belonging was created among participants that enhanced instruction, boosted morale, confidence, and efficacy. The teachers showed enriched knowledge and progressive traits and these qualities transferred into their own classrooms (Weaver et al., 2021).
2.1 Lesson Study among teacher candidates
The outcomes of inservice teachers’ confidence, morale, efficacy, and improved professional knowledge is well noted in research; therefore, it makes sense that similar outcomes would exist for teacher candidates (TCs). According to research, providing TCs with opportunities to engage in LS encourages collaboration, reflection, revision, and professional growth (Ganesh & Matteson, 2010; Leavy & Hourigan, 2016; Lee, 2019; Matney & Fox, 2022; Sumarno, 2019; Weaver & Matney, 2023). Cajkler and Wood (2014) found that after engaging in LS, TCs demonstrated autonomy in the practice of designing learning goals that are student centered.
LS promotes TCs’ professional growth in lesson planning, instruction, and reflection (Lee, 2019) and enhances growth in TCs’ content and pedagogical knowledge to increase mastery and confidence (Ganesh & Matteson, 2010). The research of Aykan and Dursun (2021) similarly noted how the collaborative process in LS had a significant positive effect on TCs. They found that LS impacted a TC’s knowledge and skills regarding lesson planning, teaching methods and techniques, and course evaluation.
In a study by Chassels and Melville (2009), TCs submitted reflections detailing experiences with LS. From these reflections, Chassels and Melville (2009) concluded LS has potential for the continuous improvement of teaching and learning in the American education system among preservice teachers.
In a similar study, Matney & Fox (2022) conducted research with TCs whose teacher-education program incorporated LS as part of their professional learning each year. LS was perceived as the pivotal element, transforming their teaching practice from a teacher-centered model to a student-centered model. TCs’ engagement in LS promoted students’ thinking for themselves while deriving knowledge. The research aligns with other research focused on TCs’ participation in LS (Leavy & Hourigan, 2016; Lee, 2019; Ganesh & Matteson, 2010; Sumarno, 2019). The phenomenological research also noted that the incorporation of LS in the program created a rich community and collegiality where multiple perspectives could be tested and respected (Matney & Fox, 2022).
2.2 Lesson Study promotes teacher candidates’ flexibility in planning
In a teacher-education program, research results revealed the LS model contributed to enhanced planning skills in TCs and the ability to be flexible within different class environments (Çevik & Müldür, 2021). Cajkler and Wood (2016) emphasized the impact LS collaboration had on TCs’ planning because it contributed to increased awareness on what to plan and helped change the focus of the lesson to keep the learning needs of students in mind. LS promotes TCs’ professional growth in lesson planning, instruction, and reflection (Lee, 2019).
TCs demonstrate autonomy in the practice of designing learning goals with the students in mind and reflections centered around student learning rather than smooth implementation of activities (Cajkler & Wood, 2016; Lee, 2019). Furthermore, Leavy and Hourigan (2016) reported TC Lesson Study participants were able to realize the importance of analyzing student learning.
Additionally, LS enhanced growth in preservice teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge to increase mastery and confidence (Ganesh & Matteson, 2010). Sumarno (2019) concluded LS has a positive impact on prospective teachers’ self-efficacy with increased efficacy noted in student engagement, instructional strategies, and classroom management. Ganesh and Matteson (2010) also found increased confidence of preservice teachers in standing in front of a class and less nervousness with taking the role of a teacher after partaking in LS.
2.3 Lesson Study promotes collaboration
An essential quality of the LS process among inservice teachers and TCs is collaboration. Collaboration lies at the foundation of LS and allows educators to feel supported and encouraged to try new instructional strategies as well as to reflect on possible changed perspectives. In addition, Bautista and Banquied (2021) indicated teachers’ competence was crafted through collaboration, and Chong and Kong (2012) discussed that, because of collaboration, teachers felt supported and open to share ideas and build off one another’s contributions to further develop their lesson plans. Collaboration leads to pedagogic risk-taking and builds professional capital (Cajkler et al., 2014, Rock & Wilson, 2005).
2.4 Lesson Study helps focus teacher candidates on student learning
Because observation is an integral component of LS during step three, these skills are advanced during the teaching phase of the LS process (Bocala, 2015; Reynolds, 2018; Schipper et al., 2020). This provides opportunities for teachers candidates to focus on student learning and experience, influences their perceptions and awareness of the needs of different students and how these needs should be addressed (Schipper et al., 2020). Furthermore, it guides instructional changes (Coenders & Verhoef, 2019). Bocala (2015) asserted the more experience one has with LS, the more focus can be devoted to deeper issues regarding students’ thinking and misconceptions.
2.5 Lesson Study impacts reflective practice
While engaging TCs in the LS process, experienced facilitators should be present to guide them through the critical reflection, feedback, and implementation of feedback to strengthen lessons. Myers (2012) investigated TCs’ levels of reflection in LS and found TCs focused on individual teaching rather than the group’s lesson or student learning. Myers (2012) concluded LS may contribute to reflection but does not foster high-levels if TCs are not guided properly.
Bjuland and Helgevold (2018) noted the influential role of a facilitator and Knowledgeable Other (the instructor of the course) to question, challenge, and focus TCs’ reflective dialogue toward evaluation of student learning and the effectiveness of instruction. LS is an incredibly beneficial process for TCs to enhance the development of content and pedagogical knowledge, increase confidence, and strengthen reflective habits needed to continuously grow and create engaging lessons for all students.
2.6 Lesson Study as professional development
In a study conducted by Dudley et al. (2019), participating schools co-developed lesson plans and shared experiences of how children learn. They determined the impact of LS on student learning and teacher development that included strengthening teaching materials, curriculum, professional learning, and system enhancement. In addition, the schools developed a system of norms and strategies to share with their fellow staff members during professional development and implemented this into the everyday life of the school.
Chong and Kong’s (2012) findings align with Dudley et al. (2019) where LS was found to support teachers’ beliefs surrounding effective pedagogy. Similarly, Collet and Greiner (2020) reported that teachers’ instructional repertoires were expanded and shifted in thinking around the effective instructional strategies learned from the Lesson Study process.
Based on the positive experiences and growth of inservice teachers experience with LS, it seemed natural to examine the effect LS could have on teacher-education programs and TCs. Because there was limited access to trained inservice teachers in LS who could work with TCs when they went out to the teaching field, the authors developed a modification to LS (see Figure 1).
In this qualitative study, we examine a modification of LS, called Jigsaw Lesson Study (JLS), to engage TCs in this valuable professional experience involving the steps of Lesson Study within the context of an English Language Arts Methods Course. The research shared here seeks to answer the following research question: How did engaging in the Jigsaw Lesson Study process impact teacher candidates’ professional growth? A further description of the Jigsaw Lesson Study process is provided in the context section of the methodology.
3. Methods
3.1 Participants
The study uses qualitative methods to investigate impacts of Jigsaw Lesson Study (JLS) on TCs’ instruction. 55 Integrated Language Arts (ILA) TCs enacted the JLS as part of a methods education course requirement during two different fall semesters prior to student teaching. Of the 55 TCs, 43 identified as females; 5 identified as males; and 7 identified as nonbinary. The TCs were from a midwest university in the United States. The JLS teams were self-selected. All participants in this study have been given pseudonyms.
3.2 Context
JLS (Weaver & Matney, 2023) was developed by the first two authors to overcome the challenge that TCs were not yet in a field experience teaching real students and observing real student learning with inservice teachers who were trained in LS. Therefore, during a teacher-education class, multiple teams of three were created to move through the four LS steps: study, plan, teach, reflect. The teams of TCs studied a difficult-to-teach topic and collaboratively created lessons. Then, each team taught their lesson to another JLS team of three.
Similar to LS, the JLS process is entirely collaborative. It represents a collaborative professional development methodology fostering cooperative engagement, constructive critique, and reflective practice throughout each phase of the LS process.
After each teaching, team members and peer learners offered evidence-based, constructive feedback that informed lesson revisions. After each teaching, teams would reflect together and revise their lessons before teaching another team. They taught three iterations of their lessons to three other small groups (see Figure 1). Because there were three iterations of each lesson, each member of the team had a chance to teach one iteration of the lesson. Groups rotated throughout the JLS process reflecting and revising along the way.
JLS was implemented to professionally develop TCs at a midwest university using a pragmatic process, allowing TCs to work collaboratively to build instructional knowledge. JLS took place during the first four-week period of the semester with four-hour teacher-education course blocks. For both semesters, during weeks one and two, TCs spent two of the four-hour blocks studying and planning their collaborative lesson. The full four-hour block was used during weeks three and four to teach, reflect, revise, and reteach lessons.
During the third week, the class was divided into teaching pairs. For example, Team A ↔ Team B; Team C ↔ Team D; Team E ↔ Team F. After each lesson was taught by the first team, (i.e., Team A taught Team B), the paired team (Team B) provided instructional feedback, then taught their lesson (Team B taught Team A), and then received feedback from the first team (Team A). When both teams in the pairs finished teaching and received feedback, they returned to their individual teams, reflected on the taught lesson, and asked questions pertaining to the level of student engagement in the lesson content and the effectiveness of the instructional methods based on the observations of student learning (i.e., What were the learners’ challenges and successes?).
The goal during the debriefing time was to identify strategies in the lesson that needed clarification and revision as well as to review student learning. JLS teams analyzed the feedback and observational notes to modify and revise the lessons before reteaching the lesson to the next team (see Figure 1). This same process was followed the second iteration of teaching. After the third, each team debriefed together to reflect on the entire learning experience of the JLS process and how it impacted their professional growth.
3.3 Data and analysis
For this study, data was collected from post-survey responses that identified the TCs’ takeaways from the JLS process and noted revisions made in their lessons. Researchers examined the data for TCs perceptions of changes in instructional practice, professional knowledge, and/or their perception of the JLS process.
Researchers utilized the constant comparative method (CCM) (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and Erikson’s (1986) coding process. As an inductive process, CCM allowed for the recoding of data compared to other data and incidents (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Open coding provided opportunities for core categories to emerge as data are recoded and reduced (Glaser, 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987). Researchers individually coded each set of surveys. Then, after the second read-through, researchers discussed and negotiated assertions that emerged from the key constructs and then reread the data with the agreed-upon assertions and met for a third time to clarify the examples that served as warrants.
4. Results
Teacher candidates (55 total) in the course recorded their takeaways on a post-survey after experiencing the JLS. Based on the analysis and coding process, five themes emerged. TCs’ perceptions of: (1) Collaboration, (2) Observation, (3) Reflections and Revisions, (4) Flexibility, and (5) Takeaways.
4.1 Teacher candidates’ perceptions of collaboration
One of the most prominent themes to come from the data was collaboration. Of the 55 participants, 51 of them directly discussed collaboration in their survey responses from the JLS process. Participant responses in the survey discussed how collaborating was an opportunity for them to grow while working with other educators. For example, Jaime reported that they valued “hearing peers give feedback and that you need to keep a circle of teachers you trust to give that in your professional careers.” They also drew comparisons between teachers and students, stating, “we are constantly learning ways to better ourselves and the content we teach.” According to Allen, “it’s not very hard to work with others when creating lesson plans. I hope that the school I end up teaching in is big on collaboration because multiple minds are better than one.” Thirty-five other TCs reported similar views.
The idea of continuous learning was echoed in the survey by a fellow candidate, who wrote, “This practice of collaboration could be very valuable for teachers of the same subject and grade level, especially across student proficiency groups (such as AP teachers/college prep/college career classes).” Reiterating the importance of collaboration, Teagan stated, “I wish there was more collaboration between different content areas, because . . . it is nice to learn new strategies.”
Through collaboration, participants were able to discuss and build from one another’s ideas as well as experiences. New ideas were generated in discussion that expanded upon past experiences and blended each team member’s strengths. Similarly, the blending of team member’s strengths created an overall flow of ideas and combined learning styles with the goal of increasing teacher confidence and crafting an engaging lesson for various learners. Chris stated, “each of us had different modes of learning, so being able to hear different ideas was very helpful.”
The survey results highlighted teacher candidates’ positive experience with Lesson Study. Sixteen teacher candidates emphasized the importance of listening to everyone on the research team and working together to construct a strong lesson plan that considers student learning needs. Colby explained, “I learned greatly from my research team’s lesson plan ideas while collaborating over the past couple weeks. The amount of differing ideas helped with putting the lesson together.”
Collaboration aided teacher candidates’ understanding of one another and positively contributed to the decision of the topic of focus for the lesson. Forty-seven participants further highlighted how collaboration impacted the topic and direction of the lesson. Participants felt supported, uplifted, and were willing to voice their areas of struggles in English Language Arts. TCs stated on the survey that by voicing their areas of struggle, they were able to identify common topics and viewed the Lesson Study experience as an opportunity to expand content knowledge.
4.2 Teacher candidates’ perceptions of observation notes
During the JLS process, TCs took observational notes on student learning while a member of the team taught the lesson. Forty-five teacher candidates described the impact of taking observational notes as beneficial and recorded how the notes helped focus revisions and track student thinking as well as feedback. Moira stated, “The note taking was essential for our team due to making revisions that changed the path of our lessons.”
According to the surveys, more than half of the TCs focused on how beneficial it was to observe students’ engagement and reactions. TCs reported an increased understanding of the reactions made by students and how to use this knowledge to revise the lessons and create student-centered learning activities. For example, Tina highlighted their realization “that students learn in so many different ways and grasp on to material differently.” Observational notes pushed TCs to think beyond the teacher perspective and focus attention on the learners of the lessons. TCs found themselves closely examining the learners of the lesson, finding importance even in the body language of the students. Once again, observational notes positively impacted teacher candidates’ ability to revise and consistently improve the lessons while considering student needs and interests.
TCs discussed the impact of observing the instruction of team members and providing feedback to the instruction had on their thinking around planning. Survey responses spotlighted how observing their team members’ teaching helped guide revisions to make changes based on what went well and what did not. For example, three teacher candidates mentioned the difficulty of time management and the process of Lesson Study and taking observation notes during the live lesson, TCs “were able to fix issues with timing.”
Additionally, teacher candidates were exposed to various instructional approaches. Montana communicated, “it was interesting to see how we each took a different route to teaching even though we all used the same plan. It showed me how important it is to create a cohesive lesson plan that can be followed by anyone and still get the same result.” According to the survey responses of 51 candidates, JLS guided TCs in establishing their own teaching presence, and emphasized the importance of constructing an explicit, solid lesson plan that accomplished learning goals and yielded positive student experiences and outcomes no matter who was teaching the lesson.
4.3 Teacher candidates’ perceptions of reflections and revisions
TCs perceived that constructive feedback and observation notes helped them reflect on their lessons and strengthen instructional practice. Halle stated, “It was helpful to hear feedback about ways to improve lessons but also how to extend them.”
Another TC, Jack, noted,
I loved seeing the lesson evolve after each time of teaching and seeing how small changes impact the lesson as a whole and to see what works best, like our original assessment was kind of lackluster in the fact it recalled a lot on memorization, but the last assessment tool allowed for group collaboration.
His team made significant changes in their plans between the first and second lesson. Another team discussed the impact of reflection and the importance of reconvening with the group after instruction. Kelsey noted, “it was really informative to meet back with and talk about what we did in our individual lessons so we could all adapt what we were doing if someone had a positive impact the way they taught.” Thirty-three other TCs reported similar responses on their surveys.
Furthering this connection to reflection, Kayla reported that “getting feedback from my peers was helpful… As a future teacher, I believe reflecting on the lesson, as well as asking students what went well and what could be changed is important to do in the classroom.” Furthermore, Moira responded in her post-survey, “Lessons aren’t always going to be received the way I want them to, but it’s up to me to take that feedback and grow from it and adapt my teaching to better fit the needs and wants of my students.” According to another response, William’s group made significant modifications to their plans based on the feedback of peers and team observations.
4.4 Lesson Study strengthened flexibility
The data revealed that TCs believed that reflection empowered flexibility during instruction. For example, Halle wrote, “we can prepare as much as we want and try and have everything figured out before we go into the classroom, but we will never know how to fully gage [sic.] the class until it is in the moment.” Moreover, Chris wrote, “[teachers need] to be able to change things on the fly. You may teach the lesson a little bit different every period.”
Another TC, Moira, discussed how the JLS allowed her to reflect on her group’s lesson plan. According to her post-survey,
It’s important to gauge the understanding of your students and be flexible during your lesson, not just after. Some people struggled with our lesson more than others, so we had to explain things in different ways so that it made sense to everyone.
Cassidy also focused on the power of reflection in her planning, stating, “[JLS] allowed me to see how I could change my lesson after teaching each period.” She went on to note how teachers and their lessons will not be flawless in action as well as “that it is okay to revise and make changes along the way if the lesson is not adhering to your student’s needs.” She continued to state that flexibility is key. These examples represent 53 TCs who also reported flexibility and a willingness to modify or revise “as you go” was critical to strengthening instructional practice.
4.5 Takeaways from Jigsaw Lesson Study
TCs expressed how the JLS, specifically research and planning, helped them see different pathways for learning. Kelly stated, “I learned how many ways you can teach the same topic. By comparing different modes and ideas of learning, we were able to refine our ideas to create a really well-rounded plan.” Another TC, Gloria, also discussed being exposed to various teaching styles because of the JLS experience. According to her survey response,
I also learned so much about teaching styles from both seeing how each member of my group taught different and by seeing each of the people around the room teaching their individual lessons. In each of my three presentation groups, we talked about differentiation and teaching with cultural responsiveness.
The majority of TCs noted the new instructional strategies as well as new technological resources that were discovered. Furthermore, TCs perceived revisions to be necessary when planning and crafting a truly engaging and accessible lesson, and interactivity of the lesson should be a top priority.
Instructional practice was also addressed in the survey responses. For instance, Gracious stated, “The more I practice and work through my lesson, the easier and less nerve racking [sic.] it was. I felt that I was making great progress and becoming more confident in my mind around my peers.” In addition, Bailey noted, “lessons and planning can always be improved. I personally feel as though our lesson got better each time we taught it and received valuable feedback.” These statements represent thoughts and takeaways of 48 candidates in the two classes.
Gloria went a step further and discussed how she believes she walked away from the experience with more ideas about how to implement differentiation and cultural responsiveness in the classroom.
5. Discussion
Jigsaw Lesson Study (JLS) produced positive instructional outcomes and professional growth for TCs in a teacher-education course. Data collected from the post-survey on JLS provided evidence that TCs were engaging fully in the JLS process and implemented best practices that impacted instruction. This corresponds with the research of Aykan and Dursun (2021) and Matney and Fox (2022) who highlighted the impact of LS on TCs’ professional knowledge and skills because of the collaborative process and sharing of ideas. The findings suggested that TCs valued the collaborative practices and multiple perspectives, and the JLS process encouraged a growth mindset to implement new strategies. Furthermore, it allowed TCs to reflect on instruction and promoted flexibility during lessons, further extending the work of Chassels and Melville (2009).
The findings from this study align with previous LS research. The TCs were positively impacted by the collaborative LS process (Aykan & Dursun, 2021). The TCs noted that their instruction was improving through the process of coplanning, teaching and observing, hearing feedback and reflecting with others and then revising and reteaching the lesson anew. This connects with Weaver and Matney’s (2023) finding that when TCs are engaged in the LS process, it encourages learning opportunities that transform one’s teaching.
According to the findings, TCs realized the importance of reflection and feedback on instructional planning (Chassels & Melville, 2009). Furthermore, TCs noted the power of flexibility when collaborating with colleagues and the benefits of that collaboration in the instructional planning process (Aykan & Dursun, 2021; Çevik & Müldür, 2020; Chassels & Melville, 2009; Weaver et al., 2021; Weaver et al., 2023; Weaver & Matney, 2023).
One TC specifically noted how similar cross-content collaboration would be beneficial throughout teacher preparation courses. This observation aligns with the research of Weaver et al. (2021) that promoted interdisciplinary collaboration among teacher educators in the LS process. Interdisciplinary LS is an area that needs further research both with preservice and inservice teachers because we predict it will highlight the expertise of the team members as they collaborate across content areas to develop lessons that will enrich the professional knowledge of their team members. Creating interdisciplinary JLS teams in teacher-education courses might procure a new awareness of other content areas, expertise, and standards.
Implementing JLS into teacher-education courses has positive implications; therefore, it makes sense that it would work when implemented across disciplines and university programs. Using the small group of JLS can prepare higher-education professionals and other university students the opportunity for more critical reflection with a small team when considering any project that could be enhanced by multiple perspectives and collaboration of a team who need to work together for an impactful presentation. Collaborating with peers is a powerful piece of JLS, and it builds confidence through repeated practice and reflection.
In addition, JLS, like LS, promotes community accountability versus individual accountability because the work is created collaboratively with the LS group. The entire team reconvenes to make the changes that will strengthen the lesson plan and instruction. Reflection allows for revisions, enhancements, and possible reenvisioning of the lesson. It also fosters growth, flexibility, and instructional learning. Integrating JLS in higher education will strengthen instructional and reflective practice as well as professional growth.
6. Conclusion
Jigsaw Lesson Study (JLS) facilitated a heightened awareness of student learning and participant engagement, offering a potential for higher education communities to effectuate necessary revisions aimed at fortifying student learning outcomes and/or program effectiveness. Moreover, LS, like JLS, has the potential to strengthen instruction and professional knowledge and encourages the sharing of ideas and strategies. Its collaborative nature provides participants across disciplines with opportunities to think constructively about professional knowledge and student learning.
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8 Chapter 8: The Greek Origins of Western Theater
Where Did Theater Come From?
Because the practice of theatrical play is so ancient, we really do not know who or why the first formalized theater began. We do, however, have theories based on oral and written histories and anthropological observation.
Watch Mike Rugnetta of Crash Course Theater share some of the current theories about the earliest roots of theater:
The Greek Origins of Western Theater
“There are two main ways in which we know about some ancient Greek theater from classical Athens where all the plays were originally produced. The first is the actual texts themselves. We’re incredibly lucky, if you think about it, that we’ve got no fewer than 30 texts of Greek tragedies and we’ve got twelve or fourteen of Greek comedies. That’s a very great deal! I mean that’s almost equivalent to what we’ve got of really good Renaissance drama. We also have ancient sources that tell us about drama, about the funding, and the politics, and the organization of theater. There’s also the archeological remains…Remains of theaters themselves. There’s also quite a few good pots. The ancient Greeks loved to paint theatrical scenes and scenes from their famous myths on vases and we think they probably actually sold them at touristy shops near the theaters, so you could take one home with you after you’ve been to see the play.
The Festival of Dionysus
“The actual context [for the plays] is the festival of Dionysus, which happens annually around our March or April. [This] is when the sailing season starts and people can come from all over the Greek world. It is a massive event! It’s like it’s the Olympics, plus the Oberammergau Mystery Plays, plus the Super Bowl all rolled into one.
The Greeks loved competition—in every aspect of their life, they competed…In the festival of Dionysus, each of the three tragic playwrights would be competing against one another, and each would be sponsored by a rich man who would pay for the production, simply for the glory of the state. And then a jury, specially selected, will vote on what they thought was the best play. If your team won, your name and the playwright would be inscribed on the wall in the theater and be remembered forever. There’s no money, it was about glory. Lots of people did it.
The Plays
“There were three types of drama in ancient Greece: tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays. There’s theater where the masks are quite ugly and the characters are quite low class, and it’s comedy—it’s funny. Then there’s tragedy where the characters are very beautiful; usually the masks as we see them painted on vases are exquisite and lovely to look at very often—and that is tragedy. After each three tragedies on each day there would be a thing called a Satyr play. A satyr was a mythical beast, half-man, half-goat, and these were very rude comedy plays.
The Playwrights
“Antiquity decided that there were four really classical Greek playwrights; there were three tragedians and one comic poet, Aristophanes. The three tragedians were called Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. They were all Athenian citizens. They all worked to produce their great plays in the same century, the 5th century BCE.
The Theater
“Traditional Greek theater was open air and was built into the side of a hill so the spectators sat in a semicircle, up the hillside…At the bottom of the hill was a flat area called the orchestra, which is Greek for ‘dancing space,’ where the chorus would have performed and behind that a raised stage area and some buildings for the actors. Some modern theaters have been deliberately built in order to imitate, in some respects, the ancient Greek theater. The Olivier Theatre at the National [Theater, England,] for example, was actually modeled on Epidaurus, which is the best and earliest surviving stone theater on a big scale, in ancient Greece. This means that you have an approximately circular space, which is open, and extends to some extent into the audience. You have tiered seating in a semicircular or horseshoe shape around it that rises up. As an actor working on a stage like The Olivier, because of the wrap-around nature of the audience, it feels like you are connected more strongly to the people you’re trying to communicate with and tell the story to.
Masks
“Masks are another aspect of the theater students find puzzling—why they did it. And there are all kinds of thoughts and stories you might hear about why they [used] them. They wore masks because it was a religious ritual and because that was the way it had always happened. If you’ve ever seen certain kinds of African dancing, which is actually related to Greek theater in some ways, the mask is part of it. You’re worshiping Dionysus. [As] part of worshiping Dionysus, you wear the mask of the reveler, you wear the mask of the ‘celebrator of the theater’ that way. The mask was also really useful because it enabled you to change character. Only three performers performed all the speaking roles in Greek theater and so you’d come out with a different mask with different hair, and so on.
The Chorus
“The chorus is one of the hardest aspects of Greek drama for modern audiences to relate to. It’s important to realize that Greek drama grew out of a long-standing tradition of choral song and dance. The ancient Greek chorus serves two fundamental roles for the whole theater experience. The first is just fun—it’s wonderfully exciting! The ancient Greeks always talk with great excitement about the moment when the chorus would start up. You had 12 incredibly well-trained singing, dancing young men, dressed up in all sorts of exotic costumes and masks, doing really excellent performances; pretty much like you see in a West End [or Broadway] musical…That’s the sort of skill and excitement that you’d have liked, so it’s not a matter of a boring interlude between the real action at all, it’s actually highlights. The other thing that the chorus did, though, was provide the perspective of the community on what was happening. So we don’t just get Creon and Antigone fighting about whether there’s a burial, [rather] we get the citizens of Thebes, the whole city, actually represented by those 12 citizens. So Greek tragedy is fundamentally political because it’s got this constant interaction between all of us and the top guys. And that is something that’s very much missing for many later types of theater.
“When you get to be involved in doing a Greek play or something to do with the Greek theater, you’re going right to the very soul and beginnings of all of drama. That’s a great feeling to be part of something that was, and is still, very, very important to traditional storytelling.”
Roman Changes and Innovations
There are a number of ways that Roman theater changed the Greek theater practices and genres to fit Roman cultural tastes.
Roman theater was heavily influenced by Greek drama because the Romans essentially embraced the theatrical styles and techniques already in use in Greece. However, like so many things that the Romans adopted from their neighbors, they did put a uniquely Roman spin on many of those ideas. One way in which they differed was that the Romans focused more on comedy than did the Greeks. Additionally, they adapted the Old Comedy of the Greeks to meet Roman tastes, which resulted in a New Comedy that was based in romantic and domestic situations, much like our modern sitcoms. This is the form of comedy that had a significant reverse influence on Greek New Comedy.
Other Entertainment Developments
The Romans went further than theater as a dramatic entertainment. They developed, perfected, and/or Romanized several additional entertainment forms, such as the following:
- Chariot racing
- Equestrian performances
- Acrobatics
- Wrestling
- Prizefighting
- Gladiator contests
The popular entertainments of the Romans, including theater, were government sponsored. However, unlike the Greek sponsorship, it was not done to support the population’s religious celebrations. Instead, it was largely used as a way to distract the people of Rome from the other issues of the day that involved government, such as scandals, corruption, wars, and political chicanery.
The Romans also came up with a couple of new forms of dramatic entertainment more directly connected to theater than those mentioned earlier. These are known as Mime and Pantomime. However, unlike modern mime work, which is all movement with no dialogue, Roman mime was essentially a variety show that could include gymnastics, juggling, songs, dances, skits, etc. Pantomime in ancient Rome was similar to mime, but it used only a single performer who might be accompanied by a musician or two and possibly a small chorus.
Roman Comedy
When we look closely at Roman comedy, we can see that there are two phases of that comedy: the first phase, the part heavily influenced by the Greek drama before it, and a later comedy that is more thoroughly Romanized. As an example of the first type, we can consider the playwright Plautus (~254–184 BCE). He is often considered the father of Roman New Comedy. His plays shifted away from the satire of his Greek model and instead began to look at the domestic comedy of common people. However, there were some elements of his comedy that resembled Greek comedy. His dialogue was meant to be sung, as was all of Greek dramatic literature. In place of satire, Plautus relied more on the elements of farce: exaggeration, physical comedy, and light violent action. He also used stock characters instead of trying to create three-dimensional characters.
Another Roman comedic playwright is Terence (~185–159 BCE). He represents the later style of Roman comedy—a comedy that much more closely resembles our modern domestic comedy sitcoms than Plautus’s plays did. His works did use slightly more realistic characters with some individuality, but more importantly, his plays shifted toward a more literary, language-based humor instead of the physical humor of Plautus. Terence’s plays were not built around exaggeration and farce, though there is some of that in his plays. One of the key differences between Plautus and Terence is that Terence’s dialogue is meant to be spoken and not sung.
Roman Tragedy
The Romans did not reject Tragedy; they just did not embrace it like the Greeks had before them. They also did not make major changes to it. The single major Roman tragic playwright that we will look at as a model of Roman Tragedy is Seneca (~4 BCE–65 CE). His works were very similar to Greek tragedy, but they differed in a few significant ways:
- The Chorus is less connected to the story—more of a narrative function
- Violence is emphasized—sometimes meant to be performed on stage and not offstage as in the Greek tragedies
- Uses supernatural beings in addition to the gods, such as witches, ghosts, demons, etc.
A very important thing to note about the Roman playwrights mentioned here is that for many generations after the fall of Rome, their works (particularly those of Terence and Seneca) had a significant influence on later writers (in later periods of theater history). Surviving copies of their plays were often used as parts of Latin grammar lessons for young students throughout Europe well into the Renaissance. Students would read these plays in their original Latin as models of Latin literature, and as a result, they had an influence on many later playwrights’ development in dramatic writing. We will explore that influence on some of those later writers as we move forward through the history portions of this course.
Roman Theater Criticism
Just as the Romans adopted and adapted theater genres and production practices for the most part, they too adopted the Greek ideas of theater criticism. Those ideas, built on Aristotelian ideas, served Rome fairly well, but like so many things, Roman culture had an influence on those basic principles. They added to, or emphasized, some ideas that were not as prominent in the Greek interpretation of theater criticism. These distinctly Roman qualities include the following:
- Tragedy and comedy had to be distinct (i.e., no blending of forms)
- Tragedy deals with royalty
- Comedy deals with common people
- Drama should teach in addition to entertain
Roman Theater Production
Roman theater spaces are very similar to Greek theaters, except that since the Romans built with concrete, they did not need to build their theaters into hillsides. Instead, they built freestanding buildings for their theaters. Many still stand today as a testament to the construction ability and quality of materials used by the Romans all across Europe. These freestanding theaters contained most of the stylistic components of the Greek theaters. They are open to the sky to use the sun as lighting for their plays. They had an orchestra, a scene house, and a semicircular seating area. However, they lacked the parados on either side of the orchestra; since the buildings needed walls all the way around, there wasn’t any room to include the paradoi. There are some other differences in their buildings in terms of how they were used. For example, the Orchestra is semicircular, and it is not used for acting. Instead, it is used to seat dignitaries. Since there is no parados to use as an entrance, the actors would enter directly from the scene house through three doors on its front side. The performance area was changed as well. There was a stage built on the front of the scene house called the pulpitum. This was a wooden platform stage where the action would take place. The Romans also used the first sort of a curtain, the Aulaeum. This was used essentially like an act curtain to conceal the stage before and after the play. Also, many of the other structures of the Greek stage that we saw before were given Romanized names.


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Introduction
1. 1: Theories That Help Us Understand Families
2. 1: Looking at Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
3. 1.1: Diversity
4. 1.2: Equity
5. 1.3: Inclusion
6. 1.4: Summary
7. 2: The Importance of Culture
8. 2.1: Introduction
9. 2.2: The Role of Culture in Development
10. 2.3: Myths About Culture
11. 2.4: Responsiveness to Culture and Language Supports Children’s Learning
12. 2.5: Summary
13. 3: The Development of Identity in Children
14. 3.1: Introduction
15. 3.2: How Children Develop Identity
16. 3.3: Culture and Self-Identity
17. 4: Teachers’ Professional Identity and Becoming Equity Minded
18. 4.1: Introduction
19. 4.2: Development of Teachers’ Identity
20. 4.3: Summary
21. 5: Developmentally, Culturally, and Linguistically Appropriate Classroom Environments, Materials, and Approaches
22. 5.1: Introduction
23. 5.2: Developmentally Appropriate Practices
24. 5.3: Curriculum in Multicultural Classrooms
25. 5.4: Approaches to the Environment and Culturally Responsiveness
26. 5.5: The Role of Diversity in Early Childhood Programs across the Globe
27. 5.6: Suggestions for Your Program and Classrooms
28. 5.7: Summary
29. 6: Using Anti-Bias Curriculum
30. 6.1: Introduction
31. 6.2: Goals
32. 6.3: The Role of the Early Childhood Educator
33. 6.4: Practices to Promote a Multicultural Classroom
34. 6.5: Going One Step Further with an Anti-bias Classroom
35. 6.6: Issues of Social Justice in the Early Childhood Classroom
36. 6.7: Summary
37. 7: Effectively Negotiating and Resolving Conflict Related to Issues of Diversity
38. 7.1: Differences and Conflict
39. 7.2: Preventing Conflict
40. 7.3: Navigating Cultural Differences
41. 7.4: Dealing with Differences
42. 7.5: Summary
43. 8: Race, Ethnicity, and Language
44. 8.1: Introduction
45. 8.2: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity
46. 8.3: Immigrant and Refugee Populations
47. 8.4: Dual Language Learners
48. 8.5: Summary
49. 9: Diverse Family Structures
50. 9.1: Introduction
51. 9.2: Summary
52. 10: Socioeconomic Status of Families
53. 10.1: Introduction
54. 10.2: Summary
55. 11: Families of Children with Special Needs or Special Health Care Needs
56. 11.1: Introduction
57. 11.2: What Programs Can Do To Be Inclusive of All Children
58. 11.3: Summary
59. 12: Gender in Young Children
60. 12.1: Introduction
61. 12.2: How Children Learn about Gender
62. 12.3: Gender as a Social Justice Issue
63. 12.4: Summary
64. 13: Religion in Families
65. 13.1: Introduction to Religion in Families
66. 13.2: What Programs Can Do to Support Children with Religious Differences
67. 13.3: Summary
68. 13.4: Section Summary
69. 14: The Relationship Between One’s Experience and the Development of Personal Bias
70. 14.1: How Biases Are Formed
71. 14.2: The Beginning of Bias
72. 14.3: Summary
73. 15: The Influences of Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
74. 15.1: Introduction
75. 15.2: Thoughts Become Behaviors
76. 15.3: Hate is Learned and Can Be "Unlearned"
77. 15.4: Rights of the Child
78. 15.5: What Children See and Hear in Child Care Settings
79. 15.6: Socialization in Two Cultures
80. 15.7: Summary
81. 16: The History and Influence of Systemic, Internalized Privilege and Oppression
82. 16.1: Introduction
83. 16.2: Privilege as Practice Framework
84. 16.3: The Journey Towards Equity
85. 16.4: Practices for Engaging Difference, Privilege, and Power
86. 16.5: The Culturally Responsive Lens
87. 16.6: Creating a Paradigm Shift
88. 16.7: Summary
Appendix
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1: Diversity
1.2: Equity
1.3: Inclusion
1.4: Summary
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CHD 216 Early Childhood Programs, Schools, and Social Change Course Materials Copyright © by Remixed by NOVA Online is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.


CHAPTER V: FALLING LEAVES
THE day before Nagaoka’s last “Castle Sinking Celebration,” Kin took me to walk along the edge of the old castle moat.  In one place an angle of the wall projected out pretty far, forming a protected pond where was clustered a crowded mass of velvety lotus leaves. Kin said that the water of the moat used to be very deep and as clear as a mirror; and that, here and there, were large patches of lotus leaves, which, in the blooming season, looked like unevenly woven brocade with a raised pattern of white-and-pink blossoms.
“What did the castle look like, Kin? I want to hear again,” I said, looking across the dykes to the ruined walls and piles of heaped-up stones on the top of the hill.
“Like all castles, Etsu-bo Sama,” she replied, “except that this was ours.”
It was not often that Kin’s gay spirits were sobered, but she stood gazing gravely across at the ruins, saying nothing more.
I turned my face toward the hill and closed my eyes, trying to see, in my mind, the picture so often painted for me by the loyal lips of Jiya or Ishi. A great square mass of stone and plaster with narrow, white-barred windows and tiers of curving roofs artistically zig-zagging over each other in such a manner that an object thrown from any corner would find an unobstructed path to the ground; and high above the deep eaves and many-pointed roofs, on each end of the curving roof-ridge, a bronze fish with up-lifted tail shining rich and dark in the sunshine. Below, at the base of the pine-topped dykes, slept in dark quietude the waters of the moat—called “the bottomless” by simple-hearted people—whose clear waters reflected the six-sided stones of the “tortoise-back” wall.
“Come, Etsu-bo Sama, we must go.”
 Nothing of the picture was there except the dykes that once formed a protection from flying arrows and shooting spears, and now were only hilly, peaceful vegetable gardens.
“All of this ground beyond,” said Kin, with a wide sweep of her hand as we started toward home, “was once covered with beautiful gardens of noble retainers whose mansions were gathered about the outer wall of the castle. Now all that beauty is crushed into hundreds of plain little farms; and some of them, like ours, are ploughed by the unused hands of vassals of the ‘ancient glorious’!”
Kin was quiet all the way home, and I walked soberly by her side, with my bright anticipations for the morrow’s celebration somewhat dampened.
“Castle Sinking” is a term used in Japanese literature to describe the sublime desolation of the useless castle of a conquered people. The new government was both wise and generous in its endeavour to help its subjects adjust themselves to the puzzling situation which confronted them at the close of the war, but Nagaoka people were slow to forget. Many still believed that to have dragged the god-descended Emperor from his palace of holiness and peace, only to plunge him into a material world of sordid duties, was sacrilege; and that the failure of the shogun power to march steadily on its rightful way was a sorrowful thing for Japan.
I was many years younger than the time of the Restoration, but its memories were with me all through my childhood, for I was born not so long after those years of desolation and bitterness but that the everyday talk of the town was of the awful days that had left so many homes without a master. In my babyhood I heard war-songs as frequently as lullabies, and half of my childhood stories were tales of heroes on the battlefield. From the gateway of my home could be seen the ruined walls and half-filled moat of the castle, our godowns were filled to the roof with weapons and belongings of my father’s retainers, and I scarcely ever went on to the street that I did not meet some old person who, as I passed, would stand humbly aside, bowing and bowing, with respectful and tearful murmurings of the “glories of the past.” Ah me! Death had stepped many times between the strain of those days and the hesitating progress of my childhood’s time, and yet the old spirit of dutiful loyalty to the overlord was not yet quenched.
May 7, 1869, was the day on which all power was removed from Nagaoka castle by the new Government, and after the bitterness of the first few years had passed, the anniversary of that day was always observed by the samurai families of the town. To the newcomers and to the tradespeople, the celebration was only an interesting episode, but to those who took part it was a tribute to the dying spirit of chivalry. The morning after my walk with Kin by the castle moat, I wakened with an excited feeling that something was going to happen. And indeed, it was a day of busy happenings! For breakfast everybody ate black rice—rice husked but not whitened, such as is used by soldiers during the haste of battle marches—and in the afternoon a sham battle was held on Yukuzan plain back of the shrine dedicated to the Nagaoka daimios.
 Most of the aristocracy were poor and much of their valuable armour had been disposed of, but everybody had retained some, and each one appeared in what he had. I can even now see the procession as it started, with my father as leader. He sat very straight on his horse, and, to my childish eyes, looked very grand in his cloth garment with close-wrist sleeves and bloomer-like skirt, over which rattled and clanged the lacquer-scaled breastplate with its cross-stitching of silk cord and its great gold crest. Of course, his own horse was gone, as well as its elaborate trappings, but Mother’s ingenuity had decorated a plain harness with cords and tassels twisted from strips of silk, thus transforming a tenant’s farm horse into somewhat the appearance of a war steed; and in place of the swords Father was no longer allowed to carry, he wore two sharpened bamboos stuck through his sash. A great crowd of people gathered by the stone bridge at the end of the town to see the little army start out. The spectators had clothed themselves as far as they could in ancient dress, and as they waited, the men all sitting with crossed legs in warrior fashion, they made a courageous-looking company.
Then the drum sounded, and my father raised his saihai—a stick with dangling papers which his ancestors had carried to guide their followers—and rode away, followed by a long train of men in armour as for war. They crossed the fields, climbed the mountain, and, after each warrior had made salutation at the temple, they gathered on the plain for the battle, following it with an exhibition in archery, fencing, spear-throwing, and athletic sports of various kinds.
Our men servants went to Yukuzan plain to watch the sports, but the women were busy all day preparing for the home-coming. Straw mats were spread on the grass and many fires were kindled in the garden over which, tied to a tripod of strong branches, swung large iron kettles holding game seasoned with miso, which with bran-rice forms the food of soldiers in camp. About twilight the little army came riding back. We children, dressed in our best attire, ran out to the big gateway and waited between the two tall lantern stands with the welcoming lights. When Father saw us he opened his iron war-fan and swung it back and forth, as one would wave a handkerchief in greeting, and we bowed and bowed in reply.
“Your honourable father looks to-day as he used to look in the prosperous time,” said Mother, half sadly, “and I am thankful that you, his daughter, have seen him so.”
The men piled their heavy regalia in a corner of the garden, and sat around the kettles, eating and laughing with the freedom of camp life. Father did not change his clothes, except to throw back his war hat, where it hung by its silk cord, encasing him, front and back, in two Inagaki crests; “thus boldly identifying myself to both friends and enemies,” he said, laughing. Then, sitting on a high garden stone, he told war stories to us children, as we crowded close to each other on a straw mat before him.
That was our last celebration in memory of the castle sinking of Nagaoka. On the next May 7th the plain was flooded from a drenching downpour, and the year following, Father was in ill health. The men did not care for the sports without their old lord as leader, so the celebration was postponed to a day that never came.
Father never entirely recovered from the effects of the hard years of the Restoration. Each one as it passed left him looking less like the sturdy, ambitious youth—for he was only thirty at that time—who had held the reins of excited Nagaoka during those desperate days, but his brave, cheerful spirit remained unchanged. Even through the first erratic years of Japan’s struggle to gain a foothold in the new world, when people were recklessly throwing off the old and madly reaching out for the new, Father had gone on his way, calm and unexcited. He held, with the most progressive men of his day, a strong belief in the ultimate success of Japan’s future, but—and in this he received little sympathy—he also retained a deep reverence for the past. Father, however, was much liked, and he generally could turn aside undesirable comments or lengthy arguments by the aid of a keen sense of humour, which had a way of breaking through his stateliness and dignity like a gleam of unexpected sunshine; and so, without title or power, he held, as of old, his place as leader.
One autumn day, Father’s physician, who was a very progressive man and as much friend as physician, suggested that Father should go to Tokyo and consult some doctors of a new hospital renowned for its successful use of Western methods. Father decided to go, and of course he took Jiya with him.
With Father and Jiya both gone, I was desolate. I still feel the heart-pull of those lonely days. Sister was preparing for her marriage, which was to take place in the fall, and her time was taken up with many things. I don’t know what I should have done but for my good Shiro, who was equally lonely with me. Shiro really belonged to me, but of course I never called him mine, for it was considered rough and unladylike for a girl to own a dog. But I was allowed to play with him, and every day, as soon as my lessons were over, we would wander around together. One day we had visited the archery ground and were on the long walk where Father liked to trudge up and down for exercise, when suddenly Shiro galloped away from me toward a little house just within the gateway, where Jiya lived alone. Jiya’s wife had died before I could remember, but he was a capable housekeeper, and any afternoon during the summer that I might go to his neat porch I would find a square lacquer box holding the most delicious things that a little girl could possibly want to eat between meals—a sweet potato baked in ashes and sprinkled with salt; or some big, brown chestnuts baked until their jackets had burst, disclosing the creamy richness of the dainty that was waiting for my fingers.
I hurried after Shiro and found him pushed close against the porch, his tail wagging and his nose eagerly sniffing in the corner where the lacquer box used to stand.
“Oh, no, no, Shiro!” I mournfully said. “The lacquer box is gone. Jiya is gone. Everybody is gone.”
I sat down on the edge of the porch and Shiro snuggled his cold nose into my long sleeve. We were two as disconsolate creatures as could be found, and as I buried my hand in his rough white fur, I had to struggle hard to remember that a samurai’s daughter does not cry.
Suddenly I recalled the saying, “To unreasonably relax is cowardice.” I bounded up. I talked to Shiro. I played with him. I even ran races with him in the garden. When at last I returned to the house I had reason to suspect that the family felt disapproval of my wild conduct, but because I was all dearness to my father I escaped reproof for his sake. Everyone had a tender heart in those days; for the heaviness of dread was upon us all.
One day Shiro fell sick, and would eat nothing I put into his bowl. I had a childish feeling that if he would eat he would get well, but that day happened to be the death anniversary of an ancestor, and was therefore a day of fasting. We had only vegetables for dinner, and so there were no good scraps for Shiro. As always when in trouble, I went to Ishi. She knew we ought not to handle fish on a fast day, but she pitied my anxiety and smuggled me some fish bones from somewhere. I took them to a distant part of the garden and crushed them between two flat stones. Then I mixed them with bean soup from the kitchen and took them to the kindling shed where Shiro was lying on his straw mat. Poor Shiro looked grateful, but he would not get up; and thinking that perhaps he was cold, I ran to my room and brought my crêpe cushion to cover him.
When this became known to my grandmother, she sent for me to come to her room. The moment I lifted my face after bowing I knew this was not one of the times when I was to be entertained with sweet bean-cake.
“Little Etsu-ko,” she said (she always called me “Etsu-ko” when she spoke sternly), “I must speak to you of something very important. I am told that you wrapped Shiro with your silk cushion.”
Startled at her tone, I meekly bowed.
“Do you not know,” she went on, “that you are guilty of the utmost unkindness to Shiro when you do inappropriate things for him?”
I must have looked shocked and puzzled, for she spoke very gently after that, explaining that since white dogs belong to the order next lower than that of human beings, my kindness might postpone for another lifetime Shiro’s being born in human shape.
According to transmigration belief, the boundary line between the orders of creation must be strictly maintained. If we place an animal above its proper position we may prevent its advance in the next incarnation. Every devout Buddhist is absolutely submissive to Fate , for he is taught that hardship in his present life is either the atonement for sins committed in the last existence, or the education necessary to prepare him for a higher place in the life to come. This belief has held Japan’s labouring class in cheerful resignation through ages of hardship, but also it has taught us to look with such indifference upon the sufferings of creatures below us in the order of creation that we have become, as a nation, almost sympathy-blind.
As quickly as possible to be polite, I thanked my grandmother and hurried to beg Shiro’s pardon. I found him covered very comfortably with a matting of soft rice-straw suitable to his station. Out in the garden two coolies were engaged in burning the crêpe cushion. Their faces were very grave.
Poor Shiro! He had the best care we could give him, but the next morning his body was asleep under the straw matting and his spirit had passed on to the next state, which I pray was not lower because of my kindly meant mistake. He was buried in the sunniest corner of the garden beneath a big chestnut tree where many an autumn morning he and I had happily tossed and caught the fallen brown nuts. It would never have done for Shiro’s grave to be publicly marked, but over it my father quietly placed, on his return, a small gray stone, in memory of his little girl’s most faithful vassal.
Alas! Before the chestnut burrs were spilling their brown nuts over Shiro’s grave, my dear father had been laid to rest in the family burial ground at Chokoji, and one more tablet had been placed in the gilded shrine before which every morning and evening we bowed in love and reverence.


10 Eye | Ear
Learning Objectives:
- Identify the bones of the orbit.
- Identify the structures that make up the eye.
- Identify the extraocular muscles of the eye and their actions.
- Identify the parts of the hearing and vestibular system.
- Review the bones and foramen of the skull and structures that pass through the foramen.
Terms to Know
|
Eye
|
Ear
Important Terms from Previous Labs
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Introduction
This lab will explore the special sensory anatomy that makes up our vision, hearing, and vestibular systems. These sensory systems work to contribute to our overall ability to see, hear, demonstrate balance, and navigate our surroundings with ease. When any of these structures are compromised, it has a profound impact on our daily function. Please review all the terms from the lab guide and pay special attention to the key terms that carry over from our previous lab sessions.
Lab Activities
Activity 1: The Eye
Eye:
There are several images in the Canvas slide show showing the internal and external anatomy of the eye. Some of these images show a superior or lateral view of the orbit, while others show cross-sectional images of the eye. Some are cadaver images, and others show diagrams or models. In addition to the optic nerve, chiasm, and tract and extraocular muscles, identify the following structures of the eye:
- Cornea: the transparent surface of the eye that bends (refracts) the light and focuses it on the back of the eye.
- Sclera: outer fibrous, white layer of the eyeball. The sclera and the cornea are continuous with each other but have different structures and functions.
- Lens: changes shape to be able to focus light on the back of the eye regardless of the distance of the object
- Suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscle: Suspensory ligaments connect the ciliary muscle to the lens of the eye. Contraction and relaxation of this muscle change the tension on the suspensory ligaments, which changes the shape of the lens to focus our vision on objects near or far away.
- Pupil: opening in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye.
- Iris: surrounds the pupil and contains smooth muscle to dilate or constrict the pupil. It contains a pigmented layer that gives our eyes their color.
- Vitreous humor: a jelly-like substance that fills the chamber of the eye posterior to the lens and gives the eye its shape. It transmits light to the retina.
- Choroid: highly vascular, darkly pigmented membrane that nourishes the retina.
- Retina: the neural layer of the eye, which contains the photoreceptors for vision
In the images and the digital atlas video on Canvas, examine the extraocular muscles. These muscles function to move the eye so that we can direct our visual attention. All but the inferior oblique muscle originate in a common tendinous ring at the posterior aspect of the orbit. Notice that the superior oblique muscle travels anteriorly to the medial corner of the orbit and then turns posteriorly and laterally to insert on the eye. There is a small pulley or trochlea (hence, trochlear nerve) that this muscle’s tendon runs through. Therefore, it depresses the eye when the superior oblique muscle contracts (causes the eye to look down). Also, observe the nerves that innervate these muscles.
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Extraocular Muscle |
Action |
Cranial Nerve Innervation |
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Lateral rectus |
Moves eye laterally (abducts) |
CN VI Abducens Nerve |
|
Medial rectus |
Moves eye medially (adducts) |
CN III Oculomotor Nerve |
|
Superior rectus |
Elevates the eye (look up) |
|
|
Inferior rectus |
Depresses the eye (look down) |
|
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Inferior oblique |
Elevates eye and turns it laterally |
|
|
Superior oblique |
Depresses eye and turns it laterally |
CN IV Trochlear Nerve |
Next, follow the optic nerve posteriorly from the eye. The optic nerves come together at the optic chiasm. Here, some of the fibers within the optic nerves cross. After the optic chiasm, these axons continue as the optic tract until the majority of them synapse in a nucleus of the thalamus.
In the cross-sections of the eye video on Canvas, observe the extra-ocular muscles and the optic nerve. You will view these in both the coronal and horizontal planes.
Activity 2: The Ear
Ear
There are several images and a video showing the anatomy of the ear. Again, some are cadaver images, while others are drawings and images of models. Use these images to identify the following structures of the ear.
- External ear
- Auricle: outer portion of the ear that is visible
- External acoustic meatus: short tube running from the auricle to the eardrum
- Tympanic membrane: eardrum
- Middle ear
- Auditory ossicles: bones of the inner ear
- Malleus: hammer
- Incus: anvil
- Stapes: stirrup
- Auditory ossicles: bones of the inner ear
- Inner ear
- Vestibule: contains the utricle and saccule, which are part of the vestibular system. These structures help us know the orientation of our head at any given time, and they sense the linear acceleration of the head.
- Semicircular canals: part of the vestibular system that senses the rotational acceleration of the head.
- Cochlea: snail-shaped chamber of the inner ear that houses the organ of hearing.
Wrap up and clinical connection
Today’s clinical connection looks at two injuries to the eye; retinal detachment and orbital blow-out fractures. A retinal detachment will cause permanent vision loss if not repaired. The clinical connection will review the risk factors, symptoms, and treatment options for a retinal detachment. A blow-out fracture is common from direct contact to the orbit/eye. The most common direction of a blow-out fracture is inferior. Fractures to the orbit can trap the extra-ocular muscles and limit eye movement. Displaced blow-out fractures will often need to be surgically repaired.
Click here to view the clinical connection slideshow.