CHAPTER 1 Whole Numbers, Integers, and Introduction to Algebra
1.4 Add and Subtract Integers
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Use negatives and opposites
- Simplify: expressions with absolute value
- Add integers
- Subtract integers
Use Negatives and Opposites
Our work so far has only included the counting numbers and the whole numbers. But if you have ever experienced a temperature below zero or accidentally overdrawn your checking account, you are already familiar with negative numbers. Negative numbers are numbers less than . The negative numbers are to the left of zero on the number line. See Figure 1.
The arrows on the ends of the number line indicate that the numbers keep going forever. There is no biggest positive number, and there is no smallest negative number.
Is zero a positive or a negative number? Numbers larger than zero are positive, and numbers smaller than zero are negative. Zero is neither positive nor negative.
Consider how numbers are ordered on the number line. Going from left to right, the numbers increase in value. Going from right to left, the numbers decrease in value. See Figure 2.
Remember that we use the notation:
a < b (read “a is less than b”) when a is to the left of b on the number line.
a > b (read “a is greater than b”) when a is to the right of b on the number line.
Now we need to extend the number line which showed the whole numbers to include negative numbers, too. The numbers marked by points in Figure 3 are called the integers. The integers are the numbers
EXAMPLE 1
Order each of the following pairs of numbers, using < or >: a) ___ b) ___ c) ___ d) ___.
It may be helpful to refer to the number line shown.
| a) 14 is to the right of 6 on the number line. | ___ > |
| b) −1 is to the left of 9 on the number line. | ___ |
| c) −1 is to the right of −4 on the number line. | ___ |
| d) 2 is to the right of −20 on the number line. | ___ > |
TRY IT 1.1
Order each of the following pairs of numbers, using < or > a) ___ b) ___ c) ___
d) ___.
Show answer
a) > b) < c) > d) >
TRY IT 1.2
Order each of the following pairs of numbers, using < or > a) ___ b) ___ c) ___
d) ___.
Show answer
a) < b) > c) < d) >
You may have noticed that, on the number line, the negative numbers are a mirror image of the positive numbers, with zero in the middle. Because the numbers 2 and are the same distance from zero, they are called opposites. The opposite of 2 is , and the opposite of is 2
Opposite
The opposite of a number is the number that is the same distance from zero on the number line but on the opposite side of zero.
(Figure 4) illustrates the definition.
The opposite of 3 is .
Sometimes in algebra the same symbol has different meanings. Just like some words in English, the specific meaning becomes clear by looking at how it is used. You have seen the symbol “−” used in three different ways.
| Between two numbers, it indicates the operation of subtraction. We read as “10 minus 4.” |
|
| In front of a number, it indicates a negative number. We read −8 as “negative eight.” |
|
| In front of a variable, it indicates the opposite. We read as “the opposite of .” | |
| Here there are two “−” signs. The one in the parentheses tells us the number is negative 2. The one outside the parentheses tells us to take the opposite of −2. We read as “the opposite of negative two.” |
Opposite Notation
means the opposite of the number a.
The notation is read as “the opposite of a.”
EXAMPLE 2
Find: a) the opposite of 7 b) the opposite of c) .
| a) −7 is the same distance from 0 as 7, but on the opposite side of 0. | The opposite of 7 is −7. |
| b) 10 is the same distance from 0 as −10, but on the opposite side of 0. | The opposite of −10 is 10. |
| c) −(−6) | The opposite of −(−6) is −6. |
TRY IT 2.1
Find: a) the opposite of 4 b) the opposite of c) .
Show answer
a) b) 3 c) 1
TRY IT 2.2
Find: a) the opposite of 8 b) the opposite of c) .
Show answer
a) b) 5 c) 5
Our work with opposites gives us a way to define the integers.The whole numbers and their opposites are called the integers. The integers are the numbers
Integers
The whole numbers and their opposites are called the integers.
The integers are the numbers
When evaluating the opposite of a variable, we must be very careful. Without knowing whether the variable represents a positive or negative number, we don’t know whether is positive or negative. We can see this in Example 3.
EXAMPLE 3
Evaluate a) , when b) , when .
-
−x Write the opposite of 8. -
−x Write the opposite of −8. 8
TRY IT 3.1
Evaluate , when a) b) .
Show answer
a) b) 4
TRY IT 3.2
Evaluate , when a) b) .
Show answer
a) b) 11
Simplify: Expressions with Absolute Value
We saw that numbers such as are opposites because they are the same distance from 0 on the number line. They are both two units from 0. The distance between 0 and any number on the number line is called the absolute value of that number.
Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number is its distance from 0 on the number line.
The absolute value of a number n is written as .
For example,
- units away from , so .
- units away from , so .
Figure 5 illustrates this idea.
The integers units away from .
The absolute value of a number is never negative (because distance cannot be negative). The only number with absolute value equal to zero is the number zero itself, because the distance from on the number line is zero units.
Property of Absolute Value
for all numbers
Absolute values are always greater than or equal to zero!
Mathematicians say it more precisely, “absolute values are always non-negative.” Non-negative means greater than or equal to zero.
EXAMPLE 4
Simplify: a) b) c) .
The absolute value of a number is the distance between the number and zero. Distance is never negative, so the absolute value is never negative.
a)
b)
c)
TRY IT 4.1
Simplify: a) b) c) .
Show answer
a) 4 b) 28 c) 0
TRY IT 4.2
Simplify: a) b) c) .
Show answer
a) 13 b) 47 c) 0
In the next example, we’ll order expressions with absolute values. Remember, positive numbers are always greater than negative numbers!
EXAMPLE 5
Fill in <, >, for each of the following pairs of numbers:
a) ___ b) ___c) ___ d) –___
| ___ – | |
| a) Simplify. Order. |
5 ___ -5 |
| 5 > -5 | |
| > – | |
| b) Simplify. Order. |
___ – |
| 8 ___ -8 | |
| 8 > -8 | |
| 8 > – | |
| c) Simplify. Order. |
9 ___ –
-9 ___ -9 -9 = -9 -9 = – |
| d) Simplify. Order. |
– ___ –
16 ____ -16 16 > -16 – > – |
TRY IT 5.1
Fill in <, >, or for each of the following pairs of numbers: a) ___- b) ___- c) ___
d) ___.
Show answer
a) > b) > c) < d) >
TRY IT 5.2
Fill in <, >, or for each of the following pairs of numbers: a) ___- b) ___-
c) ___ d) ___.
Show answer
a) > b) > c) > d) <
We now add absolute value bars to our list of grouping symbols. When we use the order of operations, first we simplify inside the absolute value bars as much as possible, then we take the absolute value of the resulting number.
| Parentheses | ( ) |
| Brackets | [ ] |
| Braces | { } |
| Absolute value | | | |
In the next example, we simplify the expressions inside absolute value bars first, just like we do with parentheses.
EXAMPLE 6
Simplify: .
| Work inside parentheses first: subtract 2 from 6. | |
| Multiply 3(4). | |
| Subtract inside the absolute value bars. | |
| Take the absolute value. | |
| Subtract. |
TRY IT 6.1
Simplify: .
Show answer
16
TRY IT 6.2
Simplify: .
Show answer
9
EXAMPLE 7
Evaluate: a) b) c) d) .
a)
| Take the absolute value. | 35 |
b)
| Simplify. | |
| Take the absolute value. | 20 |
c)
| Take the absolute value. |
d)
| Take the absolute value. |
TRY IT 7.1
Evaluate: a) b) c) d) .
Show answer
a) b) c) d)
TRY IT 7.2
Evaluate: a) b) c) d) .
Show answer
a) b) c) d)
Add Integers
Most students are comfortable with the addition and subtraction facts for positive numbers. But doing addition or subtraction with both positive and negative numbers may be more challenging.
We will use two colour counters to model addition and subtraction of negatives so that you can visualize the procedures instead of memorizing the rules.
We let one colour (blue) represent positive. The other colour (red) will represent the negatives. If we have one positive counter and one negative counter, the value of the pair is zero. They form a neutral pair. The value of this neutral pair is zero.
We will use the counters to show how to add the four addition facts using the numbers and .
To add , we realize that means the sum of 5 and 3
| We start with 5 positives. | |
| And then we add 3 positives. | |
| We now have 8 positives. The sum of 5 and 3 is 8. |
Now we will add . Watch for similarities to the last example .
To add , we realize this means the sum of .
| We start with 5 negatives. | |
| And then we add 3 negatives. | |
| We now have 8 negatives. The sum of −5 and −3 is −8. |
In what ways were these first two examples similar?
- The first example adds 5 positives and 3 positives—both positives.
- The second example adds 5 negatives and 3 negatives—both negatives.
In each case we got 8—either 8 positives or 8 negatives.
When the signs were the same, the counters were all the same color, and so we added them.
EXAMPLE 8
Add: a) b) .
a)
b)
TRY IT 8.1
Add: a) b) .
Show answer
a) 6 b)
TRY IT 8.2
Add: a) b) .
Show answer
a) 7 b)
So what happens when the signs are different? Let’s add . We realize this means the sum of and 3. When the counters were the same color, we put them in a row. When the counters are a different color, we line them up under each other.
| −5 + 3 means the sum of −5 and 3. | |
| We start with 5 negatives. | |
| And then we add 3 positives. | |
| We remove any neutral pairs. | |
| We have 2 negatives left. | |
| The sum of −5 and 3 is −2. | −5 + 3 = −2 |
Notice that there were more negatives than positives, so the result was negative.
Let’s now add the last combination, .
| 5 + (−3) means the sum of 5 and −3. | |
| We start with 5 positives. | |
| And then we add 3 negatives. | |
| We remove any neutral pairs. | |
| We have 2 positives left. | |
| The sum of 5 and −3 is 2. | 5 + (−3) = 2 |
When we use counters to model addition of positive and negative integers, it is easy to see whether there are more positive or more negative counters. So we know whether the sum will be positive or negative.
EXAMPLE 9
Add: a) b) .
a)
| −1 + 5 | |
| There are more positives, so the sum is positive. | 4 |
b)
| 1 + (−5) | |
| There are more negatives, so the sum is negative. | −4 |
TRY IT 9.1
Add: a) b) .
Show answer
a) 2 b)
TRY IT 9.2
Add: a) b) .
Show answer
a) 3 b)
Now that we have added small positive and negative integers with a model, we can visualize the model in our minds to simplify problems with any numbers.
When you need to add numbers such as , you really don’t want to have to count out 37 blue counters and 53 red counters. With the model in your mind, can you visualize what you would do to solve the problem?
Picture 37 blue counters with 53 red counters lined up underneath. Since there would be more red (negative) counters than blue (positive) counters, the sum would be negative. How many more red counters would there be? Because , there are 16 more red counters.
Therefore, the sum of is .
Let’s try another one. We’ll add . Again, imagine 74 red counters and 27 more red counters, so we’d have 101 red counters. This means the sum is .
Let’s look again at the results of adding the different combinations of and .
Addition of Positive and Negative Integers
When the signs are the same, the counters would be all the same color, so add them.
When the signs are different, some of the counters would make neutral pairs, so subtract to see how many are left.
Visualize the model as you simplify the expressions in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 10
Simplify: a) b) .
- Since the signs are different, we subtract The answer will be negative because there are more negatives than positives.
- Since the signs are the same, we add. The answer will be negative because there are only negatives.
TRY IT 10.1
Simplify: a) b) .
Show answer
a) b)
TRY IT 10.2
Simplify: a) b) .
Show answer
a) b)
The techniques used up to now extend to more complicated problems, like the ones we’ve seen before. Remember to follow the order of operations!
EXAMPLE 11
Simplify: .
| Simplify inside the parentheses. | |
| Multiply. | |
| Add left to right. |
TRY IT 11.1
Simplify: .
Show answer
13
TRY IT 11.2
Simplify: .
Show answer
0
Subtract Integers
We will continue to use counters to model the subtraction. Remember, the blue counters represent positive numbers and the red counters represent negative numbers.
Perhaps when you were younger, you read as take away When you use counters, you can think of subtraction the same way!
We will model the four subtraction facts using the numbers and .
To subtract , we restate the problem as take away
| We start with 5 positives. | |
| We ‘take away’ 3 positives. | |
| We have 2 positives left. | |
| The difference of 5 and 3 is 2. | 2 |
Now we will subtract . Watch for similarities to the last example .
To subtract , we restate this as take away
| We start with 5 negatives. | |
| We ‘take away’ 3 negatives. | |
| We have 2 negatives left. | |
| The difference of −5 and −3 is −2. | −2 |
Notice that these two examples are much alike: The first example, we subtract 3 positives from 5 positives and end up with 2 positives.
In the second example, we subtract 3 negatives from 5 negatives and end up with 2 negatives.
Each example used counters of only one color, and the “take away” model of subtraction was easy to apply.
EXAMPLE 12
Subtract: a) b) .
| a) Take 5 positive from 7 positives and get 2 positives. |
|
| b) Take 5 negatives from 7 negatives and get 2 negatives. |
TRY IT 12.1
Subtract: a) b) .
Show answer
a) 2 b)
TRY IT 12.2
Subtract: a) b) .
Show answer
a) 3 b)
What happens when we have to subtract one positive and one negative number? We’ll need to use both white and red counters as well as some neutral pairs. Adding a neutral pair does not change the value. It is like changing quarters to nickels—the value is the same, but it looks different.
- To subtract , we restate it as take away 3.
We start with 5 negatives. We need to take away 3 positives, but we do not have any positives to take away.
Remember, a neutral pair has value zero. If we add 0 to 5 its value is still 5. We add neutral pairs to the 5 negatives until we get 3 positives to take away.
| −5 − 3 means −5 take away 3. | |
| We start with 5 negatives. | |
| We now add the neutrals needed to get 3 positives. | |
| We remove the 3 positives. | |
| We are left with 8 negatives. | |
| The difference of −5 and 3 is −8. | −5 − 3 = −8 |
And now, the fourth case, . We start with 5 positives. We need to take away 3 negatives, but there are no negatives to take away. So we add neutral pairs until we have 3 negatives to take away.
| 5 − (−3) means 5 take away −3. | |
| We start with 5 positives. | |
| We now add the needed neutrals pairs. | |
| We remove the 3 negatives. | |
| We are left with 8 positives. | |
| The difference of 5 and −3 is 8. | 5 − (−3) = 8 |
EXAMPLE 13
Subtract: a) b) .
a)
| Take 1 positive from the one added neutral pair. | −3 − 1
−4 |
b)
| Take 1 negative from the one added neutral pair. | 3 − (−1)
4 |
TRY IT 13.1
Subtract: a) b) .
Show answer
a) b) 10
TRY IT 13.2
Subtract: a) b) .
Show answer
a) b) 11
Have you noticed that subtraction of signed numbers can be done by adding the opposite? In Example 13, is the same as and is the same as . You will often see this idea, the subtraction property, written as follows:
Subtraction Property
Look at these two examples.
Of course, when you have a subtraction problem that has only positive numbers, like , you just do the subtraction. You already knew how to subtract long ago. But knowing that gives the same answer as helps when you are subtracting negative numbers. Make sure that you understand how and give the same results!
EXAMPLE 14
Simplify: a) and b) and .
| a) Subtract. |
||
| b) Subtract. |
TRY IT 14.1
Simplify: a) and b) and .
Show answer
a) b)
TRY IT 14.2
Simplify: a) and b) and .
Show answer
a) b)
Look at what happens when we subtract a negative.
Subtracting a negative number is like adding a positive!
You will often see this written as .
Does that work for other numbers, too? Let’s do the following example and see.
EXAMPLE 15
Simplify: a) and b) and .
a)
b)
| a) Subtract. |
||
| b) Subtract. |
TRY IT 15.1
Simplify: a) and b) and .
Show answer
a) b)
TRY IT 15.2
Simplify: a) and b) and .
Show answer
a) 23 b) 3
Let’s look again at the results of subtracting the different combinations of and .
Subtraction of Integers
When there would be enough counters of the colour to take away, subtract.
When there would be not enough counters of the colour to take away, add.
What happens when there are more than three integers? We just use the order of operations as usual.
EXAMPLE 16
Simplify: .
| Simplify inside the parentheses first. | |
| Subtract left to right. | |
| Subtract. |
TRY IT 16.1
Simplify: .
Show answer
3
TRY IT 16.2
Simplify: .
Show answer
13
Access these online resources for additional instruction and practice with adding and subtracting integers. You will need to enable Java in your web browser to use the applications.
Key Concepts
- Addition of Positive and Negative Integers
- Property of Absolute Value: for all numbers. Absolute values are always greater than or equal to zero!
- Subtraction of Integers
- Subtraction Property: Subtracting a number is the same as adding its opposite.
Glossary
- absolute value
- The absolute value of a number is its distance from 0 on the number line. The absolute value of a number is written as .
- integers
- The whole numbers and their opposites are called the integers: …−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3…
- opposite
- The opposite of a number is the number that is the same distance from zero on the number line but on the opposite side of zero: means the opposite of the number. The notation is read “the opposite of .”
Practice Makes Perfect
Use Negatives and Opposites of Integers
In the following exercises, order each of the following pairs of numbers, using < or >.
| 1. a) ___ b) ___ c) ___ d) ___ |
2. a) ___ b) ___ c) ___ d) ___ |
In the following exercises, find the opposite of each number.
| 3. a) 2 b) |
4. a) 9 b) |
In the following exercises, simplify.
| 5. | 6. |
| 7. | 8. |
In the following exercises, evaluate.
| 9. when a) b) |
10. when a) b) |
Simplify Expressions with Absolute Value
In the following exercises, simplify.
| 11. a) b) c) |
12. a) b) c) |
In the following exercises, fill in <, >, or for each of the following pairs of numbers.
| 13. a) ___ b) ___ |
14. a) ___ b) ___ |
In the following exercises, simplify.
| 15. | 16. |
| 17. | 18. |
| 19. | 20. |
| 21. | 22. |
In the following exercises, evaluate.
| 23. a) b) |
24. a) b) |
Add Integers
In the following exercises, simplify each expression.
| 25. | 26. |
| 27. | 28. |
| 29. | 30. |
| 31. | 32. 6 |
| 33. | 34. |
Subtract Integers
In the following exercises, simplify.
| 35. | 36. |
| 37. | 38. |
| 39. | 40. |
| 41. a) b) |
42. a) b) |
| 43. a) b) |
44. a) b) |
In the following exercises, simplify each expression.
| 45. | 46. |
| 47. | 48. |
| 49. | 50. |
| 51. | 52. |
| 53. | 54. |
| 55. | 56. |
| 57. | 58. |
| 59. | 60. |
| 61. | 62. |
| 63. | 64. |
| 65. | 66. |
| 67. | 68. |
| 69. | 70. |
Everyday Math
|
71. Elevation The highest elevation in North America is Mount McKinley, Alaska, at 20,320 feet above sea level. The lowest elevation is Death Valley, California, at 282 feet below sea level. Use integers to write the elevation of: a) Mount McKinley. |
72. Extreme temperatures The highest recorded temperature on Earth was ° Celsius, recorded in the Sahara Desert in 1922. The lowest recorded temperature was ° below ° Celsius, recorded in Antarctica in 1983 Use integers to write the: a) highest recorded temperature. b) lowest recorded temperature. |
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|
73. Provincial budgets For 2019 the province of Quebec estimated it would have a budget surplus of $5.6 million. That same year, Alberta estimated it would have a budget deficit of $7.5 million. Use integers to write the budget of: a) Quebec. |
74. University enrolmentsThe number of international students enrolled in Canadian postsecondary institutions has been on the rise for two decades, with their numbers increasing at a higher rate than that of Canadian students. Enrolments of international students rose by 24,315 from 2015 to 2017. Meanwhile, there was a slight decline in the number of Canadian students, by 912 for the same fiscal years.
Use integers to write the change: a) in International Student enrolment from Fall 2015 to Fall 2017. b) in Canadian student enrolment from Fall 2015 to Fall 2017. |
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75. Stock Market The week of September 15, 2008 was one of the most volatile weeks ever for the US stock market. The closing numbers of the Dow Jones Industrial Average each day were:
What was the overall change for the week? Was it positive or negative? |
76. Stock Market During the week of June 22, 2009, the closing numbers of the Dow Jones Industrial Average each day were:
What was the overall change for the week? Was it positive or negative? |
Writing Exercises
| 77. Give an example of a negative number from your life experience. | 78. What are the three uses of the sign in algebra? Explain how they differ. |
| 79. Explain why the sum of and 2 is negative, but the sum of 8 and is positive. | 80. Give an example from your life experience of adding two negative numbers. |
Answers
| 1. a) > b) < c) < d) > | 3. a)b) 6 | 5. 4 |
| 7. 15 | 9. a)b) 12 | 11. a) 32 b) 0 c) 16 |
| 13. a) < b) | 15. | 17. 56 |
| 19. 0 | 21. 8 | 23. a) b) |
| 25. | 27. 32 | 29. |
| 31. 108 | 33. 29 | 35. 6 |
| 37. | 39. 12 | 41. a) 16 b) 16 |
| 43. a) 45 b) 45 | 45. 27 | 47. |
| 49. | 51. | 53. -99 |
| 55. | 57. | 59. 22 |
| 61. | 63. 0 | 65. 6 |
| 67. | 69. | 71. a) 20,320 b) |
| 73. a) $5.6 million b) million | 75. | 77. Answers may vary |
| 79. Answers may vary |
Attributions
This chapter has been adapted from “Add and Subtract Integers” in Elementary Algebra (OpenStax) by Lynn Marecek and MaryAnne Anthony-Smith, which is under a CC BY 4.0 Licence. Adapted by Izabela Mazur. See the Copyright page for more information.


10.4 – Blood Vessels Diseases, Disorders and Diagnostic Testing
Common Diseases and Disorders of Blood Vessels and/or Blood
Arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis is normally defined as the more generalized loss of compliance, “hardening of the arteries,” whereas atherosclerosis is a more specific term for the build-up of plaque in the walls of the vessel and is a specific type of arteriosclerosis.
When arteriosclerosis causes vessel compliance to be reduced, pressure and resistance within the vessel increase. This is a leading cause of hypertension and coronary heart disease, as it causes the heart to work harder to overcome this resistance. Any artery in the body can be affected by these pathological conditions, and individuals who have pathologies like coronary artery disease may also be at risk for other vascular injuries, like strokes or peripheral arterial disease.
Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis in which plaques form when circulating triglycerides, cholesterol and other substances seep between the damaged endothelial lining cells and become trapped within the artery wall, resulting in narrowed arteries and impaired blood flow (see Figure 10.16) (Betts et al., 2013).
Sometimes a plaque can rupture, causing microscopic tears in the artery wall that allow blood to leak into the tissue on the other side. When this happens, platelets rush to the site to clot the blood. This clot can further obstruct the artery and—if it occurs in a coronary or cerebral artery—cause a sudden heart attack or stroke. Alternatively, plaque can break off and travel through the bloodstream as an embolus until it blocks a more distant, smaller artery.
Peripheral arterial disease (PAD, also called peripheral vascular disease, PVD), occurs when atherosclerosis affects arteries in the legs. A major risk factor for both arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis is advanced age, as the conditions tend to progress over time. There is also a distinct genetic component, and pre-existing hypertension and/or diabetes also greatly increase the risk. However, obesity, poor nutrition, lack of physical activity, and tobacco use all are major risk factors.
Treatment of atherosclerosis includes lifestyle changes, such as weight loss, smoking cessation, regular exercise, and adoption of a diet low in sodium and saturated fats. Medications to reduce cholesterol and blood pressure may be prescribed. For blocked coronary arteries, angioplasty or coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery may be warranted. In an carotid endarterectomy, plaque is surgically removed from the walls of a the carotid artery, which is the main source of oxygenated blood for the brain (Betts et al., 2013).
Edema and Varicose Veins
Despite the presence of valves and the contributions of other anatomical and physiological adaptations that assist in moving blood through veins, over the course of a day, some blood will inevitably pool, especially in the lower limbs, due to the pull of gravity. Any blood that accumulates in a vein will increase the pressure within it, which can then be reflected back into the smaller veins, venules, and eventually even the capillaries. This increased pressure in the capillaries will push of fluids out of the capillaries and into the interstitial fluid, causing a condition called edema.
Most people experience a daily accumulation of tissue fluid, especially if they spend much of their work life on their feet (like most health professionals). However, clinical edema goes beyond normal swelling and requires medical treatment. Edema has many potential causes, including hypertension and heart failure, severe protein deficiency, renal failure, and many others. In order to treat edema, which is a sign rather than a discrete disorder, the underlying cause must be diagnosed and alleviated.
Edema may be accompanied by varicose veins, especially in the superficial veins of the legs (see Figure 10.17). This disorder arises when defective valves allow blood to accumulate within the veins, causing them to distend, twist, and become visible on the surface of the skin. Varicose veins may occur in both sexes, but are more common in women and are often related to pregnancy. More than simple cosmetic blemishes, varicose veins are often painful and sometimes itchy or throbbing. Without treatment, they tend to grow worse over time. The use of support hose, as well as elevating the feet and legs whenever possible, may be helpful in alleviating this condition (Betts, et al., 2013).
Hypertension
Hypertension is defined as chronic and persistent blood pressure measurements of 140/90 mm Hg or above. Pressures between 120/80 and 140/90 mm Hg are defined as prehypertension. Hypertension is typically a silent disorder and patients may fail to recognize the seriousness of their condition and fail to follow their treatment plan, putting them at risk for a heart attack or stroke. Hypertension may also lead to an aneurysm, peripheral arterial disease, chronic kidney disease, or heart failure (Betts et al., 2013).
Hemorrhage
Minor blood loss is managed by hemostasis and repair. Hemorrhage is a loss of blood that cannot be controlled by hemostatic mechanisms. Initially, the body responds to hemorrhage by initiating mechanisms aimed at increasing blood pressure and maintaining blood flow. Ultimately, however, blood volume will need to be restored, either through physiological processes or through medical intervention. If blood loss is less than 20 percent of total blood volume, fast-acting homeostatic mechanisms causing increased cardiac output and vasoconstriction would usually return blood pressure to normal and redirect the remaining blood to the tissues. Blood volume will then need to be restored via slower-acting homeostatic mechanisms to increase body fluids and erythrocyte production (Betts et al., 2013).
Circulatory Shock
The loss of too much blood may lead to circulatory shock, a life-threatening condition in which the circulatory system is unable to maintain blood flow to adequately supply sufficient oxygen and other nutrients to the tissues to maintain cellular metabolism. It should not be confused with emotional or psychological shock. Typically, the patient in circulatory shock will demonstrate an increased heart rate but decreased blood pressure. Urine output will fall dramatically, and the patient may appear confused or lose consciousness. Unfortunately, shock is an example of a positive-feedback loop that, if uncorrected, may lead to the death of the patient (Betts et al., 2013).
There are several recognized forms of shock:
- Hypovolemic shock in adults is typically caused by hemorrhage, although in children it may be caused by fluid losses related to severe vomiting or diarrhea.
- Cardiogenic shock results from the inability of the heart to maintain cardiac output. Most often, it results from a myocardial infarction (heart attack), but it may also be caused by arrhythmias, valve disorders, cardiomyopathies, cardiac failure, or simply insufficient flow of blood through the cardiac vessels.
- Vascular shock occurs when arterioles lose their normal muscular tone and dilate dramatically. It may arise from a variety of causes, and treatments almost always involve fluid replacement and medications, called inotropic or pressor agents, which restore tone to the muscles of the vessels.
- Anaphylactic shock is a severe allergic response that causes the widespread release of histamines, triggering vasodilation throughout the body.
- Obstructive shock, as the name would suggest, occurs when a significant portion of the vascular system is blocked. It is not always recognized as a distinct condition and may be grouped with cardiogenic shock, including pulmonary embolism and cardiac tamponade. Treatments depend upon the underlying cause and, in addition to administering fluids intravenously, often include the administration of anticoagulants, removal of fluid from the pericardial cavity, or air from the thoracic cavity, and surgery as required. The most common cause is a pulmonary embolism. Other causes include stenosis of the aortic valve, cardiac tamponade, and a pneumothorax (Betts et al., 2013).
Blood Disorders
Erythrocyte Disorders
Changes in the levels of RBCs can have significant effects on the body’s ability to effectively deliver oxygen to the tissues (Betts et al., 2013).
Did You Know?
‘O2 sat’ or ‘percent sat’ is the percent saturation, that is, the percentage of hemoglobin sites occupied by oxygen in a patient’s blood.
Anemia
The size, shape, and number of erythrocytes, and the number of hemoglobin molecules can have a major impact on a person’s health. When the number of RBCs or hemoglobin is deficient, the general condition is called anemia. There are more than 400 types of anemia.
Anemia can be broken down into three major groups: those caused by blood loss, those caused by faulty or decreased RBC production, and those caused by excessive destruction of RBCs. In addition to these causes, various disease processes also can lead to anemias. These include chronic kidney diseases often associated with a decreased production of EPO, hypothyroidism, some forms of cancer, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis (Betts, et al., 2013).
Blood Loss Anemias:
Causes:
- Bleeding from wounds or other lesions, including ulcers, hemorrhoids, inflammation of the stomach (gastritis), and some cancers of the gastrointestinal tract.
- The excessive use of aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen can trigger ulceration and gastritis.
- Excessive menstruation and loss of blood during childbirth.
Anemias Caused by Faulty or Decreased RBC Production:
- Sickle cell anemia
-
- A genetic disorder involving the production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin which delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle (or crescent) shape.
- Iron deficiency anemia
- The most common type of anemia and results when the amount of available iron is insufficient to allow production of sufficient heme.
- Vitamin deficiency anemia (Generally insufficient vitamin B12 and folate).
- Megaloblastic anemia involves a deficiency of vitamin B12 and/or folate, often due to inadequate dietary intake.
- Pernicious anemia is caused by poor absorption of vitamin B12 and is often seen in patients with Crohn's disease, surgical removal of the intestines or stomach (common in some weight loss surgeries), intestinal parasites, and AIDS.
- Aplastic anemia is the condition in which myeloid stem cells are defective or replaced by cancer cells, resulting in insufficient quantities of RBCs being produced. This condition by be inherited or it may be triggered by radiation, medication, chemotherapy, or infection.
- Thalassemia is an inherited condition typically occurring in individuals from the Middle East, the Mediterranean, Africa, and Southeast Asia, in which maturation of the RBCs does not proceed normally. The most severe form is called Cooley’s anemia (Betts et al., 2013).
Polycythemia
Polycythemia is an elevated RBC count and is detected in a patient’s elevated hematocrit percentage in a complete blood cell testing. It can occur transiently in a person who is dehydrated; when water intake is inadequate or water losses are excessive, the plasma volume falls. As a result, the hematocrit rises. A mild form of polycythemia is chronic but normal in people living at high altitudes. Some elite athletes train at high elevations specifically to induce this phenomenon. Finally, a type of bone marrow disease called polycythemia vera causes an excessive production of immature erythrocytes. Polycythemia vera can dangerously elevate the viscosity of blood, raising blood pressure and making it more difficult for the heart to pump blood throughout the body. It is a relatively rare disease that occurs more often in men than women, and is more likely to be present in elderly patients those over 60 years of age (Betts et al., 2013).
Platelet Disorders/Clotting Disorders
Thrombocytosis
Thrombocytosis is a condition in which there are too many platelets. This may trigger thrombosis, a potentially fatal disorder. A thrombus (plural = thrombi) is an aggregation of platelets, erythrocytes, and even WBCs typically trapped within a mass of fibrin strands. While the formation of a clot is a normal step in hemostasis, thrombi can form within an intact or only slightly damaged blood vessel, adhering to the vessel wall and decreasing or obstructing the flow of blood (Betts et al., 2013).
Thrombophilia
Thrombophilia, also called hypercoagulation, is a condition in which there is a tendency to form thrombosis. This may be an inherited disorder or may be caused by other conditions including lupus, immune reactions to heparin, polycythemia vera, thrombocytosis, sickle cell disease, pregnancy, and even obesity.
When a portion of a thrombus breaks free from the vessel wall and enters the circulation, it is referred to as an embolus. An embolus that is carried through the bloodstream can be large enough to block a vessel critical to a major organ. When it becomes trapped, an embolus is called an embolism. In the heart, brain, or lungs, an embolism may accordingly cause a heart attack, a stroke, or a pulmonary embolism (Betts et al., 2013).
Thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytopenia is a condition in which there is an insufficient number of platelets, possibly leading to ineffective blood clotting and excessive bleeding (Betts et al., 2013).
Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a group of related genetic disorders in which certain plasma clotting factors are lacking, inadequate or nonfunctional. Patients with hemophilia bleed from even minor internal and external wounds and leak blood into joint spaces after exercise and into urine and stool. Regular infusions of clotting factors isolated from healthy donors can help prevent bleeding in hemophiliac patients. At some point, genetic therapy will become a viable option (Betts et al., 2013).
Leukocyte Disorders
Leukopenia
Leukopenia is a condition in which too few leukocytes are produced. If this condition is pronounced, the individual may be unable to ward off disease (Betts et al., 2013).
Leukocytosis
Leukocytosis is excessive leukocyte proliferation. Although leukocyte counts are high, the cells themselves are often nonfunctional, leaving the individual at increased risk for disease (Betts et al., 2013).
Leukemia
Leukemia is a cancer involving an abundance of leukocytes. It may involve only one specific type of leukocyte from either the myeloid line (myelocytic leukemia) or the lymphoid line (lymphocytic leukemia).  In acute leukemia, there is an overproduction of young, immature leukocytes. In both conditions, the cells do not function properly (Betts et al., 2013).
Lymphoma
Lymphoma is a form of cancer in which masses of malignant T and/or B lymphocytes collect in lymph nodes, the spleen, the liver, and other tissues. As in leukemia, the malignant leukocytes do not function properly, and the patient is vulnerable to infection. Some forms of lymphoma tend to progress slowly and respond well to treatment. Others tend to progress quickly and require aggressive treatment, without which they are rapidly fatal (Betts et al., 2013).
Other Conditions Related to Abnormal Leukocyte Counts
| Cell Type |
Conditions Reltaed to High Counts | Conditions Related to Low Counts |
|---|---|---|
| Neutrophil | Infection, inflammation, burns, unusual stress | Drug toxicity, other disorders |
| Eosinophil | Allergies, parasitic worm infestations, some autoimmune diseases | Drug toxicity, stress |
| Basophil | Allergies, parasitic infections, hypothyroidism | Pregnancy, stress, hyperthyroidism |
| Lymphocyte | Viral infections, some cancers | chronic illness, immunosuppression (due to HIV or steroid therapy) |
| Monocyte | Viral or fungal infections, tuberculosis, some forms of leukemia, other chronic diseases | Bone marrow suppression |
Bone Marrow Biopsy/Bone Marrow Transplant
Sometimes, a healthcare provider will order a bone marrow biopsy, a diagnostic test of a sample of red bone marrow, or a bone marrow transplant, a treatment in which a donor’s healthy bone marrow—and its stem cells—replaces the faulty bone marrow of a patient. These tests and procedures are often used to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of various severe forms of anemia, such as thalassemia major and sickle cell anemia, as well as some types of cancer, specifically leukemia.
In the past, bone marrow sampling or transplant was very painful, as the procedure involved inserting a large-bore needle into the region near the iliac crest of the pelvic bones. Now, direct sampling of bone marrow can often be avoided as stem cells can be isolated in just a few hours from a sample of a patient’s blood. The isolated stem cells are then grown in culture using the appropriate hemopoietic growth factors, and analyzed or sometimes frozen for later use.
For an individual requiring a transplant, a matching donor is essential to prevent the immune system from destroying the donor cells—a phenomenon known as tissue rejection. To treat patients with bone marrow transplants, it is first necessary to destroy the patient’s own diseased marrow through radiation and/or chemotherapy. Donor bone marrow stem cells are then infused into the recipient’s bloodstream, so that they can establish themselves in the recipient’s bone marrow (Betts et al., 2013).
Check Your Knowledge of Cardiovascular System Terms and Abbreviations
Common Cardiovascular System – Blood, Abbreviations
Many terms and phrases related to the cardiovascular system – blood are abbreviated. Learn these common abbreviations by expanding the list below.
Cardiovascular System – Blood Abbreviations
- aPTT (activated partial thromboplastin time
- CBC and Diff (complete blood count and differential)
- CPK (creatine phosphokinase)
- Hct (hematocrit)
- Hgb (hemoglobin)
- PT (prothrombin time)
- RBC (red blood cell, erythrocyte)
- WBC (white blood cell, leukocyte)
Activity source: Cardiovascular System – Blood Abbreviations by Kimberlee Carter, from Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY- 4.0. / Converted to text.
Cardiovascular System – Consultation Report
Cardiovascular System – Consultation Report (Text version)
Fill in the consultation report with using the following words:
- Angiogram
- defect
- palpitations
- infection
- blood pressure
- coronary
PATIENT NAME: Jack MIRANDA
AGE: 74
SEX: Male
DATE OF CONSULTATION: March 26, 2020
CONSULTING PHYSICIAN: Kevin Palmer, MD, Cardiology
REASON FOR CONSULTATION: Coronary artery disease.
PAST MEDICAL HISTORY
- Coronary artery disease. He had an NST MI in July 2015. _________[Blank 1] showed three-vessel disease and had PCT of RCA OM1. LAD had 60% stenosis which was no significant by FFR and medical management was recommended. He had a Grade 2 left ventricular function after the MI, but it improved a year later. His last echocardiogram in 2019 showed preserved ejection fraction at 60 with no significant valvular abnormalities and no significant wall motion abnormalities. He had an exercise Myoview in 2018 where he could achieve a workload of 9 Mets without symptoms or electrical changes. Perfusion images showed a wall fixed inferior _________[Blank 2] in keeping with his
previous inferior MI. - Hypertension.
- Hypercholesterolemia.
- Ex-smoker quit in 2016.
- Rare alcohol.
- Gout.
- Chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
MEDICATIONS
Aspirin 81 mg q.d.
Bisoprolol 5 mg q.d.
Candesartan 60 mg q.d.
Atorvastatin 80 mg q.d.
Ezetrol 10 mg q.d.
Allopurinol 300 mg q.d.
HISTORY: Overall, he has been feeling well. He denies any exertional symptoms with usual activity. He walks his dog 20 minutes a day and denies any chest pain, shortness of breath. He denies orthopnea, _____________[Blank 3], dizziness presyncope, or syncope.
He was recently hospitalized with a respiratory ___________[Blank 4]. He was treated with antibiotics and was discharged 2 days later. He has been feeling better and has gone back to his usual activities.
In regards to his CLL, he has been stable with usual lymphocyte count around 30. No other cytopenia. No splenomegaly. He is being followed with a surveillance strategy with regular CBCs by hematologist.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: On physical exam he is alert and oriented in no acute distress, hemodynamically stable, __________[Blank 5] 120/70, heart rate 60 with regular rhythm, there is no evidence of volume overload, lungs are clear. Lab work showed white cell count of 30 with lymphocytes, 25 hemoglobin, 122 platelets, 340 creatinine, 70 EGFR, 75 sodium, 144 potassium, 5.6, A1c 5.4L, DL 1.2.
SUMMARY: Mr. Miranda seems to be stable from the cardiac point of view. He has a history of ________________[Blank 6] artery disease with previous MI treated with PCI of RCA and OM1. He has a residual 60% stenosis of LAD that was not significant by FFR. He is on antiplatelet agents, high intensity statin therapy, and the combination of ARB’s and beta-blockers. As long as his functional capacity remains stable, we do not need to do a follow up. Exercise treadmill test but should his symptoms change, this should be considered.
PLAN: His blood pressure is well controlled. His LDL is within the goal. There is no history of diabetes. He quit smoking 2016. I made no changed to his current treatment plan and advised him to come back in a year’s time and earlier, should symptoms change.
__________________________
Kevin Palmer, MD, Cardiology
Check your answers: [1]
Activity source: Neurological System – History and Physical Examination by Sheila Bellefeuille & Heather Scudder, from Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY- 4.0. / Text version added.
Medical Specialties and Procedures Related to the Blood Vessels and Blood
Vascular Surgeons
Vascular surgery is a specialty in which the physician treats diseases of the blood and lymphatic vessels. This includes repair and replacement of diseased or damaged vessels, removal of plaque from vessels, minimally invasive procedures, including the insertion of venous catheters, and traditional surgery (Betts et al., 2013; Canadian Society for Vascular Surgery, n.d.). For more information, please visit the Canadian Society for Vascular Surgery website [New Tab].
Hematologists
Hematologists are specialist physicians that diagnose and treat blood disorders. These physicians must be well-versed in a wide array of laboratory procedures, basic medical disciplines, and clinical medicine (Canadian Medical Association, 2019). To learn more about hematologists, visit the Canadian Medical Association’s specialty profile on hematology [PDF].
Diagnostic Vascular Technologist
Also known as Canadian Registered Vascular Sonographers (CRVS®), these specialists are technologists that image the vascular system (Sonography Canada, 2021). To learn more, visit the Sonography Canada Credentials web page [New Tab].
 When more than a few drops of blood are required, phlebotomists perform a venipuncture, typically of a surface vein in the arm.  An arterial stick is collected from an artery and used to analyze blood gases. After collection, the blood may be analyzed by medical laboratories or perhaps used for transfusions, donations, or research (Betts et al., 2013).
Image Descriptions
Figure 10.16 image description: The left panel (a) shows the cross-section of a normal and a narrowed artery. A normal artery has no plaque along the artery walls which means there is normal blood flow. In a narrow artery, plague forms on the arterial walls causing abnormal blood flow. The right panel (b) shows a micrograph of an artery with plaque in it. [Return to Figure 10.16].
Figure 10.18 image description: This photograph shows red blood cells of a person suffering from sickle cell anemia.  [Return to Figure 10.18].
Attribution
Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is adapted from “Cardiovascular System – Blood Vessels and Blood” in Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY 4.0. / A derivative of Betts et al., which can be accessed for free from Anatomy and Physiology (OpenStax). Adaptations: dividing Cardiovascular System – Blood Vessels and Blood chapter content into sub-chapters.
- 1) Angiogram 2) defect 3) palpitations 4) infection 5) blood pressure 6) coronary ↵
hardening of arteries
Compliance is the ability of any compartment to expand to accommodate increased content. The greater the compliance of an artery, the more effectively it is able to expand to accommodate surges in blood flow without increased resistance or blood pressure.
a hardening of the arteries that involves the accumulation of plaque
a fatty material including cholesterol, connective tissue, white blood cells, and some smooth muscle cells
High blood pressure
also called coronary artery disease (CAD); the blood vessels that supply blood to the myocardium become hardened and narrowed, impairing the delivery of oxygen to the heart muscle
a freely moving piece of a substance (plaque or blood clot) that travels through the circulation until it blocks a smaller blood vessel, cutting of the supply of oxygen to the tissue
a balloon-tip catheter is fed through a blood vessel up to the site of the narrowing, the balloon is inflated to re-open the artery. A stent is sometimes placed at the site to reinforce the arterial wall and to prevent re-occlusion.
In a coronary bypass procedure, a non-vital superficial vessel from another part of the body (often the great saphenous vein) or a synthetic vessel is inserted to create a path around the blocked area of a coronary artery.
large artery in the neck
swelling
a disease or disorder that often lacks signs or symptoms
Weakening of the wall of a blood vessel, causing it to thin and balloon out, and possibly eventually burst, resulting in internal bleeding
obstruction of vessels in peripheral regions of the body
the process by which the body seals a ruptured blood vessel to prevent further blood loss
hypo=below, lower than normal, volemic=pertaining to volume (in this case, the volume of blood in the body)
Cardio=pertaining to the heart
genic=originating from, created by
Cardiogenic means originating from the heart
A piece of a blood clot or other substance has broken free from its original location and traveled through the bloodstream to lodge in a smaller vessel in the lungs. This causes an obstruction in that vessel and hypoxia to the tissues supplied by that vessel.
The pericardial sac surrounding the heart has filled with blood or other fluid and the resulting pressure is preventing the heart from beating effectively
An excessive amount of air is present in the thoracic cavity, outside of the lungs, putting pressure on the lungs and interfering with venous return, pulmonary function, and delivery of oxygen to the tissues
Erythropoietin is a hormone produced by the kidneys that plays an important role in the homeostasis of red blood cells levels in the body
Underactive thyroid gland, insufficient production of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
An autoimmune disease in which the body mounts an immune response against its own tissues, causing chronic inflammation and tissue damage
An autoimmune disorder in which the body mounts an immune response against its own joint tissues, causing inflammation and damage to the joints
A type of inflammatory bowel disease
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, caused by infection with the HIV virus
A lab test which measures the percentage red blood cells in a sample of whole blood.
Viscosity is the thickness of fluids that affects their ability to flow
formation of unwanted blood clots
A type of bone marrow disease that causes an excessive production of immature erythrocytes
A condition in which there are too many platelets
Also called sickle cell anemia: A genetic disorder involving the production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin which delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle (or crescent) shape
An inherited condition typically occurring in individuals from the Middle East, the Mediterranean, African, and Southeast Asia, in which maturation of the RBCs does not proceed normally. The most severe form is called Cooley’s anemia.
Chemical messengers which promote the proliferation and differentiation of formed elements and include erythropoietin, thrombopoietin, colony-stimulating factors, and interleukins.
Also called organ rejection. The recipient's immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue, the graft, as non-self and mounts an immune response against it, ultimately destroying it.


Strategies for Writing
Many inexperienced writers imagine that “good” writers compose their texts all at once, from beginning to end, and need only a small amount of attention to polish the grammar and punctuation before arriving at a final draft. In reality, however, the writing process (steps for creating a finished composition) is typically recursive. That is, it repeats steps multiple times, not necessarily in the same order, and the process is more messy than linear or systematic. You can think of the writing process in terms of these broad categories:
- Prewriting. You will end up with a stronger composition if you do some work before you begin writing. Before putting complete sentences on a page, take some time to think about the rhetorical situation for your writing, gather your thoughts, and consider how you might arrange your ideas. Use your brainstorming skills or try some freewriting and then develop an outline once you have a good idea of what you want to do.
- Drafting. In the past, you may have dedicated most of your writing time to drafting or putting words into a document. When you have strong prewriting and revision habits, however, drafting is often a smaller portion of the writing process. Much of the work for writing is done in the prewriting and revision stages.  In fact, it’s better to overwrite while drafting than not include enough information.
- Revision. After you have a draft, carefully consider how to make it more effective in reaching the audience and fulfilling its purpose. You can make changes that affect the piece as a whole, such as cutting out paragraphs for a stronger organization or even adding content. Such changes are often called global revisions. The revision stage is what makes overwriting more of a positive than not. When you have material to work from during this stage, it’s easier to shape how you want to communicate your thoughts. Not to worry if you wrote a bit short during the drafting stage. Part of the revision is finding out what may be needed. If you find holes in your communication, go back to the drafting stage to try to fill them.
- Editing. After making global changes to your piece, you must also make changes that affect the meaning of a sentence or a word; these changes can be called local revisions. In this stage, the focus is on strengthening grammar and mechanics and improving style and design. As you work through the editing stage, it’s more efficient and effective to look for one or two issues at a time instead of trying to fix every little punctuation mark or grammatical mistake.
For many, the editing stage is the most comfortable, but this really isn’t the most important part of putting together your project. While poor grammar and misplaced punctuation can be irritating, they don’t typically detract from the message. Don’t skip this step, but don’t confuse it with revision.
- Proof Reading. You definitely want to proofread your draft before submitting it for peer review or to your instructor for grading. While deadlines don’t always allow for this, if possible, you should wait at least 24 hours before proofreading what you’ve created. By doing this, you’ve given your eyes and brain a rest so you won’t be as cued in on issues you were having during writing. Even better, wait a day and then have someone else read it to you. As the author, reading your own work may not be as helpful as having someone else read it to you. This is because, as the author, we tend to skim over issues or fill in holes we really missed. If no one is available, the next best thing is to read it out loud yourself. This helps some of the skimming, hole-filling, and avoiding we do when we read our work silently.
- Peer Review. While not part of the writing process, peer review is one of the most valuable resources you can have to help your work. Almost all strong writers rely on feedback from others, whether peers, instructors, or editors. Your instructor may guide you in some peer review exercises to complete with your classmates, or you might choose to consult with your university’s writing center. When others give you clear, honest feedback on your draft, you can use that information to strengthen your piece.
Drafting: Writing from Personal Experience and Observation
Now that you have planned out your assignment, you are ready to begin drafting. If you have been thoughtful in preparing to write, drafting usually proceeds quickly and smoothly. Use your notes to guide you in composing the first draft. As you write, create a rich picture for your reader by using concrete, sensory details and specific rather than general nouns, as shown in the table below. Be sure to use sensory language when it is appropriate, such as in narratives and memoirs, but remember to be more direct in genres that call for conciseness, such as reports and proposals.
Person |
Place |
Thing |
Idea |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
General |
girl | park | game | competition |
Less Specific |
schoolmate | bench | chess | tournament |
More Specific |
Sasha | gaming area | board | semifinal match |
Sensory |
tall, dark-haired Sasha | quiet, tree-shaded gaming area | glossy black and white board | popcorn-scented semifinal match |
Revising: Adding and Deleting Information
After you have completed the peer review exercise and received the related constructive feedback, you are ready to revise your assignment in preparation for submission to your instructor for grading and a possible publication venue. The peer review exercise above can help guide you and your partner or group members through a thorough assessment of your drafts. If you are not able to participate in peer review, make an appointment with your campus writing center to receive similar feedback. After getting responses from peers or the writing center, the next step is to take that feedback and make changes to your draft.
Look at the criteria in the first row of the peer review chart above and then at the evidence for those criteria that your partner listed.
Does your reviewer’s understanding of the parts of your essay match your own? Where are the disconnects between what you intended for a section of your writing and what your reviewer has read and understood?
These points of disconnect are good places to begin your revisions. Your peer reviewers represent your audience, so if they experience some misunderstandings in the reading of your narrative, you will want to make changes to clarify your writing.
Imagine you have written a literacy narrative in which you discuss the difficulty of learning to read music. Imagine the opening paragraph contains the following sentence: “I have always had a hard time reading music.” Your peer reviewer might list in column 2, for the first criterion on engaging identity, that you read music, and that is all. Such a brief and limited assessment might lead your partner to suggest in column 3 that you strengthen your identity by answering the following questions:
- When and why did you begin trying to learn to read music?
- Do you come from a musical background?
- Did you have a music reading teacher, or are you self-taught?
- What are your specific challenges in reading music?
During a discussion after the written peer review, you might share the details of your learning to play the piano: that you were five years old and that your grandmother was your teacher. Your revision for this opening paragraph might then include a sentence such as the following: “I have struggled to read music since I began playing piano at five years old, when my grandmother, our church musician, gave me my first lesson.” This process demonstrates the way in which the peer review should lead to substantive change and revision in your writing.
You will want to read and discuss the details of the evidence and suggestions for each of the above criteria with your peer review partner. On the basis of your partner’s assessment—and your own judgment, of course—make any necessary revisions before submitting your assignment for grading. The more time you take to go through this process, the more developed and comprehensive your writing will be. Some people may feel anxious about having others read their work, but the scenario provided above demonstrates the valuable ways in which a preliminary reading audience can help improve our writing.
LICENSE AND ATTRIBUTION
“Strategies for Writing” by Rachael Reynolds is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License and adapted work from the source below:
- Michelle Bachelor Robinson and Maria Jerskey’s “3.5 Writing Process: Tracing the Beginning of Literacy” of Writing Guide with Handbook, 2021, used according to CC by 4.0.


3
Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Charles-Louis de Secondat was born at La Brède, near Bordeaux, France in 1689. He inherited baronial titles from both sides of his family. His mother held the title Baroness de la Brède, and he inherited the title Baron de Montesquieu on the death of his paternal uncle on condition he take his name.
Montesquieu was given an extensive private education at home before being sent to the Catholic College in Juilly, from which he graduated in 1708 with a degree in law. He also studied law in Paris before he returned home to work in the family winemaking business. When his uncle died in 1716, Montesquieu inherited his position of magistrate and president à mortier, or deputy president of the Bordeaux parlement. This put him in charge of the criminal courts in the district, and he also supervised the jails in which defendants were held prior to trial.
By 1725, Montesquieu had tired of his administrative duties, so he resigned his government positions in order to engage in research in the sciences, medicine, and politics. In 1731, Montesquieu moved to England for two years. He attended debates at Parliament, became friends with many scientists, writers, and nobles, and was elected to the Royal Society of London. He believed that the British government proved that the rule of law and political freedom could exist in the modern world.
When Montesquieu returned to France, he began writing a treatise on how government could maintain order while protecting freedom. His work became increasingly difficult because he was losing his sight, and by the time he finished writing The Spirit of the Laws he was blind. He dictated its contents to a series of secretaries, producing a two-volume opus of 670 pages. Four decades later, this book became a principal source for the framers of the US Constitution.
The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
Of the Republican Government, and the Laws in relation to Democracy
When the body of the people is possessed of the supreme power, it is called a democracy. When the supreme power is lodged in the hands of a part of the people, it is then an aristocracy. In a democracy the people are in some respects the sovereign, and in others the subject.
There can be no exercise of sovereignty but by their suffrages, which are their own will; now the sovereign’s will is the sovereign himself. The laws therefore which establish the right of suffrage are fundamental to this government. And indeed it is as important to regulate in a republic, in what manner, by whom, to whom, and concerning what, suffrages are to be given, as it is in a monarchy to know who is the prince, and after what manner he ought to govern….
The people, in whom the supreme power resides, ought to have the management of everything within their reach: that which exceeds their abilities must be conducted by their ministers. But they cannot properly be said to have their ministers, without the power of nominating them: it is, therefore, a fundamental maxim in this government is that the people should choose their ministers–that is, their magistrates.
They have occasion, as well as monarchs, and even more so, to be directed by a council or senate. But to have a proper confidence in these, they should have the choosing of the members; whether the election be made by themselves, as at Athens, or by some magistrate deputed for that purpose, as on certain occasions was customary at Rome.
The people are extremely well qualified for choosing those whom they are to entrust with part of their authority. They have only to be determined by things to which they cannot be strangers, and by facts that are obvious to sense. They can tell when a person has fought many battles, and been crowned with success; they are, therefore, capable of electing a general. They can tell when a judge is assiduous in his office, gives general satisfaction, and has never been charged with bribery; this is sufficient for choosing a prætor…. These are facts of which they can have better information in a public forum than a monarch in his palace. But are they capable of conducting an intricate affair, of seizing and improving the opportunity and critical moment of action? No; this surpasses their abilities….
As the division of those who have a right of suffrage is a fundamental law in republics, so the manner of giving this suffrage is another fundamental law. The suffrage by lot is natural to democracy; as that by choice is to aristocracy.
The suffrage by lot is a method of electing that offends no one, but animates each citizen with the pleasing hope of serving his country. Yet as this method is in itself defective, it has been the endeavor of the most eminent legislators to regulate and amend it.
Solon made a law at Athens that military employments should be conferred by choice; but that senators and judges should be elected by lot. The same legislator ordained that civil magistracies, attended with great expense, should be given by choice; and the others by lot. In order, however, to amend the suffrage by lot, he made a rule that none but those who presented themselves should be elected; that the person elected should be examined by judges and that every one should have a right to accuse him if he were unworthy of the office: this participated at the same time of the suffrage by lot, and of that by choice. When the time of their magistracy had expired, they were obliged to submit to another judgment in regard to their conduct. Persons utterly unqualified must have been extremely backward in giving in their names to be drawn by lot.
The law which determines the manner of giving suffrage is likewise fundamental in a democracy. It is a question of some importance whether the suffrages ought to be public or secret. Cicero observes that the laws which rendered them secret towards the close of the republic were the cause of its decline. But as this is differently practiced in different republics, I shall offer here my thoughts concerning this subject.
The people’s suffrages ought doubtless to be public and this should be considered as a fundamental law of democracy. The lower class ought to be directed by those of higher rank, and restrained within bounds by the gravity of eminent personages. Hence, by rendering the suffrages secret in the Roman republic, all was lost; it was no longer possible to direct a populace that sought its own destruction. But when the body of the nobles are to vote in an aristocracy or in a democracy, the senate as the business is then only to prevent intrigues; the suffrages cannot be too secret.
Intriguing in a senate is dangerous; it is dangerous also in a body of nobles; but not so among the people, whose nature is to act through passion. In countries where they have no share in the government, we often see them as much inflamed on account of an actor as ever they could be for the welfare of the state. The misfortune of a republic is when intrigues are at an end; which happens when the people are gained by bribery and corruption: in this case they grow indifferent to public affairs, and avarice becomes their predominant passion. Unconcerned about the government and everything belonging to it, they quietly wait for their hire….
Of the Relation of Laws to the Nature of Monarchical Government
The intermediate, subordinate, and dependent powers constitute the nature of monarchical government; I mean of that in which a single person governs by fundamental laws… [I]n monarchies the prince is the source of all power, political and civil. These fundamental laws necessarily suppose the intermediate channels through which the power flows: for if there be only the momentary and capricious will of a single person to govern the state, nothing can be fixed, and of course there is no fundamental law.
The most natural, intermediate, and subordinate power is that of the nobility. This in some measure seems to be essential to a monarchy, whose fundamental maxim is: no monarch, no nobility; no nobility, no monarch; but there may be a despotic prince.
There are men who have endeavored in some countries in Europe to suppress the jurisdiction of the nobility, not perceiving that they were driving at the very thing that was done by the parliament of England. Abolish the privileges of the lords, the clergy and cities in a monarchy, and you will soon have a popular state, or else a despotic government….
Though the ecclesiastic power be so dangerous in a republic, yet it is extremely proper in a monarchy, especially of the absolute kind. What would become of Spain and Portugal, since the subversion of their laws, were it not for this only barrier against the incursions of arbitrary power? A barrier ever useful when there is no other: for since a despotic government is productive of the most dreadful calamities to human nature, the very evil that restrains it is beneficial to the subject….
It is not enough to have intermediate powers in a monarchy; there must be also a depositary of the laws. This depositary can only be the judges of the supreme courts of justice, who promulgate the new laws, and revive the obsolete. The natural ignorance of the nobility, their indolence and contempt of civil government, require that there should be a body invested with the power of reviving and executing the laws….
Of the Principle of Democracy
There is no great share of probity necessary to support a monarchical or despotic government. The force of laws in one, and the prince’s arm in the other, are sufficient to direct and maintain the whole. But in a popular state, one spring more is necessary, namely, virtue.
What I have here advanced is confirmed by the unanimous testimony of historians, and is extremely agreeable to the nature of things. For it is clear that in a monarchy, where he who commands the execution of the laws generally thinks himself above them, there is less need of virtue than in a popular government, where the person entrusted with the execution of the laws is sensible of his being subject to their direction.
Clear is it also that a monarch who, through bad advice or indolence, ceases to enforce the execution of the laws. He may easily repair the evil; he has only to follow other advice, or to shake off this indolence. But when, in a popular government, there is a suspension of the laws, as this can proceed only from the corruption of the republic, the state is certainly undone.
A very droll spectacle it was in the last century to behold the impotent efforts of the English towards the establishment of democracy. As they who had a share in the direction of public affairs were void of virtue; as their ambition was inflamed by the success of the most daring of their members; as the prevailing parties were successively animated by the spirit of faction, the government was continually changing: the people, amazed at so many revolutions, in vain attempted to erect a commonwealth. At length, when the country had undergone the most violent shocks, they were obliged to have recourse to the very government which they had so wantonly proscribed….
When virtue is banished, ambition invades the minds of those who are disposed to receive it, and avarice possesses the whole community. The objects of their desires are changed: what they were fond of before has become indifferent; they were free while under the restraint of laws, but they would fain now be free to act against law; and as each citizen is like a slave who has run away from his master, that which was a maxim of equity he calls rigor; that which was a rule of action he styles constraint; and to precaution he gives the name of fear. Frugality, and not the thirst of gain, now passes for avarice. Formerly the wealth of individuals constituted the public treasure; but now this has become the patrimony of private persons. The members of the commonwealth riot on the public spoils, and its strength is only the power of a few, and the license of many….
In what Manner Virtue is supplied in a Monarchical Government
[I]f monarchy wants one spring, it is provided with another. Honor, that is, the prejudice of every person and rank, supplies the place of the political virtue of which I have been speaking, and is everywhere her representative: here it is capable of inspiring the most glorious actions, and, joined with the force of laws, may lead us to the end of government as well as virtue itself.
Hence, in well-regulated monarchies, they are almost all good subjects, and very few good men; for to be a good man a good intention is necessary, and we should love our country, not so much on our own account, as out of regard to the community….
Of the Principle of Monarchy
Ambition is pernicious in a republic. But in a monarchy it has some good effects; it gives life to the government, and is attended with this advantage, that it is in no way dangerous, because it may be continually checked.
It is with this kind of government as with the system of the universe, in which there is a power that constantly repels all bodies from the center, and a power of gravitation that attracts them to it. Honor sets all the parts of the body politic in motion, and by its very action connects them; thus each individual advances the public good, while he only thinks of promoting his own interest….
Is it not very exacting to oblige men to perform the most difficult actions, such as require an extraordinary exertion of fortitude and resolution, without other recompense than that of glory and applause?
Of the Corruption of the Principles of Democracy
The principle of democracy is corrupted not only when the spirit of equality is extinct, but likewise when they fall into a spirit of extreme equality, and when each citizen would fain be upon a level with those whom he has chosen to command him. Then the people, incapable of bearing the very power they have delegated, want to manage everything themselves, to debate for the senate, to execute for the magistrate, and to decide for the judges.
When this is the case, virtue can no longer subsist in the republic. The people are desirous of exercising the functions of the magistrates, who cease to be revered. The deliberations of the senate are slighted; all respect is then laid aside for the senators, and consequently for old age. If there is no more respect for old age, there will be none presently for parents; deference to husbands will be likewise thrown off, and submission to masters. This license will soon become general, and the trouble of command be as fatiguing as that of obedience. Wives, children, slaves will shake off all subjection. No longer will there be any such thing as manners, order, or virtue.
We find in Xenophon’s Banquet a very lively description of a republic in which the people abused their equality. Each guest gives in his turn the reason why he is satisfied. “Content I am,” says Chamides, “because of my poverty. When I was rich, I was obliged to pay my court to informers, knowing I was more liable to be hurt by them than capable of doing them harm. The republic constantly demanded some new tax of me; and I could not decline paying. Since I have grown poor, I have acquired authority; nobody threatens me; I rather threaten others. I can go or stay where I please. The rich already rise from their seats and give me the way. I am a king, I was before a slave: I paid taxes to the republic, now it maintains me: I am no longer afraid of losing: but I hope to acquire.”…
The corruption will increase among the corruptors, and likewise among those who are already corrupted. The people will divide the public money among themselves, and, having added the administration of affairs to their indolence, will be for blending their poverty with the amusements of luxury. But with their indolence and luxury, nothing but the public treasure will be able to satisfy their demands.
We must not be surprised to see their suffrages given for money. It is impossible to make great largesse to the people without great extortion; and to compass this, the state must be subverted. The greater the advantages they seem to derive from their liberty, the nearer they approach towards the critical moment of losing it. Petty tyrants arise who have all the vices of a single tyrant. The small remains of liberty soon become insupportable; a single tyrant starts up, and the people are stripped of everything, even of the profits of their corruption.
Democracy has, therefore, two excesses to avoid: the spirit of inequality, which leads to aristocracy or monarchy, and the spirit of extreme equality, which leads to despotic power, as the latter is completed by conquest….
Of the Spirit of Extreme Equality
As distant as heaven is from earth, so is the true spirit of equality from that of extreme equality. The former does not imply that everybody should command, or that no one should be commanded, but that we obey or command our equals. It endeavors not to shake off the authority of a master, but that its masters should be none but its equals.
In the state of nature, indeed, all men are born equal, but they cannot continue in this equality. Society makes them lose it, and they recover it only by the protection of the laws.
Such is the difference between a well-regulated democracy and one that is not so, that in the former men are equal only as citizens, but in the latter they are equal also as magistrates, as senators, as judges, as fathers, as husbands, or as masters.
The natural place of virtue is near to liberty; but it is not nearer to excessive liberty than to servitude….
In what Liberty consists
It is true that in democracies the people seem to act as they please; but political liberty does not consist in an unlimited freedom. In governments, that is, in societies directed by laws, liberty can consist only in the power of doing what we ought to will, and in not being constrained to do what we ought not to will.
We must have continually present in our minds the difference between independence and liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws permit, and if a citizen could do what they forbid he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his fellow-citizens would have the same power.
Democratic and aristocratic states are not in their own nature free. Political liberty is to be found only in moderate governments; and even in these it is not always found. It is there only when there is no abuse of power. But constant experience shows us that every man invested with power is apt to abuse it, and to carry his authority as far as it will go. Is it not strange, though true, to say that virtue itself has need of limits?
To prevent this abuse, it is necessary from the very nature of things that power should be a check to power. A government may be so constituted, as no man shall be compelled to do things to which the law does not oblige him, nor forced to abstain from things which the law permits.
Of the End or View of Different Governments
Though all governments have the same general end, which is that of preservation, yet each has another particular object. Increase of dominion was the object of Rome; war, that of Sparta; religion, that of the Jewish laws; commerce, that of Marseilles; public tranquility, that of the laws of China: navigation, that of the laws of Rhodes; natural liberty, that of the policy of the Savages; in general, the pleasures of the prince, that of despotic states; that of monarchies, the prince’s and the kingdom’s glory; the independence of individuals is the end aimed at by the laws of Poland, thence results the oppression of the whole.
One nation there is also in the world that has for the direct end of its constitution political liberty. We shall presently examine the principles on which this liberty is founded; if they are sound, liberty will appear in its highest perfection….
Of the Constitution of England
In every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive in regard to matters that depend on the civil law.
By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies, establishes the public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals, or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state.
The political liberty of the subject is a tranquility of mind arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be so constituted as one man need not be afraid of another.
When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.
Again, there is no liberty, if the judiciary power be not separated from the legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be then the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with violence and oppression. There would be an end of everything, were the same man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions, and of trying the causes of individuals….
Hence it is that many of the princes of Europe, whose aim has been leveled at arbitrary power, have constantly set out with uniting in their own persons all the branches of magistracy, and all the great offices of state….
The judiciary power ought not to be given to a standing senate; it should be exercised by persons taken from the body of the people at certain times of the year, and consistently with a form and manner prescribed by law, in order to erect a tribunal that should last only so long as necessity requires.
By this method the judicial power, so terrible to mankind, not being annexed to any particular state or profession, becomes, as it were, invisible. People have not then the judges continually present to their view; they fear the office, but not the magistrate.
In accusations of a deep and criminal nature, it is proper the person accused should have the privilege of choosing, in some measure, his judges, in concurrence with the law; or at least he should have a right to except against so great a number that the remaining part may be deemed his own choice.
The other two powers may be given rather to magistrates or permanent bodies, because they are not exercised on any private subject; one being no more than the general will of the state, and the other the execution of that general will.
But though the tribunals ought not to be fixed, the judgments ought; and to such a degree as to be ever conformable to the letter of the law. Were they to be the private opinion of the judge, people would then live in society, without exactly knowing the nature of their obligations.
The judges ought likewise to be of the same rank as the accused, or, in other words, his peers; to the end that he may not imagine he is fallen into the hands of persons inclined to treat him with rigor. If the legislature leaves the executive power in possession of a right to imprison those subjects who can give security for their good behavior, there is an end of liberty; unless they are taken up, in order to answer without delay to a capital crime, in which case they are really free, being subject only to the power of the law.
But should the legislature think itself in danger by some secret conspiracy against the state, or by a correspondence with a foreign enemy, it might authorize the executive power, for a short and limited time, to imprison suspected persons, who in that case would lose their liberty only for a while, to preserve it forever….
As in a country of liberty, every man who is supposed a free agent ought to be his own governor; the legislative power should reside in the whole body of the people. But since this is impossible in large states, and in small ones is subject to many inconveniences, it is fit the people should transact by their representatives what they cannot transact by themselves.
The inhabitants of a particular town are much better acquainted with its wants and interests than with those of other places, and are better judges of the capacity of their neighbors than of that of the rest of their countrymen. The members, therefore, of the legislature should not be chosen from the general body of the nation; but it is proper that in every considerable place a representative should be elected by the inhabitants.
The great advantage of representatives is their capacity of discussing public affairs. For this the people collectively are extremely unfit, which is one of the chief inconveniences of a democracy.
It is not at all necessary that the representatives who have received a general instruction from their constituents should wait to be directed on each particular affair, as is practiced in the diets of Germany. True it is that by this way of proceeding the speeches of the deputies might with greater propriety be called the voice of the nation; but, on the other hand, this would occasion infinite delays; would give each deputy a power of controlling the assembly; and, on the most urgent and pressing occasions, the wheels of government might be stopped by the caprice of a single person….
All the inhabitants of the several districts ought to have a right of voting at the election of a representative, except such as are in so mean a situation as to be deemed to have no will of their own… Neither ought the representative body to be chosen for the executive part of government, for which it is not so fit; but for the enacting of laws, or to see whether the laws in being are duly executed, a thing suited to their abilities, and which none indeed but themselves can properly perform….
Of the three powers above mentioned, the judiciary is in some measure next to nothing: there remain, therefore, only two; and as these have need of a regulating power to moderate them, the part of the legislative body composed of the nobility is extremely proper for this purpose….
The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch, because this branch of government, having need of dispatch, is better administered by one than by many: on the other hand, whatever depends on the legislative power is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person.
But if there were no monarch, and the executive power should be committed to a certain number of persons selected from the legislative body, there would be an end then of liberty; by reason the two powers would be united, as the same persons would sometimes possess, and would be always able to possess, a share in both….
It would be needless for the legislative body to continue always assembled. This would be troublesome to the representatives, and, moreover, would cut out too much work for the executive power, so as to take off its attention to its office, and oblige it to think only of defending its own prerogatives, and the right it has to execute.
Again, were the legislative body to be always assembled, it might happen to be kept up only by filling the places of the deceased members with new representatives; and in that case, if the legislative body were once corrupted, the evil would be past all remedy. When different legislative bodies succeed one another, the people who have a bad opinion of that which is actually sitting may reasonably entertain some hopes of the next: but were it to be always the same body, the people upon seeing it once corrupted would no longer expect any good from its laws; and of course they would either become desperate or fall into a state of indolence….
Were the executive power not to have a right of restraining the encroachments of the legislative body, the latter would become despotic; for as it might arrogate to itself what authority it pleased, it would soon destroy all the other powers.
But it is not proper, on the other hand, that the legislative power should have a right to stay the executive. For as the execution has its natural limits, it is useless to confine it; besides, the executive power is generally employed in momentary operations…,
But if the legislative power in a free state has no right to stay the executive, it has a right and ought to have the means of examining in what manner its laws have been executed…. But whatever may be the issue of that examination, the legislative body ought not to have a power of arraigning the person, nor, of course, the conduct, of him who is entrusted with the executive power. His person should be sacred, because as it is necessary for the good of the state to prevent the legislative body from rendering themselves arbitrary, the moment he is accused or tried there is an end of liberty….
It is possible that the law, which is clear-sighted in one sense, and blind in another, might, in some cases, be too severe. But as we have already observed, the national judges are no more than the mouth that pronounces the words of the law, mere passive beings, incapable of moderating either its force or rigor. That part, therefore, of the legislative body, which we have just now observed to be a necessary tribunal on another occasion, is also a necessary tribunal in this; it belongs to its supreme authority to moderate the law in favor of the law itself, by mitigating the sentence.
It might also happen that a subject entrusted with the administration of public affairs may infringe the rights of the people, and be guilty of crimes which the ordinary magistrates either could not or would not punish. But, in general, the legislative power cannot try causes: and much less can it try this particular case, where it represents the party aggrieved, which is the people. It can only, therefore, impeach. But before what court shall it bring its impeachment? Must it go and demean itself before the ordinary tribunals, which are its inferiors, and, being composed, moreover, of men who are chosen from the people as well as itself, will naturally be swayed by the authority of so powerful an accuser? No: in order to preserve the dignity of the people, and the security of the subject, the legislative part which represents the people must bring in its charge before the legislative part which represents the nobility, who have neither the same interests nor the same passions….
The executive power, pursuant of what has been already said, ought to have a share in the legislature by the power of rejecting, otherwise it would soon be stripped of its prerogative. But should the legislative power usurp a share of the executive, the latter would be equally undone. If the prince were to have a part in the legislature by the power of resolving, liberty would be lost. But as it is necessary he should have a share in the legislature for the support of his own prerogative, this share must consist in the power of rejecting….
Here then is the fundamental constitution of the government we are treating of. The legislative body being composed of two parts, they check one another by the mutual privilege of rejecting. They are both restrained by the executive power, as the executive is by the legislative.
These three powers should naturally form a state of repose or inaction. But as there is a necessity for movement in the course of human affairs, they are forced to move, but still in concert.
As the executive power has no other part in the legislative than the privilege of rejecting, it can have no share in the public debates. It is not even necessary that it should propose, because as it may always disapprove of the resolutions that shall be taken, it may likewise reject the decisions on those proposals which were made against its will….
Were the executive power to determine the raising of public money, otherwise than by giving its consent, liberty would be at an end; because it would become legislative in the most important point of legislation….
To prevent the executive power from being able to oppress, it is requisite that the armies with which it is entrusted should consist of the people, and have the same spirit as the people, as was the case at Rome till the time of Marius. To obtain this end, there are only two ways, either that the persons employed in the army should have sufficient property to answer for their conduct to their fellow-subjects, and be enlisted only for a year, as was customary at Rome: or if there should be a standing army, composed chiefly of the most despicable part of the nation, the legislative power should have a right to disband them as soon as it pleased; the soldiers should live in common with the rest of the people; and no separate camp, barracks, or fortress should be suffered….
It is not my business to examine whether the English actually enjoy this liberty or not. Sufficient it is for my purpose to observe that it is established by their laws; and I inquire no further.