123 Style: Diction: Vocabulary Practice
Stanford University lists using the wrong word as the most common error in writing. Recognizing the subtleties of spelling takes practice. Below are six weeks of vocabulary and spelling practice.
Wow Words Review, Week 1
- We can _____ this crisis; you just must stay strong. (Whether vs. weather)
- Whether: It means you have options.
- Weather: What is happening outside.  Bring on fall!
- Answer: weather. Think about large storms and surviving the chaos that crazy weather can become.
- Wal-Mart’s TV commercial invites shoppers to _____ prices at their competitor’s stores. (compare vs. contrast)
- Compare: It means to look at two or more things and find similarities.
- Contrast: It means to look at two or more things and find differences.
- Answer: contrast.
- Ex: When people see an advertisement on TV for car sales, usually a spokesperson will tell you to “compare prices.” The funny thing is that to “compare” prices means to find similarities; he/she really means to contrast prices, and to see why theirs is cheaper. The public’s understanding of “compare,” in general, is wrong.
- Note: This word pair is controversial for some people. Some people think it is silly and others think that correctness that still matters. Do what you will with the information.
- I did not know how deeply his grandmother’s death had an _____ on him until many years later. (affect vs. effect)
- This one is confusing for a lot of people, and I have a trick to help you keep it straight.
- Affect: Substitute the word “influence.” If it works, it is affect.
- Effect: Substitute the word “result.” If it works, it is effect.
- Answer: Affect. Think about the lasting influence that the death had on our fictional person. Is it a result done and over with, or are we still feeling its lasting influence? It is still tricky, sometimes, but hopefully that helps.
- Eleven is _____ than fifteen. (less vs. fewer)
- Less: It is not a countable amount; instead, it has to do with something’s wholeness or lack thereof. Ex: His cruel words made LeighAnne feel like a lesser person.
- Fewer: It is a countable amount. Ex: Jose has three fewer apples than Annabelle. The express lane sign should read: 15 items or fewer.
- Answer: fewer.
- The express lanes at the grocery stores usually have this one wrong.
- You gave your money to _____? (who vs. whom)
- This is another substitution trick.
- Who: If you can substitute the word “he,” in the sentence, use “who.”
- Whom: If you can substitute the word “him,” in the sentence, use “him.”
- Let’s try it both ways: 1) You gave your money to he? That is weird. 2) You gave your money to him? Ah, better.
- Answer: whom.
- Here’s an extra tip: If the sentence has “to” “for” “by” “of” or from right before it, the answer is usually “whom.” When you address a letter “to whom it may concern,” you can see it.
- ______! I love puppies and kitties. I just want to give them smooches on their cute, fuzzy faces! (Aw vs. Awe)
- Aw: A reaction to something adorable. Ex: babies, puppies, and kittens
- Awe: To be overwhelmed with emotion; it is related to the word awesome, or to be in awe over something spectacular. Ex: I was in awe over the size and beauty of the Grand Canyon.
- Answer: Aw.
- Betty has _____ for Dina during this tough period; it forces her to relive her own experiences with divorce. (empathy vs. sympathy)
- Sympathy: It’s a feeling you have when you are sorry about a person’s negative situation.
- Empathy: It’s a feeling you have when you are truly feeling sorry for someone’s situation. This version is much deeper than sympathy. Someone who is empathetic is feeling the other person’s negative situation as if he/she is experiencing it for themselves.
- Answer: empathy.
- I am completely _____ of Charles for getting a promotion in a year of budget cuts. I must admit, however, he does work very hard and deserves this reward. (envious vs. jealous)
- Envious: This is a positive version of wishing someone else’s situation was yours. Ex: I can’t believe that Sandra got tickets to see Hamilton. She is so lucky!
- Jealous: This is the negative version. Jealousy can be mean, spiteful, or possessive of someone or something. Ex: Ricky’s ex-girlfriend is the jealous type, and she is always driving by his house to see if he is there and who is hanging out with him. She is crazy.
- Answer: envious.
- The restaurant is just a bit _____ down the road, I promise. (farther vs. further)
- Farther: This has to do with distance. Ex: If you drive farther down this road and turn left, you will find the gas station.
- Further: This has to do with advancement or the betterment of something. Ex: Connie went to college to further her education.
- Answer: farther.
- Carol announced that she was ______ seek revenge on her cousin, leaving us all stunned. (fixing to vs. going to)
- This question here is about regional sayings. People use the “fixing to” or some version of it in the southern area of the U.S. I am from Nevada originally, and we say things like “you guys” instead of the Texas version of “y’all.” There are two points that I want to make here: 1) know what is correct when you need to speak/write correctly, and 2) know when to turn regional sayings on and off.
- I won’t tell you to not use “fixing to” even though it is slang, but I hope you know to adapt your speech when it is necessary. When my boss asks me a question, I won’t say “you guys” to him; I will just say “you” because I need to speak formally with him. If you say “fixing to” in your casual speech or writing, fine. It’s not ideal, but it’s fine. When it comes to speaking or writing something that is important, use “going to.”
- The answer: going to.
Wow Words Review, Week 2
- It would have been _____ honorable achievement, if it were not for the fact that _____ friend did all of my work for me. (a vs. an)
- A: If the following word has a letter that sounds like a consonant (not necessarily is one), then use “a.”
- An: If the following word has a letter sound that sounds like a vowel (not necessarily is one), then use “an.”
- Note: There is an old-school rule that claims the first letter of the following word determines whether someone uses “a” or an “an” in a sentence. The real method, however, is not examining the first letter but listening to the sound of the first letter. Example: I gave a puppy hugs today. “Puppy” starts with a “P,” which gets the “puh,” or a consonant sound. This sentence is correct. But what about “She has an MBA” that has the “M” sounding like “em?” In this case, the sentence correctly uses the word “an” instead of “a” even though “M” is a consonant.
- Answer: an, a.
- James A. Baker, a political _____, survived a bullet intended for President Reagan in 1980. (aid vs. aide)
- Aid: Help or assistance.
- Aide: The human being who provides help or assistance. Ex: Teacher’s aide
- Answer: aide.
- Cindy had to go through ______ during her physical therapy, but I do not think she is quite ready to go surfboarding just yet. (alot vs. a lot vs. allot)
- Alot: This is a misspelling of the right answer, and it is never correct.
- A lot: Many.
- Allot: To set aside money, cookies, or whatever for another purpose.
- Answer: a lot.
- The laboratory team liked the results though they were worried about one particular piece of _____. (data vs. datum)
- Datum: Singular.
- Data: Plural.
- Note: Some people are strict about this, and others are not and use “data” for everything. Regardless, I would rather you be in a place of knowledge on this one.
- Answer: datum.
- The Soviets were the first to send a/n _______ into space. (astronaut vs. cosmonaut)
- Astronaut: American term.
- Cosmonaut: Russian term.
- Note: There is no difference when it comes to the jobs that these people do. The only difference is the culture from which the term comes from.
- There is nothing you can say to me that can fix this situation. I am completely _____ in repairing this relationship with you. (disinterested vs. uninterested)
- Uninterested: To not care about something.
- Disinterested: To be fair; unbiased; objective. Ex: If you ever had to go to court, you would want to hope for a disinterested judge to ensure that your case was heard fairly.
- Answer: uninterested.
- Samuel’s reputation for fine wine ___________(ed) him, and Tearsa knew exactly what to have waiting for him at the dinner party. (precede vs. proceed)
· Precede: To go before, to be in front of, or to preface something or someone. (Think = pre, which means before)
· Proceed: This is the more common of the two words, which means to go forward, to continue, or to carry on. (Think = pro, which means moving forward.)
· Answer: precede(d)
- Our pet, Squiggly, _____, the snail we brought home from the beach, loves to curl up on his little patch of grass. (e.g., i.e., etc.)
- e.g.: exempli gratia, or “for example.” Use this when providing an example of something.
- i.e.: id est, or “in other words.” Use this when clarifying something.
- etc.: et cetera, or “and other similar things.” Use this when you continue with a list and could add items but won’t.
- Note: Do not use “etc.” in formal writing. If you run out of things to say, simply end the sentence and skip “etc.” altogether. It is fine for casual writing, however.
- Answer: i. e.
- Sarah could not bear to hear any more _____ jokes. (blond vs. blonde)
- Blond: Used when referring to men or boys.
- Blonde: Used when referring to women or girls.
- Answer: blonde.
- An estimated 8,000 people die from a ______ snake bite every year in the United States. (poisonous vs. venomous)
- Note: The trick to knowing the correct answer is a matter of who or what is doing the consumption.
- Poisonous: The person/animal is consuming the dangerous liquid/object directly. In other words, you swallow the poison.
- Venomous: A snake/critter is doing the consuming, meaning that they are pushing a dangerous substance into an otherwise healthy person/animal with a bite or sting. In other words, they are taking filling you with the dangerous substance.
- Answer: venomous.
Wow Words Review, Week 3
- If you __________ Jimmy money, be prepared to lose him as a friend (loan, lend).
- Loan: Noun. Example: you can apply for a loan because it is a thing.
- Lend: Verb. The bank is lending her money to buy a car because it is an action.
- Answer: lend.
- Winnie couldn’t __________ very well, so we took her to the emergency room last Thursday. (breath, breathe)
- Breath: Noun. Example: She has bad breath!
- Breathe: Verb. Example: I could hear her breathe in the darkness.
- Answer: breathe.
- Note: I think most people understand the difference between the thing (breath) and the action (breathe), and most errors, I believe, are spelling issues.
- “I _______ been a contender,” whispered Marlon Brando, who played Terry, in the classic film On the Waterfront. (Coulda, could of, could have)
- Coulda: Never correct. If you see it in use, it is either as slang or used to depict an uneducated character.
- Could of: Never correct. People incorrectly write this when they hear the contraction “could’ve.”
- Could have: Correct. It is the full form of the contraction “could’ve.”
- Answer: could have.
- By selling the family estate, the brothers were able to raise enough _________ to open their own bakery. (capital vs. capitol)
- Capital: This has many meanings. 1) An uppercase letter, 2) the seat of government in a state or nation, 3) money, often in terms of invested money.
- Capitol: This is the building in which a legislative body meets.
- Note: Here is an example of them both in action. “The legislators are scheduled to meet in Sacramento, the state capital, at the capitol building at 1:00 PM.”
- Answer: capital.
- Silene and her husband are from Brazil and both are considered to be __________. (Hispanic, Latino, Chicano)
- Hispanic: The term applies to a person who lives in or comes from a Spanish speaking country or whose ancestors came from a Spanish speaking country. The focus here is on the language component and includes Spain.
- Latino/a: The term refers to a person who lives in or is from a country in Latin America, which is Mexico and everything southward, including Brazil. It does not include Dutch or French-speaking nations, generally, and it also includes the Spanish speaking Caribbean nations. This definition may vary, depending on who you talk to.
- Chicano: Be careful with this word, as its meaning is in transition. For some people, this is an insult; for others, it is a perfectly acceptable adjective as in “Chicano art” or “Chicano literature.” In essence, this means someone who is born in America but has Latino/a heritage. The insult version of this word is when it becomes a racist or classist slur for working-class people.
- Answer: This is a tricky one. Silene and her husband are Latino because they come from Brazil, a Latin American nation, but they are not Hispanic because people in Brazil speak Portuguese, not Spanish. The word Hispanic tends to be used as an all-inclusive term, but it is not necessarily correct.
- The economy is an important topic in this year’s election, and there are two main areas to the study of economics. First, __(A)____economics refers to the actions of smaller, individual agents within the economy, like households, workers, and businesses; __(B)____economics, however, looks at the economy as a whole, perhaps on a global scale. It focuses on broad issues such as unemployment and inflation. (micro vs. macro)
- Micro: Small. Think = microscope. A microscope helps you to see something small.
- Macro: Big.
- Answer A: micro.
- Answer B: macro.
- I admit it; I was driving too fast in the construction zone. I do not like it, but the ________ I received from the cop was entirely justified. (cite, sight, site)
- Cite: Short for citation. It means to acknowledge a source used in research, or it can mean a written warning or ticket.
- Sight: A person’s vision.
- Site: A location. Example: job site, (web)site, construction site
- Answer: cite.
- I am too tired to go swimming. _________, the water is too cold. (beside vs besides)
- Beside: Close to or next to.
- Besides: In addition to or furthermore.
- Answer: besides.
- I refuse to ___________ the crazy idea that he knew nothing about the situation. He is lying! (accept vs. except)
- Accept: To agree or to receive something offered.
- Except: To exclude something.
- Answer: accept.
- The formula for area is width x __________. (height vs. heigth)
- Height: Always the correct spelling and punctuation.
- Heigth: Never correct. People tend to say “width” and carry over the -th sound from this word to say a butchered version of height.
- Answer: height.
Wow Word Review, Week 4
- He has received two letters of ________ from his regional manager, and he became worried about keeping his job. (censor, sensor, censure)
- Censor: To limit something or someone’s access to something. Think: censorship.
- Sensor: A device which detects or measures a physical property and either indicates or records it. Example: The gas light sensor in a car that indicates that it is low on gas.
- Censure: The expression of a formal disapproval. Note that this one has a slightly different pronunciation; it sounds like sen-shure.
- Answer: censure.
- Have a chat with the Dimitri at lunch and see what information you can ______ from him. (elicit vs illicit).
- Elicit: To evoke or draw out (a response, answer, or fact) from someone.
- Illicit: Something that is forbidden by law, rules, or custom.
- Answer: elicit.
- I’m a word person, and my husband is a math person. Together, we _________ each other. (compliment vs. complement)
- Compliment: Notice this version has an “I” in it, and think of it as if you were saying, “I have something nice to say about you.”
- Complement: This version has an “E” in it, and think of it as making things even, as completing something, or as bringing something to perfection.
- Answer: complement.
- Our dinner will be _________ of turkey, salad, candied yams, pie, and anything else that people want to bring to the potluck. (comprised vs. composed)
- Note: These two terms are closely related, so look for the differences. Are you focusing on the whole of something or the individual parts that make up the whole? That will determine which one you use.
- Comprise: Comprise is synonymous with include, contain, consist of, encompass, and be made up of something. The focus here is on the individual components. In other words, it is used when the part comes before the whole.
- Compose: It means two things: 1) to create something from scratch like a poem, and 2) to consider how the parts come together to make something that is whole. This definition has to do with the totality of something.
- Answer: comprise. Why? The focus is on the inclusion of items, not the totality of the dinner. It’s a tough one, I know.
- The faucet in my bathroom dripped for two __________ months before my husband decided to fix it. (continuous vs. continual)
- Continuous: It describes an action that happens without ceasing.
- Continual: It describes an action that recurs frequently or regularly, but it can end and then start back up again.
- Answer: continuous.
- The bugle __________ played “Taps” at the soldier’s funeral. (core, corps, corpse)
- Core: It means the center part of something; think apple core.
- Corps: It is a military body that includes two or more divisions, or a military body that performs a specific function; think Marine Corps.
- Corpse: A corpse is a dead body, usually referring to a human body.
- Answer: corps.
- Michael felt badly about how he treated his cousin. His words weighed heavily on his _________. (conscious, conscience, consciousness)
- Conscious: It means to being awake or alert. Example: Although Bob’s car flipped three times, he managed to remain conscious through the whole accident. (pronounced con-chuss)
- Conscience: It refers to a person’s recognition of the difference between right and wrong. Example: My angry words toward Sylvia weighed heavily on my conscience. (pronounced con-chenss)
- Consciousness: It’s a variation of “conscious” above, and it is the state of being awake and aware. Example: Anna fainted out of fright, but she regained consciousness within seconds. (pronounced con-chuss-ness)
- Answer: conscience.
- My English teacher told me to __________ out my essay, but I did not understand what she meant. (flush out vs. flesh out)
- Flush out: To force something to leave its hiding place. Example: Allen flushed the birds out of the tree before trimming the branches.
- Flesh out: To give it more details or substance, or to make it fuller or more nearly complete.
- Answer: flesh out.
- Tina offered her ___________, although Jay didn’t want to hear any of it. (counsel vs. council)
- Council: A group of people convened for advice or to perform a specific function. Example: Student council.
- Counsel: It means to give advice or instruction.
- Answer: counsel.
- “What are your _________ for the job, and how can I get hired here?” asked Bryan. (criterion vs. criteria)
- Criterion: It is the singular form, meaning a requirement or rule upon which something is judged or rates.
- Criteria: It is the plural form, meaning requirements upon which something is judged or rated.
- Answer: criteria. (There are probably several requirements for this job, logically speaking.)
Wow Words Review, Week 5
- Michael was relieved to go back to an __________ wage after working all those extra unpaid hours at his old job. (hourly vs. salary)
- Hourly: There are two meanings for hourly here: 1) the rate of pay per hour someone earns, and 2) a statement about the person’s employment and pay structure. To be paid “hourly” means that the employee goes to his/her job, clocks in, works, clocks out, and goes home. Usually, that means the someone works no more than 8 hours in a traditional workday, although there are exceptions. This suggests that the person is free from responsibility once he/she clocks out, although overtime can be offered for additional pay.
- Salary: Like the hourly entry, salary has the same two definitions—pay rate and structure. To be a salaried employee means that the worker works until all the necessary tasks are completed or at a reasonable stopping point for a set amount of pay. This employee can work a 3-hour or 15-hour day, and the rate of pay remains the same. Salaried employees, however, tend to work longer than shorter days, and do not receive additional pay for additional time worked beyond the traditional 8 hours. Salaried employees tend to earn higher wages in return.
- Answer: hourly
- It is estimated that about 80% of individuals who use ________ first abused prescription opioids. (heroin vs. heroine)
- Heroin: A highly addictive opium-based drug that can be shot, sniffed, snorted, or smoked that can damage a person’s health or kill a person outright.
- Heroine: Two definitions: 1) a female hero/superhero, and 2) a chief female character in a book, play, or movie, who is typically identified with good qualities, and with whom the reader is expected to sympathize.
- Answer: heroin.

- Burst: This means that something did or is about to explode or break from internal pressure.
- Become busted: Slang and never right.
- Answer: burst.
- The boat’s navigational system was knocked out during the storm, and the captain had no choice but to shoot a _________ into the sky and issue a mayday call. (flair vs. flare)
- Flair: A noun referring to a natural ability, an inclination toward something, or an attractive or stylish quality.
- Flare: Flare has multiple meanings: 1) it is a light that shines brightly and briefly (“the sudden flare of a match”), 2) it is a very bright light to signal, illuminate, or attract attention, usually involving an emergency, 3) it also designates a place or part that spreads outward, such as the widening bottom of a vase or pair of pants, and 4) Figuratively, the word is commonly applied to sudden emotional outbursts.
- Answer: flare.
- Vincent’s plane had to first stop in London before going onward to Prague. While he had been approved for a ____________ to Prague, he did not realize he’d need one for London, as well. Local authorities had detained him and his whole family for four days while they had to clear them through international security before being allowed onward. (visa vs. passport)
- Passport: Internationally accepted photo identification that can be used in nations around the globe and is government issued.
- Visa: Two things: 1) it is written permission to enter a country, and 2) a brand of credit card
- Answer: visa.
- “Listen, Wendy, I didn’t mean to ___________ that you were a liar, even though I can’t prove that you were telling the truth, either.” Tranh said and looked directly into her eyes. (imply vs. infer)
- Imply: To speak/write. It means to suggest something without fully saying/writing it.
- Infer: To hear/read. It means to understand something without have something said or written about it using clues.
- Answer: imply.
- Shanda knew that a bar graph would do a better job of visually relaying the data of the different experimental groups than a mere ____________, which would only list numerical figures. (table, chart, figure, and appendix)
- Table: A grid that reveals strictly numerical data.
- Chart: A visual depiction of numerical data. Ex: pie chart or bar chart.
- Figure: An image that conveys non-numerical data like a drawing, map, sketch, photo, illustration, or painting.
- Appendix: An item in the back of a report, book, or proposal that has important supplemental material. Ex: a glossary or an example questionnaire that is related to the main content but does not necessarily belong in the main section of the text. (It can also be an organ in the body that can be surgically removed, and its function is not yet known.)
- Answer: table.
- Penny is going to the dance with Reynaldo, ____________ of what his cousin Balthazar says about it. (regardless vs. irregardless)
- Note: To regard someone means to care about him.
- Regardless: The “-less” on regardless means to not care about someone or something.
- Irregardless: It’s a double-negative and not correct. The “irr-” prefix means “not,” and the incorrect word “irregardless” means to not, not care about someone or something. Don’t use, ever.
- Answer: regardless.
- Freddie visited the pet cemetery to see Fluffy and to put a fresh bouquet of flowers upon _________ gravesite. (it’s vs. its)
- It’s: A contraction for the words “it is.” This is the only meaning, and it does not show possession. The apostrophe indicates where letters were removed. When in doubt, substitute the words “it is” into the situation to test it.
- Its: This shows possession, and it is the only exception to the rule in the entire English language where a possession does not get an apostrophe.
- Answer: its.
- Bubba and Kimiko talked about the final score of last night’s Rangers game, and then she made an ______ to a previous Rangers game a few years ago. I followed the conversation along until that moment, but I had no idea what other game she was referencing. I lost the conversation’s thread after that. (illusion vs. allusion)
- Illusion: Something that deceives the mind or senses by creating a false impression of reality but is usually done visually like an optical illusion or a magic trick as an illusion.
- Allusion: A reference, direct or implied, to something or someone. Allusions are often found in books, songs, TV shows, and movies.
- Answer: allusion.
Wow Words Review, Week 6
1. “Yee-haw!” Bubba guffawed. “Her eyes are prettier than a ___________ bug on a warm June night.” (lightning vs. lightening)
- Lightning: It is the electrical discharge that happens during storms and comes down in bolts.
- Lightening: To change the shade of a color from a darker tone to a lighter one.
- Answer: lightning.
2. David Koresh was the leader of the Branch Davidian _____________ located in Waco; Koresh, 54 other adults, and 28 children were killed in an FBI siege in 1993. (cult vs. occult)
- Cult: A religious sect organized around a strong leader and requiring fanatical beliefs. It can also be an adjective.
- Occult: Refers to the pursuit of magic or secret supernatural knowledge or power.
- Answer: cult.
3. Joanna just could not push herself any further on her bike; she rested her chin on her handlebar and left foot on the ___________. (peddle, petal, pedal)
- Peddle: Peddle means to sell.
- Petal: Petals are the colorful part of a flower.
- Pedal: A pedal is both a noun and verb. It is the place for the foot on a bike (noun), and it is also the motion needed to propel the bike (verb).
- Answer: pedal.
4. Tom’s uncle fought in the _______________________ during World War II. (Philippines vs. Filipinos)
- Philippines: The country.
- Filipinos: The people.
- Note: The name “Philippines” derives from that of the 16th-century Spanish king Philip II who invaded the islands and claimed it for Spain. Spanish does not use the “ph” to make the “f” sound, however, so when referring to the people use “f” but “ph” when referring to the nation, which was based on a proper noun. You obviously do not want to change a person’s name, and that’s why the two are different.
- Answer: Philippines.
5. I had no idea that ____________ Pickens was divorced for so long. (Miss, Mrs. Ms., Mx., Mr., Master)
- Miss: A title of respect for an unmarried woman.
- Mrs.: A married woman.
- Ms.: This one is trickier. When you don’t know whether a woman is married, it is safe to use “Ms.,” which sounds like “mizz.” It’s the safe category, and it is used for women who are also divorced or widowed, as well. Lastly, some women prefer not to be titled according to by their marital status and will use this title to avoid the association, and this can include women in same-sex marriages, as well.
- Mx.: This is a relatively new term and is used as a gender-neutral title. It is for people who do not identify as being of a particular gender, or for people who simply don’t want to be identified by gender. It is pronounced as “mix.”
- Mr.: It is a title of respect for a man over the age of 18, regardless of his marital status.
- Master: This is a title for a boy under the age of 18. (It’s old fashioned, but it still exists in literature and film.)
- Answer: Ms.
6. I have never been to New Orleans, but when I go, I would love to visit all the _________bellum homes. (ante- vs. anti-)
- Ante: A prefix meaning “before.”
- Anti: A prefix meaning “against.”
- Note: “Bellum” means war; in this sentence, an antebellum home means a home built before a war. Which war? In this case, it’s the Civil War.
- Answer: ante.
7. Vincent is glad to be __________ of the football team and will do just about anything his coach says to ensure his place on the lineup. (apart vs. a part)
- Apart: It is the separating of two things, either by time or distance. Sometimes, people will use “apart from” to mean “the exception of” or “besides.”

- Answer: a part
8. There is an infected ____________ on Sandra’s nose, and it is leaking puss. Ew! (pore, poor, pour)
- Pore: As a noun, pore means a small opening, especially in an animal or plant (think = pores on your skin). The verb pore means to read or study carefully.
- Poor: It means needy, impoverished, inadequate, or inferior.
- Pour: It means to dispense a drink or other liquid substance.
- Answer: pore.
9. Nancy is not a religious woman, but she believed all that she could do for her son was to _________ for him. (Pray vs. prey)
- Pray: Pray is a verb related to communication with one’s God, usually in the form of prayer.
- Prey: Prey is the object of an attack or hunt.
- Answer: pray.
10. A bar mitzvah is a ___________ of passage celebration for a boy in the Jewish faith, and it marks his transition from a boy to a young man. (right, write, rite)
- Right: As an adjective, right means righteous, correct, or appropriate; as a noun, it is something that is just or legal.
- Write: It means to inscribe or compose. A wright is someone who builds or repairs something.
- Rite: A rite is a ceremonial act. It can anything that contains rituals like a wedding, baptism, graduation, or a funeral.
- Answer: rite.


4.4 Wendake/Huronia and the Fur Trade
One of the distinguishing features of Aboriginal cultures in much of what is now Canada is egalitarianism. This is a broad generalization but one that applies as much to hunter-gatherer societies as it does to sedentary agricultural societies. It was rare for a nominal leader in Aboriginal communities to be able to dictate direction or policy. Even when councils, which dominated the longhouse societies, reached decisions, these were not always binding on all parties. In Iroquoian societies in particular, efforts were made to develop consensus arising from discussion, but the record of the Five Nations, for example, shows many instances where one or more member nations went their own way. Individuals had similar options. In hunter-gatherer societies, leadership was as much a recognition of proven success in the field as it was of personality or birth. These cultural traits were not always understood or appreciated by Europeans. What might appear to outsiders as a political union was very often an arrangement subject to regular renewal and rejuvenation. The newcomers were accustomed to hierarchical societies headed by nobles and high clergy; not surprisingly they looked for parallels in Aboriginal communities and often mistook very different arrangements for “chiefdoms,” if not kingdoms. Errors such as these led the Europeans to assume, in some instances, that they could make treaties and pacts once and for all. Aboriginal peoples, however, put an emphasis on renewal and reaffirmation: they expected gifts and declarations of loyalty from one another in commerce and diplomacy and expected no less from their European trading partners.
Europeans in an Aboriginal Marketplace
Some of these features were immediately obvious to sharp-eyed French leaders like Champlain, but not to others. Certainly European traders needed to take pains to conduct themselves according to local standards of commerce and not those of France, Holland, or England. Making that adjustment was often the surest course to success and profits, so there was a powerful incentive for the Europeans to get it right. And sometimes they did.
In many tellings of the history of New France, Champlain appears to engage the largest Iroquoian-speaking nation north of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes in a trade and military alliance. In point of fact, the Wendat approached the French. The first few years of fur trading along the St. Lawrence involved the Algonquin and the Innu in particular. Both were acting as middlemen in their own right, trading goods that had been procured first by their neighbours, generally farther north. That middleman role was taken over by the more powerful Wendat.
The French placed a premium on furs that had seen some use. Contact and wear removes the guard hairs from the pelt and leaves the fur glossier and richer looking — something that the French market preferred. This single fact gave shape to the fur trade. If the French had been interested only in freshly harvested furs, their influence would have spread much more slowly. One region would be denuded of animals, then another and another, sequentially. But the demand for used furs extended the trade out in search of stockpiles already held by Aboriginal families, bands, and communities. It created a series of funnels of trade that passed pelts out of one village or camp and into another and then another, coalescing finally in the hands of the ultimate middleman. From 1610 to 1649, that role was filled by the Wendat Confederacy.
The Wendat
Wendat commerce has to be understood within its cultural context. The accumulation of goods was important and the Wendat were canny traders capable of manipulating supply and demand as needed so as to inflate prices from one season to the next. But wealth was acquired so that it could be given away: acquisitiveness and hoarding for personal use were frowned upon. Generosity and lavish gift-giving was a route to status in many Aboriginal societies and the Wendat were, in this respect, no exception. Although they traded for functional goods — materials that could be used on a day-to-day basis — they also sought luxury items and exotic goods that carried special weight as gifts. So long as the material needs of the Wendat household were met, trade would focus on goods that had the potential to elevate the standing of individuals or their families.
This quality, too, was an asset as far as trade with the French was concerned. The novelty value of French goods could instantly be applied to the social competition that went on in Wendat longhouses. What was of still greater benefit to the French in their quest for large quantities of furs was the simple fact that the Wendat were sedentary. Their longhouses functioned as warehouses, too. Unlike the much more mobile and nomadic northern peoples, the Wendat could stockpile great amounts of furs and other goods in a way that no one else north of Lake Ontario could.
The 1609 Wendat visit to Champlain’s habitation had two purposes. First, it was meant to engage the Innu (Montagnais) in a trade relationship that was already in place between the Wendat and the Algonquin nations. Second, the Wendat wanted to scout out the newcomers whose trade goods were already finding their way into Wendake (a.k.a. Huronia). To confirm the new partnership that now included not only the Innu but the French, the Aboriginal allies proposed a raid on the Mohawk village of Ticonderoga. Champlain agreed to participate, an important step toward a long-term alliance with the Wendat-Algonquin-Innu but also the initiation of a long history of enmity between the Haudenosaunee and the French.
The Haudenosaunee (as discussed in Chapter 5) were engaged in an effectively endless series of raids and counter raids called the “Mourning Wars.” In Iroquoian societies the murder of a member was to be avenged by family; likewise, the murderer was to be protected by their family. Hostages were regularly taken, some of whom might be adopted into their host community as replacements for those who had died or had themselves been captured by the opposition. Captives in warfare typically faced highly structured public torture rituals aimed at testing their courage and endurance. In the absence of a police force and/or penal system these structures gave expression to Iroquoian understandings of justice and personal responsibility. Having committed to the northern alliance, Champlain had — probably unwittingly — inserted the French into generations of revenge killings and assaults.
That was not his goal, of course. His purpose was to gain access to a lucrative supply of furs and in this he was successful. Wendake (Huronia) was 700 km of river route away from Montreal but it produced approximately half of all the furs traded in the 1620s and a substantial share even after the smallpox epidemics of the 1630s and the intensification of war with the Haudenosaunee in the 1640s. For reasons discussed in Chapter 5, Wendake (Huronia) failed to recover from the epidemics and was increasingly unable to defend itself from Haudenosaunee raids. The Confederacy was dispersed in 1649.
By that time the French had established direct contact with many of the northern peoples and had trained dozens of men — coureur de bois — for the task of long-distance canoeing and North American commercial protocols. The loss of Wendake (Huronia) was, however, a significant blow to their Aboriginal neighbours who depended on Wendat corn in particular. The French, as an agricultural society, were able to absorb some of the demand for agricultural produce, a fact that would enhance their position in the fur trade after 1663.
A final note on this phase of the colonial fur trade underlines the very important fact that the fur trade was utterly dependent on the engagement of Aboriginal partners. As the 1620s opened, there were fewer than 70 French residents in Canada. Until the 1670s this would not change greatly. Canada at this stage produced little of its own food, contained a handful of biological families, and the fur trade was its entire raison d’être.
Key Points
- The fur trade required the exploitation and extension of networks deep into the interior of North America.
- That network depended on the involvement of Aboriginal traders and merchants, the most important to the French in this period being the Wendat (also known as the Huron) who called their confederacy and homeland Wendake (aka Huronia).
- Wendat diplomatic and commercial priorities along with their assets made them pivotal players in the early fur trade with Europeans.
Attributions
Figure 4.9
Reconstructed Huron Wendat long house by Neufast is used under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 license.


Private: Faculty of Arts and Science – Sciences
Psychology
Open Textbooks and Concordia Courses
| Open Textbook Title | Potentially Relevant Courses |
| Discover Psychology 2.0 – A Brief Introductory Text | PSYC 200 |
| Introduction to Psychology | PSYC 200 |
| Boundless Psychology | PSYC 200, PSYC 221, PSYC 223, PSYC 255, PSYC 325 |
| Psychology | PSYC 200, PSYC 325, PSYC 351 |
| Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience | PSYC 200, PSYC 355, PSYC 458 |
| Abnormal Psychology | PSYC 240, PSYC 440, PSYC 441, PSYC 442 |
| Theories and Biological Basis of Substance Misuse, Part 1 | PSYC 250, PSYC 450 |
| History of Psychology (Noba) | Has been integrated in PSYC 305 |
| Research Methods in Psychology, 2nd Canadian Edition | PSYC 310, PSYC 315 |
| Answering Questions with Data: Introductory Statistics for Psychology Students | PSYC 315 |
| Introduction to Applied Statistics for Psychology Students | PSYC 316 |
| The Balance of Personality | PSYC 321, PSYC 427 |
| Principles of Social Psychology, 1st International Edition | PSYC 325 |
| Together: The Science of Social Psychology | PSYC 325 |
| An Introduction to Social Psychology | PSYC 325 |
| Lifespan Development – A Psychological Perspective | Has been integrated in PSYC 333 |
| Mind, Body, World – Foundations of Cognitive Science | PSYC 466, PSYC 468 |
| Psychology, Communication, and the Canadian Workplace | PSYC 374 |
Description and Access
Discover Psychology 2.0 – A Brief Introductory Text
This textbook presents core concepts common to introductory courses. The text covers the traditional areas of intro-to-psychology, ranging from biological aspects of psychology to psychological disorders to social psychology.
Includes: external resources, summaries, discussion questions
May suit: PSYC 200 Introductory Psychology
Introduction to Psychology
This first Canadian edition textbook is designed to help students organize their thinking about psychology at a conceptual level. The focus on behaviour and empiricism has produced a text that is better organized, has fewer chapters, and is somewhat shorter than many contemporary books.
Includes: instructor and student resources, summaries, case studies, exercises, critical thinking problems
May suit: PSYC 200 Introductory Psychology
Psychology
The OpenStax textbook offers a comprehensive treatment of core concepts grounded in classic studies and current and emerging research. It incorporates discussions that reflect the diversity within the discipline and the diversity of cultures and communities across the globe. The text also includes coverage of the DSM-5 in examinations of psychological disorders.
Includes: instructor and student resources, animations and simulations, critical thinking and reflection exercises
May suit: PSYC 200 Introductory Psychology, PSYC 325 Fundamentals of Social Psychology, PSYC 351 Fundamentals of Learning
Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience
This introductory psychology textbook, in its second edition, heavily focuses on neuroscience. The foundation of this book is built upon Psychology 2e from OpenStax. Some Canadian content has been incorporated.
Includes: videos, key terms, links to learning, exercises, review questions
May suit: PSYC 200 Introductory Psychology, PSYC 355 Fundamentals of Behavioural Neurobiology, PSYC 458 Behavioural Neuroscience Advanced Issues
Boundless Psychology
This introductory textbook covers the intriguing subject of Psychology. To develop the book, subject matter experts have selected the most relevant open educational resources available on the web and reviewed the content for quality to meet the study needs of university students.
Includes: key takeaways
May suit: PSYC 200 Introductory Psychology, PSYC 221 Foundations of Personality, PSYC 223 Motivation and Emotion in Daily Life, PSYC 255 Brain and Behaviour, PSYC 325 Fundamentals of Social Psychology, PSYC 333 Fundamentals of Lifespan Development
Abnormal Psychology
This comprehensive text has been created from a combination of original content and materials compiled and adapted from existing open educational resources.
Includes: summaries, self-tests
May suit: PSYC 240 Foundations of Psychopathology, PSYC 440 Psychopathology: Mood, Anxiety, and Personality Disorders, PSYC 441 Psychopathology: Schizophrenia and Neurocognitive Disorders, PSYC 442 Psychopathology: Behaviour Regulation Disorders
Theories and Biological Basis of Substance Misuse, Part 1
This book applies a biopsychosocial lens to identify, understand, and address problems related to substance use, substance misuse, and substance use disorders.
Includes: key terms, summaries
May suit: PSYC 250 Drugs and Behaviour, PSYC 450 Neurobiology of Drug Abuse and Addiction
History of Psychology (Noba)
This open textbook was adopted for PSYC 305 History and Systems at Concordia University. This module provides an introduction and overview of the historical development of the science and practice of psychology in America. Ever-increasing specialization within the field often makes it difficult to discern the common roots from which the field of psychology has evolved. By exploring this shared past, students will be better able to understand how psychology has developed into the discipline we know today.
Includes: Discussion Questions and Vocabulary Summary
Suit: Has been integrated in PSYC 305 History and Systems
Research Methods in Psychology, 2nd Canadian Edition
This textbook introduces students to the fundamental principles of what it is like to think like a psychology researcher. It also aims to show audiences the impactful research being generated in Canada as well as provide them with an accurate picture of the Canadian context for human ethical research.
Includes: key takeaways, glossary, exercises
May suit: PSYC 310 Research Methods and Designs, PSYC 315 Statistical Analysis I
Answering Questions with Data: Introductory Statistics for Psychology Students
This is an introductory statistics textbook for Psychology. It is part of a larger OER course package for teaching undergraduate statistics in Psychology, including this textbook, a lab manual, and a course website. All of the resources are free and reusable.
Includes: videos
May suit: PSYC 315 Statistical Analysis I
Introduction to Applied Statistics for Psychology Students
This textbook is relevant for students studying Psychology at the undergraduate level. It has been updated to include chapters on using the application RStudio, as an alternative to SPSS.
May suit: PSYC 316 Statistical Analysis II
The Balance of Personality
Developed as an upper-level undergraduate resource, this textbook focuses on the diversity and complexity of personality. It also explores how personality is a carefully created balance of traits and behaviours.
Includes: vocabulary, videos, practice quizzes
May suit: PSYC 321 Fundamentals of Personality, PSYC 427 Current Issues in Personality
Principles of Social Psychology, 1st International Edition
This textbook introduces students to social psychology’s basic concepts and principles from an interactionist perspective. Classic studies and theories are presented with insights from cutting-edge, contemporary research. An emphasis on real-world examples and applications is intended to guide students to critically analyze their situations and social interactions to use their knowledge effectively.
Includes: key takeaways, glossary, critical thinking exercises
May suit: PSYC 325 Fundamentals of Social Psychology
Together: The Science of Social Psychology
This textbook presents core concepts common to introductory social psychology courses. It covers key social psychology topics such as research methods, group processes, social influence, and relationships.
Includes: external resources, vocabulary, discussion questions
May suit: PSYC 325 Fundamentals of Social Psychology
An Introduction to Social Psychology
The collection of modules in this book provides an overview of research and theories in social psychology and reveals the broad spectrum of behaviors, cognitions, and emotions that are influenced by the social context. In addition, this book aims to provide a selective introduction into the main themes of social psychology such as research methods and theories related to the self-concept, social cognition, attitudes, prejudice, and social influence.
May suit: PSYC 325 Fundamental of Social Psychology
Lifespan Development – A Psychological Perspective
This open textbook was adopted for PSYC 333 Fundamentals of Lifespan Development at Concordia University. Based on the original version from LibreTexts, this textbook reviews the major theoretical approaches that shape our understanding of development from conception to death. In each chapter, up-to-date research findings describe and explain biological, psychological, and social development across the life course. Supplementary materials have been added to this edition including Canadian resources and comprehension exercises.
Includes: Test bank, exercises, and questions
Suits: Has been integrated in PSYC 333 Fundamentals of Lifespan Development
Mind, Body, World: Foundations of Cognitive Science
This textbook emphasizes the key ideas that serve as the foundations for each school of thought in cognitive science. An attempt is made to consider whether differences among these key ideas can be used to inform conceptions of cognitive architecture.
May suit: PSYC 466 Cognitive Development, PSYC 468 Cognitive Science Advanced Issues
Psychology, Communication, and the Canadian Workplace
This book explores key topics related to professional communication using a psychological lens. Students will have the opportunity to examine how communication and workplace behaviours are influenced by individual differences in emotion, motivation, learning, memory, decision-making behaviour, and personality as they relate to communication and interpersonal relationships in the Canadian workplace.
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May suit: PSYC 374 Organizational Psychology
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118 The Spread of Steam Power
25.3.3: The Spread of Steam Power
Steam engines found many uses in a variety of industries, most notably mining and transportation, but its popularization shaped nearly every aspect of the industrial society, including where people could live, labor, and travel; how goods were produced, marketed, and sold; and what technological innovations followed.
Learning Objective
Give examples of the industries powered by steam
Key Points
- The steam engine was one of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, inspiring other innovations and initiating further technological advancements. In 1775, James Watt formed an engine-building and engineering partnership with manufacturer Matthew Boulton. This served as a kind of creative technical center for much of the British economy. They supported talents and other companies, creating a culture where firms often shared information that they could use to create new techniques or products.
- From mines to mills, steam engines found many uses in a variety of industries. The introduction of steam engines improved productivity and technology and allowed the creation of smaller and better engines. Around the start of the 19th century, Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and American Oliver Evans began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. After Trevithick’s development, transport applications became possible and steam engines found their way into boats, railways, farms, and road vehicles.
- The steam engine was originally invented and perfected to be used in mines. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. The adoption of John Smeaton’s improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt’s more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable.
- Steam locomotives were invented after the introduction of high pressure steam engines when the Boulton and Watt patent expired in 1800. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. The use of steam engines on railroads proved extraordinary since large amounts of goods and raw materials could now be delivered to cities and factories alike at a fraction of the cost traveling by wagon.
- Following the advent of the steamboat, the United States saw an incredible growth in the transportation of goods and people, which was key in westward expansion. The steamboat dramatically reduced time used to transport goods and allowed for increased specialization. The steamboat was also critical to facilitating the internal slave trade. With the steamboat came the need for an improved river system and infrastructure along the rivers.
- Steam engines are a particularly illustrative example of how changes brought by industrialization led to even more changes in other areas. While many consider the potential for an increase in power generated the dominant benefit, others favor the potential for agglomeration. Steam engines made it possible to easily work, live, produce, market, specialize, and viably expand without having to worry about the less abundant presence of waterways.
Key Terms
- Boulton and Watt
- An early British engineering and manufacturing firm in the business of designing and making marine and stationary steam engines. Founded in the English West Midlands around Birmingham in 1775 as a partnership between the English manufacturer Matthew Boulton and the Scottish engineer James Watt, the firm had a major role in the Industrial Revolution and grew to be a major producer of steam engines in the 19th century.
- beam engine
- A type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force from a vertical piston to a vertical connecting rod. This configuration, with the engine directly driving a pump, was first used by Thomas Newcomen around 1705 to remove water from mines in Cornwall.
- steam engine
- A heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.
Steam Engine Revolution
The steam engine was one of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishmen Thomas Savery’s first practical, atmospheric pressure engine (1698) and Thomas Newcomen’s atmospheric engine (1712) through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine became used in many industrial settings. In 1775, Watt formed an engine-building and engineering partnership with manufacturer Matthew Boulton that became one of the most important businesses of the Industrial Revolution and served as a creative technical center for much of the British economy. The partners solved technical problems and spread the solutions to other companies. Similar firms did the same thing in other industries and were especially important in the machine tool industry. These interactions between companies reduced the amount of research time and expense that each business had to spend working with its own resources. The technological advances of the Industrial Revolution happened more quickly because firms often shared information they could use to create new techniques or products.
Major Applications
From mines to mills, steam engines found many uses in a variety of industries. The introduction of steam engines improved productivity and technology and allowed the creation of smaller and better engines. Until about 1800, the most common type of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Around the start of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and American Oliver Evans began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. After Trevithick’s development, transport applications became possible and steam engines found their way into boats, railways, farms, and road vehicles.
The steam engine was originally invented and perfected to be used in mines. Before the steam engine, shallow bell pits followed a seam of coal along the surface and were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favorable, the coal was mined by a drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a tunnel driven into a hill t. In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These developments began before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton’s improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt’s more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable.
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Steam locomotives were invented after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines when the Boulton and Watt patent expired in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. The use of steam engines on railroads proved extraordinary in the fact that now you could have large amounts of goods and raw materials delivered to cities and factories alike. Trains could deliver these to places far away at a fraction of the cost traveling by wagon.
Particularly in the United States, the introduction and development of the steamboat resulted in vast changes. Prior to the steamboat, rivers were generally only used in transporting goods from east to west, and from north to south as fighting the current was very difficult and often impossible. Non-powered boats and rafts were assembled upstream to carry cargo downstream, and would often be disassembled at the end of their journey and the remains used to construct homes and commercial buildings. Following the advent of the steamboat, the U.S. saw incredible growth in the transportation of goods and people, which was key in westward expansion. The steamboat dramatically reduced time used to transport goods and allowed for increased specialization. It was also critical to facilitating the internal slave trade.
With the steamboat came the need for an improved river system. The natural river system produced such obstacles as rapids, sand bars, shallow waters, and waterfalls. To overcome these natural obstacles, a network of canals, locks, and dams was constructed. This increased demand for labor along the rivers, resulting in tremendous job growth. The popularization of the steamboat also led directly to growth in the coal and insurance industries and demand for repair facilities along the rivers. Additionally, the demand for goods in general increased as the steamboat made transport to new destinations both wide-reaching and efficient.
Prior to the steamboat, it could take between three and four months to make the passage from New Orleans to Louisville, averaging twenty miles a day. With the steamboat this time was reduced drastically with trips ranging from twenty-five to thirty-five days. This was especially beneficial to farmers as their crops could now be transported elsewhere to be sold.
Steam Engine and Societal Progress
Steam engines are a particularly illustrative example of how changes brought by industrialization led to even more changes in other area.Water power, the world’s preceding supply of power, continued to be an essential source even during the height of steam engine popularity. The steam engine, however, provided many novel benefits. While many consider the potential for an increase in power generated o be the dominant benefit (with the average horsepower of steam powered mills producing four times the power of water powered mills), others favor the potential for agglomeration. Steam engines made it possible to easily work, live, produce, market, specialize, and viably expand without having to worry about the less abundant presence of waterways. Cities and towns were now built around factories, where steam engines served as the foundation for the livelihood of many of the citizens. By promoting the agglomeration of individuals, successful local markets were established. Cities quickly grew and the quality of living eventually increased as infrastructure was put in place. Finer goods could be produced as acquisition of materials became less difficult and expensive. Direct local competition led to higher degrees of specialization and labor and capital were in rich supply. The steam-powered towns encouraged growth both locally and on the national scale.
Attributions
- The Spread of Steam Power
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“Steam power during the Industrial Revolution.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_power_during_the_Industrial_Revolution. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
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“Industrial Revolution .” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
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“800px-1920_Steamboat_on_the_Yukon_River.jpg.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_power_during_the_Industrial_Revolution#/media/File:1920_Steamboat_on_the_Yukon_River.jpg. Wikipedia Public domain.
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“15_23_1056_ford_museum.jpg.” https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:15_23_1056_ford_museum.jpg. Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0 Universal.


Colonial Literature – Of the Revolution – Franklin, Crevecoeur, Paine
30 The Way to Wealth (1758) By Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin
COURTEOUS READER,
I have heard that nothing gives an author so great pleasure, as to find his works respectfully quoted by others. Judge, then, how much I must have been gratified by an incident I am going to relate to you. I stopped my horse, lately, where a great number of people were collected at an auction of merchants’ goods. The hour of the sale not being come, they were conversing on the badness of the times; and one of the company called to a plain, clean, old man, with white locks, ‘Pray, Father Abraham, what think you of the times? Will not those heavy taxes quite ruin the country! How shall we be ever able to pay them? What would you advise us to?’——Father Abraham stood up, and replied, ‘If you would have my advice, I will give it you in short; “for a word to the wise is enough,” as Poor Richard says.’ They joined in desiring him to speak his mind, and, gathering round him, he proceeded as follows:
‘Friends,’ says he, ‘the taxes are indeed very heavy; and, if those laid on by the government were the only ones we had to pay, we might more easily discharge them; but we have many others, and much more grievous to some of us. We are taxed twice as much by our idleness, three times as much by our pride, and four times as much by our folly; and from these taxes the commissioners cannot ease or deliver us by allowing an abatement. However, let us hearken to good advice, and something may be done for us; “God helps them that help themselves,” as Poor Richard says.
I. ‘It would be thought a hard government that should tax its people one-tenth part of their time to be employed in its service: but idleness taxes many of us much more; sloth, by bringing on diseases, absolutely shortens life.
“Sloth, like rust, consumes faster than labour wears, while the used key is always bright,” as Poor Richard says.—”But, dost thou love life? then do not squander time, for that is the stuff life is made of,” as Poor Richard says.—How much more than is necessary do we spend in sleep! forgetting that, “the sleeping fox catches no poultry, and that there will be sleeping enough in the grave,” as Poor Richard says. “If time be of all things the most precious, wasting time must be” as Poor Richard says, “the greatest prodigality;” since, as he elsewhere tells us, “Lost time is never found again; and what we call time enough, always proves little enough.” Let us then up and be doing, and doing to the purpose: so by diligence shall we do more with less perplexity. “Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry all easy; and he that riseth late, must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night; while laziness travels so slowly, that poverty soon overtakes him. Drive thy business, let not that drive thee; and early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise,” as Poor Richard says.
‘So what signifies wishing and hoping for better times? We may make these times better, if we bestir ourselves. “Industry need not wish, and he that lives upon hope will die fasting. There are no gains without pains; then help hands, for I have no lands;” or if I have, they are smartly taxed. “He that hath a trade, hath an estate; and he that hath a calling, hath an office of profit and honour,” as Poor Richard says; but then the trade must be worked at, and the calling well followed, or neither the estate nor the office will enable us to pay our taxes.—If we are industrious, we shall never starve; for “at the working man’s house hunger looks in, but dares not enter.” Nor will the bailiff or the constable enter, for “industry pays debts, while despair increaseth them.” What, though you have found no treasure, nor has any rich relation left you a legacy.  Then plow deep, while sluggards sleep, and you shall have corn to sell and to keep.” Work while it is called to-day, for you know not how much you may be hindered to-morrow. “One to-day is worth two to-morrows,” as Poor Richard says, and farther, “Never leave that till to-morrow, which you can do to- day.”—If you were a servant, would you not be ashamed that a good master should catch you idle?  Handle your tools without mittens: remember, that “The cat in gloves catches no mice,” as Poor Richard says. It is true, there is much to be done, and, perhaps, you are weak-handed: but stick to it steadily, and you will see great effects; for “Constant dropping wears away stones; and by diligence and patience the mouse ate in two the cable; and little strokes fell great oaks.”
‘Methinks I hear some of you say, “Must a man afford himself no leisure?” I will tell thee, my friend, what Poor Richard says, “Employ thy time well, if thou meanest to gain leisure; and, since thou art not sure of a minute, throw not away an hour.” Leisure is time for doing something useful; this leisure the diligent man will obtain, but the lazy man never; for “A life of leisure and a life of laziness are two things. Many, without labour, would live by their wits only, but they break for want of stock;” whereas industry gives comfort, and plenty, and respect. “Fly pleasures and they will follow you. The diligent spinner has a large shift; and now I have a sheep and a cow, every body bids me good-morrow.”
II. ‘But with our industry we must likewise be steady, settled, and careful, and oversee our own affairs with our own eyes, and not trust too much to others: for, as Poor Richard says,
“I never saw an oft-removed tree,
Nor yet an oft-removed family,
That throve so well as those that settled be.”
And again, “Three removes are as bad as a fire,” and again, “Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee:” and again, “If you would have your business done, go; if not, send.” And again,
“He that by the plow would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive.”
‘And again, “The eye of the master will do more work than both his hands:” and again, “Want of care does us more damage than want of knowledge;” and again, “Not to oversee workmen, is to leave them your purse open.”
‘Trusting too much to others’ care is the ruin of many; for, “In the affairs of this world, men are saved, not by faith, but by the want of it:” but a man’s own care is profitable; for, “If you would have a faithful servant, and one that you like,—serve yourself. A little neglect may breed great mischief; for want of a nail the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe the horse was lost; and for want of a horse the rider was lost;” being overtaken and slain by the enemy; all for want of a little care about a horse-shoe nail.
III. ‘So much for industry, my friends, and attention to one’s own business; but to these we must add frugality, if we would make our industry more certainly successful. A man may if he knows not how to save as he gets, “keep his nose all his life to the grindstone, and die not worth a groat at last. A fat kitchen makes a lean will;” and,
“Many estates are spent in the getting,
Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting,
And men for punch forsook hewing and splitting.”
“If you would be wealthy, think of saving, as well as of getting. The Indies have not made Spain rich, because her out-goes are greater than her incomes.”
‘Away, then, with your expensive follies, and you will not then have so much cause to complain of hard times, heavy taxes, and chargeable families; for,
“Women and wine, game and deceit,
Make the wealth small, and the want great.”
And farther, “What maintains one vice, would bring up two children.” You may think perhaps, that a little tea, or a little punch now and then, diet a little more costly, clothes a little finer, and a little entertainment now and then, can be no great matter; but remember, “Many a little makes a mickle.” Beware of little expences; “A small leak will sink a great ship,” as Poor Richard says; and again, “Who dainties love shall beggars prove;” and moreover, “Fools make feasts, and wise men eat them.” Here you are all got together to this sale of fineries and nick-nacks. You call them goods; but, if you do not take care, they will prove evils to some of you. You expect they will be sold cheap, and, perhaps, they may for less than they cost; but, if you have no occasion for them, they must be dear to you. Remember what poor Richard says, “Buy what thou hast no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries.” And again, “At a great pennyworth pause a while:” he means, that perhaps the cheapness is apparent only, and not real; or the bargain, by straitening thee in thy business, may do thee more harm than good. For, in another place, he says, “Many have been ruined by buying good pennyworths.” Again, “It is foolish to lay out money in a purchase of repentance;” and yet this folly is practised every day at auctions, for want of minding the Almanack. Many a one, for the sake of finery on the back, have gone with a hungry belly, and half starved their families; “Silks and satins, scarlet and velvets, put out the kitchen fire,” as Poor Richard says. These are not the necessaries of life; they can scarcely be called the conveniences: and yet only because they look pretty, how many want to have them?—By these, and other extravagancies, the genteel are reduced to poverty, and forced to borrow of those whom they formerly despised, but who, through industry and frugality, have maintained their standing; in which case it appears plainly, that “A ploughman on his legs is higher than a gentleman on his knees,” as Poor Richard says. Perhaps they have had a small estate left them, which they knew not the getting of; they think “it is day, and will never be night:” that a little to be spent out of so much is not worth minding; but “Always taking out of the meal-tub, and never putting in, soon comes to the bottom,” as Poor Richard says; and then, “When the well is dry, they know the worth of water.” But this they might have known before, if they had taken his advice. “If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some; for he that goes a borrowing, goes a sorrowing,” as Poor Richard says; and, indeed, so does he that lends to such people, when he goes to get it in again. Poor Dick farther advises, and says,
“Fond pride of dress is sure a very curse, Ere fancy you consult, consult your purse.”
‘And again, “Pride is as loud a beggar as Want, and a great deal more saucy.” When you have bought one fine thing, you must buy ten more, that your appearance may be all of a piece; but[28] Poor Dick says, “It is easier to suppress the first desire, than to satisfy all that follow it.” And it is as truly folly for the poor to ape the rich, as for the frog to swell, in order to equal the ox.
“Vessels large may venture more,
But little boats should keep near shore.”
It is, however, a folly soon punished: for, as Poor Richard says, “Pride that dines on vanity, sups on contempt;—Pride breakfasted with Plenty, dined with Poverty and supped with Infamy.” And, after all, of what use is this pride of appearance, for which so much is risked, so much is suffered? It cannot promote health, nor ease pain; it makes no increase of merit in the person, it creates envy, it hastens misfortune.
‘But what madness it must be to run in debt for these superfluities? We are offered, by the terms of this sale, six months credit; and that, perhaps, has induced some of us to attend it, because we cannot spare the ready money, and hope now to be fine without it. But, ah! think what you do when you run in debt; you give to another power over your liberty, If you cannot pay at the time, you will be ashamed to see your creditor; you will be in fear when you speak to him; you will make poor pitiful sneaking excuses, and, by degrees, come to lose your veracity, and sink into base, downright lying; for, “The second vice is lying, the first is running in debt,” as Poor Richard says; and again, to the same purpose, “Lying rides upon Debt’s back:” whereas a free-born Englishman ought not to be ashamed nor afraid to see or speak to any man living. But poverty often deprives a man of all spirit and virtue. “It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright.”—What would you think of that prince, or of that government, who should issue an edict forbidding you to dress like a gentleman or gentlewoman, on pain of imprisonment or servitude? Would you not say that you were free, have a right to dress as you please, and that such an edict would be a breach of your privileges, and such a government tyrannical? And yet you are about to put yourself under that tyranny, when you run in debt for such dress! Your creditor has authority, at his pleasure, to deprive you of your liberty, by confining you in gaol for life, or by selling you for a servant, if you should not be able to pay him. When you have got your bargain, you may, perhaps, think little of payment; but, as Poor Richard says, “Creditors have better memories than debtors; creditors are a superstitious sect, great observers of set days and times.” The day comes round before you are aware, and the demand is made before you are prepared to satisfy it; or, if you bear your debt in mind, the term, which at first seemed so long, will, as it lessens, appear extremely short: “Time will seem to have added wings to his heels as well as his shoulders. Those have a short Lent, who owe money to be paid at Easter.” At present, perhaps, you may think yourselves in thriving circumstances, and that you can bear a little extravagance without injury; but
“For age and want save while you may,
No morning sun lasts a whole day.”
‘Gain may be temporary and uncertain; but ever, while you live, expense is constant and certain; and “It is easier to build two chimneys, than to keep one in fuel,” as Poor Richard says: so, “Rather go to bed supper-less, than rise in debt,”
Get what you can, and what you get hold,
‘Tis the stone that will turn all your lead into gold.
And when you have got the Philosopher’s stone, sure you will no longer complain of bad times, or the difficulty of paying taxes.
IV. ‘This doctrine, my friends, is reason and wisdom; but, after all, do not depend too much upon your own industry, and frugality, and prudence, though excellent things; for they may all be blasted without the blessing of Heaven; and therefore, ask that blessing humbly, and be not uncharitable to those that at present seem to want it, but comfort and help them. Remember, Job suffered, and was afterwards prosperous.
‘And now to conclude, “Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no other,” as Poor Richard says, and scarce in that; for it is true, “We may give advice, but we cannot give conduct.” However, remember this, “They that will not be counselled cannot be helped;” and farther, that “If you will not hear Reason, she will surely rap your knuckles,” as Poor Richard says.’
Thus the old gentleman ended his harangue. The people heard it, and approved the doctrine, and immediately practised the contrary, just as if it had been a common sermon; for the auction opened, and they began to buy extravagantly.—I found the good man had thoroughly studied my Almanacks, and digested all I had dropt on those topics during the course of twenty-five years. The frequent mention he made of me must have tired any one else; but my vanity was wonderfully delighted with it, though I was conscious that not a tenth part of the wisdom was my own, which he ascribed to me; but rather the gleanings that I had made of the sense of all ages and nations. However, I resolved to be the better for the echo of it; and, though I had at first determined to buy stuff for a new coat, I went away, resolved to wear my old one a little longer. Reader, if thou wilt do the same, thy profit will be as great as mine.—I am, as ever, thine to serve thee,
RICHARD SAUNDERS.
Source:
Becoming America, Wendy Kurant, ed., CC-BY-SA


52 Alberti
Mantua’s Relic
In the Fifteenth Century, pilgrims flocked to the Basilica of Sant’Andrea to venerate the city of Mantua’s most famous relic, drops of Christ’s blood collected at the crucifixion (or so the faithful believed).
In fact, the church was erected to accommodate the huge crowds that arrived on holy days and who, in turn, helped fund its construction.
Today, art historians admire Sant’Andrea’s Early Renaissance design for elegantly bringing the grandeur of ancient architecture into a Christian church.
Who Built That?
Sant’Andrea is built of bricks, though they are mostly concealed by painted stucco. The patron, Ludovico Gonzaga, estimated that at least 2 million bricks were needed. The bricks were baked in onsite kilns, making the church far less expensive and faster to erect than a building made with stone, which had to be quarried, transported, and finished.
Gonzaga was the Marquis of Mantua—and in addition to employing Alberti, he appointed Andrea Mantega as court artist. His portrait is featured in the frescos Mantegna painted in the Camera degli Sposi (also known as the Camera Picta), in the Marquis’ palace.
The sections of the building constructed in the fifteenth century, including the Western façade and the nave up to the transept, are usually attributed to the humanist and architect Leon Battista Alberti, even though he died in Rome a few months before construction began in June 1472. Alberti was an expert on all things ancient and he wrote the first Renaissance architectural treatise.
Alberti probably made a model to explain his design and he definitely sent Gonzaga a drawing (now lost), and a short description of his plan in a letter dated 1470. Despite this, it is uncertain how much of the building follows Alberti’s design, how much comes from the Florentine architect Luca Fancelli who directed construction, and how much should be credited to Gonzaga, who closely supervised the project.
Ancient Models
Questions of Sant’Andrea’s attribution are important because it is such an ingenious, unified combination of three ancient Roman forms: temple front, triumphal arch, and basilica.
On the façade, four giant pilasters with Corinthian capitals support an entablature and pediment.
Together these elements recall the front of ancient temples, such as the Pantheon in Rome. There is also a grand arch in the center of the façade that is supported, at least visually, by two shorter fluted pilasters. Taken together, the lower façade, with its tall central arch and flanking side doors evoke ancient triumphal arches such as the Arch of Constantine.
Ancient Rituals
The center arch extends deep into the facade itself, creating a recessed barrel vault that frames the main entrance to the church. The arch and its coffered barrel vault form a perfect setting for processions of the holy relic and the celebration of Christ’s triumph over death. Such spectacles would recall ancient processions where victorious warriors paraded through Rome’s triumphal arches.
When pilgrims pass under the arch and into the nave (the long interior hall), after their eyes adjusted to the purposefully dim, mystical light, they would look up and see a second, much more massive barrel vault, the largest constructed since ancient Rome.
Then, on both sides of the nave they would find three chapels with lower barrel vaults. Surprisingly, there are no side aisles or rows of columns, as at the old St. Peter’s in Rome or other early churches like Santa Sabina.
Sant’Andrea’s huge central space and buttressing side chapels strongly resemble the layout of the ancient Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in the Roman forum (below). The basilica plan is perfectly suited to large churches since it could accommodate massive crowds. But unlike earlier basilica-plan churches, Sant’Andrea’s plan seems to return more strictly to the ancient forms.
It’s even possible that Sant’Andrea’s unusual plan and all’antica (“after the antique”) façade impacted the new St. Peter’s and the Church of the Gesù in Rome.