Fisheries on coral reefs are highly complex, can be very productive, but typically have little or no management. Widespread overfishing and declining yields reveal an acute need for proper management. However, conventional management methods are inappropriate for two main reasons: they require much information on the biology of stocks and are expensive and difficult to 5 6 8 enforce. Use of marine reserves has been suggested as an alternative. Protective management potentially has several important benefits including ( i) protection os spawning stocks; ( ii) provision of recruits to replenish fishing grounds; ( iii) enhancement of catches in adjacent unprotected areas through emigration; ( iv) minimal requirement for information on biology of stocks; and ( v) ease of enforcement. However, the effectiveness of the reserve approach has not been properly tested. We evaluate the evidence available to test whether reserves function as predicted on theoretical grounds. In general, field studies from widespread sites around the globe support predictions of increases in abundance and average size of fishes in protected areas. However, evidence for enhanced catches in adjacent areas is more limited, and evidence to show that reserves can restock fishing grounds is lacking. Nevertheless, protective management appears to hold much promise for low cost management of reef fisheries. Research programs in several areas of the Caribbean and Indo Pacific have now been launched to refine the approach.

Roberts, Kenneth J. ( 1995). " Decision Guide to Individual Transferable Quota ( ITQ) Management of Fisheries." Draft guide, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana Sea Grant College Program.

A guide to fishermen explaining individual transferable quotas and an annotated bibliography of selected articles and reports that is designed to answer specific questions poised by individuals interested in limited access.

Roberts, Kenneth J. ( 1995). " Decision Guide to Individual Quota ( IQ) Management of Fisheries." Final Report, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, April, 24 pp.

A guide to fishermen explaining individual quotas and an annotated bibliography of selected articles and reports that is designed to answer specific questions poised by individuals interested in limited access.

Roberts, Kenneth J. and M. E. Sass ( 1979). " Financial Aspects of Louisiana Shrimp Vessels, 1978." Sea Grant Publication No. LSUTL 79 007, Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, December, 9 pp.

The excellent shrimp harvests of 1977 and 1978 have brought increased interest in shrimp vessels as investment opportunities. Adding to investor interest in 1978 were the favorable price and record dockside value of shrimp ( the previous record value was exceeded by 16 percent). Shrimpers and other investors will respond to the record earnings by constructing new vessels. Financial incentives such as the Capital Construction Fund ( CCF) and the sheltering of capital gains from vessel appreciation also attract investment. The CCF and capital gains incentives are long term, but the shrimp harvests vary from year to year. The result is that investment in the form of vessels drawn into the fishery due to tax incentives will negatively impact earnings per vessel when catches and prices return to normal. This may result in stress on the credit system and shrimp management alternatives, as well as bring about public assistance to help an ailing industry. Based on a survey of 129 operators, shrimp vessels harvested the same quantity of shrimp in 1978 as they did in the record year of 1977 with 1978 prices higher than 1977, resulting in an above average financial condition for shrimp vessels. The financial condition of shrimp vessels in 1978 may be hard to improve on as shrimp catches retreat from record levels, more vessels begin shrimping, and costs continue to increase. 5 6 9 Roberts, Kenneth J. and Mark E. Thompson ( 1983). " Petroleum Production Structures: Economic Resources for Louisiana Sport Divers." Louisiana Seafood Production Economics, ( August): 1 39.

Petroleum production structures have a high recreational value for sport divers when left in place as artificial reefs. There remains the need to initiate research on other users in depicting the sport and commercial value of structures.

Roberts, Kenneth J., Walter R. Keithly, and Charles M. Adams ( 1992). " The Impact of Imports, Including Farm Raised Shrimp, on the Southeast Shrimp Processing Sector." NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS SEFC 305, USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, January.

Processing activities of southeastern shrimp processors increased in recent years. This activity was linked to an increase in shrimp imports. An initial source of the new supply was Ecuador. Farming of shrimp in pond systems there rapidly increased United States purchases to a record 101 million pounds by 1987. Shrimp from China and Taiwan added another 80 million pounds to US supplies by 1987. Imports primarily from shrimp farming nations were thereby recognized by some processors as a new source of raw material. Twelve of the surveyed processors in the southeast began use of imported shrimp after 1984. New sources of supply introduced an element of stability to the southeastern industry for those processors using the shrimp. Stability in terms of entry and exit among the region's establishments utilizing imports was found to be higher than non users. Hence, as more establishments adopt the use of imports, especially farm raised imports, in their processing activities, total industry stability in the southeast may be expected to rise. The analysis indicated a possible decline in industry concentration in 1987. This decline to the extent that it might be related to increasing raw material availability and hence, less ability among the larger firms to exhibit some control over input usage, suggests that an additional decline in concentration might be forthcoming as aquaculture supplies expand. Exporting countries with farmed shrimp supplies could at some point lessen these influences on southeastern processors if they increase their value added processing.

Roberts, Kenneth J., Mark E. Thompson, and Perry W. Pawlyk ( 19??). " Structure Changes in U. S. Shrimp Markets." Draft report, Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La.

This paper presents the results of a seven equation monthly model of the domestic shrimp market. More emphasis was placed on sources of supply than evident in previous simultaneous models.

Roberts, Kenneth J., Mark E. Thompson, William D. Chauvin, and Vito J. Blomo ( 1983). " Assessment of User Conflicts Between Various Harvester Groups and with Other Fishing Industries." Report III in Assessment of Shrimp Industry Potentials and Conflicts, Shrimp Notes Incorporated, 417 Eliza Street, New Orleans, Louisiana, August, 90 pp.

This report addresses the conflicts between inshore and offshore shrimp fishermen and between shrimp fishermen and fishermen who use other gear types on shrimp fishing grounds, for example stone crab pots.

Roberts, Kenneth J., Mark E. Thompson, Fred J. Prochaska, and William D. Chauvin ( 1983). " Potential Actions of Tariff and Quota Legislation." Report V in Assessment of Shrimp Industry 5 7 0 Potentials and Conflicts, Volume II, Shrimp Notes Incorporated, 417 Eliza Street, New Orleans, Louisiana, August, 143 pp.

The impact of shrimp imports on ex vessel prices is discussed using the results of five different econometric studies. The paper reviews domestic production of all shrimp species from U. S. waters. It presents trends in shrimp imports by product type from 1970 to 1981 including marketing channels and retailing activities, and impacts on employment and capital invested in the harvesting sector of the shrimp fishery.

Roberts, Terrell W. ( 1986). " Abundance and Distribution of Pink Shrimp in and around the Tortugas Sanctuary, 1981 1983." North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 6: 311 327.

Size and abundance of pink shrimp ( Penaeus duorarum) in and around the Tortugas sanctuary in the Gulf of Mexico were surveyed monthly from September 1981 through July 1983. Samples were not taken in April and June 1983. Shrimp size varied widely at most stations and abundance varied between stations, but the average size increased with increasing depth and abundance decreased with increasing depth. A large proportion of small shrimp (< 103 mm total length) in all samples combined monthly were caught inside the sanctuary, but their abundance varied monthly and annually. Small pink shrimp dominated the catch from fewer than half the stations inside the sanctuary in September December 1981 but increased in abundance and dominated half or more of the stations inside the sanctuary in January December 1982 and February May 1983. January and July were the only months in which catches from at least half the stations inside the sanctuary were composed mostly of shrimp at least 103 mm long in 1983. Recruitment was continuous but uneven throughout the survey. Peak months of recruitment varied annually, occurring in January and July September 1982 and in January and March 1983. Small shrimp were less abundant outside the sanctuary but peaks in abundance at some stations outside the sanctuary, indicating strong recruitment, occurred in January and July August 1982 and in March 1983. Conservative population estimates for the Tortugas fishing ground for September 1982 July 1983 varied from 11.8 x 106 pink shrimp in July to 52.7 x 106 pink shrimp in March. Although the trawlable area inside the southwestern sanctuary accounted for only 6% of the total trawlable area covered by the survey, the sanctuary contained an average of 36% of the total estimated pink shrimp population.

Robinson, Michael A. and Francis T. Christy, Jr. ( 1989). " Comment on Professor Pontecorvo's " The State of Worldwide Fishery Statistics: A Modest Proposal"." Marine Resource Economics, 6( 1): 83 84.

The authors oppose Professor Pontecorvo's statement that better world wide fishery economics data needs to be collected.

Robinson, Sherman, Maureen Kilkenny, and Kenneth Hanson ( 1990).  The USDA/ ERS Computable General Equilibrium ( CGE) Model of the United States.  Staff Report No. AGES 9049, Agriculture and Rural Economy Division, Economic Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

This paper documents the basic Computable General Equilibrium ( CGE) model of the U. S. economy developed at the Economic Research Service ( ERS), USDA. The paper both describes the model equations in detail and how the model is  benchmarked  to a base data set. The paper also lists the computer program used to implement the model. The objective of the CGE work program at ERS is to provide a multi sectoral framework for analyzing the effect of changes in agricultural policies and exogenous stocks on the farm sector, on the rural economy, on related nonagricultural sectors, and on the rest of the 5 7 1 economy. The basic model has provided a starting point for a variety of extensions and applications exploring a number of policy issues. To date, work has largely focused on issues of agricultural trade policy and the effect of alternative domestic policies.

Robinson, William L. ( 1985). " Effort Management in Australian Fisheries." A Presentation to the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, July 10, 34 pp.

A presentation of the effort limitation programs in eight fisheries in Australia.

Robson, Arthur J. ( 1986). " The Existence of Nash Equilibria in Reaction Functions for Dynamic Models of Oligopoly." International Economic Review, 27( 3): 539 544.

It is not in general possible to satisfy the conditions proposed by Friedman ( 1968, 1973, 1976, and 1977) for a Nash equilibrium in reaction functions.

Roche, Ellie F. and Frederick C. Sutter ( 1996).  Marine Fisheries Initiative Program ( MARFIN).  Ninth Annual MARFIN Conference, National Marine Fisheries Service, Cooperative Programs Division, 9721 Executive Center Drive North, Southeast Regional Office, St. Petersburg, Florida, November 6 7.

Abstracts of cooperative agreement reports presented at the ninth annual MARFIN conference covering shrimp bycatch, highly migratory pelagic species, reef fish, and coastal herrings.

Rockett, Andrew M. and John C. Stevenson ( 1987). " Karmarkar's Algorithm." Byte, September: 146 160.

A description of Karmarkar's algorithm for solving linear programming problems and an explanation of how it differs from the simplex method.

Rockland, David Ben ( 1983). " An Economic Analysis of Delaware's Recreational/ Commercial Fisheries Conflict." Dissertation, Department of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware.

This dissertation analyses the economic impact of recreational and commercial gray seatrout fishermen on the state of Delaware. Consumer surplus from recreational fishing is estimated to be between $ 13 and $ 25 million while producer and consumer surplus from the commercial gillnet fishery is over $ 875,000. The economic impact of the recreational fishery is almost $ 13 million and $ 3.3 million for the commercial fishery. Since the biological and technical relationships between the catches of the two sectors cannot be determined, it is not possible to derive an optimal allocation of fish between them.

Rodgers, Philip ( 1995).  The Bio Economic Simulation Model of the Catching Sector of the Irish Sea Fishery.  In, Bio Economic Modelling in the EU, Concerted Action Coordination of Research in Fishery Economics, Working Document Nr: 7,( AIR CT94 1489), Workshop, Edinburgh, October: 44 51.

This model describes the conceptual structure of a thorough going bioeconomic model of the Irish Sea multispecies multi method fishery that 5 7 2 accommodates the variety of interactions between economic behavior and biological factors and the data needed for that model. The schematics show the true position of the stocks as constraints on economic activity and are not an end in themselves. Capacity is also shown to be a constraint on effort and not causal.

Rodrick, Jeff ( 1994). " Effort Responsiveness to Changing Relative Prices in the North Atlantic Swordfish Fishery." Thesis proposal, Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, July, 21 pp.

A thesis proposal to develop a model of the swordfish fishery in the southeastern region. A hypothesis of nonjointness in production will be tested using the model.

Roedel, Philip M. ( 1973). " Shrimp ' 73  A Billion Dollar Business." Marine Fisheries Review, 35( 3/ 4): 1 6.

A presentation to the Louisiana Shrimp Association that discusses shrimp landings, imports, and cold storage holdings for 1972. The presentation also discusses other shrimp fisheries in New England and off the Pacific coast. A summary of a report by Miller and Nash ( 1971) on shrimp consumption and a U. S. Department of Commerce News article on shellfish shell salvaged for commercial uses are included.

Roedel, Philip M. ( 1975). Optimum Sustainable Yield as a Concept in Fisheries Management. Proceedings of a Symposium Held During the 104th annual Meeting of the American Fisheries Society, Honolulu, Hawaii, September 9, 1974. Special Publication No. 9, American Fisheries Society, Washington, D. C., 89 pp.

The traditional view of maximum sustainable yield as the philosophic base for fisheries management programs has come under increasing attack over the last decade. The opportunity arose to debate the issues at the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries Society with a multidisciplinary group of experts.

Rogers, Donna R., Barton D. Rogers, and Vernon L. Wright ( 1993).  Evaluation of Shrimp Trawls Designed to Reduce Bycatch in Inshore Waters of Louisiana.  MARFIN Report NA17FF0375 01, School of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, January, 142 pp.

To evaluate the effectiveness of the Authement Ledet Excluder, Cameron Shooter, Lake Arthur Excluder, and the Eymard Accelerator Bycatch Reduction Devices ( BRDs) in inshore waters, tests were conducted in three areas of coastal Louisiana during the spring and fall shrimp seasons using a twin trawl, with a BRD on one side and a control net on the other. Shrimp and finfish loss varied between the different BRDs and depended upon the species and size of organisms within each test area. Estimates of the value of shrimp loss or gain using each BRD prototype are also provided. BRD designs with increased finfish reduction and minimal shrimp loss appear achievable. However, the high variability of bycatch species and length frequency distributions suggests that devices may have to be designed for specific areas and possibly different seasons to release a particular or abundant species.

Rogers, George W. ( 1979). " Alaska's Limited Entry Program: Another View." J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 36: 783 788. 5 7 3 Viewed in an historical perspective, the 1973 Alaska limited entry law evolved from fisheries policies motivated by distributive ( Alaska first) and social ( maintenance of rural fishing communities) criteria more than the traditional economic criteria of efficiency. Fisheries economics research has been primarily concerned with such matters as dissipation of economic rent through excessive units of harvesting. There is a need to expand this research into employment, labor mobility, and the evaluation of opportunity costs as well as economic efficiency.

Roitmann, Michael ( 1998).  Note on Multi Annual Guidance Programmes Under the Common Fisheries Policy.  European Commission, Brussels, Technical Working Group on the Management of Fishing Capacity, FAO, La Jolla CA, April 15 18, 3 pp.

History of the European Communities effort to legislate reductions in fishing fleet capacity among its member states under the multi annual guidance program ( MAGP). Although capacity has been reduced, the economic or sociocultural impacts on member states or the biological impacts on stocks were not presented.

Rompa, William J. ( 1980). " Factors in Establishing an Albacore Tuna Processing Facility in Clatsop County, Oregon." Draft, Sea Grant College Program, Oregon State University.

The possibilities of establishing an albacore tuna processing facility in Clatsop County, Oregon are explored in this report.

Rose Ackerman, Susan ( 1977). " Market Models for Water Pollution Control: Their Strengths and Weaknesses." Public Policy, 25( 3): 383 406.

Two market schemes for controlling water pollution, effluent charges, and pollution rights, are contrasted. Rights are, in general, found to be superior to charges, but market mechanisms must also be supplemented by nonmarket regulatory devices. Rights are preferred to charges because they ( 1) assure the attainment of water quality thresholds; ( 2) minimize inequities; ( 3) provide a means of subsidizing municipalities without sacrificing efficiency; ( 4) permit growth without burdening existing dischargers; and ( 5) provide a way to handle emergencies. In addition, they can be incorporated into the existing legislation without a drastic revision of the Water Pollution Control Act of 1972.

Rose, Debra A. ( 1996).  An Overview of World Trade in Sharks.  A Traffic Network Report, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

This report offers a brief description and analysis of available data and information reviewed during the course of this study. These sources include national fisheries statistics; data collated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN ( FAO) and other international and intergovernmental bodies; and biological and status assessments. Thereafter, those shark fisheries covered by this study are described briefly, followed by a summary of the various shark products in trade, their processing and preparation, their use in domestic and international markets, and of the species from which they are derived. The final sections of the report discuss the management and conservation implications of these chondrichthian fisheries and resultant trade, and subsequent conclusions and recommendations for the future management of chondrichthian stocks.

Rose, Marshall ( 1986). " Assessment of Resources." In T. Grigalunas and 5 7 4 L. C. Hanson ( eds.) The Continental Shelf: Resource Boundaries. Proceedings from the 9th Annual Conference, Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island, June 16 19.

This paper discusses the concepts, methods, and results of an economic analysis of the nonrenewable resources of the outer continental shelf as part of a five year leasing program.

Rosen, Sherwin ( 1974). " Hedonic Prices and Implicit Markets: Product Differentiation in Pure Competition." Journal of Political Economy, : 34 54.

A class of differentiated products is completely described by a vector of objectively measured characteristics. Observed product prices and the specific amounts of characteristics associated with each good define a set of implicit or " hedonic" prices. A theory of hedonic prices is formulated as a problem in the economics of spatial equilibrium in which the entire set of implicit prices guides both consumer and producer locational decisions in characteristics space, buyer and seller choices, as well as the meaning and nature of market equilibrium, are analyzed. Empirical implications for hedonic price regressions and index number construction are pointed out.

Rosenberg, Andrew A. ( 1994).  Background on U. S. Fisheries Management: Status and New Directions.  In Karyn L. Gimbel ( ed.) Limiting Access to Marine Fisheries: Keeping the Focus on Conservation, Center for Marine Conservation and the World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D. C.

Most U. S. fisheries are open access. There are currently only 5 fishery management plans ( out of 43) that control access to the resources they cover. However, some form of limited access has been approved by Fishery Management Councils for another 15 fisheries and limited access is being considered in 12 more cases. In most of the plans, a moratorium on new entrants has closed access. In a number of others, individual transferable quota systems are being developed.

Rosenberg, Andrew A., and Victor R. Restrepo ( 1995).  Precautionary Management Reference Points and Management Strategies.  TCPA/ BP4, Technical Consultation on the Precautionary Approach to Capture Fisheries ( TCPA), FAO Scientific Meeting, Lysekil, Sweden, May, 13 pp.

The precautionary approach to fishery management seeks to protect fishery resources from fishing practices that may put their long term viability in jeopardy. To take appropriate precautions, fishing activities may need to be controlled even before there is clear scientific evidence that current practices can not be sustained by the resource. To develop fishery control policies, biological reference points are needed for measuring current resource status and the projected effects of fishing.

Rosenberg, A., P. Mace, G. Thompson, G. Darcy, W. Clark, J. Collie, W. Gabriel, A. MacCall, R. Methot, J. Powers, V. Restrepo, T. Wainwright, L. Botsford, J. Hoenig, and K. Stokes ( 1994).  Scientific Review of Definitions of Overfishing in U. S. Fishery Management Plans.  NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS F/ SPO 17, National Marine Fisheries Service, August, 205 pp.

A panel of biologists reviewed all of the current definitions of overfishing from a technical standpoint and reported on their strengths and weaknesses for conserving fishery resources. 5 7 5 Rosenman, Robert E. ( 1986).  The Optimal Tax for Maximum Economic Yield: Fishery Regulation Under Rational Expectations.  Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 13: 348 362.

This paper examines the optimal tax to achieve maximum economic yield ( MEY) exploitation in a rational expectations model of a competitive open access fishery. To analyze the dynamic evolution of resource use a structural model that explains the relationship between the firm and the industry is presented. The unregulated equilibrium is contrasted with the potential MEY. Conditions under which the unregulated equilibrium will be MEY are explored. In addition, a tax is devised that will cause non MEY competitive exploitation to become MEY when the tax is implemented.

Rosenthal, Donald H. ( 1985). " Representing Substitution Effects in Models of Recreation Demand." PH. D. Dissertation, Department of Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.

This study determines how sensitive economic estimates of the value of recreation sites are to the manner in which the influence of substitute recreation sites is modeled. the average consumer surplus per person, per trip at eleven different reservoirs operated by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers was estimated using three different zonal travel cost models ( TCMs). Each TCM differed with respect to its treatment of substitute recreation sites.

Rosenthal, Donald H. ( 1987). " The Necessity for Substitute Prices in Recreation Demand Analyses." American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 69( 4): 828 837.

Omitting substitute prices from a travel cost model is shown to cause a significant bias in consumer surplus estimates. Three sets of travel cost models are developed from a common data base representing 60,000 day users of U. S. Army Corps of Engineer reservoirs in Kansas and Missouri. The first set of models omitted substitute prices; the latter two sets included them. An analysis of variance test showed that consumer surplus estimates from the first set of models were significantly higher than the other two ( F= 26.2 with 2,20 degrees of freedom). The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Rosenthal, Donald H., Marshall B. Rose, and Lawrence J. Slaski ( 1988). " Economic Value of the Oil and Gas Resources on the Outer Continental Shelf." Marine Resource Economics, 5( 3): 171 189.

A theoretical framework for estimating the economic value of the federal government's offshore oil and gas resources is developed. This framework is then applied to geological and economic data generated by the Minerals Management Service in support of their five year leasing plan. With an 8 percent real discount rate and a 1 percent real price growth rate, the remaining economic rent as of 1987 on the reserves plus the undiscovered offshore oil and gas resources is estimated at $ 118.6 billion ( 1987 dollars). The present value of the government's receipts from cash bonus and royalty payments on these deposits is estimated at $ 37.2 billion. Over 80 percent of the remaining economic rent is derived from developed reserve deposits located in the Gulf of Mexico. The private sector has previously paid cash bonuses for the leases located on those deposits and financed the installation of the development platforms. Because of this, the government will collect only a small portion, approximately 22 percent, of the rent remaining on those reserves. 5 7 6 Rothschild, Brian J. ( 1972). " An Exposition on the Definition of Fishing Effort." Fishery Bulletin, 70( 3): 671 679.

The term " fishing effort" is well defined in population dynamics literature. The term as defined in the population dynamics literature is, however, difficult to reconcile with broader definitions of fishing effort, particularly those having economic implications. The present paper discusses the distinction between the definitions and gives some examples in the context of allocating inputs, the capacities of fishing boats, and several stocks to the catch in a manner that maximizes profits. Managerial behavior is also an important input to the fishing process; this is discussed in a decision theory format where decision quality can be measured relative to entropy in the decision environment affording a comparison among decision environments in terms of information and an imputed valuation of a bit of information under various circumstances. The conventional measures of the quality of the decision environment are often based upon expected catch. Alternate measures are discussed which include the expected loss or the risk involved in the decision process.

Rothschild, Brian J. ( 1977). " Fishing Effort." Chapter 5 in J. A. Gulland ( ed.) Fish Population Dynamics. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

A discussion of fishing effort and fishing mortality as applied to problems involving population dynamics.

Rothschild, Brian J. ( 1996). " How Bountiful are Ocean Fisheries." Consequences, 2( 1): 15 24.

In the last seven years, while the world population was climbing by about 10 percent, the total landings of fish from the ocean declined by almost as much, signaling, perhaps, the end of the long summer of human history when the waters beneath the ocean surface seemed to hold an unending supply of fish for food. There is hope that improved knowledge of fish and ocean ecosystems, more enlightened management, and more prudent allocations can once again increase the yield . It is certainly true that the science of fisheries has much to learn, and that fisheries management, as practiced in most seafaring nations, has more often focused on immediate interests than on what is sustainable in the long haul. The need to know more and manage better is heightened by the environmental changes that have altered today  s rivers and coastlines, and by tomorrow  s prospects of possible climate change. Technological and economic advances in aquaculture, worldwide a growing industry, could also help, where these efforts directed more toward fish as a dietary staple, as opposed to a luxury.

Rothschild, Brian J., A. F. Sharov, and A. Y. Bobyrev ( 1997). " Red Snapper Stock Assessment and Management for the Gulf of Mexico." Draft report submitted to the Office of Science and Technology, National Marine Fisheries Service by the Center for Marine Science and Technology, University of Massachusetts, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts, August, 52 pp.

This is an independent scientific stock assessment of the status of the red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico as mandated by Congress to determine the status of the stock, appropriateness of the current assessment models, soundness of results and conclusions from the existing stock assessment, level of uncertainty, stock restoration management measures, and their consistency with the precautionary approach to fisheries. A second paper contains a set of comments from three independent peer reviewers. 5 7 7 Rothschild, Brian J., A. F. Sharov, and A. Y. Bobyrev ( 1997). " Red Snapper Stock Assessment and Management for the Gulf of Mexico." Final report submitted to the Office of Science and Technology, National Marine Fisheries Service by the Center for Marine Science and Technology, University of Massachusetts, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts, December, 173 pp.

This is an independent scientific stock assessment of the status of the red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico as mandated by Congress to determine the status of the stock, appropriateness of the current assessment models, soundness of results and conclusions from the existing stock assessment, level of uncertainty, stock restoration management measures, and their consistency with the precautionary approach to fisheries.

Rottmann, R. W. and J. V. Shireman ( 1988). " Management of Water Quality for Fish." Circular 715, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, 18 pp.

The purpose of this publication is to assist the Florida fish farmer or pond owner in pond management. The text Water Quality Management for Pond Fish Culture by Claude E. Boyd is an excellent source of more detailed information on the subject and is recommended reading. This circular provides a simpler approach and addresses certain aspects of water quality specific to Florida not covered in Boyd's book.

Roy, Noel ( 1998).  Fishing Behavior and the Length of the Fishing Season.  Marine Resource Economics, 13( 3): 193 213.

The basic hypothesis of this paper is that the amount of fishing that a fish harvester undertakes during a year is not determined entirely by circumstances that are exogenous to the fisher, such as weather conditions and resource availability, but is also partially a matter of individual choice. The paper develops a behavioral model of fishing from the perspective that the decision to modify the period of time over which fishing takes place is governed by a comparison of the marginal benefits and costs of doing so. The model is tested econometrically as an error components model using a 10% longitudinal sample of recipients of seasonal fishermen  s unemployment insurance benefits in Newfoundland over the period 1971 93. The result suggest that the Canadian unemployment insurance program has reduced the length of the fishing season in Newfoundland by about 8 10 weeks.

Ruddle, Kenneth ( 1988). " Social Principles Under Traditional Inshore Fishery Management Systems in the Pacific Basin." Marine Resource Economics, 5: 351 363.

Among fisheries management schemes, those based on sole ownership concepts have been relatively little studied. This concept has been most widely applied in the traditional fisheries management or sea tenure systems of the Pacific Basin, where unlike the West, sole ownership resides in the community or other small social group. Information on Pacific Basin sea tenure systems remains largely anecdotal and unsynthesized. In a partial attempt to overcome that, this article defines and exemplifies six social principles common to many traditional systems of sea tenure in inshore fisheries management in the Pacific Basin, with reference to Oceanian islands, and based on an examination of the literature and supplementary field research. These principles are that: ( 1) sea rights depend on social status, ( 2) resource exploitation is governed by sue rights, 93) resource territories are defined, ( 4) marine resources are controlled by traditional authorities, 5 7 8 ( 5) conservation was traditionally widely practiced, and ( 6) sanctions and punishments are meted out for infringement of regulations. Most remaining systems are hybrids of traditional and modern components, with the latter becoming dominant. Interpretation of the literature without supplementary field verification is severely constrained by the use of the " anthropological present" tense.

Ruffin, Roy J. and M. D. Anderson ( 1996).  Externalities, Markets, and Government Policy.  Economic Review, Third Quarter: 24 29, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, P. O. Box 655906, Dallas, Texas.

Coase  s contribution to understanding the role of government in the economy is explained. Coase showed that externalities may or may not require a government solution, depending on the institutional setting of the problems and the size of the transaction costs. Moreover, even in the absence of externalities, market transactions require low transaction costs. Firms exit to economize on those costs. In shifting the terms of the debate, Coase single handedly moved economics from presuming specific roles for government action to a more neutral position requiring detailed analysis to justify government intervention.

Rulifson, Roger A., James D. Murray, and James J. Bahen ( 1991). " Bycatch Reduction in South Atlantic Shrimp Trawls Using Three Designs of " Finfish Separator Devices"." Final report prepared for NOAA, NMFS.

Standard shrimp trawls used in the southeastern USA commercial fishery were modified in an attempt to reduce the amount of unwanted fish and invertebrates ( bycatch) retained during normal shrimp trawling procedures using the Parrish TED, square mesh FSD, and the diamond mesh FSD with and without hoops. No significant loss in marketable sized fish was observed among the FSD designs compared to control catches. The objective of a 50% bycatch reduction with a shrimp loss of less than 5% was not consistently obtained.

Rulifson, Roger A., James D. Murray, and James J. Bahen ( 1992). " Finfish Catch Reduction in South Atlantic Shrimp Trawls Using Three Designs of By Catch Reduction Devices." Fisheries, 17( 1): 9 20.

Standard shrimp trawls used in the southeastern U. S. commercial fishery were modified in an attempt to reduce the amount of unwanted fish ( bycatch) retained during normal shrimp trawling procedures. A sampling design was used to test the effectiveness of bycatch reduction devices ( BRDs) towed in combination with unmodified nets in coastal waters off Brunswick, Georgia, in 1990. Several problems hampered statistical analysis of the data, including slight differences in the towing of port and starboard nets, onboard modifications of BRDs during testing to correct design deficiencies, and seasonality of shrimp catches in combination with large masses of sargassum and jellyfish in trawls during fall sampling. The modified Parrish turtle excluder device ( TED) was the only BRD that had a significant reduction ( alpha = 0.05) in the percent difference in total biomass compared to the control net. Bycatch reduction was not consistent for other designs. No significant loss of marketable sized fish was observed among the BRD designs compared to control catches. The ability of smallest juvenile fish to escape from BRDs, thus shifting ( increasing) the length frequency distribution, was species specific. The normal Parrish TED was best suited for escapement of smallest menhaden, while the diamond mesh BRD with hoops best minimized capture of the smallest Atlantic bumper, grey trout, and Atlantic croaker. The square mesh 5 7 9 net was most effective in reducing retention of smallest sized thread herring, and the modified Parrish TED retained less of the smallest sized spot. The objective of 50% bycatch reduction with a shrimp loss of less than 5% was not consistently reached; however, BRDs show promise for bycatch reduction in South Atlantic coastal waters.

Runge, Carlisle Ford ( 1981). " Common Property Externalities: Isolation, Assurance, and Resource Depletion in a Traditional Grazing Context." American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 63( 4): 595 606.

Institutional alternatives to common property externalities are wider than argued by private exclusive property rights advocates. The " tragedy of the commons" is not a prisoners' dilemma, characterized by the strict dominance of individual strategies. The nonseparable common property externality is an " assurance problem." The assurance problem provides striking perspectives in analytical and policy terms. It redefines the problem of the commons as one of decision making under uncertainty. Institutional rules innovated by the group to reduce uncertainty and coordinate expectations can solve the problem of overexploitation. Rules come in many forms, and private property is only one.

Runge, Carlisle Ford ( 1984). " Institutions and the Free Rider: The Assurance Problem in Collective Action." The Journal of Politics, 46: 154 181.

Political and economic theory make extensive use of the one period Prisoners' Dilemma ( PD) to model public goods problems and collective action generally. While the PD provides important insights into the breakdowns of social institutions, it gives no explanation of how or why institutions are developed in the first place. This paper presents a related approach: the Assurance Problem ( AP). The AP suggests that interdependent choice creates incentives to establish and maintain institutions that coordinate expectations based on rules of fairmindedness. With such coordinated expectations, voluntary contributions to public goods may be utility maximizing strategies.

Runge, Carlisle Ford ( 1984). " Strategic Interdependence in Models of Property Rights." American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 66( 5): 807 813.

This essay explores the implications of strategic interdependence for the theory of property rights and the " new institutional economics" ( Schotter). It attempts to clarify some of the linkages from institutional economics to micro and macroeconomic theory by considering how property institutions result from strategic interdependence, confer payoffs to individual agents, and reflect collective choices based on individual preferences.

Russell, Clifford ( 1979). " Applications of Public Choice Theory: An Introduction." Introduction from Clifford Russell ( ed.) Collective Decision Making. Johns Hopkins Press for Resources for the Future.

Public choice is concerned with the mechanisms by which human societies make decisions about their collective lives.

Sadeh, Arye, Hovav Talpaz, David A. Bessler, and Wade L. Griffin ( 1989). " Optimization of Management Plans with Short and Long Run Problems: The Case of Shrimp Production." European Journal of 5 8 0 Operational Research, 40: 22 31.

A management plan of continuous production is specified and optimized. An optimal control framework is used to solve for the decision variables. An economic interpretation of the optimality conditions is provided. The model is applied to the management of a shrimp pond. Results for different runs of the model are given and discussed.

Sage Associates, Inc. ( 1981). Economic Assessment of the U. S. Shrimp Industry with Associated Public Policy Recommendations. Washington, D. C.

This report contests the overcapitalization argument for the Gulf of Mexico and south Atlantic shrimp fishing fleet. It argues that a tariff and quota on shrimp imports would be economically efficient and have little impact on retail shrimp prices.

Saila, S. B. ( 1983). " Importance and Assessment of Discards in Commercial Fisheries." Fisheries Circular 765, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, October.

A review is made of the magnitude of the discarded catches from the major fisheries. Wide seasonal, geographic and gear related variations were found in the discarded catch. Some simple field survey procedures for discard estimation are suggested. The probable biological consequences of discards are assessed on the basis of available information and suggestions for further studies are made. Some specific sampling and estimation methods applicable to the discard problem are suggested and some examples are provided.

Saila, S. B., Robert Francis, and Terrance Quinn ( 1990). " Report of the 1990 Swordfish Review Panel." Swordfish Review Panel Report, South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council, Charleston, South Carolina, June, 17 pp.

The panel reviewed the biological basis for proposed management measures by three Councils. The panel recommends that the Atlantic swordfish population should be managed under a risk averse constant harvest rate policy that sets acceptable biological catch to the product of the constant harvest rate, based on F0.1 and the current exploitable biomass. The Atlantic swordfish population should be rebuilt to the 1978 level as soon as practically possible.

Saila, S. B., E. Lorda, and H. A. Walker ( 1985). " The Analysis of Parameter Error Propagation in Simple Fishery Models." Marine Resource Economics, 1( 3): 235 246.

Methodology to analyze the propagation of errors in fishery model parameters is described and demonstrated through its application to stock size estimates obtained using Pope's cohort analysis. The method requires that independent standard errors for model parameters be available and its is based upon a formal analysis of how uncertainties propagate through model calculations. In certain cases the methodology described can be used instead of a numerical sensitivity analysis to investigate the model responses to error or uncertainty in its parameters. The ability to assess the relative merits of increased precision in various parameter estimates is considered especially useful.

Saila, S. B., H. A. Walker, E. Lorda, J. Kelly, and M. Prager ( 1982). 5 8 1 " Analysis of Data on Shrimping Success, Shrimp Recruitment and Associated Environmental Variables, Shrimp and Redfish Studies: West Hackberry and Big Hill Brine Disposal Sites." Contract No. NA80 GA 00045, NMFS, SEFC, Galveston Laboratory, 4700 Avenue U, Galveston, Texas 77550, May, 238 pp.

This study attempts to identify plausible empirical relationships that may be used to build predictive models of how climatic variability can cause changes in certain population parameters, such as growth and mortality, fecundity, post larval recruitment, age at maturity, etc. Although statistical tests for the effects of various interventions that take climatic fluctuations into account are suggested, it is still not possible to distinguish between efects due to brine disposal and those due to the Texas closure since both were initiated in 1981. The suggested test procedure can be used to determine if the combined effects of the Texas closure and brine disposal are statistically significant once variations in landings due to climatic fluctuations have been taken into account.

Salchenberger, Linda M. ( 1989). " Sole Owner Harvesting Policies under the Threat of Entry: A Two Stage Linear Game." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 16: 121 133.

In this paper, we analyze harvesting policies for a producer who is guaranteed exclusive harvesting rights to a renewable resource for a specified period of time. A second producer may enter the market after these rights have expired and if entry occurs, the duopoly stage is modeled as a noncooperative differential game. We assume that the price and average costs are constant and that the harvest rate is linearly dependent upon the stock level and the effort expanded. After the solution to the duopoly game is presented, we give the solution to the two stage profit maximization problem of the incumbent. A modified most rapid approach path solution is shown to be optimal under certain conditions.

Salim, Kamaruzaman H. ( 1998).  A Note for Technical Working Group on Fishing Capacity.  Technical Working Group on the Management of Fishing Capacity, FAO, La Jolla CA, April 15 18, 4 pp.

Comments on a list of issues dealing with the management, control, or reduction of fishing capacity. Examples of how these issues directly relate to the management of capacity that have been resolved in the context of a country or a fishery and a list of selected issues that should receive attention at the regional or international level.

Salvanes, Kjell G. and Don J. DeVoretz ( 1993). " Household Demand for Fish and Meat Products: Separability and Demographic Effects." Presented at the International Conference on Fisheries Economics, Os, Norway, May 26 28.

This paper focuses on the specification of the canadian household's demand for fish and meat products. In contrast to the demand literature, this paper directly tests for separability and relevant substitutes by estimating different demand systems over different aggregation levels for fish and meat with an identical retail level household data set. Knowledge of substitute products obtained from separability tests will reveal the potential for product differentiation. The results indicate that all Canadian fish products and species as categorized in this study cannot be modeled separately. In sum, analyzing the structure of meat or fish consumption at a relatively aggregate level is correct based on these results. However, different species of fish and other seafood or different product forms of fish cannot be 5 8 2 analyzed separately.

Salvanes, Kjell G. and Don J. DeVoretz ( 1997). " Household Demand for Fish and Meat Products: Separability and Demographic Effects." Marine Resource Economics, 12( 1): 37 55.

By reviewing the current demand literature for fish and meats, it is apparent that several inadequacies arise from the problems of market delineation or aggregation errors. Inappropriate aggregation may lead to biases in price elasticities and associated specification problems with respect to identifying substitutes. Formal separability tests allow for identification of appropriate aggregation levels and the relevant products or market boundaries in a systematic manner. A formal demand system for fish and meat can thus be estimated with one data set over various aggregations with the appropriate demographic arguments. The present article tests for separability ( and thus relevant substitutes/ complements) by estimating different demand systems over different aggregation levels for fish and meat with an identical retail level household data set for the Canadian market.

Samonte Tan, Giselle P. B. ( 2000).  Economic Status and Policies Affecting the Shrimp Industry in the Gulf of Mexico.  Dissertation, Department of Agricultural Economics, Texas A& M University, College Station, Texas, May, 180 pp.

The economic status of the Texas shrimp harvesting sector is analyzed based on cost and revenue data for the period 1987 1992. Texas ex vessel shrimp prices have remained low and stable while shrimp operating costs have been increasing resulting in an annual loss averaging $ 3,875 per vessel. Second the bioeconomic impacts of sea turtle conservation policies on the shrimp industry are analyzed using the General Bioeconomic Fisheries Simulation Model ( GBFSM) extended to include a Kemp  s ridley sea turtle biological submodel. Results show that the sea turtle population will rebuild without the use of TEDs at a lower cost to the nation. Better nest protection would be more effective in the long run than the TED regulations in restoring the Kemp  s ridley population. Bycatch reduction devices ( BRDs) were evaluated and showed that costs to the nation increased as survival rates from shrimp escapement declined. If 50% survived, the total economic loss to society is $ 44.9 million and if the survival is 0%, the loss is $ 65.7 million.

Samonte Tan, Giselle P. B., Wade L. Griffin, Teofilo Ozuna, Jr., and John M. Ward ( 1997).  The Economic Status of the Texas Shrimp Harvesting Sector.  Draft report, Department of Agricultural Economics, Texas A& M University, College Station, Texas, August, 14 pp.

An analysis of the economic status of the Texas shrimp harvesting sector is provided. The study begins by discussing how shrimp imports have affected domestic shrimp supply and how this, in turn, has affected Texas ex vessel shrimp prices. The impact of fishery conservation and management policies on shrimp landings and returns is also. Finally, an in depth analysis of the costs and returns of Texas shrimp fishermen is provided examined for the period 1987 through 1992. The results indicate that the Texas shrimp harvesting sector was economically viable up to 1979 but that this viability abruptly ended due to increased imports which have kept shrimp prices low and stable and to increased costs resulting from the imposition of shrimp regulatory policies. In essence, the Texas shrimp harvesting sector has been experiencing a price cost squeeze since the early 1980s.

Sample, Rebecca S. ( 1990). " Transition to Chaos in Multidimensional Constrained Systems." Master of Science thesis, Department of 5 8 3 Physics, University of Maine, Orono, Me, May, 96 pp.

Chaotic behavior occurs in a variety of physical, chemical and biological systems when a constraint is imposed on the total energy or mass of the system. In population models, for example, this constraint can reflect an ecosystem's limited carrying capacity. The focus of this research is the onset of chaos in such systems, probed by simulating simple constrained dynamical models. The simulations track the time evolution of systems with characteristic input, amplification and dissipation terms, analogous to population models with birth, growth and mortality. These model features are chosen so that the system exhibits a stable steady state solution in the absence of the constraint. When the constraint is implemented, we find that the qualitative features of the transition from regular to the qualitative features of the transition from regular to chaotic dynamics are extremely sensitive to the model dimensionality, and differ greatly from the widely studied period doubling route to chaos exhibited by a large group of one dimensional nonlinear systems. In low dimensional cases, long periodic cycles are prevalent, whereas higher dimensional systems show intermittency preceding chaos. Fourier transforms of time series have been used to identify intermittent, quasiperiodic and chaotic regimes. Eigenvalue analysis in the vicinity of fixed solutions indicates that a wide range of biological inputs that do not yield chaos in conventional population models do generate chaotic dynamics once the carrying capacity is incorporated into the model. Characteristics of the onset of chaos observed in these models could be relevant to other problems with similar types of constraints, such as turbulence and multistep chemical reactions.

Samples, Karl C. and Richard C. Bishop ( 1985). " Estimating the Value of Variations in Anglers' Success Rates: An Application of the Multiple Site Travel Cost Method." Marine Resource Economics, 2( 1): 55 74.

An estimation method is presented to measure sport fishermen's valuation of exogenous changes in fishing quality ( catch rates). A theoretical model is initially presented to show how variations in prevailing catch rates influence an angler's valuation of recreational fishing. A two stage estimation approach is suggested that capitalizes on the notion that angler consumer surplus is sensitive to changes in success rates. The procedure entails first estimating sportfishing values at qualitatively different fishing sites using a multiple site travel cost approach. Afterward, the sensitivity of estimated values to different success rate levels is measured using a separate regression procedure. An empirical application of this two stage method to Lake Michigan sportfishing is given. It is estimated that for Lake Michigan anglers who fish for trout and salmon, a 10% increase in success rates will increase average trip values by $ 0.30.

Samples, Karl C. and John T. Sproul ( 1985). " Fish Aggregating Devices and Open Access Commercial Fisheries: A Theoretical Inquiry." Bulletin of Marine Science, 37( 1): 305 317.

This paper explores the economic consequences of deploying fish aggregating devices ( FADs) in developed open access or common property commercial fisheries. The objective is to understand how FAD installation can be expected to influence sustained gross revenues ( sustained harvests), employment and fishermen's profits over the long run. A Mathematical bioeconomic model is presented that illuminates the biological interdependence between fishing that occurs at FAD locations and fishing that is directed at a background fish stock. Two models of biological interaction are considered. Model A assumes that high levels of FAD fishing effort will not reduce the 5 8 4 biological productivity of the underlying fish stock. In Model B, this assumption is relaxed. Results of both models suggest that if harvesting effort in the FAD fishery is unregulated, installation of FAD networks will not generally increase fishermen'; s aggregate profit position. Furthermore, depending on relative productivity and cost of effort in FAD and non FAD fishery, deployment of FADs may generate unintended results; decreases in employment, harvest levels, and sustained gross revenues. Potential problems are especially acute when FAD fishing effort is low cost and efficient, and FADs are effective at aggregating fish. These findings point to the need for managing levels of commercial fishing effort at FAD locations. Limited entry schemes, licensing and user fees are discussed as possible management options.

Sampson, David B. ( 1991). " Fishing Tactics and Fish Abundance, and Their Influence on Catch Rates." ICES J. Mar. Sci., 48: 291 301.

Choosing a location for fishing is the major short run decision made by the skipper of a fishing vessel. Because the spatial density of fish is not uniform everywhere, where a skipper decides to fish largely determines the size and value of his catch. For that to be a rational decision, the skipper must consider not only the catches he is likely to make at different locations but also the costs incurred in fishing at those locations. As a consequence the catch rates and the catch per unit effort observed in a fishery depend not just on fish stock abundance but also on economic factors such as wage rates and fish and fuel prices. This paper develops some simple theoretical models for examining a fisherman's selection of fishing location. The spatial distribution of the fish stock is reduced to a single dimension, distance from port, and it is assume d that fish density increases linearly with distance from port and that the relative densities remain constant regardless of the absolute level of fish stock abundance. If a skipper operates his vessel further from port, he gains access to greater densities of fish and higher instantaneous catch rates but uses more fuel and time for travel. A skipper can maximize his share of the fishing profits by operating his vessel at a particular distance from port. The skipper operates within constraints that determine the form of the revenue and cost functions. Two models are considered. In the first, the duration of a fishing trip is considered by the size of the fish hold or by some other limit to the amount of fish that can be landed; each fishing trip continues until the hold is filled. In this case catch and revenue per trip are constant but the fishing costs vary nonlinearly with distance from port. Here the catch per unit effort is a nonlinear function of the total biomass of the fish stock but the cpue is independent of the price of fish. In the second model, there is a time constraint: to fill the hold would take too much time. In this case each trip is of a fixed duration and catch and revenue per trip are quadratic functions of distance from port and operating costs vary linearly. Here cpue is a linear function of fish stock biomass and a nonlinear function of fish price.

Sampson, David B. ( 1992). " Fishing Technology and Fleet Dynamics: Predictions from a Bioeconomic Model." Marine Resource Economics, 7( 1): 37 58.

Bioeconomic models of fisheries usually do not provide details of fishermen's short run behavior. This paper develops a model for the short run selection of fishing location by profit maximizing fisherman in an open access fishery given that fish density increases further from port and given that fishing trips have a fixed duration. For any particular level of fish price and fish stock abundance, a fishing vessel's technical characteristics ( fuel consumption, catch rate, vessel speed) and economic characteristics ( wage rates, fuel price) determine the optimum location for fishing. A long run model is derived; the cost flows for the fishing vessel and the biological 5 8 5 dynamics are added to the system. The modes are applied to the evolution of a hypothetical fishery in which fishermen utilize either an active fishing technology trawlers) or a passive one ( long liners).

Sampson, David B. ( 1994). " Fishing Tactics in a Two Species Fisheries Model: The Bioeconomics of Bycatch and Discarding." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 51( 12): 2688 2694.

The selections for fishing location largely determine the species mix and value of a fisher  s catch. Because of travel costs, these choices also determine the profitability of a fishing trip. This paper develops a simple theoretical model for the selection of fishing locations by a fisher faced with two co occurring species whose densities vary with distance from port. For each species there can be different catchability coefficients, handling times, and prices. The duration of each fishing trip is assumed to be fixed. The model is used to determine the profit maximizing fishing tactics ( the fishing locations and time spent at each location) and to explore the conditions that generate deliberate bycatch and discarding when one of the species cannot be sold because it is unmarketable or because of trip limits.

Samuelson, Paul A. ( 1954). " The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure." Review of Economics and Statistics, 36: 387 389.

The theory of optimal public expenditure based on private consumption goods and collective consumption goods is presented.

Samuelson, Paul A. ( 1958). " Aspects of Public expenditure Theories." Review of Economics and Statistics, 40: 332 338.

Some difficulties with expenditure theory and with political decision making are discussed.

Samuelson, Paul A. ( 1976). " Economics of Forestry in an Evolving Society." Economic Inquiry, 14( 4): 466 492.

A lecture on the debate over maximum sustained yield as a management tool in forestry.

Sandal, Leif K. and Stein Ivar Steinshamn ( 1997).  Efficient Allocation in Fisheries: Domestic Issues.  Natural Resource Modeling, 10( 1): 1 2.

Introduction to the volume dedicated to the international workshop on  Assessment and Distribution of Harvest Quotas in Fisheries.  Sandal, Leif K. and Stein Ivar Steinshamn ( 1997).  Optimal Steady States and the Effects of Discounting.  Marine Resource Economics, 12( 2): 95 105.

A simple expression for finding and characterizing the optimal steady state of a general dynamic optimization problem is derived. This expression is easy to interpret and easy to apply for various purposes as, for example, to analytically investigate the effect of the discount rate upon optimal steady state stock levels. It is shown that an increase in the discount rate may result in higher optimal stock levels even in the one dimensional ( single species) case in nonlinear models. An important result is that if demand is inelastic at the optimal steady state, a higher discount rate will unequivocally imply higher standing stock( s). Increasing marginal cost of harvest will further strengthen this result. In the multidimensional case it is demonstrated that an increased discount rate may result in higher optimal stock levels for all stocks included in the model. 5 8 6 Sandal, Leif K. and Stein Ivar Steinshamn ( 1997).  A Stochastic Feedback Model for Optimal Management of Renewable Resources.  Natural Resource Modeling, 10( 1): 31 51.

Analytical expressions for optimal harvest of a renewable resource stock which is subject to a stochastic process are found. These expressions give the optimal harvest as an explicit feedback control law. All relations in the model, including the stochastic process, may be arbitrary functions of the state variable ( stock). The objective function, however, is at most a quadratic function in the control variable ( yield). A quadratic objective function includes the cases of downward sloping demand and increasing marginal costs which are the most common sources for nonlinearities in the economic part of the model. When it is assumed that there is a moratorium on harvest for stock sizes below a certain level ( biological barrier), it is shown that the barrier requirements influence the optimal harvest paths throughout.

Sanders, Nathaniel, Jr., David M. Donaldson, and Perry A. Thompson ( eds.) ( 1990). " SEAMAP Environmental and Biological Atlas of the Gulf of Mexico, 1987." Number 22, Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission, November, 337 pp.

The Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program ( SEAMAP) is a State/ Federal/ University program for the collection, management, and dissemination of fishery independent data in the United States waters of the Gulf of Mexico. A major SEAMAP objective is to provide the large, standardized data base needed by management agencies, industry, and scientists to wisely manage and develop fishery resources for the least possible cost. This report is the sixth in a series of SEAMAP environmental and biological atlases that presents such data in a summarized form collected during the 1987 SEAMAP surveys.

Sandler, Todd and Frederic P. Sterbenz ( 1990). " Harvest Uncertainty and the Tragedy of the Commons." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 18: 155 167.

This paper demonstrates that a fixed number of risk averse firms faced with harvest uncertainty owing to resource stock uncertainty will typically reduce their exploitation of a commons. In addition, the total exploitation of the industry will decrease when entry is permitted and uncertainty is compared with certainty. This result holds for perfectly competitive output markets and also characterizes imperfectly competitive output markets with linear market demand and risk neutral firms. In the latter case, the socially optimum number of firms is determined based upon the degree of uncertainty, the price elasticity of market demand, and the elasticity of input productivity.

Sarthou, Cynthia M. ( 1996). Letter to Wayne Swingle, Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, September, 20th, 2 pp.

Letter expressing the concern of the Gulf Restoration Network about the decline in large coastal shark populations in the Gulf of Mexico.

Sather, J. Henry and Patricia J. Ruta Stuber ( tech. Coordinators) ( 1984). " Proceedings of the National Wetland Values Assessment Workshop." May 23 26, 1983, Alexandria, Virginia. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior.

This is a summary of the information emanating from the Wetland Values Assessment Workshop. 5 8 7 Sathiendrakumar, R. and C. A. Tisdell ( 1987). " Optimal Economic Fishery Effort in the Maldivian Tuna Fishery: An Appropriate Model." Marine Resource Economics, 4: 15 44.

The estimation of a production function for Maldivian tuna fishery is a two step process. First, it is necessary to find the relationship between catch and effort and second, to find the most efficient combination of inputs to produce the various levels of effort and hence output. The paper discusses the selection of an appropriate model to explain the relationship between tuna catch and effort and presents a technique for estimating the effort level required for an optimal allocation of resources that maximize the economic benefit of the fishery to the society. It also considers the extent to which the present pricing policy of the State Trading Organization for tuna has prevented the fishery reaching the open access equilibrium yield level of effort and dissipating resource rent.

Schabram, Dennis ( 1995).  Texas Shrimpers Ready or Not for  Limited Entry and Bycatch  .  The Herald, 6( 4), February 16, 2 pp.

Will recreational fishermen do to the shrimp fishery what they did to the finfish fishery in Texas? Ultimately the consumer will share the price. Will free enterprise forces regulate the shrimp industry?

Schaefer, H. Charles, Lyman E. Barger, and Herman E. Kumpf ( 1988). " The Driftnet Fishery in the Fort Pierce Port Salerno Area off Southeast Florida." Draft report, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisehries Center, Economics and Statistics Office, 727 Belvedere Road, West Palm Beach, Flroida.

From May through September 1987, observations were made on 38 trips in the driftnet fishery off the Fort Pierce Port Salerno area off southeast Florida. Of the number and weight of fish landed on observed trips, 91.6 percent consisted of king mackerel, Scomberomorus cavalla, the targeted species. Over 33 species of fish were observed among the discarded bycatch. The most frequently occurring species in the discards was little tunny, Euthynnus alletteratus, that made up 67 percent by number of the discarded bycatch. Total landings for all commercial gear from Saint Lucie and Martin counties ( the counties of the study area) increased 516,741 pounds from 1986 to 1987. In 1986, 55 percent of the catch was from handline and 45 percent from driftnet landings. In 1987, 78 percent was from driftnet and 22 percent from handline landings. A comparison of lengths from recreational and commercial landings showed recreationally caught fish to be, on the average, smaller. No marine mammals, birds, or turtles were entangled in the net on observed trips. Data on cost of nets, fuel, and supplies plus the distribution of earnings among the crew were obtained for five driftnet boats.

Schaefer, H. Charles, Lyman E. Barger, and Herman E. Kumpf ( 1989). " The Driftnet Fishery in the Fort Pierce Port Salerno Area off Southeast Florida." Marine Fisheries Review, 51( 1): 44 49.

From May through September 1987, observations were made on 38 trips in the driftnet fishery off the Fort Pierce Port Salerno area off southeast Florida. Of the number and weight of fish landed on observed trips, 91.6 percent consisted of king mackerel, Scomberomorus cavalla, the targeted species. Over 33 species of fish were observed among the discarded bycatch. The most frequently occurring species in the discards was little tunny, Euthynnus alletteratus, that made up 67 percent by number of the discarded bycatch. Total landings for all commercial gear from Saint Lucie and Martin counties ( the counties of the study area) increased 516,741 pounds from 1986 5 8 8 to 1987. In 1986, 55 percent of the catch was from handline and 45 percent from driftnet landings. In 1987, 78 percent was from driftnet and 22 percent from handline landings. A comparison of lengths from recreational and commercial landings showed recreationally caught fish to be, on the average, smaller. No marine mammals, birds, or turtles were entangled in the net on observed trips. Data on cost of nets, fuel, and supplies plus the distribution of earnings among the crew were obtained for five driftnet boats.

Schaefer, Milner B. ( 1954). " Some Aspects of the Dynamics of Populations Important to the Management of the Commercial Marine Fisheries." Inter American Tropical Tuna Commission Bulletin, 1( 2): 27 56.

In this investigation it will be attempted to indicate the manner in which the fundamental laws of population growth operate in the case of a commercial fishery, and so, perhaps, clarify some of the important considerations basic to the management of the oceanic fisheries. These will be shown by means of mathematical models parts of which are similar to ones used in predator prey investigations of other organisms and in other attempts to apply them to fisheries.

Schaefer, Milner B. ( 1957). " Some Considerations of Population Dynamics and Economics in Relation to the Management of the Commercial Marine Fisheries." Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 14( 5): 669 681.

This paper considers some significant aspects of the population dynamics of commercial fish stocks and of the economics of commercial fishing to arrive at a rational basis of considering the social problem of fisheries management.

Schaefer, M. B. ( 1959). " Biological and Economic Aspects of the Management of Commercial Marine Fisheries." Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 88: 100 104.

Conservation management of the commercial marine fisheries has the general objective of maximizing man's long term benefits from the exploitation of the fish resources. The question of what is most beneficial to man involves both biological and economic considerations. In this paper some of the effects of fishing on the fish stocks, and on the sustainable yields from them, are considered, together with important economic factors. It is indicated that the maximum sustainable average catch and the maximum net economic yield are mutually exclusive. It is possible, however, to obtain some net economic yield at the level of maximum sustainable harvest, but this requires some modification of the common property nature of fish stocks.

Schaefer, Richard ( 1995). " Biological Assessment for Regulatory Changes for the Atlantic Swordfish Fishery." Memorandum for William Fox, National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland.

The purpose of this memorandum is to: ( 1) provide a biological assessment for a proposed rule that would implement regulatory changes for the Atlantic swordfish fishery and ( 2) request initiation of an informal Section 7 consultation as required by the Endangered Species Act.

Scheibling, Robert E. and Philip V. Mladenov ( 1987). " The Decline of the Sea Urchin, Tripneustes ventricosus, Fishery of Barbados: A Survey of Fishermen and Consumers." Marine Fisheries Review, 49( 3): 62 69. 5 8 9 For over a century, Barbadians have fished the sea urchin for its roe that they consider a traditional delicacy. However, the abundance of these sea urchins has declined drastically in recent years resulting in the collapse of this fishery. Interviews with sea urchin fishermen and consumers document this decline and its socioeconomic impact.

Schelling, T. C. ( 1973). " Hockey Helmets, Concealed Weapons, and Daylight Saving." Journal of Conflict Resolution, 17( 3): 381 428.

This paper discusses binary choice with externalities.

Schelling, T. C. ( 1992). " Some Economics of Global Warming." The American Economic Review, 82( 1): 1 14.

The author presents a qualitative discussion of the impacts of global warming due to the emissions of green house gases from industrialized and developing countries. After a review of various estimates concerning warming levels, he concludes that it is not in the interest of developed nations to reduce their emissions nor is it in the interest of developing nations to forego industrialization that leads to increased emissions of green house gases. A transfer of wealth from the industrialized countries to the less developed countries is required to reduce future emissions.

Scheurer, Paul G. ( 1994). " Why Won't It Work?" My View in the Gloucester Daily Times, October 13th.

Marine reserves in New Zealand for crawfish offer hope for the American Lobster in New England as a management measure. In addition, the creation of a marine reserve on Georges Banks could increase the speed in which those fishery resources recover.

Schirrips, Michael J.( 1998). " Status of the Red Snapper in U. S. Waters of the Gulf of Mexico: Updated through 1997." Sustainable Fisheries Division contribution: SFD 97/ 98 30, Sustainable Fisheries Division, Miami Laboratory, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, FL, September, 73 pp.

This document updates certain aspects of the red snapper stock assessment for the Gulf of Mexico.

Schirrips, Michael J. and C. Phillip Goodyear ( 1994). " Status of the Gag Stocks of the Gulf of Mexico: Assessment 1.0." Miami Laboratory Contribution No. MIA 93/ 94 61, Coastal Resources Division, Miami Laboratory, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, FL, August, 156 pp.

This document represents an attempt to fully integrate all available knowledge on gag and to incorporate it into an assessment of the current status of the stock. Many, if not most, of the life history aspects estimated here will require further refinement in the future. Nonetheless, a considerable body of information does exist and it is felt that this work is a good starting point for management of the gag stock.

Schirripa, Michael J. and Christopher M. Legault ( 1997). " Status of the Gag Stocks of the Gulf of Mexico: Assessment 2.0." Sustainable Fisheries Division, Miami Laboratory, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, 75 Virginia Beach 5 9 0 Drive, Miami, FL, October, 114 pp.

This report updates the original assessment of Schirripa and Goodyear ( 1994) which was based on landings and catch per unit effort trends from 1986 92. In this report additional data and analyses are being considered. First, the catches and CPUE  s have been updated through 1996 and reanalyzed. Secondly, preliminary estimates of discard mortality were included in the virtual population analyses, whereas they were not in the previous assessment. And third, the implications of several different scenarios about the protogynous reproductive behavior of gag on the measurement of SPR were evaluated.

Schmalensee, Richard ( 1976). " Resource Exploitation Theory and the Behavior of the Oil Cartel." European Economic Review, 7: 257 279.

This paper examines the implications of the partial equilibrium theory of optimal exploitation of a nonrenewable resource for the behavior of the OPEC cartel. A relatively general extraction cost structure is assumed, and several new theoretical results are derived. The influence of oil exporting countries' ultimate objectives on cartel behavior is examined under alternative assumptions about trading and investment opportunities. Some implications for the policies of oil importing nations are discussed.

Schmidt, Peter and Robert P. Strauss ( 1975). " The Prediction of Occupation Using Multiple Logit Models." International Economic Review, 16( 2): 471 486.

The paper analyzes patterns of employment by estimating a multiple logit model of occupational attainment, using race, sex, educational attainment and labor market experience as explanatory variables. The advantages of this direct approach are that it makes it unnecessary to make assumptions about an appropriate reference point ( such as average educational attainment in the occupation), and that the analysis may be based on individual observations rather than percentages.

Schmied, Ronald L. ( 1984). " Tools and Methods for Fisheries Development." Chapter 16 in Richard H. Stroud ( ed.) Marine Recreational Fisheries, 9, Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Marine Recreational Fisheries Symposium, Virginia Beach, Virginia, April 24 and 25, National Coalition for Marine Conservation, Inc., Savannah, Georgia.

This paper presents several tools and methods which should lend direction to the challenging process of developing marine recreational fishing. Effective use of these tools and methods requires that several precepts regarding marine recreational fisheries be understood.

Schmied, Ronald L. ( 1994). " Report to Congress on the Cooperative Research Program Addressing Finfish Bycatch in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Shrimp Fisheries." Draft report, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office, 9721 Executive Center Drive, North, St. Petersburg, FL, November, 27 pp.

This report updates members of Congress and other interested parties on progress made by the Secretary of Commerce in developing and implementing a cooperative shrimp trawl bycatch research program for the southeastern United States. 5 9 1 Schmied, Ronald L. ( 1995). " Report to Congress on the Cooperative Research Program Addressing Finfish Bycatch in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Shrimp Fisheries." Second draft report, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office, 9721 Executive Center Drive, North, St. Petersburg, FL, January, 47 pp.

Revised Schmied ( 1994) report that updates members of Congress and other interested parties on progress made by the Secretary of Commerce in developing and implementing a cooperative shrimp trawl bycatch research program for the southeastern United States.

Schmied, Ronald L. ( 1995). " Report to Congress on the Cooperative Research Program Addressing Finfish Bycatch in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Shrimp Fisheries." Final draft report, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office, 9721 Executive Center Drive, North, St. Petersburg, FL, February, 52 pp.

Revised Schmied ( 1995) report that updates members of Congress and other interested parties on progress made by the Secretary of Commerce in developing and implementing a cooperative shrimp trawl bycatch research program for the southeastern United States.

Schmied, Ronald L. and Edward E. Burgess ( 1987). " Marine Recreational Fisheries in the Southeastern United States: An Overview." Marine Fisheries Review, 49( 2): 2 7.

Marine recreational fishing in the southeastern United States is an outdoor recreational activity of increasing popularity, economic significance, and consequence to the region's fishery resources. In 1985, over 11 million anglers made 44 million fishing trips in the south Atlantic and gulf and caught 222 million fish. Thirty five percent were landed weighing over 131 million pounds, representing 40 percent of total edible finfish landings in the region. In 1985, the region accounted for 40 percent of all U. S. saltwater anglers, 62 percent of all trips, and 50 percent of the total number of recreationally caught fish. Direct expenditures by south Atlantic and Gulf anglers in 1985 were estimated to be nearly $ 3.4 billion. These expenditures are estimated to have generated an additional $ 1.5 billion in value added and supported over 42,000 person years of employment in marine recreational fisheries related support and service industries. Additional detailed discussion of the nature and extent of marine recreational fishing in the south Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, and U. S. Virgin Islands is presented.

Schmitten, Rolland A. ( 1994). " Reinitiation of Endangered Species Act Section 7 Consultation on the Impacts of Shrimp Trawling in the Southeastern United States." Memorandum, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, 1335 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD.

Based on the attached biological opinion, we conclude that the continued long term operation of the shrimp fishery in the nearshore waters of the southeastern United States is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the highly endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtle. 5 9 2 Schmitten, Rolland A. ( 1995). " United Nations UN Conference on Fisheries." Memorandum, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, 1335 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD.

The attached Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the UN Convention of the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks aims to reverse the global trend of declining fish stocks.

Schmitten, Rolland A. ( 1996).  Food and Agriculture Organization Expert Consultation on Fishing Capacity.  Letter, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, 1335 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD.

Letter agreeing to the joint sponsorship of a expert consultation on fishing capacity and a tentative budget. Also included is a list of the initial organizers of the workshop.

Schmitten, Rolland A. ( 1997).  Approval of Amendment 9 to the Fishery Management Plan for the Shrimp Fishery of the Gulf of Mexico.  Informational Memorandum to Terry D. Garcia, Acting Assistant Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere, National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD, July.

Pre decision memorandum for shrimp amendment 9 imposing bycatch reduction devices on the Gulf of Mexico shrimp fishery.

Schmitten, Rolland A. ( 1997).  Win Win bycatch Solutions Phase II: The Federal Role.  In Solving Bycatch, Considerations for Today and Tomorrow, Alaskan Sea Grant College Program Report No. 96 03, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, 322 pp.

Solutions to bycatch problems will come from a strong industrygovernment partnership that makes good use of the energies and skills of the conservation and academic communities. The proper role of government is not to force bycatch regulations and systems on an already heavily burdened industry. Instead, it should be to provide planning support, sponsor and coordinate research, disseminate bycatch data and other information, educate the public on the real issues and progress being made, and perhaps most important, listen to what the industry is saying. Examples of what government is doing are described. The paper ends by describing, in general terms, what has been learned so far about resolving bycatch problems.

Schmitten, Rolland A. ( 1997).  Testimony of Rolland A. Schmitten.  Assistant Administrator for Fisheries National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce, Before the Committee on Resources, U. S. House of Representatives, September 14 pp.

A review of work being performed by the NMFS presented to Congress.

Schmitz, Andrew ( 1995).  Boom/ Bust Cycles and Ricardian Rent.  American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 77( 5): 1110 1125.

North American agriculture has been characterized by many as a boom/ bust industry. This paper focuses on a particular agricultural boom/ bust cycle, which began in the early 1970' s in Saskatchewan Canada, a major wheat 5 9 3 producing region. It is important to understand cycles because often the wealth that they generate bears little or no relationship to Ricardian rent which, in turn, makes the design of economic policy difficult. Specifically, the factors that give rise to boom/ bust cycles and how they are related to Ricardian rent are explored. Wealth is distinguished from net farm income and/ or Ricardian rent. Wealth multiplier effects are likely to far exceed income effect multipliers during certain phases of the boom/ bust cycle. Other effects of the boom/ bust cycle phenomenon are discussed, including farm diversification, farm size, rural communities, and farm debt.

Schnare, Ann B. ( 1976). " Racial and Ethnic Price Differentials in an Urban Housing Market." Urban Studies, 13: 107 120.

This study examines the role of racial and ethnic preferences in an urban housing market. The theoretical section develops a simple, long run equilibrium model of household location that examines the relationship between demographic externalities, housing market segregation, and housing prices. Under assumption of perfectly mobile households and complete supply adjustment, externalities will normally produce highly segregated neighborhoods with rent differentials that reflect the demographic preferences of their residents.

Schnare, David W. ( 1998). " Protecting Fish and Fisherman  Economic Analysis Under the Regulatory Flexibility Act." Draft report presented at the American Fisheries Society Annual Meeting, Hartford Conn, August, 31 pp.

A discussion of the economic analysis necessary to meet the requirements under the Regulatory Flexibility Act with a detailed discussion of the shortcomings in the IRFA for the proposed shark quota regulations.

Schrank, William E. ( 1997).  The Newfoundland Fishery: Past, Present and Future.  Department of Economics, Memorial University, St. Johns, Newfoundland, March, 47 pp.

A discussion of the collapse of the cod fishery in Newfoundland and the governments response to it. The fundamental problems of the Newfoundland fishery are considered and suggested long term solutions are discussed.

Schrank, William E. ( 1997).  The Newfoundland Fishery: Past, Present and Future.  In World Wildlife Fund  s Subsidies and Depletion of World Fisheries, WWF  s Endangered Seas Campaign, 1250 Twenty Fourth St., NW, Washington, D. C., 136 pp.

A discussion of the collapse of the cod fishery in Newfoundland and the governments response to it. The fundamental problems of the Newfoundland fishery are considered and suggested long term solutions are discussed.

Schrank, William E. and R. L. Mazany ( 1994).  Econometric Modeling of World Trade in Groundfish: Progress Report.  North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 14: 291 296.

This paper describes the process that led to the world groundfish trade model project that originated at the 1988 conference of the International Institute for Fisheries Economics and Trade, held in Esbjerg, Denmark, and was organized at an international conference held in St John  s, Newfoundland, in 1989. The motivation for the project is discussed, as are the proceedings of the Newfoundland conference, with its emphasis on the interactions among demand, supply, and institutional factors in the development of such a model, 5 9 4 and on the extensive data requirements of such a project.

Schrank, William E., Noel Roy, and Eugene Tsoa ( 1986).  Employment Prospects in a Commercially Viable Newfoundland Fishery: An Application of  An Econometric Model of the Newfoundland Groundfishery.   Marine Resource Economics, 3( 3): 237 263.

An econometric model is utilized to simulate the effects of a policy change in which government financial assistance to a major Canadian marine fishery is withdrawn and the industry is place on a commercially viable basis. Under near ideal conditions of marketing and harvesting, harvesting employment would fall drastically, from approximately thirty thousand fishermen under the current regime to approximately six thousand. There would be a concomitant fall in seasonal fish plant employment, and severe fall in those federal transfer payments ( e. g., unemployment insurance) that are currently generated by extensive seasonal employment in both harvesting and processing sectors of the fishery. The policy analysis consists of simulations with a prototype econometric model which integrates the demand, processing, and harvesting sectors of the fishery. The essential components of the 1,000 equation model are described.

Schuhmann, Peter William ( 1996).  A Welfare Analysis of Commercial Fishery Harvest Restrictions: A Bioeconomic Model of Red Drum Stock Dynamics and Recreational Demand.  Dissertation, North Carolina State University.

The purpose of this work is to develop a methodology that allows for an a priori examination of the biological and economic effects of a specific fisheries policy measure: the restriction of commercial harvests in the North Carolina red drum ( Scianops ocellatus) fishery. The models that make up this methodology account for the natural characteristics of the red drum fish population, as well as the characteristics of the user groups that utilize the stock. Proposed regulations to reallocate red drum stocks to the recreational sector are evaluated using the simulation model.

Schulze, Margo ( 1996).  1997 Management Measure Options Pros and Cons.  Highly Migratory Species Management Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Springs, MD.

Some arguments and issues to be develop in the environmental assessment for amendment 2 to the shark fishery management plan concerning quota reductions, minimum size limits, and recreational bag limits.

Schultze, Charles ( 1977). The Public Use of the Private Interest. Brookings Institution, Washington, D. C., pp. 16 90.

The role of government in the economy is discussed in terms of sources of market failure, public ownership of resources, equity versus efficiency, and the sources of government failure.

Schultze, Donald L. and Robert C. Fletcher ( 1984). " Integrating Multiple Interests." Chapter 19 in Richard H. Stroud ( ed.) Marine Recreational Fisheries, 9, Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Marine Recreational Fisheries Symposium, Virginia Beach, Virginia, April 24 and 25, National Coalition for Marine Conservation, Inc., Savannah, Georgia.

This discussion deals with the need to integrate and coordinate numerous interests and disciplines to effect marine recreational fisheries ( MRF) development from the perspective of a fisheries manager. 5 9 5 Schworm, William E. ( 1983). " Monopsonistic Control of a Common Property Renewable Resource." Canadian Journal of Economics, 8: 275 287.

In this paper the Crutchfield and Pontecorvo conjecture that a monopsonistic processing sector would induce efficient use of a common property resource is analyzed. It is shown that if the harvesting sector consists of a large number of firms with identical convex technologies, then the conjecture is correct. In addition, sufficient conditions are found under which the stationary resource stock with a monopsonistic processing sector is greater than the efficient size.

Scott, Anthony ( 1955). " The Fishery: The Objectives of Sole Ownership." Journal of Political Economy, 63: 116 124.

This paper compares the use of a fishery by competing fishermen with the mode of management that would be most profitable to a sole owner of the same fishery. The long run considerations of efficiency suggest that sole ownership is a much superior regime to competition but that in the short run in the ordinary case there is little difference between the efficiency of common and of private property.

Scott, Anthony ( 1967). " The Theory of the Mine Under Conditions of Certainty." In M. Gaffney ( ed.), Extractive Resources and Taxation, University of Wisconsin Press.

The purpose of this paper is to examine decisions about rates of production, investment in capacity, and the life of a mine. The same considerations would apply to the extraction of trees from a forest, oil from a well, or fish from a fishery.

Scott, Anthony ( ed.) ( 1970). Economics of Fisheries Management: A Symposium. Institute of Animal Resource Ecology, University of British Columbia, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, Canada.

A set of papers from a conference on fisheries management. Topics include dynamic models of fishing, seasonality models, efficient regulation, management, prices and allocation over space, and the economics of international fishing conventions.

Scott, Anthony ( 1973). Natural Resources: The Economics of Conservation. The Carleton Library No. 68, McClelland and Stewart Limited, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

This book is designed to throw some theoretical light on the implications of conservation. Economics has at hand a body of theory that may be used to analyze the exploitation and restoration of natural resources as a special case of using up any productive asset. In addition to accounting for individual profits and expenses, the student of natural resource use must also observe the extra social costs and benefits accruing to other persons and groups.

Scott, Anthony ( 1979). " Development of Economic Theory on Fisheries Regulation." J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 36: 725 741.

A survey of the economic literature of fisheries regulation shows that little of analytical value for the comparison of alternative regulatory techniques has emerged. The suggestion that the general literature on regulation, and on pubic choice, has something to contribute to the 5 9 6 understanding of alternative regimes produces eight criteria. These are applied to the choice between two systems of restricting entry: a tax and quotas. The transactions costs of the two systems are also investigated. The hypothesis is formed that the eight criteria, plus expected transactions costs, give the edge to a quota system; but this is only illustrative of the approach.

Scott, Anthony ( ed.) ( 1985). Progress in Natural Resource Economics. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

This volume attempts to meet the obvious need for intensive research on resource topics based on a Canadian Council program grant. It surveys the fields of renewable and nonrenewable resources, institutions, and ideologies.

Scott, Anthony ( 1988). " Development of Property in the Fishery." Marine Resource Economics, 5: 289 311.

To what extent is the recently invented individual catch quota a form of real property right? This article introduces six quantitative characteristics of all personal interests in land and natural resources. It is shown that medieval fishing rights had some of these characteristics, but these rights were not developed in the common law of property. The article then turns to modern regulatory licenses and catch quotas and examines the extent to which they embody property characteristics. In a digression, the obstacles to political acceptance of the individual fishery property concept are surveyed. The paper concludes by suggesting that catch quotas may develop into shares in the fish stock or biomass itself.

Scott, Anthony ( 1989). " Conceptual Origins of Rights Based Fishing." Pages 11 38 in P. A. Neher, R. Arnason, and N. Mollett ( eds.) Rights Based Fishing. Dordrecht: Academic Publishers.

Recent innovations in quota rights are only a stage in the progression to private ownership of fisheries.

Scott, Anthony ( 1993). " Obstacles to Fishery Self Government." Marine Resource Economics, 8( 3): 187 199.

This paper uses some aspects of modern organization and management theory to suggest what difficulties arise with the introduction of self government in fisheries. Recent studies are used to shed light on the characteristics of fisheries that already have apparently successful schemes of self government. A simple question is asked: if for a fishery under regulation it had already been decided, in principle, that self government should be tried, which obstacles would be most serious? Among the suggested answers are deficient information, excessive numbers of fishermen and fishermen heterogeneity. The least serious of these are the distributional problems.

Scott, Frank A. ( 1983). " A Note on Uncertain Input Prices, Profit Risk, and the Rate Of Return Regulated Firm." Land Economics, 59( 2): 247 254.

The themes of lagged regulation and uncertainty are brought together in this paper because existing studies of rate of return regulation and uncertainty have focused predominately on demand or revenue uncertainty, while input price uncertainty has been virtually ignored. Rapid changes in input prices have brought the issue of regulatory lag to the forefront. This and the regulatory commissions response of moving toward continuous regulation 5 9 7 raises the issue of how will the combination of input price uncertainty and continuous rate of return regulation affect the firms's section of inputs. Using a capital asset pricing model, the authors find that the continuously regulated firm has the incentive to use relatively less capital than when input prices are known with certainty.

Scott, Gerald P. ( 1991).  Some Options for Estimating 1992 U. S. TAC for Swordfish.  MIA 91/ 92 21, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Miami Laboratory, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, Fl, December, 28 pp.

Several options for projecting swordfish stock size and yield for estimating 1992 U. S. total allowable catch ( TAC) are provided. The projection options considered utilize several hypothetical 1991 fishing mortality reduction scenarios based on regulatory measures imposed in 1991. The estimation and projection methods described in Scott and Powers ( 1991) are used herein, except where noted. In contrast to Scott and Powers, who used a deterministic projection, stochastic projections are applied in this document. The basis for these projections are the Monte Carlo simulation outcomes resulting from analyses conducted by the 1991 ICCAT SCRS swordfish species group at its September, 1991, meeting in St. Andrews, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Scott, Gerald P. ( 1995).   Bycatch  Report for ICCAT.  Memorandum, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, August 7, 8 pp.

Preliminary estimates of bycatch by species from 1993 observer data collected for the longline, pair trawl, and gillnet fishery.

Scott, Gerald P. ( 1996).  On a Swordfish Cleithrum to Keel Measure Corresponding to 119 cm LJFL.  National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Miami Laboratory, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, Fl, April 2 pp.

The paper re estimates the statistical conversion factor ( Lee and Scott, 1992) for measurements taken from cleithrum to keel for the minimum size corresponding to 119 cm lower jaw fork length ( LJFL) based on a larger data base with greater depth in length measurements. A recommendation for a minimum CK size with zero probability of exceeding the minimum LJFL size is presented.

Scott, Gerald P. and Angelo Bertolino ( 1990). " Standardized Catch Rates for Swordfish ( Xiphias gladius) from the U. S. Longline Fleet Through 1989." ICCAT Working Document SCRS/ 90/, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, Florida.

Swordfish catch, size, and effort data collected from the U. S. longline fleet operating over a wide geographical range of the western North Atlantic Ocean were used to develop age specific indices of abundance of North Atlantic swordfish. Standardized catch rates were estimated using the General Linear Modeling approach.

Scott, Gerald P., Victor R. Restrepo, and Angelo Bertolino ( 1991). " Standardized Catch Rates for Swordfish ( Xiphias gladius) from the U. S. Longline Fleet Through 1990." ICCAT Working Document SCRS/ 91/ 41, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, 5 9 8 Southeast Fisheries Center, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, Florida and Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida.

Swordfish catch, size, and effort data collected from the U. S. longline fleet operating over a wide geographical range of the western North Atlantic Ocean were used to develop age specific indices of abundance of north Atlantic swordfish. Standardized catch rates were estimated using the General Linear Modeling approach.

Scott, Gerald P., Douglas M. Burn, Larry J. Hansen, and Ralph E. Owen ( 1989). " Estimates of Bottlenose Dolphin Abundance in the Gulf of Mexico from Regional Aerial Surveys." Draft report, NMFS, SEFC, Miami Laboratory, Coastal Resources Division, Contribution Number CRD 88/ 89 07, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, FL 33149, February, pp. 24.

Aerial sampling surveys of the U. S. Gulf of Mexico were conducted between September 1983 and February 1986. Seasonal sampling of the 359,000 square kilometer study area was completed to allow estimation of the regional abundance of bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus). Under the assumption of no net movement between sampling regions and sampling periods it was estimated on average between 35,000 and 45,000 bottlenose dolphins may live in U. S. Gulf of Mexico waters of depths 183 m or less. The dominant proportion of these animals appear to inhabit waters of greater than 18.3 m. The data were stratified to allow estimates sufficient for quota recommendations for managing the live capture fishery for bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Mexico.

Searle, S. R. ( 1971). Linear Models. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

This book describes general procedures of estimation and hypothesis testing for linear statistical models and shows their application for unbalanced data ( i. e., unequal subclass numbers data) to certain specific models that often arise in research and survey work. In addition, three chapters are devoted to methods and results for estimating variance components, particularly from unbalanced data. Balanced data for the kind usually arising from designed experiments are treated very briefly, as just special cases of unbalanced data. Emphasis on unbalanced data is the backbone of the book, designed to assist those whose data cannot satisfy the strictures of carefully managed and well designed experiments.

Seber, G. A. F. and C. J. Wild ( 1989). " Prediction and Transformation Bias." Section 2.8.7 in Nonlinear Regression, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Correcting for transformation bias when predicting the value of the dependent variable using inherently linear models.

Sedjo, Roger A. ( 1995).  Ecosystem Management: An Uncharted Path for Public Forests.  Resources, Fall, 4 pp.

Ecosystem management ignores the social consensus implicit in a legislated objective of producing multiple forest outputs and, instead, attempts to achieve some arbitrary forest condition about which society has little say.

Segerson, Kathleen ( 1987). " Risk Sharing and Liability in the Control 5 9 9 of Stochastic Externalities." Marine Resource Economics, 4: 175 192.

This paper analyzes alternative policies for controlling stochastic externalities, considering both the incentive and the risk sharing effects of each. When polluter actions are unobservable so that regulation is not possible, alternative liability rules including zero, partial, and full liability are compared. When actions are observable, then regulation is possible, and the use of regulation is compared to the use of liability. The principle agent paradigm provides the analytical approach used to determine the efficient policy choice. The effect of the availability of insurance is also addressed. This paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of the analysis for the control of stochastic marine pollution.

Segerson, Kathleen and Dale Squires ( 1990). " On the Measurement of Economic Capacity Utilization for Multi Product Industries." Journal of Econometrics, 44: 347 361.

This paper considers capacity utilization measures for the multiproduct firm. The single product dual measure of capacity utilization easily extends to the multiproduct case. Three possible extensions of the single product primal measure are considered. Although each has its limitations because of the restrictions embodied in it, each provides different, yet potentially useful information about capacity utilization in a multiproduct industry. The dual and primal measures of multiproduct capacity utilization are applied to the multispecies New England fishing industry to evaluate the potential for capacity expansion under a regulatory program of license limitation.

Sen, Sevaly ( 1994).  The Environmental Effects of Trade in the Fisheries Sector.  AGR/ FI( 94) 8/ ADD1, Committee for Fisheries, Directorate for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries, Organization for Economic Co Operation and Development, Feb., 21 pp.

This paper discusses current trade flows and the potential environmental effects of international trade flows in fish and fishery products. It discusses how trade policies can temper or exacerbate these effects. Finally, the paper assesses the effectiveness of trade instruments to assist in the achievement of environmental goals in the fisheries sector and discusses other possible measures which could be implemented.

Sethi, Rajiv and E. Somanathan ( 1996).  The Evolution of Social Norms in Common Property Resource Use.  American Economic Review, 86( 4): 766 788.

The problem of extracting commonly owned renewable resources is examined within an evolutionary game theoretic framework. It is shown that cooperative behavior guided by norms of restraint and punishment may be stable in a well defined sense against invasion by narrowly self interested behavior. The resource stock dynamics are integrated with the evolutionary game dynamics. Effects of changes in prices, technology, and social cohesion on extraction behavior and the long run stock are analyzed. When threshold values of the parameters are crossed, social norms can break down leading generally to the lowering of the long run stock, and possibly to its extinction.

Shabman, Leonard A. and Sandra S. Batie ( 1986). " Mitigating Damages From Coastal Wetlands Development: Policy, Economics and Financing." Draft report, Department of Agricultural Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. 6 0 0 Public programs to reduce the rate of coastal wetlands losses are based upon an ambiguous policy framework. Also, scientific uncertainty about the services of wetlands make credible economic valuation difficult, thus reducing the utility of benefit cost analysis within the wetlands regulation process. Reform of national wetlands programs can result in enhanced maintenance of wetlands stocks and accommodation of development pressures. The policy reforms proposed in this paper will result in achievement of these objectives in an economically efficient manner.

Shabman, Leonard A. and Sandra S. Batie ( 1987). " Mitigating Damages From Coastal Wetlands Development: Policy, Economics and Financing." Marine Resource Economics, 4: 227 248.

Public programs to reduce the rate of coastal wetlands losses are based upon an ambiguous policy framework. Also, scientific uncertainty about the services of wetlands make credible economic valuation difficult, thus reducing the utility of benefit cost analysis within the wetlands regulation process. Reform of national wetlands programs can result in enhanced maintenance of wetlands stocks and accommodation of development pressures. The policy reforms proposed in this paper will result in achievement of these objectives in an economically efficient manner.

Shabman, Leonard A. and Oral Capps, Jr. ( 1985). " Benefit Taxation for Environmental Improvement: A Case Example from Virginia's Soft Crab Fishery." land Economics, 61( 4): 398 408.

The objective of this paper is to use the restoration of submerged aquatic vegetation ( SAV) levels to support the Virginia soft crab fishery as an illustration of the necessary analysis to support an environmental improvement plus beneficiary tax program. Toward that end the relationship between SAV abundance and soft crab harvest will be demonstrated. Then a conceptual model is developed discussing principles for setting benefit taxes on an open access fishery. Empirical estimation of the model components illustrates the application of the approach.

Shaik, Saleem and Glenn Helmers ( 1999).  Shadow Price of Environmental Bads: Weak vs. Strong Disposability.  Selected Paper, American Agricultural Economics Association Meetings, Nashville, Tennessee, August 8 11, 15 pp.

This paper addresses the issue of the shadow price of environmental bads treated as an undesirable output ( normal input) with weak ( strong) disposability in a two stage estimation. Nebraska agriculture sector time series data is spread over 1936 94. Results indicate the difference in the price due to the disposability property.

Shark Specialist Group ( 1996).  The Implications of Biology for the Conservation and Management of Sharks.  Report prepared for the thirteenth Meeting of the CITES Animals Committee, 23 27 September, Pruhonice, Czech Republic, September, 37 pp.

A summary of the biological knowledge of sharks including life history characteristics, conservation status, shark fishery trends and implications for the future, management history and implications, and finally a call for more biological data collection and the immediate management of sharks around the world even if the necessary data supporting it does not exist.

Sharples, Jerry A. and Forrest D. Holland ( 1981). " Impact of the Farmer Owned Reserve on Privately Owned Wheat Stocks." American 6 0 1 Journal of Agricultural Economics, 63( 3): 538 543.

The paper estimates the impact of the farmer owned reserve on the demand for year ending wheat stocks and demonstrates the potential of a little used functional form for estimating the demand for stocks.

Shaw, Daigee ( 1988). " On Site Samples Regression: Problems of Nonnegative Integers, Truncation, and Endogenous Stratification." Journal of Econometrics, 37: 211 223.

This paper corrects an estimation problem that has not yet been recognized in previous estimates of demand functions using on site samples. There are three kinds of problems that one faces in on site samples, namely, non negative integers, truncation, and endogenous stratification. Two theoretically correct maximum likelihood methods are developed based on two different assumptions about the variable distribution: the normal distribution and the Poisson distribution. A simulation is performed to compare the two methods using generated data sets of known models. We should not use OLS and instead should use the maximum likelihood methods developed here to estimate demand functions that use on site samples. If forecasting is the purpose of estimation, then the simulation indicates that the Poisson ML method may be better.

Shepherd, J. G. and D. J. Garrod ( 19??). " Modeling the Response of a Fishing Fleet to Changing Circumstances, Using Cautious Non Linear Optimization." J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer., 39: 231 238.

The cautious non linear optimization model ascribes non linear penalties to deviations from a reference solution and any constraints that fail to be observed and minimizes the resulting compound objective function using the conjugate gradient method to achieve excellent results in modeling fleet changes as a result of changes in the availability of fish resources.

Shelden, Kim E. W. and David J. Rugh ( 1995).  The Bowhead Whale, Balaena mysticetus: Its Historic and Current Status.  Marine Fisheries Review, 57( 3 4): 1 20.

The bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, is currently listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. Literature on the species is updated since 1984, and elements are reviewed that may contribute to the evaluation of the status of bowhead whale stocks.

Sheridan, Peter F., Frank J. Patella, Jr., Neal Baxter, and Dennis A Emiliani ( 1987). " Movements of Brown Shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, and Pink Shrimp, P. duorarum, Relative to the U. S. Mexico Border in the Western Gulf of Mexico." Marine Fisheries Review, 49( 1): 14 19.

Seasonal movement patterns of marked brown shrimp and pink shrimp relative to the U. S. Mexico boarder in the western Gulf of Mexico are described from recaptures of shrimp tagged during 1978 1980. The intent was to determine the degree to which coastal shrimp movements would affect commercial catches after implementation of new fishing regulations off Texas and Mexico. Shrimp were collected by trawl, marked with polyethylene streamer tags, and released during March November at sites between Galveston, Texas, and Tampico, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Movements were examined by vector analysis and by recaptures per unit commercial landings. Over 121,500 shrimp were marked during seven releases in estuaries of which 1,827 ( 1.5 percent) were recaptured. Only 72 brown shrimp and 126 pink shrimp were recaptured 6 0 2 offshore, but southerly movement patterns were indicated after five of those seven releases. Offshore releases of 71,485 brown shrimp and 19,185 pink shrimp resulted in 12.4 percent and 19.7 percent recapture proportions, respectively. Tagged brown shrimp moved up to 620 km from release sites and remained free up to 430 days. Tagged pink shrimp moved a maximum 428 km and were free up to 446 days. Recaptures were higher south of release sites after 20 of 30 releases of brown shrimp off Texas and Tamaulipas. In contrast, recaptures of pink shrimp were higher south of release sites after only 7 of 13 releases. The effectiveness of the Gulf of Mexico shrimp fishery management plan, enacted in 1981 to increase brown shrimp yield by seasonal prohibition of fishing could be diminished by the tendency for brown shrimp to migrate south.

Sherwin, Rosen ( 1987). " Dynamic Animal Economics." American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 69( 3): 547 557.

Market equilibrium dynamics of herd inventory management are derived for homogenous female populations. Short run supply is backward bending in response to permanent changes in demand and is rising in response to transitory changes in demand. Increasing inventories are associated with high and falling prices and decreasing inventories with low and rising prices, but there is no market instability in this. These unusual intertemporal substitution effects follow from both rational expectations and appropriately formulated cobweb models and go part of the way toward explaining hog and cattle inventory cycles.

Shortle, James S. ( 1984). " The Use of Estimated Pollution Flows in Agricultural Pollution Control Policy: Implications for Abatement and Policy Instruments." Northeast Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, October: 277 285.

Flows of water pollution from agricultural sources are, for all practical purposes, unobservable by direct monitoring. These flows can, however, be estimated using hydrological models. The analysis presented in this paper demonstrates that uncertainty on estimated flows is not neutral with respect to the optimal level and allocation of estimated abatement or with respect to the expected net benefits of alternative pollution control policy instruments. Policy implications are noted.

Shrimp Notes Incorporated ( 1983). Assessment of Shrimp Industry Potentials and Conflicts. Volumes I, II, and III. Shrimp Notes Incorporated, 417 Eliza Street, New Orleans, Louisiana, August.

This report is intended to provide an update on the potentials and conflicts faced by the domestic shrimp industry with special attention directed at future actions that may significantly impact respective segments of the industry.

Shriver, Ann L. ( 1994).  U. S. Groundfish Demand.  OSU 94 108, International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade, Agricultural and Resource Economics Department, Oregon State University, April, 27 pp.

This report describes recent developments in the demand for groundfish in the U. S. It begins with a review of general trends in U. S. food consumption and their implications for groundfish. Groundfish consumption data is presented, along with a discussion of its determining factors. U. S. market channels for cod in particular are described, and supply factors are assessed for their impact on consumption. Efforts to date to model groundfish markets are described, and their conclusions and limitations discussed. Among 6 0 3 the report  s conclusions are that seafood demand continues to rise in the face of rising prices, and that the highly concentrated U. S. cod market is shifting over to the more available and cheaper pollock. While existing models need some revisions to accurately reflect developments since 1988, they provide useful guidance about the responsiveness of the U. S. market to changes in prices and supply levels of some species and product forms.

Shumway, C. Richard, Rulon D. Pope, and Elizabeth K. Nash ( 1984). " Allocatable Fixed Inputs and Jointness in Agricultural Production: Implications for Economic Modeling." American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 66( 1): 72 78.

Allocatable fixed inputs, such as land, are a potentially important source of jointness in agriculture. As with other causes of jointness, they necessitate multiple product systems for modeling product supply and input demand. In other important ways, however, their analytical implications are very different from other causes of jointness. Model specification differs. Demand functions for the quantities of each input used in the production of individual commodities can be derived if a primal approach is used, but such allocation equations cannot in general be identified from a dual specification. Available allocation data are not even useful in such dual estimations.

Sick, Lowell V., James W. Andrews, and David B. White ( 19??). " Preliminary Studies of Selected Environmental and Nutritional Requirements for the Culture of Penaeid Shrimp." Fisheries Bulletin, 70( 1): 101 109.

Establishing selected preliminary environmental and nutritional requirements for penaeid shrimp resulted in the successful and reproducible production of major biomass increases with relatively high survival rates and low food conversion ratios.

Siegel, Robert A. and Richard S. Johnston ( eds.) ( 1989). " Economic and Trade Strategies in World Fisheries." Marine Fisheries Review, 51( 1): 1 2.

Introduces the special section of the Marine Fisheries Review that presents papers dealing with world trade issues. The aim of the section was to provide an overview of several international trade issues that affect the development of fisheries economic policy. The general areas of discussion include the role of fisheries in the U. S. balance of trade, current negotiations on fisheries trade and tariffs, and U. S. and foreign economic trade strategies and policies.

Sil, Jayashree and Steven Buccola ( 1995).  Efficiency of the Multiplant, Multiproduct Firm.  American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 77( 4): 1001 1011.

A general framework is provided for assessing the technology, cost, and efficient scale of a multiplant, multiproduct firm. We show sufficient conditions for the existence of a plant cost function, and necessary and sufficient conditions for using plant level data to draw exact firm level cost inferences. We also distinguish between plant and input nonjointness and show the optimal relation between plant level and firm level cost elasticity in a multiproduct setting. The framework is applied to a vegetable processing cooperative, which is found to operate below its efficient scale.

Silberberg, Eugene ( 1972). " Duality and the Many Consumer's Surpluses." 6 0 4 American Economic Review, ( Dec.): 942 952.

This paper presents a unifying treatment of the many consumer's surpluses. All consumer surpluses are variations on the compensating variations and equivalent variations themes and differences among them may be directly traced to what variables are being held fixed.

Silberberg, Eugene ( 1978). The Structure of Economics. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.

Microeconomic theory using calculus to explain the theory of the firm and utility theory using duality concepts.

Simberloff, Daniel ( 1996).  Impacts of Introduced Species in the United States.  Consequences, 2( 2): 12 22.

Many examples of introduced plants, animals, and pathogens often pose an initially hidden but eventually monumental problem in the U. S. or any other country whose doors are opened to traffic from other lands. Some costly invaders remain inconspicuous in this country for decades and then spread swiftly. Their harmful effects are often subtle and surreptitious, but the eventual impacts on the economy or natural environment are no less real, and often disastrous and even irreversible, as when native species disappear.

Simmons, David C. ( 1980). " Review of the Florida Spiny Lobster Resource." Fisheries, 5( 4): 37 42.

The spiny lobster resource in Florida has developed into an important commercial and recreational fishery resource. Fishing pressure on this resource has increased dramatically over the last fifteen years without a corresponding increase in landings. Some important research has been completed on this resource, but before a sound management plan can be developed some critical information gaps need to be filled.

Sinclair, M., D. L. Burke, J. R. Angel, R. N. O'Boyle, F. G. Peacock, and K. C. T. Zwanenburg ( 1994). " A Report Card on Quota Management: The Scotia Fundy Groundfish Experience." C. M. 1994/ T: 58, Theme Session on Improving the Link Between Fisheries Science and Management: Biological, Social, and Economic Considerations, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada, September, 39 pp.

The findings of a workshop that described the groundfish management activities in the Scotia Fundy Region from 1977 to 1993 are presented. The workshop objectives were to ( 1) identify the degree to which the management objectives for this part of the Atlantic Canada fishery were met since the extension of jurisdiction in 1977 and ( 2) to the degree that they have not been met, identify the causes that prevented successful attainment of the objectives. The primary objective of stock conservation was to be obtained using F0.1 single species quota management. The inability to meet the conservation objectives, in part due to short term trade offs in support of economic and social objectives, has in the longer term undermined the sustainability of the commercial fishery and the fishing community.

Sinclair, William F. ( 1978). " Management Alternatives and Strategic Planning for Canada's Fisheries." J. Fish. Res. board Can., 35: 1017 1030.

The evils of operating Canada's commercial and recreational fisheries 6 0 5 under open access conditions were known before Confederation. Early recognition of these ills did not lead to an understanding of the basic problems nor to long term solutions. In the early 1950' s the first economic model was developed that articulated the underlying causes of excess capacity and the tendency of overexploitation in open access fisheries. This was followed by a number of studies that explored the relationship between the biological reproductive capacity of a fishery and the economic consequences of managing publicly owned resources under open access conditions. This early work provides a general framework from which a number of fisheries management alternatives emerge. Each of six management alternatives, that are implicit in policy for Canada's commercial fisheries, are assessed in terms of political acceptability, administrative feasibility, and effectiveness. It is emphasized that the responsibility of a government fisheries agency is to manage fisheries resources in the best interest of the owners of the resource  the nation's taxpayers. A properly implemented license control system would dissipate, rather than perpetuate, social and economic hardship among fishermen. This misplaced concern for unproven social problems often leads fisheries managers to support programs that sacrifice all the benefits that could be generated from the resource and the resource itself. A management scheme is recommended that encompasses a simple licensing system, a tax or a royalty on catch, and a limited variation of the " Grandfather System." The combination of these three incorporates the main advantages of most management alternatives while avoiding most of their main shortcomings. A carefully implemented program that accounts for economic and biological considerations would improve the efficiency of the industry, improve fishermen's incomes, minimize social disruptions, help to instill an environmental conscience, protect the resource, and induce less, rather than more, government intervention into the free operation of the fishing industry. Probably more important, the program would generate an economic return for the people of Canada.

Sindermann, Carl J. ( 1979). " Status of Northwest Atlantic Herring Stocks of Concern to the United States." Technical Series Report No. 23, USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, Northeast Fisheries Center, Sandy Hook Laboratory, Highlands, New Jersey 07732.

This report reviews the status of knowledge about herring stocks of the western North Atlantic of concern to the United States, to review the status of herring stock assessments, to identify critical problem areas and hypotheses to be tested, to identify critical research needs, and proposes activities needed to increase our knowledge in areas relevant to long term productivity of stocks under exploitation.

Sinha, Sujata Bose ( 1988). " A Graphical Presentation of Economic Data for the Shrimp Fishery in the Gulf of Mexico January 1981 to December 1986." NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS SEFC??, U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office, St. Petersburg, FL, August.