Draft Report: Technology Advances and Process Changes Prepared for:

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Engineering and Analysis Division Office of Water 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington DC 20460 Prepared by:

Eastern Research Group, Inc. 14555 Avion Parkway Suite 200 Chantilly, VA 20151 March 3, 2003 EPA Contract No. 68 C02 095 Work Assignment 0 05 i TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 1.2 Description of Work Performed By ERG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 1.3 Statement of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 2.0 GENERAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION OF REVIEWED INDUSTRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 2.1 General Economic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 2.2 Selection of Industries for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 10 2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 13 3.0 ADDITIONAL REVIEW AND INFORMATION COLLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 3.1 Industry Focused Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 3.2 Across Industry Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 4.0 ALUMINUM INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 4.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 4.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 4.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7 5.0 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 5.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 5.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 5.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 5.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6 6.0 HEALTH SERVICES INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1 6.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1 6.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3 6.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7 7.0 INDUSTRIAL ORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 7.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 7.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3 7.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5 7.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ii 8.0 OIL AND GAS FIELD SERVICES INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 8.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 8.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 8.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5 8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7 9.0 PLASTICS PRODUCTS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 9.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 9.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4 9.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 6 9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 7 10.0 SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1 10.1 Overview of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1 10.2 Industry Trends and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 10.3 Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3 10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 5 iii LIST OF TABLES Page 1 Three Digit SIC Codes with the Largest Percent Increase in Total Sales, Shipments, Receipts, Revenues or Dollar Value of Business Done Between 1992 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 2 Three Digit SIC Codes with the Largest Percent Decrease in Total Sales, Shipments, Receipts, Revenues or Dollar Value of Business Done Between 1992 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 3 Four Digit Manufacturing SIC Codes with the Largest Percent Increase in Value of Shipments Between 1992 and 19971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 4 Department of Energy Industries of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 5 Occupations with the Largest Percent Increase Projected Between 2000 and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 6 Occupations with the Largest Percent Decrease Predicted Between 2000 and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 LIST OF FIGURES Page 1 Breakdown of 1999 GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 Distribution of Aluminum Net Shipment by Market  1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 3 2001 Plastics Sales by Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 1 2 1.0 INTRODUCTION This report presents a review of industrial technology changes and advances in pollution prevention that may impact the quantity and quality of wastewaters discharged from U. S. industries. These advances were identified by evaluation of information readily available from government sources and industry and other publications.

1.1 Background EPA is required by Section 304( m) of the Clean Water Act ( CWA) to publish a list of industrial categories that will be subject to new or revised limitations guidelines and standards ( ELGs) on a biennial basis. In preparation for its 2004/ 2005 biennial plan, EPA has been investigating new approaches for reviewing existing ELGs and identifying new ELGs.

EPA's draft Strategy for National Clean Water Industrial Regulations outlines a planning process " to review national effluent guidelines and address the water quality challenges of the 21st century," ( EPA, 2002). This draft National Strategy identifies four key factors EPA should evaluate and consider in the process of determining the need to develop new or revise existing ELGs for an industrial category. Briefly, these four key factors are:

1) Risk to human health or the environment;

2) Existence of applicable and demonstrated technology, process change, or pollution prevention approach that would substantially reduce risk to human health or the environment;

3) Cost, performance, and affordability of the technology, process change or pollution prevention approach that would substantially reduce risk to human health or the environment; and,

4) Implementation/ efficiency considerations. 1 3 1.2 Description of Work Performed By ERG To support EPA's preparation of its 2004/ 2005 biennial plan, ERG conducted a literature and database review to identify broad technological changes in industry and pollution prevention approaches. ERG began by analyzing economic information from the U. S. Census Bureau ( Economic Census and Annual Survey of Manufactures), Bureau of Economic Analysis,

U. S. Department of Labor ( Bureau of Labor Statistics), and the U. S. Department of Energy ( Office of Industrial Technology) to identify industrial categories that have recently experienced or are expected to experience greater than average economic growth. ERG then identified which of these industrial categories generate wastewater and thus may be able reduce their pollutant discharges by implementing new technologies, process changes, or pollution prevention techniques. Using this process, ERG identified the following seven industries:

Aluminum Manufacturing and Forming;

Construction Products;

Health Services;

Industrial Organic Chemicals;

Oil and Gas Field Services;

Plastics; and

Semiconductors.

This report presents the results of the general economic analysis as well as a profile of each of the seven industries listed above. Each industry profile includes background information about the industry, wastewater sources, current regulations, recent economic changes, and potentially applicable technological advances. Information about each industry was obtained from a variety of sources including the U. S. Department of Energy's ( DOE) " Industries of the Future" Program, U. S. Department of Labor, EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebooks, industry journals, and industry association publications and websites. 1 4 1.3 Statement of Quality This report contains information readily available from government sources and industry and other publications. It does not present environmental measurement data. Thus, no statements regarding the accuracy, precision, representativeness, completeness, or comparability of the data presented in this report are appropriate.

In addition to reviewing readily available government data, ERG searched an electronic database of periodicals ( Infotrac ® ) to locate pertinent journal, magazine, and newspaper articles published in the last three to five years. References from peer reviewed ( refereed) journals and articles in the general press written by authors with identifiable trade association, academic, or government affiliation were included in the literature review. ERG also conducted key word searches using search engines such as Google, ® Alltheweb, ® and Scirus. ® Informational web pages ( with URL ending in . gov or . edu), news web pages, and commercial web pages were included in the literature review if they were judged to be of high informational quality, based on criteria described in the evaluation check list appended to ERG's Quality Assurance Project Plan for Work Assignment 1 08, Effluent Guidelines Plan for 304( m) ( Revision 1).

1.4 References Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 2002. Draft: A Strategy for National Clean Water Industrial Regulations. http:// www. epa. gov/ guide/ strategy/ 304mstrategy. pdf 2 1 2.0 GENERAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION OF REVIEWED INDUSTRIES This section describes the procedure ERG used to identify industries on which to focus our review of information pertaining to technological advances and process changes.

2.1 General Economic Analysis This section presents the economic information ERG reviewed to identify industrial categories that have experienced greater than average growth in the last ten years.

U. S. Chamber of Commerce The United States Chamber of Commerce document, " United States Business Facts" contains a compilation of employment and business information and provides a general overview of the U. S. economy. Figure 1 is a chart of the breakdown of the 1999 U. S. gross domestic product ( GDP) by industry, adapted from this document. According to the most recent information complied by the U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, in 1999, 16 percent of the U. S. GDP was contributed by manufacturing industries. Only 31 percent of the U. S. GDP was contributed by private industry sectors that typically generate large volumes of wastewater. These sectors are transportation and public utilities, manufacturing, construction,

mining, and agriculture, forestry, and fishing. 2 2 Mining 1%

Manufacturing 16% Private Businesses 88% Federal Government 4%

State & Local Government 8% Finance, Insurance, & Real Estate 19% Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing 1%

Construction 5%

Services 21% Wholesale & Retail Trade 16% Transportation & Public Utilities 8%

Figure 1. Breakdown of 1999 GDP U. S. Census Bureau's Economic Census The U. S. Census Bureau's Economic Census is the major source of facts about the structure and status of the Nation's economy ( U. S. Census Bureau, 2003). The Economic Census is conducted every 5 years, in the years ending in 2 and 7. The data from the 2002 Economic Census are not yet available; therefore, data from the 1997 Economic Census were used in this analysis. The data from Economic Censuses taken prior to 1997 were classified according to the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification ( SIC) system. However, beginning with the 1997 Census,

data are classified and presented based on the 1997 North American Industry Classification System ( NAICS). Since it was not possible to reclassify 1992 data based on the NAICS classification, the 1997 records were assigned both SIC and NAICS codes to allow for comparison of the results from the 1992 and 1997 censuses. Although many of the individual SIC codes correspond directly to industries defined under the NAICS system, most of the higher level groupings ( i. e., sectors) do not match up as well. The adoption of the NAICS has therefore had a major impact on the comparability of data between the 1992 and 1997 censuses. 2 3 The percent change in the total sales, shipments, receipts, revenue, or dollar value of business done between 1992 and 1997 was calculated for each three digit SIC code in order to identify the industries which experienced the largest economic growth or decline. Table 1 presents the 25 industries with the largest percent increase in units reported by the census. Table 2 presents the 10 industries with the largest percent decrease in units reported by the census.

These units vary by business sector and include total sales, shipments, receipts, revenue, or dollar value of business done. 2 4 Table 1 Three Digit SIC Codes with the Largest Percent Increase in Total Sales, Shipments, Receipts, Revenues or Dollar Value of Business Done Between 1992 and 19971 SIC SIC Description2 40 CFR Part Percent Change3 559 Automotive dealers, not elsewhere classified N/ A 242%

628 Services allied with the exchange of securities or commodities N/ A 233%

489 Communication services, not elsewhere classified N/ A 199%

736 Personnel supply services N/ A 139%

679 Miscellaneous investing N/ A 136%

842 Arboreta and botanical or zoological gardens ( Tax Exempt) N/ A 136%

527 Mobile home dealers N/ A 134%

737 Computer programming, data processing, and other computer related services N/ A 122%

552 Motor vehicle dealers ( used only) N/ A 116%

841 Museums and art galleries ( Taxable) N/ A 113%

842 Arboreta and botanical or zoological gardens ( Taxable) N/ A 109%

808 Home health care services N/ A 106%

245 Wood buildings and mobile homes N/ A 98%

367 Electronic components and accessories 469 93%

623 Security and commodity exchanges N/ A 91%

616 Mortgage bankers and brokers N/ A 91%

832 Individual and family social services N/ A 90%

366 Communications equipment 4334 89%

841 Museums and art galleries ( Exempt) N/ A 87%

829 Schools and educational services, not elsewhere classified N/ A 86%

177 Concrete work special trade contractors N/ A 84%

345 Screw machine products, bolts, etc. 4334 82%

473 Freight shipping services N/ A 80%

506 Electrical goods N/ A 78%

504 Professional and commercial equipment and supplies N/ A 78%

1Does not include industries with nondisclosed economic census data. 2As defined by the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 3Comparison between 1992 and 1997 dollars. Does not account for changes in prices or inflation. 4Facilities in this SIC code may be subject to the requirements of 40 CFR 433 ( Metal Finishing) if they meet the applicability requirements set forth in the regulation. N/ A  Not Applicable. 2 5 Table 2 Three Digit SIC Codes with the Largest Percent Decrease in Total Sales, Shipments, Receipts, Revenues or Dollar Value of Business Done Between 1992 and 19971 SIC SIC Description2 40 CFR Part Percent Change3 482 Telegraph communications N/ A  82%

423 Trucking terminal facilities N/ A  53%

237 Fur goods N/ A  30%

376 Guided missiles, space vehicles, parts 4334  29%

261 Pulp mills 430  25%

348 Ordnance and accessories, n. e. c. 4334  21%

317 Handbags and personal leather goods N/ A  18%

545 Dairy products stores N/ A  17%

387 Watches, clocks, watchcases, and parts 4334  15%

562 Women's clothing stores N/ A  13%

1Does not include industries with nondisclosed economic census data. 2As defined by the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 3Comparison between 1992 and 1997 dollars. Does not account for changes in prices or inflation. 4Facilities in this SIC code may be subject to the requirements of 40 CFR 433 ( Metal Finishing) if they meet the applicability requirements set forth in the regulation. N/ A  Not applicable.

As shown in Table 1, the majority of the industries with the largest economic growth between 1992 and 1997, as measured by percent increase in sales, shipments, receipts,

revenue, or dollar value of business done, were service industries. Since many of the service industries listed in Table 1 do not use or generate significant amounts of wastewater, ERG analyzed changes for manufacturing SIC codes ( four digit). The 25 manufacturing SIC codes with the largest increase in value of shipments were identified in an effort to find industries that are experiencing economic growth and generate wastewater. Table 3 presents the 25 manufacturing industries with the largest percent increase in value of shipments. 2 6 Table 3 Four Digit Manufacturing SIC Codes with the Largest Percent Increase in Value of Shipments Between 1992 and 19971 SIC SIC Description2 40 CFR Part Percent Change3 2843 Surface active agents N/ A 145%

3674 Semiconductors and related devices 469 144%

2451 Mobile homes N/ A 127%

3451 Screw machine products 4334 117%

3549 Metalworking, machinery, n. e. c. 4334 112%

3369 Nonferrous foundries 464 109%

3275 Gypsum products N/ A 109%

3577 Computer peripheral equipment, n. e. c. 4334 107%

3365 Aluminum foundries 464 101%

3537 Industrial trucks and tractors 4334 101%

3364 Nonferrous die casting except aluminum N/ A 101%

3088 Plastic plumbing fixtures N/ A 101%

2439 Structural wood members, n. e. c. N/ A 101%

3431 Metal sanitary ware 466 99%

3492 Fluid power valves and hose fittings 465 98%

3661 Telephone and telegraph apparatus 4334 93%

3663 Radio and TV communications 4334 90%

3713 Truck and bus bodies 4334 89%

3531 Construction machinery 4334 84%

3594 Fluid power pumps and motors 4334 82%

2833 Medicinals and botanicals 439 81%

3398 Metal heat treating N/ A 78%

2531 Public buildings and related furniture N/ A 76%

3532 Mining machinery 4334 75%

3571 Electronic components 4334 74%

1Does not include industries with nondisclosed economic census data. 2As defined by the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 3Comparison between 1992 and 1997 dollars. Does not account for changes in prices or inflation. 4Facilities in this SIC code may be subject to the requirements of 40 CFR 433 ( Metal Finishing) if they meet the applicability requirements set forth in the regulation. N/ A  Not Applicable. 2 7 " Industries of the Future"

DOE's, Office of Industrial Technology ( OIT) operates a program called " Industries of the Future," through which it has established collaborative research and development partnerships in nine key industries. The " Industries of the Future" use large amounts of heat and energy to physically or chemically transform materials. In addition, they collectively supply 90 percent of the materials vital to our economy, produce $ 1 trillion in annual shipments,

directly employ over 3 million people, and indirectly provide an additional 12 million jobs at all skill levels. The nine " Industries of the Future" are listed in Table 4.

Table 4 Department of Energy Industries of the Future Industry Research Focus Agriculture use of bio based materials as feedstocks for the chemical industry Aluminum smelting technologies Chemicals separations and recovery technologies Forest Products sustainable forestry, improved energy and environmental performance, and advanced gasification technologies Glass energy efficient melting technologies Metal Casting increased recycling, reduced casting defects, reduced air pollution Mining energy efficient mining and processing of coal, metals, and industrial minerals Petroleum refining technologies Steel computer modeling for process optimization U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS), a branch of the U. S. Department of Labor,

provides labor economics and statistics for the federal government. The BLS also provides 2 8 occupational employment projections based on BLS surveys and models of labor force, aggregate economy, final demand, industrial activity, employment by industry, and employment occupation ( BLS, 2003). Table 5 lists the 25 occupations BLS projects will see the largest percent increase between 2000 and 2010.

Table 5 Occupations with the Largest Percent Increase Projected Between 2000 and 2010 Occupation Percent Increase Computer software engineers, applications 100%

Computer support specialists 97%

Computer software engineers, systems software 90%

Network and computer systems administrators 82%

Network systems and data communications analysts 78%

Desktop publishers 67%

Database administrators 66%

Personal and home aides 63%

All other computer specialists 61%

Computer systems analysts 60%

Medical assistants 57%

Social and human service assistants 54%

Physician assistants 54%

Medical records and health information technicians 49%

Computer and information systems managers 48%

Home health aides 47%

Physical therapist aides 46%

Occupational therapist aides 45%

Physical therapist assistants 45%

Audiologists 45%

Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors 40%

Computer and information scientists, research 40%

Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers 40%

Occupational therapist assistants 40%

Veterinary technologists and technicians 39%

Source: BLS, 2003. 2 9 As shown in Table 5, the seven occupations with the largest projected increases are computer related. In fact, 11 of the top 25 occupations with the greatest growth are computer related occupations. With the exception of fitness trainers and aerobics instructors,

veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers, and veterinary technologists and technicians, the majority of the remaining high growth occupations are in the health industry.

Table 6 presents the occupations which BLS projects will see the largest percent decrease between 2000 and 2010. Many of these occupations are being replaced by electronics and computers. For example, telephone operators, motion picture projectionists, and meter readers are all occupations that are being replaced with electronic or computerized systems. Two of the occupations that are projected to have the greatest decreases are related to the railroad industry, reflecting a decrease in that industry.

Table 6 Occupations with the Largest Percent Decrease Predicted Between 2000 and 2010 Occupation Percent Change Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators  61%

Shoe machine operators and tenders  54%

Telephone operators  35%

Loan interviewers and clerks  28%

Motion picture projectionists  27%

Rail track laying and maintenance equipment operators  26%

Meter readers, utilities  26%

Farmers and ranchers  25%

Radio mechanics  24%

All other communications equipment operators  22%

Source: BLS, 2003. 2 10 2.2 Selection of Industries for Review Industries for which ERG surveyed literature to identify technology, process changes, or pollution prevention approaches that would reduce wastewater pollutant discharges were selected by evaluating economic information and by evaluating the potential for an industry to discharge polluted wastewater or storm water. The economic information ERG evaluated is described in the preceding paragraphs. ERG relied on information from the 1997 National Sediment Contaminant Point Source Inventory ( EPA, 1997) to get a sense of the potential for an industry to discharge polluted wastewater.

In 1997, EPA's Office of Science and Technology ( OST) conducted a screening analysis identifying probable point source contributors of sediment pollutants. This analysis was based on 1994 discharge data by SIC code compiled in EPA's Permit Compliance System ( PCS)

and in the 1993 Toxic Release Inventory ( TRI) database. PCS includes discharges reported by direct discharging facilities. TRI includes both the direct and indirect releases. OST developed a sediment hazard scoring system for the reported discharges. They calculated the annual chemical load from each facility represented in PCS and TRI, then multiplied this load by the sediment hazard score to calculate a hazard weighted release. The hazard weighted releases for each industrial category were summed and the categories were ranked. TRI data and PCS data were analyzed separately. The industrial categories, defined by the National Sediment Contaminant Point Source Inventory, with high rankings in both analyses included: Metal Products and Finishing; Industrial Organic Chemicals; and Primary Metals. Plastic Materials and Petroleum Refining were each ranked high in one of the analyses.

The Metal Products and Finishing industry, and many of the industries listed in Tables 1 and 3 with the largest economic growth, are part of the Metal Products and Machinery ( MP& M) industry. Growing industries in this sector include mobile home manufacturing; screw machine products, bolts, etc.; metalworking, machinery, n. e. c.; industrial truck and tractor; and other SIC categories involving metal manufacturing operations. Because EPA was taking final 2 11 action on revised ELGs for the MP& M industry during the preparation of this draft report, ERG postponed review of literature for this industry.

Rationale for selecting industries for which ERG surveyed literature to identify technology, process changes, or pollution prevention approaches that would reduce wastewater pollutant discharges, is presented for each industry, below.

The aluminum industry ( SIC 3334) is a growing industry. As shown in Table 3,

between 1992 and 1997, there was a 101 percent increase in the value of shipments from the production of aluminum foundries ( SIC 3365). This trend implies an increase in the production of aluminum, a process which produces a significant amount of wastewater and results in the discharge of sediment contaminants ( EPA, 1997).

Construction products industry ( SIC 14 and 32) growth is a result of the growing demand for residential and nonresidential construction. Construction products include crushed stone, dimension stone, sand, and gravel. As shown in Table 3, gypsum products manufacturing experienced a 109 percent increase in the value of shipments. The 1997 Economic Census also indicated that concrete products, n. e. c. ( SIC 3272) also experienced a significant increase in the value of shipments. In addition, these construction products are produced by mining, which is one of DOE's " Industries of the Future."

The health services industry ( SIC 80) is one of the service industries that have recently experienced large increases in receipts and revenue. Unlike other service industries, the health services industry discharges wastewaters that may contain a variety of toxic pollutants. As shown in Table 1, home health care services experienced a 106 percent increase in receipts between 1992 and 1997. In addition, the health services industry as a whole ( taxable sector)

experienced a 33 percent increase in receipts. Further, as shown in Table 5, the BLS projects significant continued growth in health care occupations. 2 12 The industrial organic chemicals industry ( SIC 286) was identified by the National Sediment Contaminant Point Source Inventory as one of the three major industrial dischargers of sediment contaminants ( EPA, 1997.) In addition, the chemical industry is one of is one of DOE's " Industries of the Future." Gum and wood chemicals and cyclic crude and intermediates manufacturing, two sectors of the industrial organic chemicals industry, experienced an 11 and 35 percent increase in value of shipments, respectively.

Oil and gas field services ( SIC 138) did not have a large enough increase in the value of shipments between 1992 and 1997 to be included in Table 1; however, it did experience a 60 percent increase in the value of shipments. Between 1999 and 2001, oil rig drilling increased 60 percent ( Planchet 2003). In addition, the drilling of oil and gas wells experienced a 103 percent increase in the value of shipments.

The plastics industry ( SIC 308) continues to grow as an increasing number of products are manufactured from plastics. As shown in Table 3, plastic plumbing fixtures manufacturing ( SIC 3088) had one of the largest increases in value of shipments between 1992 and 1997. ERG analyzed the economic data for other types of plastic products and found that the following plastic products experienced over a 40 percent growth in value of shipments: rubber and miscellaneous plastic products, rubber and plastics hose and belting, laminated plastics plate and sheet, plastics pipe, plastics bottles and plastic products, n. e. c.. In addition, the Plastic Materials industrial category was identified as a discharger of sediment contaminants ( EPA,

1997).

The semiconductor industry ( SIC 3672) was chosen to be profiled because, as shown in Table 3, it had a 144 percent increase in the value shipments between 1992 and 1997,

the second highest percent increase in the manufacturing sector. In addition, large volumes of water are used in the production of semiconductors. 2 13 2.3 References Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 1997. National Sediment Contaminant Point Source Inventory: Analysis of Facility Release Data ( EPA). EPA  823 D 96 001.

Planchet Research, Ltd. 2003. Energy, Oil, Gas and Utilities Industry Trends and Market Research. Available online: http:// www. plunkettresearch. com/ energy/ energy_ overview. htm.

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS). 2003. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics website. Available online at: http:// www. bls. gov/.

U. S. Chamber of Commerce. 2002. United States Business Facts. United States Chamber of Commerce Statistics and Business Division. 3 1 3.0 ADDITIONAL REVIEW AND INFORMATION COLLECTION ERG has identified additional literature review and information collection activities that can increase knowledge of broad technological changes, process changes, and pollution prevention advances that may impact the generation and discharge of water pollutants. These activities are presented in this section.

3.1 Industry Focused Reviews To increase knowledge of broad technological changes, process changes, and pollution prevention advances available for specific industries, ERG anticipates the following additional activities:

Continued review of industry journals and industry focused literature;

Interviews with industry experts, to identify technologies that are beginning to be commercialized and to estimate the potential impact of these technologies on wastewater discharges;

Analysis of pollutant discharge information for each industry, tabulated in EPA's PCS and TRI databases, to identify the significant pollutants released from each industry, in terms of mass and potential risk to human health and the environment. After the significant pollutants are identified, additional review can focus on changes and pollution prevention advances that may reduce the generation and discharge of these pollutants.

Complete a profile of the MP& M industries, focusing on those industries that are experiencing above average growth. Consult with EPA and contractor staff knowlegable of the industry to identify changes and pollution prevention advances that may reduce the generation and discharge of pollutants of concern. 3 2 3.2 Across Industry Reviews ERG anticipates reviewing existing literature describing technology advances that may be used in multiple industries and that cut across current industry boundaries. These technology advances include:

Waterless seal pump technology;

Painting technologies; and

Development of alternative transportation fuels

Hydrogen fuel cells;

Biodiesel;

Hybrid battery/ gasoline powered automobiles; and

Gasohol. 4 1 Machinery and Equipment 6% Consumer Durables 7%

Electrical 7%

Construction 13% Other Domestic 3%

Packaging 24% Exports 14% Transportation 26% 4.0 ALUMINUM INDUSTRY 4.1 Overview of Industry Aluminum is light weight, high strength, resistant to corrosion, and recyclable.

These qualities make it an essential material for modern economies. Aluminum use continues to increase; over the last thirty years, the demand for aluminum has increased fourfold in Western countries ( DOE OIT, 1997).

The main uses of aluminum in the U. S. today include the automotive, packaging,

and construction industries ( Aluminum Association, Inc., 2001). These three markets account for two thirds of U. S. aluminum consumption. The distribution of aluminum net shipments in 1995 is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Distribution of Aluminum Net Shipment by Market  1995 4 2 The primary aluminum manufacturing industry falls under SIC code 3334 and NAICS 331312. Alumina is extracted from bauxite using the Bayer process. The Hall Heroult process is then used to produce aluminum by the electrolysis of alumina through a carbon anode.

Primary aluminum manufacturing is very energy intensive. Reusing aluminum by remelting and casting requires only 5 to 8 percent of the energy required to produce aluminum from ore. Because of the energy savings and the high quality and value of the recovered metal,

aluminum recycling has almost doubled in the last ten years. In 2000, recycled aluminum accounted for a third of the U. S. aluminum supply ( Aluminum Association, Inc. 2002).

Aluminum recycling is also called secondary aluminum manufacturing. This industry falls under SIC 3341 and NAICS 331314. In the secondary aluminum industry,

aluminum is recovered from both industrial and consumer aluminum scrap. Industrial scrap is metal that has been cast off from pre consumer activities, such as aluminum fabrication,

manufacturing, or smelting. Consumer scrap is aluminum that has been used by consumers and discarded or recycled. The scrap is pretreated, smelted, and refined.

Wastewater Sources In primary aluminum production, wastewaters are produced during clarification and precipitation of aluminum slurry. Alumina is refined through the Bayer process in which crushed bauxite ore is mixed with an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to form a slurry. The slurry is heated and many of the impurities present in the ore, such as silicon, iron, titanium, and calcium oxide, collect and form a sludge. The remaining slurry is cooled and clarified. During clarification, water and starch are added to the mixture to remove remaining impurities, such as sand. The solution is cooled in a precipitation tank with sodium hydroxide, which catalyzes the precipitation of aluminum hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. The alumina refining process wastewater contains sand, starch, and caustic. 4 3 Wastewaters are also produced during the production of anodes for use in primary aluminum manufacturing. Anodes are used to reduce aluminum hydroxide in primary aluminum production during the Hall Heroult process. The anodes are consumed in the process and are replaced frequently. Therefore, most aluminum reduction plants include anode production facilities. The production of anodes produces wastewater containing suspended solids, fluorides,

and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons ( DOE OIT, 1997 and World Bank Group, 1998).

Secondary aluminum processing also produces wastewater. Aluminum dross is a byproduct of aluminum melting operations. The dross is melted to recover aluminum from the dross. Water and chloride or fluoride are added to the melted dross to aid in the separation of the metal from the mixture. The resulting process wastewater is contaminated with salt.

Current Regulations The aluminum industry is currently regulated under 40 CFR 421: Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category. This ELG applies to primary and secondary aluminum manufacturing and includes practices of alloying or casting of hot nonferrous metals.

40 CFR 421 was developed in 1984 and most recently revised in 1990.

The Aluminum Forming Point Source Category ( 40 CFR 467) is applicable to wastewater from these operations:

Rolling with neat oils;

Rolling with emulsions;

Extrusion;

Forging;

Drawing with neat oils; and

Drawing with emulsions.

40 CFR 467 was developed in 1985 and revised in 1986. 4 4 4.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section describes the current market situation for aluminum and recent technological advances that are occurring in the aluminum industry.

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes The fastest growing market for aluminum is the transportation sector. The general trend in the automotive industry is a shift towards lightweight vehicles. Concerns about global warming have increased efforts to reduce vehicle weight. Lightweight vehicles consume less gasoline and produce less air pollutant emissions. Aluminum can provide weight savings and still maintain durability; it has a higher strength to weight ratio than steel ( Aluminum Association,

2001). Since 1990, the use of aluminum in cars has doubled while its use in the light truck market has tripled ( Automotive Aluminum Association, Inc., 2001). Aluminum is now the third most used material in automobiles, after steel and plastic ( The Aluminum Association, Inc., 2002). The automotive industry's demand for aluminum is expected to grow at a rate of 5 percent per year ( Roling, 2001).

In addition to the automotive market, aerospace and defense markets are expected to have increased demand for aluminum. The high strength to weight ratio will make aluminum an attractive component in future weapon technologies, light weight defense transport, and new defense aircraft. The aerospace sector will utilize advanced aluminum alloys in satellite launch vehicles and international space stations ( Aluminum Association, Inc., 2001).

Technological Advances The Aluminum Association has teamed with the DOE's OIT in the " Industries of the Future" program. This partnership has helped to identify and develop technologies to support the advancement of the aluminum industry. The DOE OIT provides funding and research and development support for projects as described below. 4 5 Primary Aluminum Manufacturing One of the DOE OIT's projects proposes an alternative to the traditional anodes used in the Hall Heroult process. Research is being conducted on the use of ceramic anodes.

Currently, carbon block anodes are used to reduce aluminum oxide. Oxygen is produced, and reacts with the carbon and consumes the anode. Ceramic anodes are inert and would not be consumed. Current carbon block anodes are replaced every several weeks, ceramic anodes would need to be replaced only once a year or less. This change would reduce the production of anodes,

and reduce the wastewater produced by anode manufacturing. Ceramic anodes also offer cost savings over carbon anodes. The DOE OIT is currently testing the applicability of ceramic anodes.

Another DOE OIT project proposes an " aluminum production cell" to replace the Hall Heroult process in primary aluminum manufacturing. The new process uses a nonconsumable metal alloy anode, a wetted cathode, and an electrolytic bath, which is kept saturated with alumina. This technology does not use anodes, and will therefore reduce all of the wastewater associated with anode production and will eliminate spent cathode pot liners, which are a hazardous waste.

Secondary Aluminum Manufacturing The DOE OIT is working to develop new aluminum scrap sorting technologies that will increase aluminum recycling. These new processes will increase the speed and accuracy of aluminum alloy sorting. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy ( LIBS) is used for chemical analysis of scrap metal, allowing the scrap to be sorted by alloy. Developments to improve recycling will lead to increased secondary aluminum manufacturing, which will increase the volume of wastewater associated with this process. 4 6 New technologies will expand opportunities for aluminum packaging. Aluminum beverage cans are being developed that can be resealed, chill themselves, and indicate the temperature of their contents via color ( Aluminum Association Inc, 2001). Aluminum cylinders that can be used to store gas under pressure are also being developed. New vehicle systems may require high pressure gas which will increase the demand for strong, light weight cylinders. The increased use of aluminum in packaging will increase aluminum manufacturing and the associated wastewater production.

4.3 Information Resources Trade Associations The Aluminum Association, Inc. is the trade association for primary and secondary aluminum manufacturers, semi fabricated aluminum producers, and industry suppliers. The website for the Aluminum Association is located at www. aluminum. org. The Environmental contact listed on the website is:

Robert Striete, Vice President Environment, Health and Safety Department bstrieter@ aluminum. org 900 19th Street NW Washington, DC 20006 202 862 5100 International Aluminum Institute is a worldwide trade organization dedicated to the advancement of the aluminum industry. The International Aluminum Institute's website is located at www. world aluminum. org.

Industry Journals and Other Publications As previously mentioned, the aluminum industry was selected as one of DOE's " Industries of the Future". Information on the program, multiple background documents, and 4 7 research information can be found on the DOE's aluminum website ( http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ aluminum).

Thomas P. Robinson Aluminum Program Manager Phone: ( 202) 586 0139 E Mail: thomas. robinson@ ee. doe. gov Aluminum International Today is a journal published for the aluminum production and processing industries. Each issue contains news, contracts summary, event schedules,

technical features, and product reviews. In addition to a printed journal, there is a website to provide additional information and support. The website address is http:// www. aluminumtoday. com.

The American Metal Market journal addresses issues facing all metal markets in the United States, including aluminum. It provides insight into economic indicators, outlooks for future markets, and metal prices. The data and journal articles can be accessed online at www. amm. com.

4.4 References Aluminum Association, Inc. 2002. Industry Overview. On the Aluminum Association, Inc. website: http:// www. aluminum. org/.

Aluminum Association, Inc. 2001. Aluminum Industry Vision: Sustainable Solutions for a Dynamic World. Available online: http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ aluminum/ pdfs/ alumvision. pdf.

Automotive Aluminum Association, Inc. 2001. Automotive Applications of Aluminum. On the Automotive Aluminum Association website: http:// www. autoaluminum. org/.

Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies ( DOE OIT). 2003. Industries of the Future: Aluminum website: http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ aluminum/.

DOE OIT. 1997. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U. S. Aluminum Industry. Available online at: http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ aluminum/ pdfs/ alprofile. pdf. 4 8 Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 1995. Profile of the Nonferrous Metals Industry. EPA/ 310 R 95 010.

Roling, D. 2001. " Future for aluminum seen as quite bright". American Metal Market. Vol. 109, Issue 11, pp 4A.

World Bank Group. 1998. " Aluminum Manufacturing." Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. July. Available online at: http:// wbln0018. worldbank. org/ essd/ essd. nsf/ GlobalView/ PPAH/$ File/ 47_ alum. pdf. 5 1 5.0 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS INDUSTRY 5.1 Overview of Industry The construction industry relies heavily on inputs such as stone, clay, sand, gravel,

concrete, gypsum, and cement. According to the Mineral Information Institute, every American born will need 21,476 pounds of clays, 68,110 pounds of cement, and 1.64 million pounds of stone, sand, and gravel ( 2002). These materials are used in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings as well as in most roads, bridges, sewer systems and tunnels ( EPA, 1995a). The production of construction products can be divided into two steps: 1) the mining and quarrying of the minerals ( Non metal, non fuel mining, SIC 14), and 2) the physical modification of the mined minerals to produce a manufactured product ( Stone, clay, and glass products, SIC 32).

Facilities that mine or quarry materials used to make construction products are located throughout the United States ( EPA, 1995a). Facilities that manufacture construction products from mined materials are also widely dispersed. According to the 1987 U. S. Census, at least one construction products manufacturing facility was located in every state. ( EPA, 1995b)

Wastewater Sources During the mining or quarrying of non fuel, nonmetallic minerals such as stone,

clay, sand, and gravel, wastewater is generated from the use of water to suppress dust, wash away waste from the working zone, and cool excavation machinery such as drills ( EPA, 1995a). Storm water runoff from mines and quarries can also carry pollutants. Some establishments that extract minerals also perform primary preparation of the materials, such as crushing, grinding, or washing. The types of wastewater generated during preparation processes include transport water, ore and product wash water, dust suppression water, classification water, heavy media separation water, flotation water ( used to separate impurities), solution water, air emissions control equipment water, and equipment and floor wash down water. Wastewater and storm water at mining and processing facilities can contain suspended solids and have a high pH. In 5 2 addition, wastewater from processing facilities can contain chemicals such as sulfuric acid,

chromium, phenols, zinc, ammonia, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid, which are commonly used to remove mineral impurities ( EPA, 1995).

The manufacturing of stone, clay, glass, and concrete construction products from mined minerals also generates wastewater. The processes used to manufacture these products often use water as a cooling agent or as an ingredient in making the final product ( EPA, 1995b).

The wastewater generated by these manufacturing processes generally contains dissolved solids such as potassium and sodium hydroxide, and suspended solids such as calcium carbonate.

According to 2000 TRI data, nitrate compounds, zinc compounds, barium, and ammonia were the four toxic pollutants with the largest reported releases to surface water from facilities manufacturing stone, clay, glass, and concrete products ( SIC 32) ( EPA, 2003). In addition,

wastewater from these processes often contains waste heat and can be highly alkaline. ( EPA,

1995b)

Current Regulations Wastewater discharges from mine sites are addressed by the CWA under the NPDES permit program ( for process water and storm water point source discharges) and the non point source program. The NPDES permit program requires mine sites to obtain permits to discharge storm water that has come into contact with any overburden, raw material, intermediate products, finished products, byproducts, or waste products located on the site of the operation.

Mineral mining and processing operations are also subject to the requirements set forth in 40 CFR 436. In addition, Section 304( f)( B) establishes guidelines for identifying and evaluating the nature and source of non point sources of pollutants, and processes, procedures, and methods to control pollution resulting form mining activities, including runoff and siltation from new, currently operating, and abandoned surface mines. However, specific best management practice requirements for non point source control at mine sites have not been promulgated at the national level, nor has any national guidance been issued ( EPA, 1995a). 5 3 The manufacturers of stone, clay, glass, and concrete construction products are also subject to the generally applicable requirements of the CWA as well as the following EPA ELGs:

EPA Effluent Guidelines and Standards for Cement Manufacturing ( 40 CFR 411);

EPA Effluent Guidelines and Standards for Glass Manufacturing,

Insulation Fiberglass Subcategory ( 40 CFR 426); and

EPA Effluent Guidelines for Asbestos Manufacturing ( 40 CFR 427).

5.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section describes recent economic trends and potentially applicable technological advances for the construction products industry.

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes The demand for crushed stone, dimension stone, sand, gravel, and other construction products is heavily influenced by the amount of construction activity in the public and private sectors. The construction industry is the largest domestic consumer of brick, clay,

cement, sand, and gravel ( EPA, 1995a). Consequently, the continuing increase in construction activity has generally resulted in increased demand for non fuel, nonmetallic minerals and stone,

clay, glass, and concrete products. From approximately 1990 to 2000, the nonmetallic mineral industry experienced a slight employment growth, which can be largely attributed to construction ( BLS, 2003a). According to the BLS, the demand for crushed stone and gravel should remain strong over the next few years because Congress recently increased spending for building and 5 4 maintenance of roads and highways ( BLS, 2003a). In addition, the demand for both residential and nonresidential construction is expected to continue to grow ( BLS, 2003b).

Technological Advances The mining industry was selected as one of the DOE's " Industries of the Future"

and emphasis has been placed on the development of technologies for mining and processing minerals and materials ( DOE OIT, 2003). As part of this program, the following goals for the mining industry have been identified: 1) low cost and efficient production, 2) superior exploration and resource characterization, 3) safe and efficient extraction and processing, 4) responsible emissions and by product management, 5) advanced products, 6) positive partnership with government, and 7) improved communication and education ( National Mining Association, 1998).

To achieve these goals the mining industry has developed a research plan, known as the " Crosscutting Technology Roadmap" which encompasses metallic minerals, nonmetallic minerals, and coal mining. Research and development work in some areas specified by " Crosscutting Technology Roadmap" could result in the development of new technologies that would impact wastewater production and composition. For example, the roadmap has identified the development of a method for high pressure water extraction as a research priority and estimates that a commercially available method will become available in the next three years. The commercial use of high pressure water extraction would potentially increase the amount of wastewater generated by the industry and necessitate the development of new wastewater handling procedures. The " Industries of the Future" program has also recently funded research and development projects aimed at the development of improved separation and dewatering technologies, improved dust emission control technologies, and improved by product recovery.

Improvements in the efficiency of separation and by product recovery technologies could reduce wastewater generation while improvements in dust emission control could potentially increase wastewater generation. The use of advanced technologies such as satellite communication, 5 5 computer modeling, and smart sensors are already widespread in the industry and have resulted in more efficient mining and processing which reduces the amount of waste generated.

There have also been efforts made to develop safe, efficient, and economically and environmentally beneficial separation processes. For example, the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory has been " experimenting with environmentally friendly catalysts that can replace current noxious chemicals" and has also been working on " developing new processing methods that minimize waste generation." ( INEEL, 2002)

Pollution prevention techniques available to stone, clay, and glass product manufacturing facilities can be classified into three categories: 1) source reduction, 2) recycling and reuse, and 3) improved operating practices ( EPA, 1995b). Many new " ready mix" concrete plants have greatly reduced water use in recent years due to wastewater disposal issues and drought conditions in some parts of the country. An increasing number of companies are choosing to use completely closed loop systems ( BuildingGreen, 1993).

5.3 Information Resources Trade Associations National Mining Association 101 Constitution Avenue, NW Suite 500 East, Washington, DC 20001 2133 ( P) ( 202) 463 2600 ( F) ( 202) 463 2666 e mail: thowe@ nma. org www. nma. org 5 6 National, Stone, Sand & Gravel Association 2101 Wilson Blvd. Suite 100 Arlington, VA 22201 ( P) ( 703) 525 8788 ( F) (& 03) 525 7782 e mail: info@ nssga. org www. aggregates. org Industry Journals Concrete Products www. concreteproducts. com Engineering & Mining Journal www. e mj. com Mineral Resources Engineering www. worldscinet. com/ mre/ mre. shtml Rock Products www. rockproducts. com 5.4 References BuildingGreen. 1993. " Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations." Environmental Building News. Vol. 2, No. 2.

Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS). 2003a. " Mining and Quarrying." Career Guide to Industries, 2002 03 Edition. http:// ww. bls. gov/ oco/ cg/ cgs004. htm ( visited February 07, 2003).

BLS. 2003b. " Construction." Career Guide to Industries, 2002 03 Edition. http:// ww. bls. gov/ oco/ cg/ cgs004. htm ( visited February 07, 2003).

Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies ( DOE OIT). 2003. Industries of the Future: Mining Website. http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ mining/.

Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 1995a. Profile of the Non Metal, Non Fuel Mining Industry. EPA/ 310 R 95 011.

EPA. 1995b. Profile of the Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products Industry. EPA/ 210 R 95 017. 5 7 EPA. 2003. TRI Explorer. http:// www. epa. gov/ triexplorer/ chemical. htm.

Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory ( INEEL). 2002. Mining and Mineral Processing. http:// www. inel. gov/ energy/ mining/.

Mineral Information Institute. 2002. Golden, Colorado. http:// www. mii. org/ index. html.

National Mining Association. 1998. The Future Begins with Mining. Available online at: http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ mining/ pdfs/ vision. pdf.

National Mining Association Technology Committee. 1998. Mining Industry Roadmap for Crosscutting Technologies. Available online at: http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ mining/ pdfs/ ccroadmap. pdf. 6 1 6.0 HEALTH SERVICES INDUSTRY 6.1 Overview of Industry The health services industry is one of the largest industries in the county,

consisting of more than 469,000 establishments and supplying more than 11 million jobs ( BLS,

2003). The industry includes establishments primarily engaged in providing medical, surgical, and other health services which are classified under NAICS 62 ( SIC 80). The health services industry consists of the following eight segments:

hospitals;

nursing and personal care facilities;

offices and clinics of physicians;

home healthcare services;

offices and clinics of dentists;

offices and clinics of other practitioners ( i. e., chiropractors, optometrists, podiatrists, occupational and physical therapists, psychologists, and dietitians);

health and allied services, not elsewhere classified ( i. e., kidney dialysis centers, drug treatment clinics, blood banks, and providers of childbirth preparation classes); and,

medical and dental laboratories ( BLS, 2003).

Wastewater Sources Wastewater from hospitals and other health care facilities can contain pathogenic microorganisms, radioactive elements, and other toxic chemical substances such as mercury.

Many large hospitals and nursing homes operate their own wastewater treatment plants which remove many of these pollutants. However, it is not known if current wastewater treatment 6 2 practices adequately remove pharmaceuticals and antiseptics. EPA is currently funding a project to investigate the occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals and antiseptics in drinking water,

sewage treatment facilities, and coastal waters ( EPA, 2001).

The disposal of mercury, a persistent bioaccumulative toxin, is a problem for many health care facilities. Ten to twenty percent of mercury released to the environment nationwide comes from the health care industry ( Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center, 2002). Hospitals are known to contribute 4 to 5 percent of the total wastewater mercury load; consequently, many local wastewater treatment plants impose strict wastewater limits for mercury on hospitals ( Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center, 2002).

Mercury is found in many products used by the health services industry including dental amalgams, pharmaceutical supplies, thermometers, sphygmomanometers, and gastrointestinal tubes. Each sphygmomanometer contains between 70 to 90 grams of mercury and gastrointestinal tubes such as bougie tubes can contain up to 454 grams of mercury ( Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center, 2002). However, the mercury contained in medical equipment such as sphygmomanometers and gastrointestinal tubes is generally only released when the equipment is broken or disposed. A dental amalgam is a mixture of mercury, and an alloy of silver, tin, and copper. Mercury generally makes up about 45 to 50% of the amalgam compound ( Academy of General Dentistry, 2003). Mercury particles are released into the wastewater stream during placement and removal of amalgams. Dental offices are the largest source of mercury in wastewater influent to POTWs followed by domestic sources and hospitals ( AMSA, 2002).

Current Regulations Wastewater discharges from hospitals are currently subject to the regulations set forth in 40 CFR 460 for the Hospital Point Source Category. In 1976, EPA established best practicable control technology ( BPT) limitations for carbonaceous 5 day biochemical oxygen demand ( BOD 5), total suspended solids ( TSS), and pH in wastewater discharged from hospitals.

EPA has not established pretreatment standards for the hospital point source category. 6 3 EPA supports the efforts of state and local governments to achieve mercury discharge reductions through outreach and technical assistance for mercury pretreatment programs at sewage treatment plants ( EPA, 2002). In addition, states can impose specific mercury discharge limits and/ or monitoring requirements on facilities that discharge into waterquality limited water bodies ( EPA, 1994).

6.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section describes recent trends in the structure and organization of the health services industry as well as technological advances in the health services that may affect wastewater generation or characterization.

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes Health services is a growing industry. According to the BLS, 13 percent of the wage and salary jobs created between 2000 and 2010 will be in health services ( BLS, 2003).

Employment in the health services is expected to grow for several reasons. The elderly population, which has greater than average health needs, will grow faster between 2000 and 2010 than the total population, increasing the demand for health services such as home healthcare and nursing and personal care. Advances in medical technology will continue to improve the survival rate of severely ill and injured patients, who will then need extensive therapy and care. ( BLS,

2003)

There will also be a shift from inpatient to less expensive outpatient care, made possible by new surgical techniques and less invasive procedures ( BLS, 2003). This shift is reflected in the decrease in length of hospital stays over the last 20 years. According to the National Hospital Discharge Survey, conducted by CDC's National Center for Health Statistics and released in 2001, the average length of stay for hospital inpatients was 5.0 days in 1999,

down from 7.3 days in 1980. The rate of hospitalization decreased 33 percent from 1980 to 1990, but stayed fairly constant throughout the 1990s ( Medical College of Wisconsin, 2002). 6 4 Between 1990 and 1999, the discharge rate among the 15 to 44 year olds decreased 17 percent and the rate among those 45 to 65 years was down 14 percent, but these decreases were more than offset by an 11 percent increase for those 65 years and older ( Medical College of Wisconsin,

2002). This trend of increasing dependance on outpatient care means that pollutants previously found primarily in wastewater from hospitals and other medical facilities are now showing up more frequently in wastewater from other sources such as households.

The demand for dental care will also increase due to population growth. In addition, the greater retention of natural teeth by middle aged and older persons and greater awareness of the importance of dental care will also result in an increased demand for dental services. ( BLS, 2003)

Technological Advances Hospitals and other health care facilities are using an increasing number of disposable products such as thermometers, syringes, and exam gowns. Disposable products do not have to be washed and therefore reduce water use at health care facilities.

The increased use of pharmaceuticals may affect the composition of wastewater from health service facilities. Drugs such as antibiotics, anti depressants, birth control pills,

seizure medication, cancer treatment, pain killers, tranquilizers, and cholesterol lowering compounds have been detected in varied water sources ( The Arizona Water Resources Research Center, 2000). These drugs can pass through conventional sewage treatment facilities intact, and end up in waterways, lakes, and even aquifers ( The Arizona Water Resource Research Center,

2000).

Many hospitals have already taken steps to reduce or eliminate mercury use.

There are many mercury free products ( e. g., thermometers, sphygmomanometers, etc) which can be used in place of the conventional mercury containing products. The dental industry has also been receiving pressure to reduce their use of mercury and develop effective techniques for 6 5 removing mercury from their liquid wastewater streams. The larger particles of amalgam captured by the chairside dental vacuum system during the placement or removal of amalgam fillings get caught in the chairside trap. This trap is periodically cleaned out and any pieces of amalgam are recycled. However, most of the amalgam material vacuumed up is in smaller particles or slurry, which passes through the chairside trap and enters the wastewater line which eventually leads to the municipal sewage system. There are several different commercially available amalgam separators which can remove more than 99 percent of amalgam from dental wastewater streams; however, in most states, dentists are not required to use amalgam separators.

The use of composite resin fillings is continuing to increase. A nationwide survey by the ADA Health Policy Resources Center showed that in 1990, approximately 48 million composite resin fillings were placed in the United States as compared to 102 million amalgam restorations ( Berthold, 2002). By 1990, just nine year later, composite resins had become the most commonly used filling material with 86 million placed in the United States that year compared to 71 million amalgam restorations ( Berthold, 2002). While the number of new amalgam restorations being placed is declining, there are still billions of amalgam restorations currently in place which will eventually need to be removed. Consequently, the process of removing amalgam restorations will result in the continued discharge of mercury from dental offices for many years to come. 6 6 6.3 Information Resources Trade Associations American Dental Association 211 East Chicago Ave. Chicago, IL 60611 P: ( 312) 440 2500 F: ( 312) 440 7494 www. ada. org Academy of General Dentistry 211 East Chicago Ave. Chicago, IL 60611 P: ( 312) 440 4300 www. agd. org American Health Care Association 1201 L. Street, NW Washington, DC 20005 P: ( 202) 842 4444 F: ( 202) 842 3860 www. ahca. org American Hospital Association One North Franklin Chicago, IL 60606 3421 P: ( 312) 422 3000 www. aha. org Industry Journals Health Facilities Management www. hfmmagazine. com Journal of the American Dental Association www. ada. org/ prof/ pubs/ jada/ index. asp 6 7 6.4 References Academy of General Dentisty. 2003. Dental Amalgam. http:// www. agd. org/ consumer/ topics/ amalgams/ main. html.

Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies ( AMSA). 2002. Mercury Source Control & Pollution Prevention Program Evaluation. Available online at: http:// www. amsa cleanwater. org/ advocacy/ mercgrant/ finalreport. pdf.

The Arizona Water Resource Research Center. 2000. " Pharmaceuticals in Our Water Supplies." Arizona Water Resource. Vol. 9, No. 1. http:// ag. arizona. edu/ AZWATER/ ALT/ awr/ july00/ feature1. htm.

Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS). 2003a. " Health Services." Career Guide to Industries, 2002 03 Edition. http:// ww. bls. gov/ oco/ cg/ cgs004. htm ( visited February 10, 2003).

Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 1994. Background Information on Mercury Sources and Regulations. Great Lakes National Program Office. http:// www. epa. gov/ glnpo/ bnsdocs/ mercsrce/ index. html.

EPA. 2001. Pharmaceuticals and Antiseptics: Occurrence and Fate in Drinking Water, Sewage Treatment Facilities, and Coastal Water. National Center for Environmental Research. EPA Grant Number: R829004.

EPA. 2002. General Information. Mercury Website. http:// www. epa. gov/ mercury/ information. htm.

Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center. 2002. Healthcare Guide to Pollution Prevention Implementation through Environmental Management Systems. Available online at: www. kppc. org/ Publications/ Print% 20Materials/ Healthcare% 20Guide/ index. cfm.

Medical College of Wisconsin. 2002. " Length of Hospital Stays Continues to Decline." HealthLink. http:// healthlink. mcw. edu/ article/ 1013703780. html. 7 1 7.0 INDUSTRIAL ORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY 7.1 Overview of Industry The organic chemicals industry ( SIC 236) converts wood and petroleum products into intermediate or basic finished chemicals. The industry is divided into three categories: gum and wood chemicals, cyclic organic crudes and intermediates, and industrial organic chemicals not elsewhere classified.

Gum and wood chemicals ( SIC 2861) are materials that are distilled or otherwise separated from wood. Charcoal, tall oil, rosin, turpentine, pine tar, acetic acid, and methanol are some of the most common products from the gum and wood chemicals sector. Since many of the products produced by this industry are wood based, most facilities are found in the southeast,

near wood and pulp production facilities.

Cyclic crudes and intermediates ( SIC 2965) are materials processed from petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene are a few of the important products produced by the cyclic crudes and intermediates sector. Facilities in this sector are primarily located near the Gulf of Mexico ( where many petroleum based feedstocks are produced) and near downstream industrial users in the Northeast and Midwest.

Industrial organic chemicals, not elsewhere classified ( SIC 2869) is the largest most diverse sector if the industry. Facilities in this sector are primarily located near the Gulf of Mexico and in the Northeast and Midwest.

Chemical reactions such as halogenation, pyrolysis, oxidation, and hydrolysis are commonly used to produce organic chemicals. Since most of these reactions do not result in a pure product, a separation process must be performed after the chemical reaction in order to obtain the desired product. Common separation methods include filtration, distillation, and extraction. ( EPA, 2002) 7 2 Wastewater Sources The organic chemicals industry discharges pollutants to water through both direct discharge and runoff. Sources of liquid wastes include equipment wash solvent/ water, lab samples, surplus chemicals, product washes/ purifications, seal flushes, scrubber blowdown,

cooling water, steam jets, vacuum pumps, leaks, spills, spent/ used solvents, and waste oils/ lubricants. ( EPA, 2002)

As a result of the variety in the processes used and products produced, a wide range of pollutants is found in the wastewaters of the organic chemical industry, including a variety of conventional pollutants, toxic priority pollutants, and nonconventional pollutants.

Many of the toxic and nonconventional pollutants found in the wastewaters of this industry are organic compounds produced by the industry for sale, while others are by products of the production processes. Since there is generally more than one reaction pathway available to the reactants of chemical reactions, undesirable by products are often produced resulting in a mixture of unreacted raw materials, products, and by products. The processes used to separate the desired product from this mixture generate additional residues with little or no commercial value and that end up in process wastewater, in air emissions, and as chemical wastes. The combination of raw materials and production processes used at a facility determine the characteristics of the wastewater generated. ( EPA, 1987)

According to 1999 TRI data, nitrate compounds, ammonia, sodium nitrate, and methanol were the four toxic pollutants with the largest reported releases to surface water from the 581 reporting organic chemical facilities ( SIC 286) ( EPA, 2002).

Current Regulations Facilities that manufacture cyclic crudes and intermediates and industrial organic chemicals not elsewhere classified are subject to the requirements of 40 CFR 414, established in 1987 and revised in 1993. This ELG separates the organic chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fiber 7 3 industry into eight product groups, and sets separate conventional pollutant ( BOD 5, TSS, pH)

limitations for each group. In addition, the regulation establishes separate toxic pollutant limitations for direct discharge point sources that use end of pipe biological treatment, direct discharge point sources that do not use end of pipe biological treatment, and indirect discharge point sources.

Facilities that manufacture gum and wood chemicals are subject to the requirements of the 40 CFR 454, established in 1976 and reviewed in 1976 and 1995. This ELG sets separate BPT conventional pollutant limitations for six subcategories in the gum and wood chemicals industry. There are no guidelines for priority pollutant or nonconventional pollutants.

7.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section describes recent changes in the industrial organic chemicals market and discusses technological advances that could affect the quantity and quality of wastewater generated by manufacturers of industrial organic chemicals.

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes The industrial organic chemical industry faces significant competition due to increased organic chemical production capacity in Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America.

Between 1998 and 2001, the industry experienced difficulties including worldwide overcapacity,

higher raw material and fuel costs due to high oil prices, and reduced shipments to Asia because of its slowed economy. Consequently, there has been a considerable amount of consolidation in the industry. In addition, many chemical companies are trying to reposition themselves. Some companies have started to focus more on speciality chemicals, while other companies have decided to produce basic chemicals almost exclusively. Some former chemical companies have exited the organic chemicals industry and are now specializing in life sciences. ( EPA, 2002) 7 4 In the longer term, the anticipated sustained growth in downstream industries such as agricultural chemicals and pharmaceuticals is expected to provide growth opportunities for the organic chemicals industry ( EPA, 2002).

In addition, as petroleum and natural gas becomes more expensive and scarce,

wood may be increasingly utilized as a renewable source of raw materials for the chemical industry ( Goldstein, 1978). For example, a new genetically engineered bacterium is being used to produce succinic acid from wood wastes and plant crop residues ( DOE OIT, 1999). Succinic acid is a feedstock for many industrial chemicals used in the manufacture of plastics, paint, and other products. Although succinic acid is not currently a commodity chemical, this new biological production process would allow the production of succinic acid at a low enough cost for it to be competitive with chemicals produced from petroleum based feedstocks. ( DOE OIT, 1999)

Technological Advances Due to the variety in the chemical reactions and processes used to produce organic chemicals, many chemical process advancements and developments apply only to the production of a particular chemical. For example, in January 2002, scientists at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology reported that they had developed a one step catalytic process to convert benzene to phenol ( Borman, 2002). This new technique is higher yielding than current industrial routes to phenol ( Borman, 2002).

However, advances in separation techniques can be applied to a much broader segment of the industry. Although many of the separation techniques used in the chemical industry are already highly developed, these separation techniques could be improved in terms of energy efficiency, raw materials use, or cost effectiveness ( National Academy Press, 1998).

Increased efficiency of separation processes could result in decreased water use and wastewater production by the organic chemicals industry. Additional decreases in wastewater generation at organic chemical manufacturing facilities can be achieved through improvements in equipment 7 5 such as vacuum pumps, seal pumps, and stream jets and implementation of waste reduction practices.

The chemical industry was selected as one of DOE's " Industries of the Future."

Through the Industries of the Future program, DOE's OIT and the U. S. chemical industry have defined goals for the future, developed a portfolio of research and development projects, and accelerated progress towards major technology breakthroughs in areas such as chemical synthesis,

bioprocesses and biotechnology, and materials technology.

7.3 Information Resources Trade Associations American Chemical Society 1155 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 P: ( 202) 872 4600 F: ( 202) 782 4615 www. chemistry. org American Chemistry Council 1300 Wilson Boulevard Arlington, VA P: ( 703) 741 5000 F: ( 703) 741 6000 www. americanchemistry. com Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacturers Association 1850 M Street, NW Suite 700 Washington, DC 20036 5810 T: ( 202) 721 4100 F: ( 202) 296 8120 www. socma. com 7 6 Journals Chemical & Engineering News http:// pubs. acs. org/ cen 7.4 References Borman, Stu. 2002. " Chemistry Highlights 2002: Organic Chemistry." Chemical and Engineering News. Vol. 80, No. 50. Pp. 35 37.

Goldstein, Irving S. 1978. " Chemicals from Wood." Presented at the Eight World Forestry Congress, Djakarta, October 1978.

Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 1987. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guideline New Source.

EPA. 2002. DRAFT Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry. January. EPA/ 210 R XX XXX.

Department of Energy ( DOE). 1999. " Production of Succinic Acid from Wood Wastes and Plants." Chemicals Project Fact Sheet. Office of Industrial Technologies. http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ chemicals/ factsheets/ succinic. pdf National Academy Press. 1998. Separation Technologies for the Industries of the Future. Washington, DC. Publication NMAB0 487 3. 8 1 8.0 OIL AND GAS FIELD SERVICES INDUSTRY 8.1 Overview of Industry Natural gas and oil provide about 62 percent of the energy consumed in the United States and more than 99 percent of the transportation fuels ( American Petroleum Institute, 2000).

Since 2000, high prices have been driving investment in oil and gas field services, including exploration and development. Oil rig drilling increased 60 percent between 1999 and 2001 ( Planchet, 2003). This section will focus on oil and gas field services ( SIC 138); other aspects of the industry, such as refining and transport, will not be discussed.

There are three main steps in oil and gas exploration. The first step is to conduct a survey to identify hydrocarbon reserves. Geological maps are reviewed to identify sedimentary basins. Aerial photographs may also be used to identify landscape formations common to locations containing oil reserves. A field geological assessment and a physical survey are then conducted. The most common type of survey is seismic. Seismic surveys use the reflective properties of soundwaves to map underground rock formations. Acoustic energy is transmitted into the ground, and the reflected sound is recorded in seismographs on the surface. The data are transmitted and analyzed in a mobile laboratory. ( E& P Forum, 1997)

The next step is exploratory drilling, which verifies the presence or absence of hydrocarbon reserves and determines the quantity of the reserves. A concrete pad is constructed at the site of the drilling to accommodate drilling equipment. Drilling rigs and other equipment are moved to the site and a self contained support camp is then assembled for the workforce.

When drilling begins, drilling fluid or mud is continuously circulated down a drill pipe and back to the surface equipment to balance underground pressure, cool the drill bit, and flush out rock cuttings. If hydrocarbons are discovered, tests are performed to determine the flow rates and pressure of the reserves. Multiple wells are drilled to determine the extent of the reserves. ( E& P Forum, 1997) 8 2 After exploration is over and oil fields have been defined, development begins.

The development drilling technique is similar to the exploratory drilling method. However, the extent of the operation increases. More wells are drilled, and the support camp is expanded to include oil tanks, oil and gas production facilities, and sometimes water treatment facilities. When the hydrocarbons are extracted from the wells, they are routed to the production facility where they are separated into oil, gas, and water components. ( E& P Forum, 1997)

Wastewater Sources Produced water is the largest wastewater source associated with development operations and is separated from the oil and gas during development. Produced water may contain inorganic salts, heavy metals, solids, production chemicals, hydrocarbons, benzene, PAHs,

and on occasion, naturally occurring radioactive material.

Drilling fluids or muds are also a significant source of wastewater. Drilling fluids may be water or oil based. Water based drilling fluids may contain clay and bentonite, and small amounts of heavy metals ( Ba, Cd, Zn, Pb) which are bound in minerals. Oil based drilling fluid wastes are more harmful, containing toxic oil and oily cuttings. Some drilling fluids have high pH and salt content, which are potential threats to fresh water sources.

Wastewater may also be discharged accidentally through leaks and spills. These accidents may result in damage to ground and surface waters.

Current Regulations Oil and gas field service effluents are currently regulated under the CWA and the Safe Drinking Water Act ( SDWA). Additionally, oil and gas field service discharges are subject to the ELGs for the Oil and Gas Extraction Point Source Category ( 40 CFR 435). This regulation was promulgated in 1979 and reviewed most recently in 2001. 8 3 8.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section lists market changes and technological advances that are occurring in the oil and gas field services industry.

Quantitative and Qualitative Changes As previously mentioned, oil and gas field services have increased dramatically since 2000. Rising oil and gas prices are creating more demand for the products, which causes more exploration and development. Technology advances in the industry have increased the efficiency of exploration and development.

Technological Advances Exploration Exploration has long relied on 3 dimensional ( 3 D) seismic techniques to determine where oil wells are located. Advances in 3 D seismic surveys have enabled producers to evaluate prospects more accurately. Because 3 D seismic technology improves the accuracy of the drilling, less drilling waste is generated, less water is extracted relative to the oil and gas, and there are fewer impacts of exploration because fewer wells are drilled to extract the reserves. In 1996, 80 percent of off shore surveys and 75 percent of onshore surveys used 3 D seismic technology. Recently, 4 D seismic surveys are being developed which allow 3 D surveys to be observed over time. 4 D surveys provide information about the flow of the hydrocarbon reserves and further increase the efficiency of oil and gas extraction. 4 D surveys are not yet widely used;

only about 60 4 D surveys had been performed by 1999 ( DOE OFE, 1999).

Seismic surveys are disrupted by the presence of salt because large amounts of sound energy are lost when passed through salt. Oil and gas contained in salt can be modeled by a combination of advanced seismic technology, complex mathematical modeling, and improved data 8 4 processing and imaging. This new technology, called subsalt imaging, allows for better reservoir characterization and, therefore, more efficient recovery of hydrocarbons. Subsalt imaging is currently limited in use; testing and development continue to improve this technology.

Development Advanced drilling techniques have reduced the impacts of drilling on water quality.

These techniques include measurement while drilling systems, horizontal, multilateral, and slimhole drilling. Measurement while drilling systems measure downhole parameters to allow for more accurate drilling, which reduces drilling waste. Modern drill bits improve drilling performance while decreasing waste. Horizontal drilling permits drilling in areas inaccessible by vertical drilling. Multilateral drilling utilizes horizontal and vertical drilling to create a network of interconnected wellbores surrounding a single major wellbore, which allows for more effective hydrocarbon extraction. Slimhole drilling is a drilling technique that requires less drilling fluid and produces less cuttings and wastewater; slimhole rigs occupy far less space than conventional rigs,

the footprint can be 75 percent smaller. ( DOE OFE, 1999)

Alternative drilling methods are being researched which decrease the amount of drilling fluids or muds used. Pneumatic drilling substitutes air for drilling fluid; however, this technology is only suitable for certain formation types and can create potentially explosive situations. Synthetic drilling muds are also being investigated. They are more effective than water based muds, and lack the toxicity of oil based muds.

Research is also being conducted on advanced water treatment technologies.

Freeze thaw evaporation purifies produced water from oil and gas development operations by separating out dissolved solids, metals, and chemicals. In this process, produced water is placed in a holding pond. When temperatures are below freezing, the water is sprayed on a freezing pad where the brine and dissolved solids separate from the ice due to varying densities. The brine is disposed of. As the ice melts, purified water drains from the freezing pad. During warm 8 5 temperatures, evaporation from the pond is substituted for freezing cycles. The produced water volume requiring disposal was reduced by 80 percent in preliminary tests. ( DOE OFE, 1999)

The volume of water brought to the surface during oil and gas exploration and development may also be reduced. Downhole oil/ water separation uses mechanical or natural methods to separate the oil and water. The oil is brought to the surface and the water is pumped into a subsurface injection zone. This technology can reduce produced water volumes by 95 percent and increase oil production by 50 percent ( DOE OFE, 1999).

Advanced offshore platform technology allows for the recovery of deep water resources. An estimated 90 percent of reserves are under 3,000 feet or more of water. New technology reduces construction and production times and operational footprints. Offshore drilling technology has enabled deepwater oil and gas reserves to be accessed with decreased environmental impacts. Also, voluntary Safety and Environmental Management Programs ( SEMPs) are in place for almost all off shore wells. The goals of SEMPs are to reduce human error and increase worker safety and environmental protection by identifying and correcting potential hazards.

8.3 Information Resources Trade Associations The American Petroleum Institute ( API) is a trade association representing the U. S. petroleum industry in all aspects of exploration and development, transportation, refining,

and marketing. API can be contacted at:

1220 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20005 4070 Phone 202 682 8000 www. api. org 8 6 The Oil Industry International Exploration and Production Forum ( E& P Forum) is the association of oil companies and petroleum industry organizations that represents its members'

interests in the United Nations, and other international organizations concerned with regulating the exploration and production of oil and gas. The contact information is:

25 18 Old Burlington Street London W1x 1LB, UK Phone + 44 ( 0) 171 437 6291 www. eandpforum. co. uk Industry Journals and Other Publications The petroleum industry was selected as one of DOE's " Industries of the Future."

DOE provides support for research and development of the technologies used in the industry.

Information on the program, multiple background documents, and research information can be found on DOE's petroleum website ( www. oit. doe. gov/ petroleum). The contact person for the DOE OIT's petroleum program is:

Dickson Ozokwelu Phone 202 586 8501 Dickson. ozokwelu@ ee. doe. gove The Oil and Gas Journal is a weekly publication that provides news and technology information about the oil and gas industry. The print journal is supplemented by a website:

www. ogj. com.

World Oil is a publication that delivers information about the oil and gas industry.

Additionally, a website is available at: www. WorldOil. com. The website contains industry statistics, research, reference materials, and market forecasts. 8 7 8.4 References American Petroleum Institute. 2000. Technology Vision 2020: A report on technology and the future of the U. S. petroleum industry. American Petroleum Institute. Washington, D. C.

Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy ( DOE OFE). 1999. Environmental Benefits of Advanced Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Technology. Available online: http:// www. fe. doe. gov/ oil_ gas/ environ_ rpt.

Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies ( DOE OIT). 2000. Technology Roadmap for the U. S. Petroleum Industry: Draft. Available online: http:// www. oit. doe. gov/ petroleum/ pdfs/ petroleumroadmap. pdf.

E& P Forum/ UNEP. 1997. Environmental management in oil and gas exploration and production. Words and Publications, Oxford, United Kingdom. E& P Forum report 2.72/ 254. Available online: http:// www. ogp. org. uk/ pubs/ 254. pdf.

Planchet Research, Ltd. 2003. Energy, Oil, Gas and Utilities Industry Trends and Market Research. Available online: http:// www. plunkettresearch. com/ energy/ energy_ overview. htm. 9 1 Electrical and Electronic 3% Consumer and Institutional 14% Furnishings 4% Exports 12% Transportation 4%

Other 14% Adhesives, Inks and Coatings 2% Building and Construction 17% Industrial/ Machinery 1% Packaging 29% 9.0 PLASTICS PRODUCTS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 9.1 Overview of Industry Plastics Products Manufacturing falls under SIC 308 and NAICS 3261. U. S.

demand for plastic and rubber continues to grow ( First Research, 2001). There is a general trend in the industry towards consolidation ( First Research, 2001).

Plastic sales by market are presented in Figure 3 ( American Plastics Institute,

2001). The major markets for plastic include packaging ( 29%), building and construction ( 17%),

and consumer and institutional ( 14%).

Figure 3. 2001 Plastics Sales by Market 9 2 The plastics industry covers a variety of plastic types. The main groups of plastics are thermoplastic resins, thermoset resins, and foam. Thermoplastic resins repeatedly become soft when melted and hard when cooled. Thermoplastic resins generally begin in a pellet form and are melted and processed. The six main types of thermoplastic resins are:

Low density polyethylene;

High density polyethylene;

Polyvinyl chloride;

Polypropylene;

Polystrene; and

Linear low density polyethylene. ( ERG, 1998)

Thermoset resins cannot easily be remelted or reprocessed; they undergo a chemical reaction during processing. The most common types of thermoset resins are:

Epoxy;

Phenolic;

Unsaturated polyester; and

Urea. ( ERG, 1998)

Plastic foam is manufactured from thermoplastic and thermoset resins. Foam has a unique cellular structure that differs from solid plastics. Some common foams include

Polystrene foam;

Polyurethane foam; and

Polyetheylene foam. ( ERG, 1998)

The different groups of plastics are subjected to varying manufacturing processes.

The most common types of manufacturing processes are extrusion, molding, and foam processing ( Midwest Research Institute, 1993). Extrusion forms plastics into shapes including pipes, tubes,

rods, and continuous sheet films. Molding consists of inserting the plastic into a mold by injection molding, blow molding, or compression molding. Foam processing includes a step which incorporates air or chemical blowing agents into the plastic mixture to produce the unique foam cellular structure. Other types of plastics manufacturing processes include lamination, coating,

and finishing. 9 3 Wastewater Sources Wastewater from plastics manufacturing plants comes from three main sources:

Contact cooling and heating water;

cleaning water; and

finishing water.

Contact cooling and heating water is water that has come in contact with raw materials or plastic products during molding and forming. Most contact heating and cooling water has very low pollutant concentrations. However, some facilities utilize bis( 2

ethylhexyl) phthalate to make polyvinyl chloride and vinyl chloride flexible. These facilities discharge contact heating and cooling water which contains bis( 2 ethylhexl) phthalate. Cleaning water is used to clean plastic surfaces or equipment. The main pollutants in cleaning water are 5

day biological oxygen demand ( BOD 5), oil and grease, total suspended solids ( TSS), chemical oxygen demand ( COD), total organic carbon ( TOC), phenol, and zinc. Finishing water is water used to rinse plastic material or lubricate the plastic product during the finishing phase. Finishing water may contain TSS and phalates. ( EPA, 1995)

Another source of wastewater pollution is plastic pellet release. Pellets are often lost to the floor and rinsed away during cleaning. The pellets may be released into wastewater,

where they may be ingested by wildlife. ( EPA, 1995)

Current Regulations Plastic Manufacturing is regulated under 40 CFR 463: Plastic Molding and Forming Point Source Category. This ELG, which was promulgated in 1984 and updated in 1985, contains effluent limitations for BOD 5, TSS, oil and grease, and pH. Effluent limits for bis( 2 ethylhexyl) phthalates were reserved. 9 4 9.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section describes the current economic situation for the plastics industry and the technological advances affecting the plastics industry.

Quantitative and Qualitative Changes Plastics demand in the automotive industry is increasing ( First Research, 2001).

Plastic's advantages include weight savings, design flexibility, corrosion resistance, and cost effectiveness ( Woodward, 1999). Lightweight vehicles consume less gasoline and thus produce fewer air pollution emissions per mile. Concerns about global warming have increased the demand for lightweight vehicles. As the demand for lightweight vehicles continues, the auto industry will seek lightweight and cost efficient materials such as plastic.

Plastics demand in the construction sector is also strong. U. S. trade data show that " Doors and Door Frames, plastic" have the highest annual growth rate ( 65.1%) of all U. S.

plastics exports ( Society of the Plastics Industry, 2001). Also having a growth rate of 50% or more were handles and knobs for furniture ( Society of the Plastics Industry 2001). Demand for plastic pipe is expected to increase 5 percent from 2000 to 2003 ( Intertec Publishing Corportation, 2000).

Plastics dominate the packaging sector. Plastic packaging demand is expected to increase at an annual rate of 3.3 percent until 2006 ( Paperloop, 2002). Plastics are anticipated to continue to capture part of the packaging market from paper and aluminum. The top plastics exports in 2000 were boxes, cases, creates, etc. ( Society of the Plastics Industry 2001). Plastics bottles and blister packs are also prevalent in the packaging market. 9 5 Technological Advances There are technology advances for plastics in the construction sector. Wood

Plastic Composite ( WPC) manufacturing is increasing. Better understanding of wood, equipment advances, and additive developments has made WPC manufacturing more effective since the 1990s. Decking materials are the largest and fastest growing WPC market driven, in part, by concerns about arsenic leaching from pressure treated wood. WPC use in decks is projected to more than double, reaching a 20 percent market share by 2005 ( Clemons, 2002). The increased use of WPC will increase the wastewater produced during WPC manufacturing.

Construction Fiber Reinforced Polymer ( FRP) composites are also increasing in construction. FRP is a very durable composite which can be used to resurface roads. A project started in 2001 is underway to resurface bridges with FRP throughout Ohio, using hundreds of millions of pounds of FRP ( Port, 2001). The large quantity of FRP needed for construction projects might create an increase in plastics manufacturing, increasing the volume of wastewater produced.

Research is currently being performed to further the applicability of plastics to the automotive sector. The organic chemistry of plastic is being investigated to develop polymers that can be used in chassis/ drivetrain applications and the structural framework of vehicles. Plastics are being developed that will provide a finished exterior similar to paint ( Vasilah, 2002). The new plastic polymers may produce unique types of wastewater discharges.

Plastics demand will also increase in the electronic sector. Plastics may be used instead of silicon as a substrate for organic semiconductors, which are used in electronic price tags, photovoltaic cells, and light emitting displays ( IEE Solutions, 2002). Although plastic semiconductors are not capable of the same high speed conductivity as are silicon semiconductors,

plastic is less expensive and easier to manufacture than silicon. Plastic semiconductors are a smart alternative in products where high powered silicon semiconductors are not needed ( Port, 2001). 9 6 The introduction of plastics in the fast growing electronics sector is expected to increase plastics production and the wastewater produced during plastics production.

9.3 Information Resources Trade Associations Society of the Plastics Industry ( SPI) is a trade association representing the plastics manufacturing industry in the United States. SPI's members represent the processors, machinery and equipment manufacturers, and raw material suppliers. SPI can be contacted at:

1801 K Street, NW, Suite 600K Washington, DC 20006 Telephone 202.974.5200 www. plasticsindustry. org American Plastics Council ( APC) is a trade association representing U. S. plastics manufacturers. APC works to make plastics a preferred material in all markets. The APC website is located at: www. americanplasticscouncil. org.

Industry Journals and Other Publications Modern Plastics and Modern Plastics International are the leading industry journals. For over 75 years, Modern Plastics has provided important plastics manufacturing information. Modern Plastics and Modern Plastics International also have a comprehensive website: www. modplas. com.

Plastic Guide is an online resource for the plastic industry, which provides information about environmental, business, technology, health, waste disposal, and economic issues. Links to trade associations, industry journals, news articles, and reference materials are also listed. The website is located at: www. plasticguide. com. 9 7 9.4 References American Plastics Council. 2001. 2001 Percentage Distribution of Thermoplastic Resin Sales and Captive Market Use. Available online: http:// www. americanplasticscouncil. org/ benefits/ economic/ PIPSmajmktchart_ 2001. pdf Clemons, C. 2002. " Wood Plastic Composites in the United States: The Interfacing of Two Industries". Forest Products Journal. Vol 52, No. 6, Pp. 10 18.

Eastern Research Group, Inc. ( ERG). 1998. Preferred and Alternative Methods for Estimating Air Emission from Plastic Products Manufacturing. EPA's Emission Inventory Improvement Program. December.

Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). 1995. Profile of the Rubber and Plastics Industry. EPA Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, Office of Compliance Sector Notebook. Washington, DC. EPA 310 R 95 016.

First Research, Inc. 2001. First Research Industry Profile Summary: Plastic and Rubber Products Manufacturing. Available on the First Research website: http:// industryprofiles. 1stresearch. com/.

IEE Solutions. 2002. Film of the future is dramatic: organic semiconductors that ride on thin plastic would allow novel applications. Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc. Volume 34, Issue 11, Pp 10.

Intertec Publishing Corporation. 2000. " Report gauges global plastic pipe demand." Concrete Production. Volume 103, Issue 6, Pp 16.

Midwest Research Institute. 1993. Development of Test Strategies for Polymer Processing Emission Factors. Final Report. Cary, North Carolina.

Paperloop. 2002. " Freedonia study says plastic will gain at expense of paper through 2006." Available online: www. paperloop. com/ inside/ stories/ wk12_ 30_ 2002/ 13. html.

Port, O. 2001. " Standard and Poor's Industry Outlook: Materials: Plastics". Businessweek Online. Available online: http:// www. businessweek. com/ 2001/ 01_ 02/ b3714134. htm.

Society of the Plastics Industry 2001. Global Business Trends, Partners, Hot Products. Available online: http:// www. plasticsdatasource. org/ ab 149es. pdf.

Vasilash, G. S. 2002. " Plastic's possible future". Automotive Design and Production. Volume 114, Issue 10, Pps 26 27. 9 8 Woodward, K. 1999. " Aluminum, Plastic Strive to Upstage Steel". Metal Center News. Available online: http:// www. metalcenternews. com/ 1999/ 0299/ 9902f4. htm. 10 1 10.0 SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 10.1 Overview of Industry The Semiconductor Industry ( SIC 3674) is one of the fastest growing industries in the United States. According to the United States Economic Census, this industry had the second highest rate of growth ( 144 percent) in the value of shipments between 1992 and 1997.

The production of semiconductors uses a multitude of chemicals and large volumes of deionized water. The first step in semi conductor manufacturing is the growth of silicon crystals from seed crystals. The silicon crystals form ingots which are cut and ground into wafers.

The wafers are polished with an aluminum oxide and gylceride solution and etched with acids.

The wafers, or chips, undergo final polishing with silicon dioxide particles in sodium hydroxide.

Wafers are then rinsed with deionized water.

The wafers are processed through oxidation, lithography, etching, doping, and layering. Between each of these steps, the wafers are rinsed with water, acid or base solutions, or organic solvents. During oxidation, wafers are heated or treated with a chlorine source to produce an oxidized silicon dioxide layer on the wafer. Lithography is the process of imaging a circuit pattern onto a wafer, usually performed with UV light. Etching creates the circuit pattern on the wafer; it can be performed using acid solutions or gases and chlorine, hydrogen bromide, carbon tetrafluoride, sulfur hexafluoride, trifluoromethane, fluorine, fluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride,

boron trichloride, hydorgen, oxygen, helium, and argon ( ERG, 1997). Doping adds impurities, or dopants, to the wafer to change the conductivity of the silicon; the dopants may contain arsenic,

boron, phosphorus, aluminum, anitmony, berylilium, gallium, germanium, gold, magnesium,

silicon, tellurium, or tin ( ERG, 1997). The wafer may be layered with a material to act as a conductor, semi conductor, or insulator. After final processing, the wafer is again rinsed with water. 10 2 Wastewater Sources The most significant source of wastewater is microchip washing. Operations at semi conductor manufacturing plants typically generate 4 million gallons of wastewater per day ( IIE, 2001). The processes at semi conductor manufacturing plants require ultrapure water; the semiconductor industry spends as much money generating ultrapure rinse water as it does on purchasing chemicals ( Lancaster, 1996).

Current Regulations The semiconductor industry is currently regulated under 40 CRF 469, Electrical and Electronic Components Point Source Category. This ELG was promulgated in 1983 and revised in 1985. Electroplating operations in the semiconductor industry are regulated under 40 CRF 433, Metal Finishing Point Source Category. 40 CRF 433 was promulgated in 1983.

10.2 Industry Trends and Changes This section presents the changes and technological advances occurring in the semiconductor market.

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes The semiconductor industry experiences continual changes to its manufacturing operations. The industry continually decreases the sizes of semiconductors and semiconductor components. The industry refers to this as Moore's Law: the number of components per chip doubles every 18 months ( European Semiconductor Industry Association et al., 2002).

Manufacturing facilities have been set up to have one half of the plant in operation while the second half is being upgraded for new technology. Once the second half is online, the first half is taken offline for modernization. 10 3 Technological Advances New technology decreases the amount of water needed in semiconductor production by using an alternative method to wash the chips. One method uses carbon dioxide at high temperatures and pressures ( IIE, 2001). Using this " supercritical carbon dioxide" is inexpensive and cleans the chips without generating large quantities of wastewater.

Emerging technology can improve the treatment of wastewater from semiconductor production, to allow for recycling and reuse. Membrane distillation evaporates water across a polymer membrane ( Economic Newspaper, Ltd., 2000). Contaminants remain on the heated side of the membrane and the water vapor condenses to water on the clean side of the membrane. This process cleans water so thoroughly that nearly all water is expected to be able to be reused in the semiconductor plant.

10.3 Information Resources Trade Associations Semiconductor Industry Association ( SIA) is the leading trade association representing the computer chip industry. The mission of the SIA is to provide leadership for U. S.

chip manufacturers on the issues of trade, technology, environmental protection, and worker safety and health. The SIA can be contacted at:

Charles Fraust Director of Environment, Safety, and Health Affairs 181 Metro Drive, Suite 450 San Jose, CA 95110 Phone: ( 408) 436 6600 www. semichips. org 10 4 Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International ( SEMI) is the trade association serving the global semiconductor equipment, materials, and flat panel display industries. The contact information is:

1401 K Street, NW Suite 601 Washington, DC 20005 USA Telephone ( 202) 289 0440 www. semi. org The World Semiconductor Trade Statistics ( WSTS) is a global industry association representing 70 semiconductor manufacturers worldwide. The mission of WSTS is to provide timely, accurate, and authentic semiconductor market data on industry product shipments. The WSTS can be contacted at:

WSTS GmbH Neuboeckweg 22 A 8042 Graz Austria, Europe: Telephone + 43 ( 316) 473 4922 www. wtst. org Industry Journals and Other Publications Semiconductor International is the leading technical publication covering the global semiconductor industry. In addition to the monthly journal, there is a website providing supplemental information: www. semiconductor. net.

SemiWorld. com is an online journal that compiles the latest information and journal articles about the semiconductor industry. Online courses and discussions are moderated on the website. Vendor, manufacturer, and research information is also available.

The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors ( ITRS) is a yearly publication that defines the state of the industry and identifies the research needs of the next 15 10 5 years. The ITRS is developed by a coalition of industry trade associations, manufacturers,

suppliers, universities, and government organizations. The ITRS can be accessed online:

http:// public. itrs. net.

10.4 References Business Communications Company, Inc. 1998. " Microbar Product Treats Semiconductor Waste". Electronic Materials Update. Dec, 12,12.

Economist Newspaper, Ltd. 2000. " Just add water; Monitor: Clean water for semiconductors." Economist Newspaper Ltd. Dec 9.

ERG. 1997. Draft Semiconductor Industry Profile.

Institute of Industrial Engineers ( IIE). 2001. " Cleaner chip making method uses carbon dioxide fluid". IEE Solutions. April, 33,14: 13.

Lancaster, M. C. 1996. " Ultrapure Water: the real cost". Solid State Technology. Sept, 39,9: 70.

European Semiconductor Industry Association, Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Asssociation, Korea Semiconductor Industry Association, Taiwan Semiconductor Industry Assoication, Semiconductor Industry Association. 2002. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors. Published online: http:// public. itrs. net.