Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Final Report

July 20, 2010

Prepared for

Amy Kopin

Environmental Protection Agency

2000 Traverwood Dr.

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105

Prepared by

Louis Browning, Seth Hartley, Larry O’Rourke,

Jennifer Brickett, Ryan Thompson, Lisa McNally

ICF International

620 Folsom Street, Suite 200

San Francisco, CA 94107

415.677.7100

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05

Table of Contents

  TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395252"  1.	Introduction   PAGEREF _Toc267395252 \h  1

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395253"  1.1.	Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope	  PAGEREF _Toc267395253 \h  1

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395254"  1.2.	Division of Tasks	  PAGEREF _Toc267395254 \h  2

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395255"  1.3.	Report Organization	  PAGEREF _Toc267395255 \h  2

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395256"  2.	Description of Technologies	  PAGEREF _Toc267395256 \h  3

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395257"  2.1.	Baseline Vehicles and Technologies	  PAGEREF _Toc267395257 \h  3

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395258"  Class 7 and 8 Tractors	  PAGEREF _Toc267395258 \h  3

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395259"  Trailers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395259 \h  4

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395260"  Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks	  PAGEREF _Toc267395260 \h  16

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395261"  Class 7 and 8 buses	  PAGEREF _Toc267395261 \h  20

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395262"  2.2.	Summary of Technologies and Strategies	  PAGEREF _Toc267395262 \h  22

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395263"  2.3.	Aerodynamic improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395263 \h  25

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395264"  Aerodynamic Hoods	  PAGEREF _Toc267395264 \h  25

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395265"  Aerodynamic Mirrors	  PAGEREF _Toc267395265 \h  27

AeroCones™	  PAGEREF _Toc267395266 \h  27

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395267"  Airtabs™	  PAGEREF _Toc267395267 \h  28

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395268"  Boat Tails	  PAGEREF _Toc267395268 \h  28

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395269"  Aerodynamic Bumpers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395269 \h  29

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395270"  Tractor Gap Fairing	  PAGEREF _Toc267395270 \h  29

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395271"  Roof Fairings	  PAGEREF _Toc267395271 \h  30

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395272"  Tractor Side Fairings	  PAGEREF _Toc267395272 \h  30

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395273"  Trailer Side Skirts	  PAGEREF _Toc267395273 \h  31

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395274"  Trailer Gap Fairings	  PAGEREF _Toc267395274 \h  31

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395275"  2.4.	Rolling resistance improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395275 \h  32

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395276"  Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395276 \h  32

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395277"  Low-Rolling Resistance Tires	  PAGEREF _Toc267395277 \h  33

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395278"  Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires	  PAGEREF _Toc267395278 \h  35

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395279"  2.5.	Operational improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395279 \h  36

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395280"  Advanced Driver Training	  PAGEREF _Toc267395280 \h  36

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395281"  Speed Limiter	  PAGEREF _Toc267395281 \h  37

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395282"  2.6.	Idling reduction technologies	  PAGEREF _Toc267395282 \h  38

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395283"  Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395283 \h  38

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395284"  Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems	  PAGEREF _Toc267395284 \h  38

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395285"  Thermal Storage Systems	  PAGEREF _Toc267395285 \h  39

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395286"  Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395286 \h  40

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395287"  Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395287 \h  41

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395288"  Direct Fired Heaters	  PAGEREF _Toc267395288 \h  42

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395289"  Fuel Cell APU	  PAGEREF _Toc267395289 \h  44

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395290"  Truck Stop Electrification	  PAGEREF _Toc267395290 \h  45

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395291"  2.7.	Engine improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395291 \h  47

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395292"  Integrated Starter/Alternator	  PAGEREF _Toc267395292 \h  47

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395293"  Turbo Compounding	  PAGEREF _Toc267395293 \h  48

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395294"  Variable Geometry Turbocharger	  PAGEREF _Toc267395294 \h  49

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395295"  Variable Valve Actuation	  PAGEREF _Toc267395295 \h  50

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395296"  2.8.	Transmission and Drivetrain improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395296 \h  51

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395297"  Early Torque Convertor Lock-up	  PAGEREF _Toc267395297 \h  51

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395298"  Hybrid Powertrain	  PAGEREF _Toc267395298 \h  51

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395299"  Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants	  PAGEREF _Toc267395299 \h  53

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395300"  Rankine Bottoming Cycle	  PAGEREF _Toc267395300 \h  54

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395301"  2.9.	Weight reduction technologies	  PAGEREF _Toc267395301 \h  55

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395302"  Aluminum Air Tanks	  PAGEREF _Toc267395302 \h  55

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395303"  Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs	  PAGEREF _Toc267395303 \h  56

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395304"  Aluminum Wheels	  PAGEREF _Toc267395304 \h  56

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395305"  Lightweight Brake Drums	  PAGEREF _Toc267395305 \h  57

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395306"  Lightweight Cab Components	  PAGEREF _Toc267395306 \h  59

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395307"  Lightweight Suspension Systems	  PAGEREF _Toc267395307 \h  60

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395308"  Reduced Number of Batteries	  PAGEREF _Toc267395308 \h  60

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395309"  Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395309 \h  61

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395310"  2.10.	Electrification	  PAGEREF _Toc267395310 \h  61

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395311"  Electrification of Accessory Loads	  PAGEREF _Toc267395311 \h  61

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395312"  2.11.	Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395312 \h  62

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395313"  Alternative Refrigerants	  PAGEREF _Toc267395313 \h  62

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395314"  Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials	  PAGEREF _Toc267395314 \h  63

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395315"  Low Power Draw A/C	  PAGEREF _Toc267395315 \h  65

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395316"  Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems	  PAGEREF _Toc267395316 \h  67

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395317"  Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit	  PAGEREF _Toc267395317 \h  68

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395318"  Use of Leakage Reducing Components	  PAGEREF _Toc267395318 \h  70

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395319"  3.	Cost Tables	  PAGEREF _Toc267395319 \h  71

List of Figures

  TOC \h \z \t "Figure Caption,6"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395320"  Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab	  PAGEREF _Toc267395320 \h  4

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395321"  Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395321 \h  5

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395322"  Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395322 \h  6

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395323"  Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck	  PAGEREF _Toc267395323 \h  7

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395324"  Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395324 \h  8

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395325"  Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395325 \h  9

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395326"  Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395326 \h  10

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395327"  Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395327 \h  11

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395328"  Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395328 \h  11

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395329"  Figure 2-10:  Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395329 \h  12

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395330"  Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395330 \h  12

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395331"  Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395331 \h  13

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395332"  Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395332 \h  13

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395333"  Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395333 \h  14

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395334"  Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395334 \h  14

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395335"  Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395335 \h  15

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395336"  Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395336 \h  15

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395337"  Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck	  PAGEREF _Toc267395337 \h  18

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395338"  Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck	  PAGEREF _Toc267395338 \h  18

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395339"  Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck	  PAGEREF _Toc267395339 \h  19

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395340"  Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck	  PAGEREF _Toc267395340 \h  20

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395341"  Figure 2-22:  Class 7 School Bus	  PAGEREF _Toc267395341 \h  21

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395342"  Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus	  PAGEREF _Toc267395342 \h  22

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395343"  Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System   PAGEREF _Toc267395343 \h  38

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395344"  Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit	  PAGEREF _Toc267395344 \h  40

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395345"  Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System	  PAGEREF _Toc267395345 \h  41

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395346"  Figure 2-27: APUs	  PAGEREF _Toc267395346 \h  42

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395347"  Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater	  PAGEREF _Toc267395347 \h  43

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395348"  Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine	  PAGEREF _Toc267395348 \h  48

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395349"  Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components	  PAGEREF _Toc267395349 \h  58

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395350"  Figure 2-31: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint	  PAGEREF _Toc267395350 \h  64

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395351"  Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit	  PAGEREF _Toc267395351 \h  66

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395352"  Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C	  PAGEREF _Toc267395352 \h  66

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395353"  Figure 2-34: Transport Refrigeration Units	  PAGEREF _Toc267395353 \h  67

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395354"  Figure 2-35: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit	  PAGEREF _Toc267395354 \h  69

List of Tables

  TOC \h \z \t "Table Caption,6"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395355"  Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices	  PAGEREF _Toc267395355 \h  3

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395356"  Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395356 \h  4

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395357"  Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices	  PAGEREF _Toc267395357 \h  16

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395358"  Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices	  PAGEREF _Toc267395358 \h  16

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395359"  Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices	  PAGEREF _Toc267395359 \h  20

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395360"  Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report	  PAGEREF _Toc267395360 \h  22

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395361"  Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types	  PAGEREF _Toc267395361 \h  34

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395362"  Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes   PAGEREF _Toc267395362 \h  52

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395363"  Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives	  PAGEREF _Toc267395363 \h  53

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395364"  Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary	  PAGEREF _Toc267395364 \h  90

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395365"  Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary	  PAGEREF _Toc267395365 \h  98

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395366"  Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary	  PAGEREF _Toc267395366 \h  104

Introduction

Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope

Regulation of greenhouse gases is underway. EPA issued an Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in July 2008 in response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision on Massachusetts v. EPA.  The EPA issued the Proposed Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under the Clean Air Act in April 2009.  The standards shall give appropriate consideration to the cost, energy, and safety factors associated with the application of the technologies.  The new GHG reporting rule (40 CFR Parts 86, 87, 89 et al. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases; Final Rule), from October 2009 requires that sources including fossil fuel suppliers and industrial gas suppliers, direct greenhouse gas emitters and manufacturers of heavy-duty and off-road vehicles and engines with emissions above certain threshold levels monitor and report their emissions. On April 1, 2010, EPA and NHTSA announced the National Program to Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Improve Fuel Economy for Cars and Trucks, establishing a national program consisting of new standards for model year 2012 through 2016 light-duty vehicles, including the first-ever national GHG emissions standards under the Clean Air Act and CAFE standards under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. In addition, President Obama directed EPA and NHTSA to take the next steps to reduce GHG emissions and fuel consumption by developing the first-ever GHG and fuel consumption regulations for heavy-duty engines and vehicles in an announcement made on May 21, 2010.

The heavy-duty truck sector includes Class 2b through Class 8 trucks that can have a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 8,500 lbs.  This sector is powered primarily by diesel engines, but gasoline powered vehicles are also used.  Heavy-duty trucks were responsible for 18 percent of the U.S. Transportation GHG emissions in 2006 and the CO2 emissions are expected to grow nearly 30 percent by 2030.  Reductions can be achieved through engine, vehicle, and operational improvements, with vehicle improvements expected to make up the bulk of the achievable reductions.

The purpose of this analysis is to estimate the cost impacts of technologies that can be used to reduce GHG emissions on heavy-duty trucks and engines.  The cost estimates have been determined for a number of different truck classes and a variety of technologies and operating strategies to which they apply. The improvements are organized into one of the following nine categories:

Aerodynamic improvements,

Rolling resistance improvements,

Operational improvements,

Idling reduction technologies,

Engine improvements,

Transmission and drivetrain improvements,

Weight reduction,

Electrification, and

Air conditioning improvements and improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology.

The vehicles analyzed include Class 7 and 8 tractors, trailers, class 3-8 work trucks, and class 6-8 buses. This report presents the results of this research.

Division of Tasks

Analysis was done in a series of tasks, each encompassing specific types of vehicles. In each case, baseline vehicles were defined along with appropriate technologies. For the purposes of this report, the tasks are defined as and include:

Task 2: Class 7 and 8 regional tractors and Class 8 long-haul tractors

Task 3: Trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 regional and long-haul tractors

Task 5: Class 3 through 8 vocational trucks

Task 6: Class 7 and 8 buses

Throughout this report, analysis may refer to categories by task or by vehicle class.

Report Organization

The remainder of this report is organized along the following structure. Section 2 summarizes the baseline vehicles in the current fleet and presents an overview of the nine categories of technologies that can provide reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Section 3 presents a summary of costs associated with each technology. Tables showing the cost analyses are presented by task, with each technology category broken out within these tasks.

Description of Technologies

Baseline Vehicles and Technologies

Class 7 and 8 Tractors

One sleeper and one day cab model were selected as baseline vehicles for the Class 7 and 8 tractor application.   REF _Ref263870341 \h  Table 2-1  shows these vehicles, their specifications, and associated prices.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 : Baseline Tractors and Prices

2010 FREIGHTLINER CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120	Sleeper Size  70"  	$113,000

Sleeper  Mid Roof XT Sleeper

	Engine Make Detroit Diesel

	Engine Type  14.0

	Horsepower  455

	Transmission  10 Speed

	Check for Over Drive  Yes

	Engine Brake  Yes

	Suspension  Air Ride

	Gear Ratio  3.42

	Tires  22.5LP

	Wheels  All Aluminum

It is noteworthy that many improvements, especially aerodynamic improvements, may already be incorporated in these vehicles. Thus it could be advantageous to assess a more traditional style cab, such as the Peterbilt 379 sleeper cab. However, this vehicle was discontinued in 2007 and cannot serve as a current technology baseline.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  1 : Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.truckpaper.com"  http://www.truckpaper.com

Trailers

There are numerous types of trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 tractors. Baseline retail prices and weight ranges were indentified for the trailer types listed in   REF _Ref264012690 \h  Table 2-2 , based on leading manufacturers. The following discusses these manufacturers and the corresponding trailer types.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  2 : Trailer Types and Manufacturers

Chief Manufacturer	Trailer Types	Baseline Trailer Category	Details

Great Dane	van	box	N/A

Wabash National	van	box	Dry van

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) 	flatbed	specialized	48' aluminum combination flatbed

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft)	flatbed drop deck	specialized	48' flatbed drop deck

Hyundai	container chassis	box	N/A

Utility Trailer Manufacturing	reefer	box	reefer; dry van; 48' flatbed

East Manufacturing	dump	specialized	3 types of dump trailers

Timpte	grain	specialized	2 price ranges for grain hoppers

Polar Tank Trailers	tanker	specialized	4 types of tankers

Trail King Industries /Landall	lowbed	specialized	2 lowboys; 1 48' step deck flatbed

Great Dane

Price and weight range data for the Great Dane manufacturer of box trailers were not available

Wabash National

Retail price data and weight data were identified for a dry freight van, flatbed, and flatbed drop deck trailers:

Dry Freight Van

Wabash offers three types of dry freight van 2-axle trailers: DuraPlate®; FrieghtPro™; and DuraPlate HP, the latter being the most expensive. The average curb weight is approximately 14,000 pounds. The DuraPlate dry van trailer's standard features include:

The ultra-wide design of the DuraPlate trailer provides an interior width of 101-1/2" (scuff-to-scuff)

The DuraPlate composite sidewall panel is constructed of a high-density polyethylene plastic core bonded between two high-strength steel skins.

Steel interior to resist tears, punctures and related damage.

Postless sidewall design.

High-strength, corrugated steel scuff is fastened to the DuraPlate sidewall every 8".

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  2 : Dry Freight Van (Wabash National)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg"  http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg

Aluminum Combination Flatbed (48-foot)

The combination flatbed 2-axle trailer is available in extreme, heavy, and standard. Basic features, including approximate weight of each are listed below.

Extreme Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths; additional lightweight features are available. Basic features include:

Tandem axles with various axle spacings

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

Aluminum side rails

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

GVWR 80,000 lbs.

Approx. 10,760 lbs. w/standard options

Heavy Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" width. Basic features include:

Tandem, various axle spacings

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

Aluminum side rails

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

GVWR 80,000 lbs.

Approx. 9,960 lbs. w/standard options

Standard Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths. Basic features include:

Tandem, various axle spacings

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

Aluminum side rails

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

GVWR 73,000 lbs.

Approx. 9,760 lbs. w/standard options

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  3 : Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg"  http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg

Flatbed Drop Deck (48-foot)

The D-Eagle flatbed drop deck 2-axle trailer is available in 45', 48' and 53' lengths with 102” width. The approximate weight is 10,120 pounds with the following standard options:

Tandem, various axle spacings

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

80,000 lbs. over lower deck

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  4 : Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D-Eagle.jpg"  http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D-Eagle.jpg

Transcraft (Wabash)

Transcraft is now a Wabash company. See above for descriptive information about Wabash trailers.

Hyundai

Cost data were not available for Hyundai’s container chassis.

Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company

Reefer

The curb weight of Utility’s 2-axle reefer trailer is approximately 14,200 pounds. The 3000R series reefer trailer is available with the following standard features:

Patented Barrier Rear Doors

Utility-Designed Door Hardware

5/16" Thick Dock Board Guide Plates

Integrated Heavy-Duty 10" High Wearband

Landing Leg Support and Bracing

Foam-In-Place Insulation Air Ride Suspension

5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System

Thermal Barriers

Tensioned Roof Skin

LED Lights

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  5 : Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp"  http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp

Dry Van

Utility’s 4000D series dry van 2-axle trailer is a traditional plywood lined dry van. The approximate weight is 13,500 pounds. Standard features include:

12" Galvanized Steel Wearband

Stainless Steel Rear Door Frame

Integrated Threshold Plate Assembly

Air Ride Suspension

Weather Tight Floor System

Reliable Support Leg Bracing

Heavy-Duty King Pin Assembly

High-Strength Front Wall

Unique Roof Design

5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System

Bendix® TAB-6 ABS System

Modular Electrical System

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  6 : Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp"  http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp

Flatbed (48-foot)

™ series 2-axle aluminum (also available in a steel 4000S series) flatbed trailer (commercial length is 48-feet) is approximately 9,800 pounds in curb weight. The standard features for this trailer include:

Hendrickson Narrow Hanger AANT 23k Spread Air Ride Suspension

80,000 PSI High Tensile Steel, Hat-Shaped Main Beam Top Flange

6,500 lbs. Working Load Limit Rated Pipe Spools

Aluminum Front Rail

100% Plug-in Connectors

Durable Outrigger Attachments

Higher Quality Paint Process for Lower Life Cycle Costs

Integral Cinch Track

Front Stainless Steel Corners

5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System

Durable Suspension Design

Plasma-Cut One-Piece Main Beam Webs

Microencapsulated Adhesive on All Screws

Side Rails are Mechanically Fastened

Contoured Beam at Rear for Proper Axle Loading

Rear Corners Designed for High Impact Loads

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  7 : Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp"  http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp

East Manufacturing

Specialized dump trailers comprise about 3 to 4 percent of the market. The following three 2-axle, “lightweight” dump trailers range in weight between 10,000-17,000 pounds. Dump trailers are available in a range of axles, up to 8-axles.

Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer

th Genesis™ and traditional sheet and post body styles are available for triple-ten (gravel train), super-train, break-up double, twelve wheelers and up to 8-axle semi-trailer configurations. Steel bodied dump trailers are also available.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  8 : Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html"  http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html

Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer

Frameless dump trailers are designed for the ideal balance between low weight for more payload, and heavy-duty strength for durability.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  9 : Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html"  http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html

Frame Dump Trailer (Steel Tub Body)

The body of the East steel trailer is made from AR450 grade steel to handle construction and demolition work.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  10 :  Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html"  http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html

Timpte

Grain Hopper

The standard 2-axle hopper trailer is available in 38-, 40-, and 42-feet lengths with an average curb weight of approximately 9,000 pounds. Typical application includes transportation of agricultural and industrial bulk commodities. Axles typically have a 22,500 pound beam capacity. Typical baseline tires are eight 11R24.5 Bridgestone R195F radials.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  11 : Grain Hopper (Timpte)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html"  http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html

Polar Tank Trailers

Typical applications include transport of chemical and petroleum products, fertilizer, asphalt, and food items (tanks are stainless steel, sterilized and insulated).

Chemical Transport Tanker

The 2010 POLAR Chemical Transport has a carrying capacity of 8,500 gallons for the transport of petro chemical solvents. The tanker is made of aluminum, with a curb weight of 9,010 pounds. Standard installed tires can be Yokohama RY587 - 11R 22.5 and wheel size is 8.25 x 22.5 with aluminum hub. A chemical transport trailer that is insulated and made of stainless steel has a curb weight of about 13,000 pounds.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  12 : Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source:    HYPERLINK "http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261"  http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261

Petroleum Transport Tanker

The 2010 POLAR petroleum transport 2-axle tanker has a carrying capacity of 9,500 gallons and a curb weight of 10,000 pounds. The multi-compartment aluminum is used for transporting petroleum from refinery to gas stations.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  13 : Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG"  http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG

Sanitary Food Tanker

The two-axle sanitary food tanker is made of stainless steel and is insulated. The curb weight is approximately 10,500.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  14 : Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886"  http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886

Trail King Industries

Lowboy (TK70HDG)

This two-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has a 26-foot deck with a 17,000-pound curb weight. This series is used for construction applications (e.g., hauling construction equipment). The trailer uses 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 255/70R x 22.5 16PR radial tires.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  15 : Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3"  http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3

Lowboy (TK110HDG)

The three-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has ability to lift above or below transport positions for commercial applications. The trailer has a 26-foot deck, steel wheels, oak decking, is 102 feet wide with a 22,000-pound curb weight.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  16 : Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27"  http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27

Flatbed / Step Deck (TK70ACS)

The two-axle flatbed (step deck) TK70ACS model has a curb weight of 9,900 pounds with standard 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 11R x 22.5 16PR radial tires for commercial applications. The flatbed trailer is 48 feet long and 102 feet wide.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  17 : Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1"  http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1

  REF _Ref264012700 \h  Table 2-3  lists typical retail prices for each of the generic trailer types. The prices listed here may fluctuate depending upon on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  3 : Baseline Trailer Prices

Baseline Trailer Category	Trailer Types	Curb Weight (lbs)	New Price

Box	Van	13,850	$25,000

Specialized	Flatbed	10,600	$29,500

Box	Container chassis	N/A	N/A

Box	Reefer	14,200	$52,000-100,000

Specialized	Dump

$50,000

Specialized	Grain	9,000	$31,750

Specialized	Flatbed drop deck	10,900	$32,000

Specialized	Tanker	10,628	$61,625

Specialized	Lowbed	17,725	$49,500

Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks

Task 5 addresses class 3 through 8 vocational trucks. These vehicles include service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks and other vocational trucks. Four types of trucks were selected for further exploration: a class 3-6 box truck, a class 3-6 dump truck, a class 4 utility truck, and a class 8 refuse truck. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of truck.

Baseline costs were collected for each of these types of trucks as well as for a selected type of each category. Approximate values are shown in   REF _Ref263868218 \h  Table 2-4 . Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  4 : Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

Category	Typical Vehicle	Price

Class 3-6 box truck 	Kenworth T270	$72,000 for truck with automatic transmission.

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission.

Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body.

Class 3-6 dump truck 	Kenworth T270 	$72,000 for truck with automatic transmission.

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission.

For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depending on steel vs aluminum).

Class 4 work truck 	International CityStar CF500 	$40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body.

Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500.

(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a new version is expected soon)

Class 8 refuse truck 	Volvo VHD Series (e.g. VHD64B200)	Volvo VHD 65BT200 truck retails for about $120,000 excluding the body.

Bodies retail for about $70-$90,000 for standard rear packers, depending on size and equipment

$198,000 is a typical price for a new Volvo class 8 refuse truck, both cab and chassis, with a 25 yard rear loader refuse box, excluding FET.

Class 3-6 Box Truck

A class 3-6 box truck is a medium-duty truck with a box body that has a gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 box truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 box truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is shared with the Kenworth class 6 dump truck. A 24 foot box body for the class 6 truck adds about $12,000 to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer. The standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks.  Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  18   SHAPE  \* MERGEFORMAT   : Class 6 Box Truck

Source: Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure,   HYPERLINK "http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg"  http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg

Class 3-6 Dump Truck

A class 3-6 dump truck is a medium-duty truck with a dump body that has a gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 dump truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 dump truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is the same as that of the class 6 box truck. The only difference is the body. A 16 foot dump body for the class 6 truck would cost about $10,000 - $16,000 in addition to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer. The standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  19   SHAPE  \* MERGEFORMAT   : Class 6 Dump Truck

Source:   HYPERLINK "https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68-a822-4f 2e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg"  https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68-a822-4f2 e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg

Class 4 Work Truck

A class 4 work truck is a medium-duty truck, with a utility body and often features a lift gate or bucket that has a gross vehicle weight range from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds. An International CityStar™ CF500 was identified as a sample class 4 work truck rated at 16,000 GVWR. Note that this truck is no longer in production as of approximately January 2010 but a comparable version is expected to be released within the year. A body with a lift gate is standard for a utility truck, and would add about $7,500 to the truck price.  The two axle truck has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle.   For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer.  The standard features for this truck include a high strength, low alloy steel frame, an International VT 275 engine and 19.5” wheels.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  20 :  SHAPE  \* MERGEFORMAT    Class 4 Work Truck

Source: Image of International City Star CF500   HYPERLINK "http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php ?74257776.jpg"  http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php? 74257776.jpg

Class 8 Refuse Truck

A class 8 refuse truck is a heavy-duty truck with a refuse body used for trash, waste or garbage hauling. The GVWR of the truck is between 33,001-60,000 pounds. A standard refuse truck body is usually a rear loader body, but price will vary according to the features. A rear loader 25-32 yard body costs about $70,000-$90,000 in addition to the truck price depending on the size of the equipment and its features (e.g. an overhead attachment). A Volvo VHD 65BT200 was identified as a sample class 8 refuse truck. The VHD 65BT200 is a three axle truck that has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on each of the rear axles.  For this heavy-duty chassis truck, singlewide tires are included as an option, but are not recommended for use because of difficulties entering and exiting landfills.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  21 :  SHAPE  \* MERGEFORMAT    Class 8 Refuse Truck

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg"  http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg

Class 7 and 8 buses

Task 6 addresses class 7 and 8 buses. These vehicles include school, commercial and transit buses. Two types of buses were selected for further exploration: a class 7 school bus and a class 8a transit bus. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of bus.   REF _Ref263869095 \h  Table 2-5  shows baseline vehicle price estimates. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  5 : Baseline Bus Prices

Category	Typical Vehicle	Price

Class 7 school bus 	International CE Series Type C bus, 31,000 lbs, 2010 Emission Standards, 77 passengers.

Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus, Type D, 33,000 lbs, 84 passengers.	$78-80,000 for 2010 Virginia Emissions 2010 Standard Bus - conventional (type C).

$95,000 for a new 2011 Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus (type D).

Class 8 transit bus  	International RE Series Bus	$99-$100,000 for 2010 Virginia Standards (up to 37,000 pounds).

Class 7 School Bus

A class 7 school bus has a GVWR of between 26,001-33,000 pounds. An International CE Series school bus was identified as a sample class 7 school bus. This conventional two axle bus has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axles. Singlewide tires are not allowed as options for school buses in many states due to safety concerns. The International CE is a 77 passenger bus with a GVWR of 31,000 pounds. Standard options include an International MaxForce® 7 or MaxForce® DT engine, full power hydraulic brakes and electric entrance door. Optional features include factory-installed air conditioner.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  22 :  Class 7 School Bus

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/News/Chicago/Images/ Business/Bus.jpg"  http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/News/Chicago/Images/B usiness/Bus.jpg

Class 8 Transit Bus

A class 8a transit bus has a GVWR of between 33,001-60,000 pounds. An International RE Series Commercial bus was identified as a sample class 8 transit bus. This rear-engine two axle bus has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle. The International RE is a 52 passenger bus with a GVWR of 37,000 pounds.  Standard options include an International MaxForce® DT engine, a roof-mounted HVAC system and air brakes. Optional features include aluminum wheels.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  23 : Class 8 Transit Bus

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/"  http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/

Summary of Technologies and Strategies

The technologies investigated in this report are summarized in   REF _Ref263781449 \h  Table 2-6 . Broadly, they are categorized into aerodynamic improvements, rolling resistance improvements, operational improvements, idling reduction technologies, engine improvements, transmission and drivetrain improvements, weight reduction, electrification, air conditioning improvements, and improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  6 : Strategies Investigated in this Report

Improvement	Vehicle Class Investigated

Aerodynamic Improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerodynamic Mirrors	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerocones	Trailers

Air Tabs	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Boat Tails and Air Tabs	Trailers

Bumper	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Gap Fairings	Trailers

Roof Fairings	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Side Fairings	Class 7-8 Tractors

Side Skirts	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Tractor Gap Fairing	Class 7-8 Tractors

Rolling Resistance Improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Low Rolling Resistance Tires	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Single Wide Tires	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Operational Improvements

Advanced Driver Training	Class 7-8 Tractors

Speed Limiters	Class 7-8 Tractors

Idle Reductions

Anti-idle System (i.e., automatic engine stop system)	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems	Class 7-8 Tractors

Thermal Storage Systems	Class 7-8 Tractors

Engine Recovery Systems	Class 7-8 Tractors

Auxiliary Power Units	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Direct fired heaters	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Fuel Cell APUs	Class 7-8 Tractors

Truck Stop Electrification	Class 7-8 Tractors

Engine Improvements

Electronic Fans	Class 7-8 Tractors

Integrated Starter/Alternator 	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Low Friction Engine Lube	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Turbo compounding  	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Geometry Turbo	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Valve Actuation	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements

Early Torque Converter Lockup	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Hybrid Powertrain	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Low-Friction Drivetrain Lube	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Rankine Bottoming Cycle	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Weight Reduction

Aluminum Air Tanks	Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Axle Hubs	Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Wheelset	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Light Weight Brake Drums	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Cab Components	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Suspension System	Class 7-8 Tractors

Reduced Number of Batteries	Class 7-8 Tractors

Tare Weight Reduction via Al structural components	Trailers

Tare Weight Reduction via Al wheels	Trailers

Electrification

Accessory Electrification (Power Steering, Water Pumps, Fans, etc.) Class 7-8 Tractors

Air Conditioning

Low Power Draw A/C	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Alternative Refrigerants	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Use of highly reflective structural materials	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Leakage-Reducing Components	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Reefer Improvements

Alternative Refrigerants	Trailers

Low power draw A/C	Trailers

Advanced Electrical TRU	Trailers

Use of cryogenic CO2 units	Trailers

Use of highly reflective structural materials	Trailers

Use of leakage-reducing components	Trailers

The remainder of Section   REF _Ref263782238 \r \h  2  provides an overview for each of these technologies. It is important to note that the combinations of class, vehicle application, and technologies researched here do not reflect every available combination, as it would be impractical to try and identify every combination here.  Fleet owners and operators are left to decide which technology works best for their application.  Also, some strategies that appear in the list for Class 7-8 Tractors were found to not be applicable in practice. Those were not investigated further.

An overview of the findings of the research for each technology investigated is summarized in Section 3.

Aerodynamic improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods

Technology Definition

Truck manufacturers offer aerodynamic models that include a streamlined front profile and sloped hood.  A more aerodynamic hood and cab design can significantly improve the aerodynamics of the vehicle and reduce drag.  Aerodynamic hoods are usually one component in an overall aerodynamic design that includes the bumper, mirrors, headlights and other cab features.  Significant research, including wind tunnel testing, is usually required to design an aerodynamic cab and associated hood design.

Availability

Most aerodynamic hoods are manufactured by outside suppliers.  Aerodynamic hoods are made of molded composites with inexpensive molded compounds.  Numerous suppliers are available who can produce custom hoods designed to manufacturer specifications.  Some manufacturers also make some of their own hoods.

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic hoods can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors.  They can be used on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes.  An aerodynamic hood is customized to a specific truck cab design to achieve superior aerodynamic performance.

Aerodynamic hoods may not be appropriate for some vocational trucks.  The purpose for which a vehicle is designed also affects the extent to which it can incorporate certain aerodynamic features.  For instance, the radiator in a vocational truck is larger than that on a standard highway truck because of the work required from the vehicle.  Having a larger radiator makes it more difficult to design an aerodynamic hood with a low sloping profile for a vocational truck.  A vocational truck needs more ground clearance and has larger axles, all affecting the aerodynamic features.  The vocational truck environment involves more dust and thus requires greater filtration of intake air.  Many vocational vehicles with the larger dual 15 inch canisters on their sides are meeting the engine’s need for greater air filtration, although this may not be aerodynamic.

The material that tends to be used in vocational products (with non aerodynamic hoods) is more durable and has a higher manufacturing cost.  The vocational truck environment tends to cause more damage to truck hoods resulting in more vocational hoods designed such that components can be replaced instead of forcing replacement of the entire hood.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

In general, there would not be a significant difference in piece cost between the shape of an aerodynamic hood and a non-aerodynamic hood.  A manufacturer could choose to make the shell of the hood in different designs for minimal cost.  Most of the cost for a new aerodynamic design is associated with developing and testing the new design.  Once this R&D is conducted, there is little difference in manufacturing cost between producing a new hood shape as compared to the old less aerodynamic hood shape.

One cost element that would be different from a standard non-aerodynamic hood would be the styled headlamp that would be required for an aerodynamic design.  This can require a multi-million dollar investment program for a truck manufacturer.  Engineering testing and tooling costs are large for styled headlamps.  It may be difficult to use off-the-shelf components to create such a styled headlight.  Due to the numerous components required for stylized headlights, there is typically a long lead time for this element of approximately 30 – 48 months.

Aerodynamic Mirrors

Technology Definition

An aerodynamic mirror typically has a curved housing and a minimal number of arms.  The arms have an aero shape with curved upper and lower surfaces.  An aerodynamic mirror might also have a curved back.  Mirrors are typically designed and optimized to improve the flow of air as it moves off of the vehicle and in free stream around the vehicle.  Each cab design has a unique air flow profile which can require different aerodynamic mirrors for optimal effect.

Availability

The design of the aerodynamic mirror shell is dictated by the truck manufacturer and is typically manufactured by a supplier.  Truck-Lite® is a major manufacturer of a number of different mirrors, including the aerodynamic mirror for Freightliner’s Cascadia® model.  There are numerous suppliers who are available to manufacture custom mirror designs for truck makers.

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic mirrors can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors.  They can be used on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes.  An aerodynamic mirror is usually customized to the specific cab and hood design to achieve the best results.

Vocational truck mirrors are not typically optimized for the cab.  Construction sites and other vocational truck environments tend to cause mirror damage, requiring mirrors to be replaced.  Truck fleets thus find it is desirable to use a standard mirror component that can be replaced easily.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

An aerodynamic mirror typically has four way mirror control and the arm structure is more robust.  Because of the minimal number of arms, the strength and cost of the arms tends to be greater.  An aero mirror will typically include boots or special breakaway features.  Another difference is that on a standard mirror only the mirror glass rotates while the arms remained in a fixed position, while on an aero mirror the whole assembly turns.  These factors tend to increase cost.

™

Technology Definition

An AeroCone™ is used to reduce aerodynamic drag between the tractor and trailer.  It can also be used to reduce drag on the front of the cargo compartment of straight trucks.  By alleviating crosswinds, an AeroCone improves vehicle stability, road safety and reduces fuel consumption.

Availability

Trailer aerodynamic devices are offered by a few companies today, for example the AeroCone is available from ATD Dynamics, and the Nose Cone® is currently marketed by the FitzGerald Corporation of California.

Vehicle Application

The AeroCone can be installed on standard dry van trailers or standard van straight trucks.  Refrigerated tanks block installation on a reefer truck.  Aerodynamic tractor models generally have tractor fairings, which reduce the benefit of the AeroCone.

Airtabs™

Technology Definition

Airtabs™ are patented vortex generators that can be installed on a truck to reduce drag.  The Airtab is an aerodynamic surface, consisting of a small wishbone shaped ridge that creates a vortex.  Air tabs are installed at the back of tractors, trailers or straight trucks to improve the aerodynamics on the vehicle.  Each Airtab creates two tight swirls of air or vortices that combine to reduce the suction and drag at the rear of vehicles traveling at speeds above approximately 35 mph.

Vehicle Application

Airtabs enhance aerodynamic performance equally well on cube vans, straight trucks, expeditors, buses, utility trailers, faired "bob tail" tractors, flat beds and tankers. The results may vary somewhat with vehicle type.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The length of the vehicle does not affect price.  Taller vehicles, such as moving trucks, would have a somewhat higher installation cost.

Boat Tails

Technology Definition

A boat tail, sometimes called a trailer tail, is a tapering protrusion mounted on the rear of a truck or trailer to reduce aerodynamic drag.  There are a number of different boat tail designs.

Availability

There are a variety of different manufacturers that make boat tails.  These include Aerodynamic Trailer Systems, AeroVolution, ATS, Transtex and Solus.

Vehicle Application

Boat tails can be installed on standard dry van trailers or refrigerated vans.  Some boat tail products are only applicable to swing door trailers because the mounting brackets require a swing door plane.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Trailer tails should last the life of the vehicle or 5 to 10 years.  Some may require minor repairs because of impacts.

Aerodynamic Bumpers

Technology Definition

An aerodynamic bumper typically replaces traditional chrome bumpers found on tractors with a lighter weight material and a design that is integrated with the hood and fenders.  Aerodynamic bumpers are typically injection molded and improve the total drag of the tractor; consideration must be given to not restricting airflow to the engine when designing the bumper.

Availability

There are a number of truck bumper suppliers and manufacturers.  Hendrickson is one of the largest bumper manufacturers, and they make a number of different aerodynamic bumpers for different truck tractor models. Aerodynamic bumpers are usually designed by truck OEM’s and sourced out to a supplier

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic bumpers can be installed on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes.

Tractor Gap Fairing

Technology Definition

A tractor gap fairing, also known as a cab extender or gap seal, reduces the gap between the tractor and the trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and improving the fuel economy of the vehicle.

Availability

Makers of tractor gap fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites although there are numerous suppliers.  Truck manufacturers sometimes contract with a range of different suppliers for custom gap seals that are included as standard components on aerodynamic truck models.

Vehicle Application

Tractor gap fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The cost of the gap fairing will vary depending on the height of the tractor.  For instance, a taller sleeper cab will require a taller gap fairing, with the cost difference being related to the additional material that is required.

Roof Fairings

Technology Definition

A roof fairing extends over the cab of a tractor and has enclosed sides.  Roof fairings are designed to improve the flow of air over and around a tractor-trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and increasing fuel efficiency.

Some roof fairing designs are collapsible to allow for the fairing to be taken down when the tractor is operated without an attached trailer.

Availability

Major suppliers of roof fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites.  Roof fairings can be purchased as a retrofit, but truck manufacturers also contract with a number of different suppliers to manufacture roof fairings for aerodynamic models where the roof fairing comes as a standard integrated component.

Vehicle Application

Roof fairings can be installed on sleeper cabs or day cabs, and on most cab sizes, although they would not be needed on a high-roof sleeper cab, since the tall roof functions as a fairing.  Aerodynamic truck models may come with roof fairings as standard equipment.  In addition, roof fairings would not be purchased for a tractor hauling a flatbed trailer, since this would have a negative impact on the aerodynamics of this vehicle configuration.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

In some cases, a company that orders roof fairings for a new vehicle may have brackets installed on the vehicle at the factory, but have the fairings shipped separately and installed by the dealer.  The extra height of fairings can cause problems with clearances during transit in some cases.

Tractor Side Fairings

Technology Definition

Tractor side fairings, also known as cab fairings, extend downward from the base of the cab between the wheels of the tractor, covering the open space and streamlining the fuel tank(s). Most cab side fairings have steps to reach the cab molded directly into the fairing.  In some cases, the fairing may consist of a single component that is a wheel to wheel fairing.  In other cases, the side fairing consists of two components, a partial side fairing and a fuel tank fairing.  Tractor side fairings can be used on both day cabs and sleeper cabs.

Availability

Makers of side fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites, although there are numerous suppliers.  Truck manufacturers often contract with suppliers for custom fairings that are included as standard components of aerodynamic truck models.

Vehicle Application

Tractor side fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The cost of the side fairing will vary depending on the size of the truck tractor.  For instance, a truck with a longer wheelbase, such as sleeper cab, will require a longer and typically more expensive fairing than a day cab.

Trailer Side Skirts

Technology Definition

Trailer side skirts, or trailer fairings, extend down from the bottom of the trailer to cover part of the open space between the tractor and the rear wheels.  These fairings improve airflow around the trailer and reduce drag.

Availability

Trailer side skirts are widely available from a number of different companies, including: ATD Dynamics, Freight Wing, Solus, Carrier Transicold, Fleet Engineers, Laydon Composites, Ridge Corp., GreenWing, Silver Eagle, Transtex and Utility Trailer.

Vehicle Application

Trailer side skirts can be installed on dry van and refrigerated trailers, and are being testing on flatbed applications.  Side skirts can also be installed on tanker trucks, but they have achieved limited penetration in this market.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Side fairings are more expensive on trailers with a higher deck.   Side fairings for tanker trucks can be slightly more expensive, primarily due to additional costs for mounting.

Trailer Gap Fairings

Technology Definition

A trailer gap fairing performs the same function as a tractor gap fairing, the difference being a trailer gap fairing is installed on a trailer while the tractor gap fairing is installed on the tractor.  Trailer gap fairings, also known as gap reducers, are usually rounded additions to the sides and/or top of the front of the trailer that reduce the gap between the tractor and trailer.

Availability

Trailer gap fairings are available from a number of different suppliers.  Firms that produce SmartWay verified gap reducers include Carrier Transicold, FreightWing, Laydon Composites and Nosecone.

Vehicle Application

Trailer gap fairings can be installed on standard dry van and refrigerated trailers.

Rolling resistance improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)

Technology Definition

With properly inflated tires, tire rolling resistance is decreased and fuel use is reduced compared to under-inflation. Automatic tire inflation systems (ATI) monitor and continually adjust the level of pressurized air in tires, maintaining proper tire inflation automatically, even while the truck is moving.  The Meritor Tire Inflation System by Pressure Systems International uses the vehicle’s air-brake compressor to supply air to all of the tires. Air from the existing trailer air supply is routed to a control box, then into each axle. The axles act as conduits to distribute air through rotary union assemblies at the spindle ends, which then distribute air to each tire as needed.  Another system uses self-contained compressors mounted on each hub that are powered by the rolling motion of the wheels. Once an ATI system is installed, it should not require any special attention from the driver.

Availability

™) and Hendrickson (TIREMAAX® Electronic Controller; TIREMAAX® Constant Pressure).

Vehicle Application

The application and price information discussed below is based on research acquired from Pressure Systems International (PSI) Meritor tire inflation systems.

Class 8 Long-Haul Trailers. For long haul trucking, PSI’s inflation system is only available for the trailer, (and dollies and chassis) only. [For a two-axle trailer, the cost is approximately $750 if system is installed at manufacturing level. For labor, add another $200 if system is added to an existing trailer as a retrofit truck. (The cost is around $550 to be added to a single axle trailer or dollies.) In either case a return on investment, with all things considered, is reported to be less than one year and typically about 8 months.].

Vocational Trucks (e.g., service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks, etc.). Service trucks that have air brake systems can be fitted with external ATI.

Urban/Transit Buses. Buses of all types can also be fitted with external ATI typically for the steer tires, drive tires, and a tag (non-drive) axle tires. These types of systems would not require the governing of engines or the deflation feature. [Therefore, these systems for six wheel end positions would cost approximately $1000 to $1,250 price range. Monitoring systems would run $650 to $900 per vehicle if that type of system is used.]

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Prices vary depending on the number of axles. For a two axle trailer, one kit will handle all 8 tires on a tandem dual axle system or all 4 tires on wide-base single tire system, the addition of the ThermALERT option would increase the cost. [See “Vehicle Application” section above.]

The wear part of PSI’s ATI is the “Through-T” component. The price of a replacement Through-T is in the range of $25 if purchased from a parts sales house; it does not require special tools to install and can be installed in approximately 15 minutes. The Through-T is the rotary connection that delivers stationary air from the spindle end of axle to rotating tires through the hoses. The Through-T component’s lifespan has been tested to be up to 1 million miles, but in reality, the component typically gets about 500K-750K miles of wear life.

Low-Rolling Resistance Tires

Technology Definition

Tire rolling resistance refers to a frictional effect associated with the contact of the tread of the tire with the road surface, and the flexing of the tread. Reduction of rolling resistance can be accomplished through the use of new materials, such as the combination of silica and synthetic elastomer.

Given that many trucks have a large number of tires in contact with the road (e.g., 18 wheels), rolling resistance can have a significant effect on efficiency. Thus, tire rolling resistance is an important component of the total engine power demand on a truck. Rolling resistance can be reduced by avoiding under-inflation of existing tires (to reduce unnecessary flexing), substituting one wide-tire for a pair of dual tires (leading to a net reduction in total tread area, sidewall flexing, or both), use of alternative tire materials to reduce rolling resistance. To the extent that rolling resistance can be reduced, total engine power demand is also reduced. This, in turn, leads to reductions in fuel use and exhaust CO2 emission from the truck.

Tire manufacturers seek to reduce the rolling resistance in order to improve fuel economy. There are 2 recognized categories of Low Rolling Resistance Tires: Single Wide-base (see below for further discussion about this technology) and Low Rolling Resistance Dual Tires. A well designed wide-base single tire has lower rolling resistance than traditional dual tires.  Manufacturers also offer low rolling resistance versions of dual tires.

Availability

Leading brands for low-rolling resistance tires (common steer, drive, and trailer models) are shown in   REF _Ref264031411 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT  Table 2-7 .

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  7 : Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types

Brand	Street	Drive	Trailer

Bridgestone	R287A, R280, R250F, R260F, R287	M720, Greatec	R195, Greatec Trailer, Greatec R125, R197, S197

BF Goodrich	ST244	 DR 444	TR144

Continental	HSL-2 (replaces HSL), HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus	HDL ECO Plus, HDL2 DL ECO Plus, HDR1 ECO Plus, HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus	HTL ECO Plus, HTL1

Double Coin	N/A	FD405	FT105

Dunlop Tire	SP384 FM	 SP456 FM	SP193 FM

Firestone	FS590 PLUS, FS507	FD662	FT455 PLUS

General	S371, S581	D660, S371, S581	ST250

Goodyear	G395 LHS Fuel Max, G399 Fuel Max, G662 Fuel Max	G305 LHD Fuel Max, G392 SSD, G305 Fuel Max AT	G316 LHT Fuel Max, G316 Fuel Max DuraSeal

Michelin	 XZA3, XZA2, XZA1+, XZE, XZE2, XZA2 Energy,	XDA2+ Energy, XDA Energy, XDA3, X-One XDA, X-One XDN2, XOne XDA Energy, XDE2+, XDN2, XDE M/S	XTA Energy, XT1, X-One XTA, X-ONE XTE, XTE

Toyo Tires	M137, M154	M657	M127

Yokohama 	RY617, 103ZR, 101ZL	703ZL, TY517mc2	 RY587mc2, RY587

Hankook	AL07+, AL11	Z35a, DL11	TL01

Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid- and full-size sleeper cabs.

Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires

Technology Definition

Single-wide tires are used by a number of carriers and private fleets on combination vehicles to reduce rolling resistance. The benefits of reducing rolling resistance are more substantial on combination vehicles, and single-wide tires are not currently available for single-unit trucks.  A single wide-base tire with an aluminum rim is lighter than two standard tires and wheels.

Combination trucks usually have two sets of dual tires at each end of an axle. Dual tires are heavy and also produce high rolling resistance. Single wide-base tires, which are commercially available products, can replace these dual tires in most applications. Wide-base tires that have a combined lower weight (e.g., there are only two sidewalls for one tire, versus four sidewalls for two tires) and produce lower rolling resistance reduce energy use. This best practice is suitable for combination trucks that have van trailers, which are the majority of the total truck fleet. By using single instead of dual tires, there is a need for increased attention to tire inflation pressure for safety reasons.

Single-wide tires have mainly been confined to niche markets and installed on combination vehicles. For vehicles that weigh-out, they can have the added benefit of reducing the truck’s tare weight and increasing the payload that can be carried. Tare weight reduction is important in making the business case for investing in these tires and their wheels.

Availability

Leading brands for Single Wide Tires include Michelin, Goodyear, and Bridgestone. These are available from a variety of tire manufacturers and retailers. Retailers may specialize by vehicle application or type. Michelin makes the X-One® single wide tire for trucks. Goodyear makes a wide based tire called the Super Single.  Bridgestone also makes a wide based tire.

Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid- and full-size sleeper cabs.

Traditional dual tires are replaced with one single wide tire and aluminum wheel, and can be applied to all tractor and trailer tire positions except for the steer tires. The new generation of wide-base tires has a section width of up to 17.5 inches, for a typical tandem axle combination truck these tires comply with pavement weight laws in all 50 states.  For some non-tandem axle combination trucks, wide-base tires may not comply with "inch-width" laws in certain states. Note that single-wide tires are not currently manufactured for single-unit trucks or buses.

Operational improvements

Advanced Driver Training

Technology Definition

Courses on fuel efficiency teach fleet managers and drivers fuel saving techniques such as:

using cruise control;

coasting;

block-shifting;

braking and accelerating smoothly and gradually;

progressive shifting;

limiting unnecessary truck idling;

starting out in a gear that does not require use of the throttle when releasing the clutch;

limiting unnecessary shifting;

driving at the lowest engine speed possible; and

reducing parasitic energy losses by limiting the use of accessories.

	There are numerous training options:

Subscription with lessons: in this type of training, a company may pay a monthly subscription fee to another company, such as Instructional Technologies, that offers many types of electronic training courses, including fuel efficiency courses.

High-Level Training without a Subscription: a trucking company may also develop an internal training program where a trainer meets individually with drivers to teach fuel efficiency techniques and to monitor driver performance.

Classroom Lessons: A trucking company may require its drivers to take a course through a vocational school or for-profit training organization that teaches drivers fuel-saving techniques.

Availability

Training can be provided by employers, vocational schools, and for-profit training organizations.

Vehicle Application

Driver training courses are most often utilized by trucking fleets with Class 8 vehicles.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Estimates vary based on the type of training, number of hours of driver time required and wage rates.

Speed Limiter

Technology Definition

A maximum vehicle speed can be pre-programmed into the engine’s electronic control unit. The American Trucking Association estimates that approximately 77 percent of its members have speed limiters set at 68 mph or lower. Programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer.

Availability

Most engines are capable of being programmed for a maximum speed.

Vehicle Application

A speed limit can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks, and is most likely applicable to other vehicle classes as well.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Although the programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer, costs may arise to truck owners if the speed needs to be adjusted after the vehicle is purchased. The maximum speed can be adjusted at a dealer and involves connecting to the engine’s electronic control unit to a computer using proprietary software and reprogramming the engine software.

Idling reduction technologies

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System)

Technology Definition

Truck engines can be pre-programmed to shut off after a certain amount of time spent idling. , The idling time can be specified when ordering a truck.

Availability

All new Class 8 truck engines can be pre-programmed., For example, this system is part of the Cummins 2007 engine. However, the use rate for this technology is small.

Vehicle Application

An automatic engine stop system can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks.

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems

Technology Definition

Automatic engine start/stop systems are used to start and stop the truck engine automatically to maintain oil temperature, a specified cab temperature, and/or to maintain battery voltage. Drivers typically activate the system while resting and program a desired temperature range; the engine will start and shut off automatically in order to operate the heating or air conditioning systems and maintain the desired temperature range.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  24 : Automatic Start/Stop System

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Op timized%20Idle.htm"  http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Opt imized%20Idle.htm

Availability

Detroit Diesel currently offers an automatic engine start/stop system. Cummins previously offered the ICON Idle Control System, however, they are currently working to develop a new system. , As part of this development phase, they are developing an engine that further minimizes bearing wear due to frequent start/stops of the engine.

Vehicle Application

This technology is most often used on Class 8 sleeper cabs.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

There are additional costs for programming the engine computer that are incurred from the use of technology. Volume discounts are available for purchases of 10 units or more.  Installation costs will vary depending on the complexity of the installation.

Thermal Storage Systems

Technology Definition

Thermal storage units provide cooling to the bunk of a truck’s cab without using any fuel or creating any emissions. It serves as an alternative to diesel fueled APUs. The unit charges while you drive and is considered fully charged in approximately 4 to 6 hours and then can provide up to 10 hours of cooling off of one charge while the engine is off.,  While driving, a thermal storage core made of patented graphite/water matrix is frozen to 12 degrees Fahrenheit by an electric refrigeration compressor driven by the truck’s standard electrical system.  Once the truck is parked and the engine is off, a high-efficiency pump circulates coolant through the storage core to a heat exchanger in the air handling system.  Four fans then blow cool air through the heat-exchanger directly into the bunk. The cold storage unit mounts to the truck’s rail frame and the in-cab air handler delivers chilled air to the bunk. Note that a Hybrid Blue Cool Truck thermal storage system is now available; it operates similarly to the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit but also includes shore power functionality.

Availability

Webasto manufactures the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit. No other manufacturers have been identified.

Vehicle Application

Thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck, are designed for use by heavy duty trucks, not for medium duty trucks.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

There are no expected operations/maintenance costs for thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck. Since there are very few moving parts, once installed, there should be no expected operations/maintenance costs for 3-5 years. Note that the Blue Cool Truck Hybrid System costs approximately $2,000 more than the standard Blue Cool Truck unit and includes shore power functionality.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  25 : Thermal Storage Unit

Source: Blue Cool Truck Image,   HYPERLINK "http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/ product_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rgb.jpg"  http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/p roduct_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rgb.jpg

Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)

Technology Definition

An engine recovery system keeps a cab warm while at rest without burning fuel by enabling an existing vehicle heater to operate with the engine off. The coolant in a warm engine contains considerable amounts of stored heat energy. An ERS recovers this energy to keep the vehicle interior warm without the need to idle the engine. By continuing the circulation of the hot coolant through the cab heater with the engine off, the system recovers this heat for useful purposes, it is estimated that the Authotherm® ERS will keep a Class 7 or 8 truck warm for 3-4 hours. The system functions automatically and shuts off when the coolant temperature drops to 95 degrees Fahrenheit.

Availability

Autotherm® Systems manufactures an engine recovery system – Autotherm T-2500.

Vehicle Application

Engine recovery systems can be used for medium and heavy duty trucks.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

There are no maintenance costs for the unit beyond installation.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  26 : Engine Recovery System

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html"  http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

Technology Definition

APUs are generally mounted externally on the truck cab. An APU typically consists of a small combustion engine and generator combination that can provide power to the truck when the main engine is shut off. Electricity from an APU can be used to power heating, air conditioning, and other electrical accessories for the cab and sleeper. Non-traditional electric battery-operated APUs are also available. Fuel cell APUs are currently in the research phase, but are expected to be offered by 2012.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  27 : APUs

Source: Cascade Sierra Solutions. “Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions.” 2008 Fall Edition.

Availability

Examples of companies that offer APU systems include: Pony Pack®, Inc., RigMaster, and Thermo King. Glacier Bay Inc., Thermo King, Idle Free® and others offer an electric battery-operated APU; Delphi is developing a fuel cell APU. Some APUs may be sold directly from the APU manufacturer, but most APUs are sold through retailers.

Vehicle Application

Industry interviews indicate that APUs are most often installed on Class 8 sleeper cabs, but may be installed on day cabs. APUs are not generally installed on Class 5 box trucks or buses.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Non-traditional electric battery-driven systems are available and slightly cheaper than diesel-powered APUs. Costs associated with APUs include: capital and installation, and may include warranty costs. Large volume discounts are common.

Direct Fired Heaters

Technology Definition

Direct fired heaters serve as climate control systems that do not rely upon either the large truck engine or small diesel engine powered units to supply energy for heating, which reduces fuel consumption and GHG emissions.

A direct fired heater is sometimes referred to as a fuel operated heater, a bunk heater or an air heater. There are several categories of heaters, including preheated engine coolant heaters and in-cab air heaters. A preheated engine coolant heater is used to warm the cab before the engine is started to eliminate cold starts and provide engine pre-heat.  An in-cab air heater provides immediate heat and offers capacity to heat a cab overnight while the driver sleeps. The preheated engine coolant heater is often less expensive than the in-cab air heater, but offers less capacity. Some manufacturers offer combination units which combine the pre-heating and in-cab heating functions.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  28 : Direct Fired Heater

Source: How an Air Heater Works, Espar,   HYPERLINK "http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html"  http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html

The primary focus for this report is in-cab air heaters. A direct fired air heater uses a small combustion flame to supply heat through a heat exchanger. When the heater is turned on (without the engine on), a burner motor starts and a blower unit draws combustion air into a heat exchanger.  Simultaneously, fuel is drawn from the truck’s fuel tank – generating a fuel-air mixture that ignites. A flame is formed and hot combustion gases are circulated through the heat exchanger.  A hot air fan draws in room or fresh air and the heat of the combustion gases is then transferred by the heat exchanger to the hot air. Warm air then flows through the cab.

Availability

There are many models of direct fire heaters. Some manufacturers include Espar Heater Systems, and Webasto Thermosystems. Each company manufactures units suitable for class 3-8 vehicles including long-haul trucks and school buses. Some manufacturers also offer combination units that include functionality for pre-engine heating and in-cab heating.  For instance, Webasto’s Tandem 717 combines the engine pre-heating function of the TSL 17 with the in-cab heater Air Top 2000 ST. These combination units are more expensive than single units.

Vehicle Application

Most direct fire heaters are applicable to class 3-8 vehicles. Some units, such as a direct fire combination unit with an engine pre-heater, are targeted more for full-size sleeper cabs due to their capacity. Nonetheless, the single-unit direct fire heaters are appropriate for use in any vehicle type for class 3-8.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Notable discounts, taxes, fees or applicable cost factors are not available.

Fuel Cell APU

Technology Definition

It is expected that the first vehicle to be equipped with a fuel cell in production, although not for main propulsion power, is likely to be a Class 8 tractor-trailer truck.  A number of companies including: Delphi, Protonex, Boeing, and others are working to develop a fuel cell APU.  Delphi is working on a solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that operates on multiple types of fuel. Mounted behind the fairings, the SOFC will start up and power lighting and other accessories as well as heat provide for sleeper cab warmth in winter and electricity for sleeper cab air-conditioning in warm weather. The truck's diesel engine will not need to run for those purposes.

The Delphi SOFC, which produces nearly zero emissions, has a fuel consumption of 0.13 gal/hr at no load and about 0.2 gal/hr in typical operation. That's at least 15% lower than the small two-cylinder diesels that normally power the APUs and is about 80% lower than an idling truck engine. The Delphi SOFC uses an electrolyte that is called yttria-stabilized zirconia, a zirconium-oxide-based ceramic. The material, which is stable at room temperature, is hard and chemically inert, and it also is used in dental crowns.   According to Delphi, the SOFC has an operating efficiency of 30% on diesel fuel and 40% on natural gas and lends itself to mass production, and because it contains no precious metals and is cost-effective.

Availability

Delphi indicated that the SOFC would be available in the 2012 timeframe. However, Cummins has estimated that this technology may not be available until 2014.

Vehicle Application

Class 8 sleeper cabs.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Delphi said it would compete against "midrange" APUs—i.e., in the $8000-$9000 installed price range (some diesel APUs are as much as 50% higher).  NOTEREF _Ref263761351 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT  79

Truck Stop Electrification

Technology Definition

Truck stop electrification (TSE) provides power to vehicles while they are docked at service bays to avoid overnight idling. TSE systems are either "off-board" (a.k.a., Advanced Truckstop Electrification, ATE) or "truck-board" (which may also be referred to as, TSE). ATE is an external system that connects to the truck cab via a window or other access point, and consists of an HVAC subsystem mounted off-board the tractor which may also provide 120-Volt AC outlets and an entertainment package (internet, telephone, cable television). The systems commonly referred to as TSE are typically a combination of truck-board and facility power systems – a.k.a. shore-power. Shore-power provides access to 120- or 240-Volt power from a land-based source and separates the electrical supply from the accessory system installed in the tractor. Commercial shore-power facilities may also include credit card readers, cable television, and communication interface.

An example of a traditional off-board (a.k.a. ATE) system was that of IdleAire™, deployed at several facilities throughout the U.S (see “Availability” section below). It included heating, cooling, AC electrical outlets, touch screen monitor with Internet access, and phone and cable television connections. The HVAC system was mounted atop an overhead truss assembly, where the wiring and ductwork originated and reached the truck via a drop down, protective, flexible shield which supports the integrated computer service console. The service console was connected to the tractor through the passenger-side window by a mounting template, which retailed at the facility for $10. The service cost was $1.25 per hour for registered fleets and $1.50 per hour to others for basic services, payable via an automatic card reader. There was no required on-board componentry for the IdleAire™ off-board system, although internet service could be made available via user-supplied equipment and use of the telephone service requires the user’s phone.

No standard truck-board equipment set exists for shore-power, although OEM tractor installations may be developed. One test system includes a Smart Energy Management System (EMS), a Cab Comfort (Dometic) HVAC system, wiring kits and receptacles, and an inverter/charger and may operate on 120 Volt/20A up to 240 Volt/50A. The electrical connection hardware is on-board the truck and a stationary pedestal at the truck stop houses electrical power connections. An exterior-grade wire harness connects the two subsystems. Prices for the on-board system depend on the truck configuration.

™ also provides ATE via a fitted window unit that supplies UV filtered air, heat, A/C, power, internet, cable, and intercom communications. Some also include block heater power. Use of the system is currently free, but requires purchase of a required insert which retails between $11-25 depending on the truck.

Availability

The IdleAire™ Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection on May 12, 2008 and, after failing to find a buyer, closed on January 29, 2010. News reports do state, however, that some facilities are expected to be operational in July, 2010. The facilities IdleAire™ was operating appear to be shut down. However, other companies are operating some stations. These currently seem to be limited to EnviroDock in NY, Shorepower Technologies in CA, OR, WA, and NC, CabAire in CT and NC.  The DOE lists TSE sites that are available.

Envirodock offers a range of systems depending on the limitations of the truck stop architecture, and have installations of both ATE and shore-power (TSE) types. They have reported little use of the TSE-only system, which they attribute to truckers being resistant to modifying their (very expensive investment in their) cab. Envirodock reports having two beta sites in New York and will open one in Tennessee, as well as noting a driving concern for any truck stop electrification program is that there is little enforcement of anti-idling laws nationwide since it is unclear who has jurisdiction. CabAire™ has received $1.1M in federal funding to install 100 truck electrification spaces at two truck stops in Alabama ($11k/space).

Vehicle Application

TSE applies to principally to overnight idling vehicles, i.e. Class 8 sleeper cabs.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Avoided operating and maintenance costs from truck idling service are directly proportional to the hours an engine idles. LP Tardif & Associates Inc. found that an additional $0.92 is spent on service, maintenance, and repairs for every hour the truck spends idling.

Most of the cost to operate truck stop electrification is in the electric infrastructure, including needed transformers.  Total estimates of infrastructure installation costs for a full ATE system are $7500-8000 per system, including electric, islands, mounting, lighting, etc. The cost of shore-power type systems is less.  The cost depends on many factors, including input power rating, A/C BTU rating, heat kWh rating, etc. These costs must be passed on to the user ultimately, if the systems are to be profitable. Most truck stop electrification deployments do not provide power for TRUs, which require much greater load and A-rating and thus are more expensive.

Engine improvements

Integrated Starter/Alternator

Technology Definition

The integrated starter/alternator system provides additional electric motor boost for extra power.  It is a concept that is referred to as a mild hybrid.  The integrated starter/alternator is mounted between the engine flywheel and the transmission and provides engine start/stop capabilities.  In addition, the larger battery pack provides some limited duration auxiliary power capability if coupled with electrified accessories.  Regenerative braking provides additional power to the battery. The battery is sized modestly to minimize cost and weight increases.

The integrated starter/alternator replaces the existing starter and alternator supplying those functions in addition to being able to provide regenerative braking, automatic engine shut-off at idle, instant restart and limited launch assist.

Availability

Some manufacturers are considering these systems as a less costly alternative to a full hybrid electric system.

Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks

Turbo Compounding

Technology Definition

Turbo compounding adds a power turbine downstream of the conventional turbocharger. By capturing waste heat from the exhaust stream, the power turbine generates additional work which can be fed back to the engine crankshaft using a sophisticated transmission (mechanical systems) or by generating electricity (electrical systems). The power turbine, shown in   REF _Ref267048427 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT  Figure 2-29 , has a gear or generator connected to the shaft instead of a compressor. In addition, the conventional turbocharger turbine is down-sided to provide more power to the power turbine.  This smaller turbocharger provides better transient response and higher boost pressure at lower speeds as well.  Optimal matching of the turbocharger and power turbine is required.91

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  29 . Turbo Compounding Turbine

Source: Cummins Turbo Technologies

Power turbines are available in two types, namely radial and axial.  The radial turbine is best suited to variable speed applications.  The axial power turbine is more efficient with single engine speed applications. However, the axial turbine is more compact but it is not as well suited to truck applications that operate at variable engine speeds. Using a turbo compounding system increases the engine overall thermal efficiency from 42% to 46%.

Availability

Several manufacturers are making turbo compounding units including Holset for Cummins, DDC and Volvo Powertrain.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Mechanical turbo compounding systems would include port liners, variable valve actuation and a high-efficiency power turbine.  Electrical systems would include the mechanical turbo compounding components plus a 40 kW motor/generator, power electronics and balance of plant modifications.  Electric auxiliaries can be added with electric turbo compounding.  Cummins estimates mechanical turbo compounding to be approximately $2,000 for a mechanical system and approximately $6,500 for an electric system which does not include electrifying the auxiliary loads.   The prices quoted are intended to be representative of end-user prices.

Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Technology Definition

  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) have been developed in an effort to match turbocharger performance to engine operation over a wider speed-load range.  VGTs also allow for quicker transient response by restricting the turbine nozzle during accelerations.  Their ability to provide additional air to the engine over a wider range of operating conditions also allows for emissions reductions.

VGTs allow modification of the aspect ratio depending upon loads and speeds.  The aspect ratio is the ratio of the area of the cone to radius from the center hub as shown in   REF _Ref267048461 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT  Figure 2-30 . Optimal aspect ratios at low speed are considerably different from those at high speeds.  By varying the aspect ratio, the turbocharger is more efficient at all conditions.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  30 : Turbocharger Aspect Ratio

Source: http://www.myturbodiesel.com/1000q/turbocharging.htm#A/R ratio

Being able to vary the aspect ratio is very important as aspect ratio that is too small will cause the turbo to choke the engine leading to lower engine power output. Also by being able to alter the aspect ratio as the engine accelerates, the turbo response can be increased. It can also be used to introduce EGR to lower emissions.

Availability

Most heavy duty engine manufacturers are using VGTs on their engines to meet 2010 emission standards.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price is incremental to a fixed geometry turbocharger.

Variable Valve Actuation

Technology Definition

Variable valve actuation (VVA) allows valves to open and close through use of mechanical, electro-hydraulic or electronic solenoids (camless).  Being able to control valve timing, valve lift and the amount of time the valve is open can greatly improve engine performance during transient conditions.  Generally valves are controlled by a cam which fixes valve timing and lift.  This usually reduces engine performance at some loads and speeds and leads to less optimal drivability, fuel economy and emissions.

VVA’s benefits are less for diesel engines than for gasoline engines because of the narrower range of operating speeds.  VVA does allow better emission control by controlling exhaust temperatures for aftertreatment devices.  It also allows the turbocharger to operate more efficiently at a variety of engine operating modes.  Turbo compounding can also benefit from VVA because it can control the amount of energy in the exhaust stream.

Availability

Eaton is developing both camless and mechanical systems.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price depends strongly on engine configuration (e.g., number of cylinders), whether applied to intake and/or exhaust valves, and whether the system is cam operated or camless.

Transmission and Drivetrain improvements

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up

Technology Definition

Torque convertors act as a clutch for automatic or automated manual transmissions.  They also multiply torque, absorb torsional vibration of the engine and drivetrain.  The torque convertor sits between the engine and transmission and is filled with automatic transmission fluid.  It uses an impeller/turbine system to transmit torque from the engine to the transmission.  If the impeller (connected to the engine) is going at a higher speed than the turbine (connected to the transmission), the torque is multiplied from the engine to the transmission.  When the impeller is moving at the same speed as the turbine, there is no torque multiplication but there is a 4 to 5 percent loss in energy.  To prevent this, torque convertors contain a lock-up clutch that mechanically connects the impellor and turbine.

Generally this lock-up event occurs around 37 mph.  This is actuated by the transmission controller.  By reprogramming the controller, earlier lock-up can occur which can provide additional fuel economy benefits at lower speeds.

Availability

Allison Transmissions builds most of the heavy-duty vehicle transmissions.

Vehicle Application

All long-haul trucks with automated manual transmissions.  This concept is less viable on vocational trucks due to the lower and transient nature of their duty cycle.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Allison mentions that in most cases early torque convertor lock-up is just a software change and won’t require any additional labor on new trucks.  In some cases the springs in the clutch would need to be changed to minimize noise, vibration and harshness. In new trucks, even this would result in little or no cost increase.

Hybrid Powertrain

Technology Definition

These systems are similar in concept to the full hybrids used in light-duty applications. Hybrids come in both a parallel-hybrid and a series-hybrid design.

In a series-hybrid, the electric generator is driven by a small engine which is used to charge the batteries.  The batteries are used to power an electric motor or motors that drive the vehicle.  In a series-hybrid, the engine does not provide power to the wheel but is only used to charge the batteries.  As such, the engine can operate at a more efficient condition.  However, because mechanical energy needs to be converted to electrical energy and back again, this can lead to losses.  Generally series systems are not used on higher speed applications but have been used on some transit buses.

Parallel-hybrid systems employ a small electric motor coupled to the engine crankshaft.  In a parallel-hybrid, both the engine and motor can drive the wheels.  These systems are more efficient in higher speed applications.  There have been a number of demonstrations of this technology on heavy duty vehicles.

Availability

Parallel-hybrid systems are currently available in transit bus, motor coach, and Class 3-6 box and bucket trucks, and in the fleet demonstration stage for refuse haulers. There have been a few demonstrations of Class 8 tractor trailers using a parallel architecture.

Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks and short haul Class 8 trucks.  This concept has limited value in line haul trucking applications.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Components include a motor/generator, battery pack, power electronics, a modified clutch assembly, electrification of auxiliary loads and balance of plant.    REF _Ref264038000 \h  Table 2-8  shows motor/generator and battery pack and convertor sizes for various truck types.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  8 : Hybrid system component sizes

Components	Class 4 Utility Truck	Class 6 Box Truck	Class 8 Refuse Truck Class 8 Transit Bus	Class 8 Short Haul Truck

Motor/Generator	30kW	30 kW	100 kW & 30 kW	100 kW & 30 kW	50 kW

DC to DC Convertor	5 kW	5 kW	8 kW	8 kW	5 kW

Battery	4 kWh	4 kWh	8 kWh	8 kWh	4 kWh

As manufacturers indicated that costs of hybrid systems were considered proprietary, ICF estimated prices for the 6 truck types based upon component costs with associated mark-ups.  End-user costs were as follows:

Class 4 Utility Truck -- $33,000

Class 6 Box Truck -- $37,000

Class 8 Refuse Truck -- $69,000

Class 8 Transit Bus -- $60,000

Class 8 Short Haul Truck -- $25,000

The Class 8 short haul truck assumes that the R&D costs could be spread over a larger sales volume than the other categories.  These costs match fairly well with the incentives that ARB is offering under AB 118 funding for the Air Quality Improvement Program.  Generally the incentive amounts comprise 50 percent of the incremental costs.  Incentive amounts are shown in   REF _Ref264038022 \h  Table 2-9 .

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  9 : Hybrid Vehicle Incentives

Vehicle Class	Base Vehicle Incentive

Class 4 - 6 (14,000 – 26,000 lbs GVWR)	$20,000

Class 7 (26,001 – 33,000 lbs GVWR)	$25,000

Class 8 (33,001 – 38,000 lbs GVWR)	$30,000

Class 8 (> 38,000 lbs GVWR)	$35,000

Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants

Technology Definition

Conventional mineral oil lubricants may have too high viscosity to effectively slip between and lubricate the moving parts, particularly new truck components that are designed with close tolerances and tight fits. Conventional lubricants may also be heavy, making it harder for pumps, gears and shafts to move. These effects create energy and friction losses that waste fuel. Alternatively, low-friction lubricants reduce friction and wear of critical vehicle systems including the engine, transmission and drive train. Without lubricants, moving parts inside these systems would grind together causing heat, stress, and excessive wear.

Friction losses in the drive train (transmission and differential) and engine can be reduced by using low-viscosity lubricants. Most manufacturers of lubricants produce “fuel economy” options that have lower viscosity than standard lubricants. However, use of low viscosity lubricants can result in higher drive train or engine wear, which increases maintenance costs. In selecting lubricants, most fleet managers believe they currently have struck the proper balance between fuel savings and maintenance costs.

Low-viscosity lubricants are less resistant to flow than conventional lubricants, and may contain additives designed to withstand the extreme pressure that could occur as the lubricant flows between tight fitting parts. Low viscosity lubricants may be made from synthetic or mineral oil blends with extreme pressure additives.

Transmission (Drive Train) Lubricants

Lubricants can reduce gear contact friction in transmissions, but they also reduce fuel efficiency because of their viscosity.  Low-viscosity transmission fluid is made from synthetic or mineral oil blends and is reported to decrease transmission friction and also reduce fuel consumption.

Engine Lubricants

Some energy losses in an engine are due to mechanical friction. Reduction in internal engine friction can be achieved using improved lubricants. Low-viscosity engine lubricants are made from synthetic or mineral oil blends for the purpose of reducing internal engine friction. Low-viscosity engine lubricants can reduce energy use. Low-viscosity engine fluid typically costs more than conventional lubricants. These strategies have wide applicability to all types of truck classes and operations.

Availability

Available types of low-friction lubricants (engine and transmission) include Valvoline, Chevron Delo®, and Mobile1.

Vehicle Application

Vocational truck engine, transmission and drive train (Class 3-8)

Transit bus engine, engine, transmission and drive train (Class 6, 7)

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Additional cost savings may be possible due to reduced engine wear and maintenance, and by providing a longer period between engine overhauls.

Rankine Bottoming Cycle

Technology Definition

A Rankine bottoming cycle system converts otherwise wasted thermal energy from the engine to provide additional work.  The heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be used to drive a turbine.  Waste heat is captured from:

the exhaust after any aftertreatment,

the EGR cooler,

the engine coolant, and

the charge air cooler.

The turbine is used to drive a generator to create electricity which can then be used by and electric motor connected to the engine crankshaft.

While bottoming cycles provide good energy for continuous high speed operation, their transient response is poor.  This can be mitigated by combining the system with a hybrid electric drive system.  In this case the electricity provided by the Rankine bottoming cycle can be used to supplement engine power when at higher continuous speeds and store power at other conditions.

Availability

Discussions with manufacturers suggest that they envision the bottoming cycle as a promising technology that could come into the market in the 2015 timeframe. However, this technology is still in the early stages of development, and there are significant capital cost and packaging issues to be resolved.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The Rankine bottoming cycle system would include a turbine, generator and flywheel producing 30 kW, an air cooled condenser, an EGR boiler, a stack boiler, controls and power electronics, energy storage and modifications to the balance of plant.  Cummins estimates such a system would cost the end user approximately $7,000.

Weight reduction technologies

Aluminum Air Tanks

Technology Definition

Air tanks made out of aluminum rather than steel are one method to reduce overall truck weight. The reduced weight savings improves fuel economy. Standard steel tanks range in size from ¼ gallon to 20 gallons. Prices are difficult to estimate since there is not an industry-wide fixed number of air tanks per truck. Air tanks are used for a variety of functions, ranging from tire inflation, air brakes, air horns and air-powered seats. Class 8 trucks may have two to four air tanks depending on the functionality of the air in the truck.

Availability

Conversations with industry representatives indicate that steel air tanks are currently the standard and that the use of aluminum for air tanks is fairly rare, particularly for class 8 trucks.

Vehicle Application

Air tanks are used in all classes of 3-8 vehicles depending on the functionality of the air for the vehicle.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Note that aluminum usually costs about 50 – 100% more than steel.

Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs

Technology Definition

Attempts to replace traditional axles and axle hubs with lightweight versions composed chiefly of aluminum, although other materials have been considered, such as carbon fiber.

Availability

To date, industry opinion is that this technology will not make it into production due to heat and integrity issues. Although some research has been done on axle tubes, center carrier areas, cover plates, etc., this is still in the research and development phase and difficult to provide cost estimates for.

Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles.

Aluminum Wheels

Technology Definition

Forged and cast aluminum wheels are lighter than traditional steel wheels. Aluminum wheels provide enhanced performance advantages over standard steel wheels, including weight savings, and lower maintenance and operating costs. The mounting system for aluminum wheels can be ball seat or hub piloted. Alcoa offers a full set of options for heavy duty trucks and buses including 22.5”, 24.5”, and 14" wide-base wheels, that when partnered with the right tire, can increase fuel and tire efficiency as well as save weight. For example, the all-purpose commercial wheel (i.e., 24.5” LvL ONE™) weighs 56 pounds compared to a typical 86 pound steel wheel. For a standard dry flatbed trailer, a 2 axle – 8 wheel configuration with 22.5 by 8.25 inch wheels, replacing steel wheels with aluminum would reduce the trailer’s weight by 176 pounds.

Wheel manufacturers are offering aluminum wheels in 22.5x14-in. sizes to help bring additional weight and fuel savings to fleets. Alcoa offers a wide base wheel engineered to work with low profile long-haul tires on drive and trailer axles. In the wide base tire system, one wide wheel and tire replaces a set of dual wheels and tires. Wide base wheel and tire assemblies save fuel, in part, because they include only half as many flexing sidewalls as a set of dual tires. Accuride DupleX-One wide-base 22.5x14-in. aluminum wheels, the company notes, reduce fuel expense or increase payload capacity when used in place of traditional dual wheel sets on tandem-axle tractors and trailers. Developed in conjunction with Michelin, the forged aluminum wheels can save 120 lbs. per axle.

Availability

Aluminum wheels are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trailers. Manufacturers of aluminum wheels include Alcoa and Accuride.

Vehicle Application

Aluminum wheels are available for heavy duty trucks (Class 6-8) and Class 8 buses for drive, steer, and trailer axles for dual (22.5 and 24.5 x8.2) and single wide tires (22.5x14-in.)

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Additional benefits of aluminum wide-base (single-wide) tires and wheels include reduced maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can be lower because there are only four wheel positions per tandem compared to eight. In addition, without an inner tire/wheel, inflation and visual inspection becomes much easier and more effective. Super wide aluminum wheels also tend to help keep brake packages running cooler and, therefore, lasting longer.

Lightweight Brake Drums

Technology Definition

Lightweight brake drums offer an opportunity to reduce truck weight and thereby reduce fuel consumption. A lightweight brake drum is considered an effective weight-savings option for trucks. These brake drums can save nearly 25 pounds per drum compared to standard steel brake drums, and replace standard or heavy duty full steel cast drums. Lightweight brake drums, like the CentriFuse® drums are made of an iron alloy core but have a steel outer shell. The lightweight drums are often combined with aluminum wheels and aluminum hubs for additional weight savings.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  31 : Lightweight Brake Drum Components

Source: CentriFuse® Product Brochure   HYPERLINK "http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf"  http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf

Availability

Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems. Inc. manufactures the CentriFuse® Brake Drum. Several types of brake drum are available including CentriFuse Lite, CentriFuse Wide Break, and CentriFuse Plus.

Vehicle Application

Lightweight brake drums can be used on any type of medium or heavy duty truck and are frequently used for vehicles seeking lighter components. Usually there are two brake drums per axle of a vehicle.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

CentriFuse lightweight brake drums are reported as lasting four times longer than conventional steel drums – therefore extending lifecycle and reducing maintenance costs. Drums are alloy with a steel shell which offers an added element of safety against breakage, thereby improving cost-effectiveness.

Lightweight Cab Components

Technology Definition

Like other lightweight options, replacing cab structural and surface materials with lighter weight alternatives will reduce vehicle weight and increase efficiency, assuming the vehicles are operating full in terms of volume, but not at their full weight rating or what is known as “cubed out.”  In the case of operating with the reverse scenario, or “weighed out” any gain from the use of lighter weight components would be offset by increased load.

Industry has indicated that some progress has been made on lightweight technologies. Plastic cab components are typically sheet molded composites (SMC) and are common in cab components where structural strength is not of the utmost importance, such as hoods, air deflectors, and sleeping cabin roofs. The majority of remaining cab components will be made of steel or steel with some portion of aluminum.  Lightweight prototype vehicles have been developed for some vehicle classes. For example, the use of high strength stainless steel for a Class 8 bus body and chassis has been shown to result in a mass savings of about 50% (300% increase in fuel economy) with a cost savings of about 30%.  This has only made it through a prototype phase and had various commercial setbacks.

Indications are that industry perceives aluminum frame cabs to be less durable and add significantly to the truck purchase price. However, most manufacturers offer lightweight versions of many other technologies. Price differentials are generally driven by material cost and volume, with aluminum roughly 50-100% more expensive than equivalent steel components, although tooling and fixed costs are roughly the same. SMC components are generally comparable in price to steel, depending on thickness. Price differential estimates are difficult to obtain since lightweight components are often offered only as packages that could include tanks, wheels, and other elements.

Availability

Found with some frequency in existing vehicles, although industry is generally leery of their use.

Vehicle Application

All vehicles

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Generally lightweight components are only available as packages. Lifetime, operations, and maintenance costs should be comparable to steel.

Lightweight Suspension Systems

Technology Definition

Cab weight reduction and increased efficiency could come from the use of lighter components, including replacement of suspension materials. Currently these materials are made of steel, especially the springs, due to its generally superior performance over other materials.

Industry has said that lightweight suspensions could come from the use of aluminum in certain components, however it was generally felt that critical suspension components are expected to remain mostly steel. For example, brackets, stayrods, and port controls could be made from aluminum, while carbon and composite materials have been researched, but are not anticipated for near-term use in heavy duty vehicles due to cost and performance concerns. Further research and development for advanced materials are needed.

Availability

This technology is not currently available, except at an R&D level. It is not anticipated in the near term.

Reduced Number of Batteries

Technology Definition

A possible approach to reduce cab weight and thus engine load could be to reduce the number of batteries installed per truck.

Availability

Industry has indicated that reducing the number of batteries installed in a truck is not currently a viable option. The number of batteries required (three is standard for Class 8 tractors) is driven by the need for cold-cranking amps. While other truck classes with smaller engines could use fewer than three batteries, they are typically designed with the smallest number necessary.

As an alternative, advanced battery technology could offer either lightweight alternatives or potentially greater strength, which could lead to fewer batteries required. However, industry believes this is in the distant future for heavy duty trucks, and would likely not offer much weight reduction anyway.

Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles.

Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers

Technology Definition

Aluminum structural components can significantly reduce weight on trailers for heavy duty trucks, and therefore reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the purposes of this research, aluminum components apply to trailer types including dry vans, reefers and tankers.  Many steel or plywood structural components for trailers can be replaced with aluminum to reduce weight in a variety of applications. Aluminum roof posts (rather than steel) often reduce weight by 75 pounds. Aluminum floor joists (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 300 pounds.  Aluminum floors (rather than wood floors) can reduce weight by 385 pounds.  Aluminum cross members (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 155 pounds.  Aluminum side posts (rather than steel) may reduce weight by 275 pounds.  Finally, aluminum roof bows (rather than steel) can reduce weight by about 100 pounds.

Availability

Aluminum components are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trailers.

Vehicle Application

Manufacturers offer aluminum component upgrades for trailers for class 8 heavy duty trucks.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Aluminum costs about 50 to 100% more than steel, and can sometimes cost more to assemble than steel depending on the various fasteners required.  Note that some manufacturers are beginning to use plastics for structural components, for which the material costs are comparable to steel, but this is not widespread.

Electrification

Electrification of Accessory Loads

Technology Definition

Generally most accessory loads such as the power steering pump, the water pump, the air conditioning compressor, engine fan, and the air compressor are driven mechanically by belts connected to the engine crankshaft.  If a large source of electrical energy is available, such as with hybrid systems or electric turbo compounding, these accessory loads can be electrically driven reducing the direct load on the engine.  The engine cooling fan can also be converted to electric drive although for line haul applications, the efficiency savings are small because the fan on times are low.

Availability

Not much research has been done on electrifying heavy-duty truck components. However, there will likely be growing interest in electrified accessories, such as power steering, due to the emergence of hybrid-systems that offer “engine-off” or zero-emissions vehicle mode of operations.

Vehicle Application

All trucks using either hybrid technology or electric turbo compounding.

Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements

Alternative Refrigerants

Technology Definition

Refrigerants leak, directly emitting GHGs. Moving to refrigerants with a lower global warming potential (GWP) is one method to reduce the GHG impact of heavy duty vehicles.

Several gases have emerged as contenders with a lower GWP than the current widely used refrigerant, HFC-134a, (GWP of 1,300) including CO2 (GWP = 1), HFC-152a (GWP = 120), and Propane (GWP = 20). Each of these gases would require a refrigeration system modified to some extent from the current 134a systems and present their own challenges related to safety, flammability, toxicity, and other health and environmental concerns.

Globally, motor vehicle air conditioning manufacturers have appeared to settle on a single future refrigerant, HFO-1234yf. HFO-1234yf is “acceptable for use in mobile air conditioning from a toxicity perspective”, has low ignition potential, GWP of 4 with lifetime of days, no ozone depleting potential (ODP), low smog-forming potential, and low ecosystem impact.  It also requires minimal changes to current system architecture, however, the refrigerant itself is expensive. Currently, research prices are $500 per kg, with final in-production price estimated to be about $50 per lb  as compared to R134a which retails today for approximately $7 per lb (with volume discounts as much as $1.20/lb)

Availability

CO2, Propane, and HFC-152a are readily available but less likely to be implemented than HFO-1234yf. HFO-1234yf is currently unavailable commercially.

Vehicle Application

All mobile vehicle air conditioning systems, including Class 8 tractors, TRUs, Class 3-8 work trucks, and light-duty vehicles.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Current prices are much higher than the baseline HFC-134a, although expected to come down once in production. Minimal hardware redesign is expected to be necessary, unless it is decided that systems should move to a dual loop design. Assuming the architecture is maintained as a single loop, prices may reasonably be scaled by the vehicle charge size.

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials

Technology Definition

 There are several techniques to reflect solar energy from trailers, including:

Replacing a standard aluminum roof with a translucent, white fiberglass roof;

Covering trailer sides with reflective tape strips; and

Painting trailer roofs with white reflective paint.

These techniques can be applied to refrigerated trailers to reduce the amount of fuel used to regulate the temperature in the trailer. Some of these techniques may also be applied to school buses to reduce the amount of fuel used to air condition the bus.

Although white fiberglass roofs reflect solar energy, they are mostly used for their translucency benefits. One disadvantage of using this roof is that it punctures easier than a standard aluminum roof.

Conspicuity reflective tape may be laid in strips on trailer sides. For example, UPS covers half of each truck side with this tape to increase reflectivity.

White reflective paint, such as SolarCool, an acrylic elastomeric coating with sealed ceramic micro-bubbles may be applied to trailer tops to reflect solar radiation.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  31 : Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint

Source: SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings

Availability

There appear to be a few companies that manufacture translucent, white fiberglass roofs. Crane Composites is one of the main manufacturers of these roofs. There are several companies that produce reflective tape. There are several companies that manufacturer reflective, white paint.

Vehicle Application

These reflective strategies can be applied to Class 8 trailers. Research indicates that these strategies can also be applied to Class 5 box trucks and Class 7 buses. However, installation of a translucent, white fiberglass roofs is not a widespread strategy for buses.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Operation and maintenance is an additional cost for these strategies. For example, punctures to fiberglass roofs need to be sealed, reflective tape strips replaced every few years, and reflective paint recoated every few years.

Reefer Improvements

Low Power Draw A/C

Technology Definition

Low power draw air conditioning (A/C) units operate without dependence on a diesel engine powered unit. Eliminating the need to operate based on a diesel powered engine unit reduces the need for idling in order to cool the cab. Low power draw systems usually either use water-based evaporation or self-contained air conditioners. Water based cooling is ideal for mild temperatures. For more extensive cooling needs, a self-contained air conditioner is ideal. Water-based coolers use evaporation to reduce the temperature of the air by an average of 10 to 15 degrees. A small amount of electrical current is needed to operate a blower fan to circulate the cooled air. One disadvantage of the evaporative cooler is that it can only make small changes in temperature and therefore is not always suitable for very hot climates. For hot climates or extended cooling during rest periods, there are self-contained units which are operated by dedicated batteries.,

Availability

Many companies manufacture low power draw A/C systems, including CoolMoves, DC Power Solutions and Dometic Environmental Corporation.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  33 : Evaporative A/C Unit

Source: Cool Moves Minicool Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK "http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/"  http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  34 : Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C

Source: Cool Moves Bycool Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK "http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/"  http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/

Vehicle Application

Many evaporative coolers and self-contained cooling systems can be mounted on multiple types of trucks.  Some can be mounted on rooftops for flat-cab or body roof trucks, others mounted within the cab body of the truck. Some units are geared more toward sleeper cabs and others for daytime cooling. Note that the evaporative coolers work best in dry climates.

For a class 7 school bus or a class 8 transit bus, it would be recommended to use a rooftop cooling system or an evaporative unit, ultimately depending on the climate the vehicle operates in. For medium duty trucks like the class 6 box truck, it would be recommended to use an evaporative unit.

Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems

Technology Definition

A transport refrigeration unit (TRU) is a refrigeration system designed to refrigerate temperature-sensitive products that are transported in insulated vans, trucks, or rail cars. Traditional, mechanical TRUs are powered by a diesel engine, the most common engine size being 35 hp. Conventional diesel-powered TRUs may be purchased with an electric standby (E/S) option, which allows the TRU engine to be shut off when a compatible power supply is available at a facility so TRU diesel engine emissions are eliminated.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  34 : Transport Refrigeration Units

Source: Photo provided by David Kiefer of Transicold.

A more advanced alternative to the conventional diesel-powered TRU is a hybrid electric TRU. In this system, a diesel engine drives a generator that, in turn, powers an electric semi-hermetic refrigeration compressor and electrically driven fans, all controlled by an advanced microprocessor. The benefits of a hybrid-electric TRU include: greater fuel-efficiency to reduce carbon emissions, less leakage potential, and significantly less maintenance requirements versus a conventional belt-driver system.

Because a hybrid electric TRU uses electrical energy, it requires less coolant than a conventional diesel-powered TRU. Because it uses less coolant, it requires fewer valves, which are susceptible to leakage. For example, Transicold’s Vector® hybrid unit uses a semi-hermetic compressor, uses a third less refrigerant and half the braze joints as a conventional diesel-powered TRU. The unit also has an electric standby option for stationary units.

Solar power TRUs are currently unavailable, but have been tested in the UK. Solar TRUs consume no fuel, do not suffer the same mechanical failures, and have longer operating lives.

Availability

Carrier Transicold offers a hybrid electric TRU.

Vehicle Application

The hybrid TRU discussed above may be used on Class 8 trailers.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

A hybrid electric TRU is more expensive than a conventional TRU without E/S, and has less operating and maintenance costs over a conventional TRU with the E/S add-on option.

Adding the power infrastructure at facilities with TRUs that use E/S is very expensive. Costs for power outlets in parking areas increase significantly due to trenching costs.

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Technology Definition

Cryogenic CO2 refrigeration units heat and cool using liquid CO2 that is routed through an evaporator coil that cools air blown over the coil. For example, the ThermoKing cryogenic system moves liquid CO2 from the refillable vehicle tank through a sealed evaporator coil inside the cargo space, thus cooling the coil. Temperature controlled air is circulated over the coil and through the cargo space. Having extracted all the useful energy, it exhausts to the atmosphere. On trailer applications, heat for defrosting the evaporator coil and temperature control is generated by a diesel heater when required. Infrastructure for these units include: a fuel holding tank at the distribution facility and a pumping station to pressure the fuel and pump it into the TRU.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  35 : ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Source: Thermo King CryoTech Brochure

Availability

ThermoKing manufactures a cryogenic CO2 unit, but it is currently only available in the European Union. However, these units are being demonstrated in the United States.

Vehicle Application

These units can be installed on Class 8 trailers. They would most likely be installed on trucks that are operated for local deliveries.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The capital cost of a cryogenic unit is slightly higher than a standard TRU. However, the facility infrastructure costs for the fuel adds to the capital cost. Fuel costs vary depending on the nature of the operation. As of 2003, operating costs for liquid CO2 are typically double the diesel fuel-operating costs and increase with distance from the source. Maintenance costs are lower since the systems have fewer moving parts. Over the lifetime of the unit, the largest maintenance cost is the refurbishing of the liquid cryogen storage tank, which is replaced roughly once every 5-7 years. Volume discounts for these units are minimal.

Use of Leakage Reducing Components