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5. INHALATION ROUTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.1. EXPOSURE EQUATION FOR INHALATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.2. INHALATION RATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.2.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.2.2. Key Inhalation Rate Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5.2.3. Relevant Inhalation Rate Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 5.2.4. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 5.3. REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 1 ADD = [[ C x IR x ED] / [ BW x AT]] ( Eqn. 5 1)

where:

ADD = average daily dose ( mg/ kg day); C = contaminant concentration in inhaled air ( F g/ m ); 3 IR = inhalation rate ( m / day); 3 ED = exposure duration ( days); BW = body weight ( kg); and AT = averaging time ( days), for non carcinogenic effects AT = ED, for carcinogenic or chronic effects AT = 70 years or 25,550 days ( lifetime). 5. INHALATION ROUTE This chapter presents data and recommendations for available. inhalation rates that can be used to assess exposure to contaminants in air. The studies discussed in this chapter have been classified as key or relevant. Key studies are For those cases where the average daily dose ( ADD) used as the basis for deriving recommendations and the needs to be estimated, the general equation is: relevant studies are included to provide additional background and perspective. The recommended inhalation rates are summarized in Section 5.2.4 and cover adults, children, and outdoor workers/ athletes. Inclusion of this chapter in the Exposure Factors Handbook does not imply that assessors will always need to select and use inhalation rates when evaluating exposure to air contaminants. In fact, it is unnecessary to calculate inhaled dose when using dose response factors from Integrated Risk Information System ( IRIS) ( U. S. EPA, 1994). This is due to the fact that IRIS methodology accounts for inhalation rates in the development of " doseresponse relationships. When using IRIS for inhalation risk assessments, " dose response" relationships require The average daily dose is the dose rate averaged over only an average air concentration to evaluate health a pathway specific period of exposure expressed as a daily concerns: dose on a per unit body weight basis. The ADD is used for C For non carcinogens, IRIS uses Reference effects. For compounds with carcinogenic or chronic Concentrations ( RfC) which are expressed in effects, the lifetime average daily dose ( LADD) is used. concentration units. Hazard is evaluated by The LADD is the dose rate averaged over a lifetime. The comparing the inspired air concentration to the contaminant concentration refers to the concentration of the RfC. contaminant in inhaled air. Exposure duration refers to the C For carcinogens, IRIS uses unit risk values which are expressed in inverse concentration units. Risk is evaluated by multiplying the unit risk by the inspired air concentration. The Agency defines exposure as the chemical Detailed descriptions of the IRIS methodology for 1992). In the case of inhalation, the situation is complicated derivation of inhalation reference concentrations can be by the fact that oxygen exchange with carbon dioxide takes found in two methods manuals produced by the Agency place in the distal portion of the lung. The anatomy and ( U. S. EPA, 1992; 1994). physiology of the respiratory system diminishes the IRIS employs a default inhalation rate of 20 m / day. pollutant concentration in inspired air ( potential dose) such 3 This is greater than the recommendated value in this that the amount of a pollutant that actually enters the body chapter. When using IRIS, adjustments of dose response through the lung ( internal dose) is less than that measured relationships using inhalation rates other than the default, 20 at the boundary of the body ( Figure 5 1). When m / day, are not currently recommended. There are constructing risk assessments that concern the inhalation 3 instances where the inhalation rate data presented in this route of exposure, one must be aware if any adjustments chapter may be used for estimating average daily dose. For have been employed in the estimation of the pollutant example, the inhalatino average daily dose is often concentration to account for this reduction in potential dose. estimated in cases where a compative pathway analysis is desired or to determine a total dose by adding across The respiratory system is comprised of three regions: pathways in cases where RfCs and unit risk factors are not 5.1. EXPOSURE EQUATION FOR INHALATION exposure to chemicals with non carcinogenic non chronic total time an individual is exposed to an air pollutant.

5.2. INHALATION RATE 5.2.1. Background concentration at the boundary of the body ( U. S. EPA,

nasopharyngeal, tracheobronchial, and pulmonary. The Organ Chemical Effect Exposure Internal Dose Biologically Effective Dose Metabolism Applied Dose Potential Dose Lung Uptake Mouth / Nose Intake Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 2 August 1997 Figure 5 1. Schematic of Dose and Exposure: Respiratory Route Source: U. S. EPA, 1992.

nasopharyngeal region extends from the nose to the larynx. cross sectional area of the lungs. The velocity of the The tracheobronchial region forms the conducting airways airstream in this decreasing branching network creates a between nasopharynx and alveoli where gas exchange turbulent force such that airborne particles can be deposited occurs. It consists of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. along the walls of these airways by impaction, interception, The pulmonary regions consists of the acinus which is the sedimentation, or diffusion depending on their size. The site where gas exchange occurs; it is comprised of pulmonary region contains macrophages which engulf respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and sacs, and alveoli. particles and pathogens that enter this portion of the lung. A detailed discussion of pulmonary anatomy and physiology Notwithstanding these removal mechanisms, both can be found in: Benjamin ( 1988) and U. S. EPA ( 1989 and gaseous and particulate pollutants can deposit in various 1994) . regions of the lung. Both the physiology of the lung and the Each region in the respiratory system can be chemistry of the pollutant influences where the pollutant involved with removing pollutants from inspired air. The tends to deposit. nasopharyngeal region filters out large inhaled particles, Gaseous pollutants are evenly dispersed in the air moderates the temperature, and increases the humidity of stream. They come into contact with a large portion of the the air. The surface of the tracheobronchial region is lung. Generally, their solubility and reactivity determines covered with ciliated mucous secreting cells which forms a where they deposit in the lung. Water soluble and mucociliary escalator that moves particles from deep chemically reactive gases tend to deposit in the upper regions of the lung to the oral cavity where they may be respiratory tract. Lipid soluble or non reactive gases swallowed and then excreted. The branching pattern and usually are not removed in the upper airways and tend to physical dimensions of the these airways determine the deposit in the distal portions of the lung. Gases can be pattern of deposition of airborne particles and absorption of absorbed into the blood stream or react with lung tissue. gases by the respiratory tract. They decrease in diameter as Gases can be removed from the lung by reaction with they divide into a bifurcated branching network dilutes tissues or by expiration. The amount of gas retained in the gases by axial diffusion of gases along the streamline of lung or other parts of the body is mainly due to their airways and radial diffusion of gases due to an increase in solubility in blood. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 3 Chemically, particles are quite heterogenous. They that does not come into contact with the alveoli). Alveolar range from aqueous soluble particles to solid insoluble ventilation is approximately 70 percent of total ventilation; particles. Their size, chemical composition, and the physical tidal volume is approximately 500 milliliters ( ml) and the forces of breathing dictate where they tend to deposit in the amount of anatomic dead space in the lungs is lung. Large particles, those with a diameter of greater than approximately 150 ml, approximately 30% of the amount of 0.5 micrometers ( um), not filtered out in the nasopharynx, air inhaled ( Menzel and Amdur, 1986). tend to deposit in the upper respiratory tract at airway Breathing rates are affected by numerous individual branching points due to impaction. The momentum of these characteristics, including age, gender, weight, health status, particles in the air stream is such that they tend to collide and levels of activity ( running, walking, jogging, etc.). VRs with the airway wall at branching points in the are either measured directly using a spirometer and a tracheobronchial region of the lung. Those particles not collection system or indirectly from heart rate ( HR) removed from the airstream by impaction will likely be measurements. In many of the studies described in the deposited in small bronchi and bronchioles by following sections, HR measurements are usually correlated sedimentation, a process where by particles settle out of the with VR in simple and multiple regression analysis. airstream due to the decrease in airstream velocity and the The available studies on inhalation rates are gravitational force on the particles. Small particles, less summarized in the following sections. Inhalation rates are than 0.2 um, acquire a random motion due to bombardment reported for adults and children ( including infants) by air molecules. This movement can cause particles to be performing various activities and outdoor workers/ athletes. deposited on the wall of an air way throughout the lungs. The activity levels have been categorized as resting, A special case exists for fibers. Fibers can deposit sedentary, light, moderate, and heavy. In most studies, the along the wall of an airway by a process known as sample population kept diaries to record their physical interception. This occurs when a fiber makes contact with activities, locations, and breathing rates. Ventilation rates an airway wall. The likelihood of interception increases as were either measured, self estimated or predicted from airway diminish in diameter. Fiber shape influences equations derived using VR HR calibration relationships. deposition too. Long, thin, straight fibers tend to deposit in the deep region of the lung compared to thick or curved fibers. The health risk associated with human exposure to airborne toxics is a function of concentration of air pollutants, chemical species, duration of exposure, and inhalation rate. The dose delivered to target organs ( including the lungs) , the biologically effective dose, is dependent on the potentail dose, the applied dose and the internal dose ( Figure 5 1) A detailed discussion of this concept can be found in Guidelines for Exposure Assessment ( U. S. EPA, 1992). The estimation of applied dose for a given air pollutant is dependent on inhalation rate, commonly described as ventilation rate ( VR) or breathing rate. VR is usually measured as minute volume, the volume in liters of air exhaled per minute( V ). V is the product of the E E number of respiratory cycles in a minute and the volume of air respired during each respiratory cycle, the tidal volume( V ). T When interested in calculating internal dose, assessors must consider the alveolar ventilation rate. This is the amount of air available for exchange with alveoli per unit time. It is equivalent to the tidal volume( V ) minus the T anatomic dead space of the lungs ( the space containing air 5.2.2. Key Inhalation Rate Studies Linn et al. ( 1992)  Documentation of Activity Patterns in " High Risk" Groups Exposed to Ozone in the Los Angeles Area  Linn et al. ( 1992) conducted a study that estimated the inhalation rates for " high risk" subpopulation groups exposed to ozone ( O ) in their daily 3 activities in the Los Angeles area. The population surveyed consisted of seven subject panels: Panel 1: 20 healthy outdoor workers ( 15 males, 5 females, ages 19 50 years); Panel 2: 17 healthy elementary school students ( 5 males, 12 females, ages 10 12 years); Panel 3: 19 healthy high school students ( 7 males, 12 females, ages 13 17 years); Panel 4: 49 asthmatic adults ( clinically mild, moderate, and severe, 15 males, 34 females, ages 18 50 years); Panel 5: 24 asthmatic adults from 2 neighborhoods of contrasting O air 3 quality ( 10 males, 14 females, ages 19 46 years); Panel 6: 13 young asthmatics ( 7 males, 6 females, ages 11 16 years); Panel 7: construction workers ( 7 males, ages 26 34 years). Initially, a calibration test was conducted, followed by a training session. Finally, a field study was conducted which involved subjects' collecting their own heart rate and diary data. During the calibration tests, VR and HR were measured simultaneously at each exercise level. From the calibration data an equation was developed using linear Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 4 August 1997 regression analysis to predict VR from measured HR ( Linn exercise). Table 5 1 presents the calibration and field et al., 1992). protocols for self monitoring of activities for each subject In the field study, each subject ( except construction panel. workers) recorded in diaries: their daily activities, change Table 5 2 presents the mean VR, the 99th percentile in locations ( indoors, outdoors, or in a vehicle), self VR, and the mean VR at each subjective activity level estimated breathing rates during each activity/ location, and ( slow, medium, fast). The mean VR and 99th percentile time spent at each activity/ location. Healthy subjects VR were derived from all HR recordings ( that appeared to recorded their HR once every 60 seconds, Asthmatic be valid) without considering the diary data. Each of the subjects recorded their diary information once every hour three activity levels was determined from both the using a Heart Watch. Construction workers dictated their concurrent diary data and HR recordings by direct diary information to a technician accompanying them on the calculation or regression ( Linn et al., 1992). The mean VR job. Subjective breathing rates were defined as slow for healthy adults was 0.78 m / hr while the mean VR for ( walking at their normal pace); medium ( faster than normal asthmatic adults was 1.02 m / hr ( Table 5 2). The walking); and fast ( running or similarly strenuous preliminary data for construction workers indicated that 3 3 during a 10 hr work shift, their mean VR ( 1.50 m / hr) 3 exceeded the VRs of all other subject panels ( Table 5 2). Linn et al. ( 1992) reported that the diary data showed that most individuals except construction workers spent most of their time ( in a typical day) indoors at slow activity level. During slow activity, asthmatic subjects had higher VRs than healthy subjects, except construction workers ( Table 5 2). Also, Linn et al. ( 1992) reported that in every panel, the predicted VR correlated significantly with the subjective estimates of activity levels.

Table 5 1. Calibration and Field Protocols for Self Monitoring of Activities Grouped by Subject Panels Panel Calibration Protocol Field Protocol Panel 1  Healthy Outdoor Workers  15 Laboratory treadmill exercise tests, indoor 3 days in 1 typical summer week ( included most female, 5 male, age 19 50 hallway walking tests at different self chosen active workday and most active day off); HR speeds, 2 outdoor tests consisted of 1 hour recordings and activity diary during waking cycles each of rest, walking, and jogging. hours.

Panel 2  Healthy Elementary School Outdoor exercises each consisted of 20 minute Saturday, Sunday and Monday ( school day) in Students  5 male, 12 female, age 10 12 rest, slow walking, jogging and fast walking early autumn; HR recordings and activity diary during waking hours and during sleep.

Panel 3  Healthy High School Students Outdoor exercises each consisted of 20 minute Same as Panel 2, however, no HR recordings  7 male, 12 female, age 13 17 rest, slow walking, jogging and fast walking during sleep for most subjects.

Panel 4  Adult Asthmatics, clinically Treadmill and hallway exercise tests 1 typical summer week, 1 typical winter week; mild, moderate, and severe  15 male, 34 hourly activity/ health diary during waking hours; female, age 18 50 lung function tests 3 times daily; HR recordings during waking hours on at least 3 days ( including most active work day and day off).

Panel 5  Adult Asthmatics from 2 Treadmill and hallway exercise tests Similar to Panel 4, personal NO and acid neighborhoods of contrasting O air exposure monitoring included. ( Panels 4 and 5 3 quality  10 male, 14 female, age 19 46 were studied in different years, and had 10 2 subjects in common).

Panel 6  Young Asthmatics  7 male, 6 Laboratory exercise tests on bicycles and Similar to Panel 4, summer monitoring for 2 female, age 11 16 treadmills successive weeks, including 2 controlled exposure studies with few or no observable respiratory effects.

Panel 7  Construction Workers  7 Performed similar exercises as Panel 2 and 3, HR recordings and diary information during 1 male, age 26 34 and also performed job related tests including typical summer work day. lifting and carrying a 9 kg pipe.

Source: Linn et al., 1992 Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 5 Table 5 2. Subject Panel Inhalation Rates by Mean VR, Upper Percentiles, and Self Estimated Breathing Rates Panel Inhalation Rates ( m / hr) 3 N Mean VR 99th Percentile Mean VR at Activity Levels a ( m / hr) VR ( m / hr) 3 3 b Slow Medium Fast c c Healthy 1  Adults 20 0.78 2.46 0.72 1.02 3.06 2  Elementary School Students 17 0.90 1.98 0.84 0.96 1.14 3  High School Students 19 0.84 2.22 0.78 1.14 1.62 7  Construction Workers 7 1.50 4.26 1.26 1.50 1.68 c Asthmatics 4  Adults 49 1.02 1.92 1.02 1.68 2.46 5  Adults 24 1.20 2.40 1.20 2.04 4.02 d 6  Elementary and High School Students 13 1.20 2.40 1.20 1.20 1.50 Number of individuals in each survey panel. a Some subjects did not report medium and/ or fast activity. Group means were calculated from individual means ( i. e., give equal weight to b each individual who recorded any time at the indicated activity level). Construction workers recorded only on 1 day, mostly during work, while others recorded on $ 1 work or school day and $ 1 day off. c Excluding subjects also in Panel 4. d Source: Linn et al., 1992.

A limitation of this study is that calibration data may the 3 days once per minute by wearing a Heart Watch. VR overestimate the predictive power of HR during actual field values for each self estimated breathing rate and activity monitoring. The wide variety of exercises in everyday type were estimated from the HR recordings by employing activities may result in greater variation of the VR HR the VR and HR equation obtained from the calibration tests. relationship than calibrated. Another limitation of this study The data presented in Table 5 3 represent HR is the small sample size of each subpopulation surveyed. distribution patterns and corresponding predicted VR for An advantage of this study is that diary data can provide each age group during hours spent awake. At the same selfrough estimates of ventilation patterns which are useful in reported activity levels for both age groups, inhalation rates exposure assessments. Another advantage is that inhalation were higher for outdoor activities than for indoor activities. rates were presented for various subpopulations ( i. e., The total hours spent indoors by high school students healthy outdoor adult workers, healthy children, asthmatics, ( 21.2 hours) were higher than for elementary school and construction workers). students ( 19.6 hours). The converse was true for outdoor Spier et al. ( 1992)  Activity Patterns in Elementary and High School Students Exposed To Oxidant Pollution  Spier et al. ( 1992) investigated activity patterns of 17 elementary school students ( 10 12 years old) and 19 high school students ( 13 17 years old) in suburban Los Angeles from late September to October ( oxidant pollution season). Calibration tests were conducted in supervised outdoor exercise sessions. The exercise sessions consisted of 5 minutes for each: rest, slow walking, jogging, and fast walking. HR and VR were measured during the last 2 minutes of each exercise. Individual VR and HR relationships for each individual were determined by fitting a regression line to HR values and log VR values. Each subject recorded their daily activities, change in location, and breathing rates in diaries for 3 consecutive days. Self estimated breathing rates were recorded as slow ( slow walking), medium ( walking faster than normal), and fast ( running). HR was recorded during activities; 2.7 hours for high school students, and 4.4 hours for elementary school students ( Table 5 4). Based on the data presented in Tables 5 3 and 5 4, the average activityspecific inhalation rates for elementary ( 10 12 years) and high school ( 13 17 years) students were calculated in Table 5 5. For elementary school students, the average daily inhalation rates ( based on indoor and outdoor locations) are 15.8 m / day for light activities, 4.62 m / day for moderate 3 3 activities, and 0.98 m / day for heavy activities. For high 3 school students the daily inhalation rates for light, moderate, and heavy activities are estimated to be 16.4 m / day, 3.1 3 m / day, and 0.54 m / day, respectively ( Table 5 5). 3 3 Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 6 August 1997 Table 5 3. Distribution of Predicted IR by Location and Activity Levels for Elementary and High School Students Age % Recorded ( yrs) Student Location Activity Level Timea Inhalation Rates ( m / hr) 3 Percentile Rankingsb Mean ± SD 1st 50th 99.9th 10 12 EL Indoors slow 49.6 0.84 ± 0.36 0.18 0.78 2.34 c ( n = 17) medium 23.6 0.96 ± 0.42 0.24 0.84 2.58 d fast 2.4 1.02 ± 0.60 0.24 0.84 3.42 Outdoors slow 8.9 0.96 ± 0.54 0.36 0.78 4.32 medium 11.2 1.08 ± 0.48 0.24 0.96 3.36 fast 4.3 1.14 ± 0.60 0.48 0.96 3.60 13 17 HS Indoors slow 70.7 0.78 ± 0.36 0.30 0.72 3.24 c ( n = 19) medium 10.9 0.96 ± 0.42 0.42 0.84 4.02 d fast 1.4 1.26 ± 0.66 0.54 1.08 6.84c Outdoors slow 8.2 0.96 ± 0.48 0.42 0.90 5.28 medium 7.4 1.26 ± 0.78 0.48 1.08 5.70 fast 1.4 1.44 ± 1.08 0.48 1.02 5.94 Recorded time averaged about 23 hr per elementary school student and 33 hr. per high school student, over 72 hr. periods. a Geometric means closely approximated 50th percentiles; geometric standard deviations were 1.2 1.3 for HR, 1.5 1.8 for VR. b EL = elementary school student; HS = high school student. c N = number of students that participated in survey. d Highest single value. e Source: Spier et al., 1992.

Table 5 4. Average Hours Spent Per Day in a Given Location and Activity Level for Elementary ( EL) and High School ( HS) Students Student Total Time Spent ( EL , n = 17; HS , N = 19) Location ( hrs/ day) a c b c Activity Level Slow Medium Fast EL Indoor 16.3 2.9 0.4 19.6 EL Outdoor 2.2 1.7 0.5 4.4 HS Indoor 19.5 1.5 0.2 21.2 HS Outdoor 1.2 1.3 0.2 2.7 Elementary school ( EL) students were between 10 12 years old. a High school ( HS) students were between 13 17 years old. b N corresponds to number of school students. c Source: Spier et al., 1992. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 7 Table 5 5. Distribution Patterns of Daily Inhalation Rates for Elementary ( EL) and High School ( HS) Students Grouped by Activity Level Students ( yrs) Location Activity type ( m / day) Age Mean IR Percentile Rankings a b 3 1st 50th 99.9th EL ( n = 17) 10 12 Indoor Light 13.7 2.93 12.71 38.14 c Moderate 2.8 0.70 2.44 7.48 Heavy 0.4 0.096 0.34 1.37 EL Outdoor Light 2.1 0.79 1.72 9.50 Moderate 1.84 0.41 1.63 5.71 Heavy 0.57 0.24 0.48 1.80 HS ( n= 19) 13 17 Indoor Light 15.2 5.85 14.04 63.18 Moderate 1.4 0.63 1.26 6.03 Heavy 0.25 0.11 0.22 1.37 HS Outdoor Light 1.15 0.50 1.08 6.34 Moderate 1.64 0.62 1.40 7.41 Heavy 0.29 0.096 0.20 1.19 For this report, activity type presented in Table 5 2 was redefined as light activity for slow, moderate activity for medium, and heavy a activity for fast. Daily inhalation rate was calculated by multiplying the hours spent at each activity level ( Table 5 4) by the corresponding inhalation rate b ( Table 5 3). Number of elementary ( EL) and high school students ( HS). c Source: Adapted from Spier et al., 1992 ( Generated using data from Tables 5 3 and 5 4).

A limitation of this study is the small sample size. identified as subjects for pilot testing purposes in this age The results may not be representative of all children in these group ( Adams, 1993). age groups. Another limitation is that the accuracy of the Resting protocols conducted in the laboratory for all self estimated breathing rates reported by younger age age groups consisted of three phases ( 25 minutes each) of groups is uncertain. This may affect the validity of the data lying, sitting, and standing. They were categorized as set generated. An advantage of this study is that inhalation resting and sedentary activities. Two active protocols, rates were determined for children and adolescents. These moderate ( walking) and heavy ( jogging/ running) phases, data are useful in estimating exposure for the younger were performed on a treadmill over a progressive population. continuum of intensities made up of 6 minute intervals, at 3 Adams ( 1993)  Measurement of Breathing Rate and Volume in Routinely Performed Daily Activities  Adams ( 1993) conducted research to accomplish two main objectives: ( 1) identification of mean and ranges of inhalation rates for various age/ gender cohorts and specific activities; and ( 2) derivation of simple linear and multiple regression equations used to predict inhalation rates through other measured variables: heart rate ( HR), breathing frequency ( f ), and oxygen consumption ( V ). A total of B O2 160 subjects participated in the primary study. There were four age dependent groups: ( 1) children 6 to 12.9 years old, ( 2) adolescents between 13 and 18.9 years old, ( 3) adults between 19 and 59.9 years old, and ( 4) seniors > 60 years old ( Adams, 1993). An additional 40 children from 6 to 12 years old and 12 young children from 3 to 5 years old were speeds, ranging from slow to moderately fast. All protocols involved measuring VR, HR, f ( breathing frequency), and B V ( oxygen consumption). Measurements were taken in O2 the last 5 minutes of each phase of the resting protocol, and the last 3 minutes of the 6 minute intervals at each speed designated in the active protocols. In the field, all children completed spontaneous play protocols, while the older adolescent population ( 16 18 years) completed car driving and riding, car maintenance ( males), and housework ( females) protocols. All adult females ( 19 60 years) and most of the senior ( 60 77 years) females completed housework, yardwork, and car driving and riding protocols. Adult and senior males completed car driving and riding, yardwork, and mowing protocols. HR, VR, and f were measured during each protocol. Most B Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 8 August 1997 BSA = Height x Weight x 71.84. ( Eqn. 5 2) ( 0.725) ( 0.425) protocols were conducted for 30 minutes. All the active field protocols were conducted twice. During all activities in either the laboratory or field protocols, IR for the children's group revealed no significant gender differences, but those for the adult groups A limitation associated with this study is that the demonstrated gender differences. Therefore, IR data population does not represent the general U. S. population. presented in Appendix Tables 5A 1 and 5A 2 were Also, the classification of activity types ( i. e., laboratory and categorized as young children, children ( no gender), and for field protocols) into activity levels may bias the inhalation adult female, and adult male by activity levels ( resting, rates obtained for various age/ gender cohorts. The estimated sedentary, light, moderate, and heavy). These categorized rates were based on short term data and may not reflect data from the Appendix tables are summarized as IR in long term patterns. An advantage of this study is that it m / hr in Tables 5 6 and 5 7. The laboratory protocols are provides inhalation data for all age groups. 3 shown in Table 5 6. Table 5 7 presents the mean inhalation rates by group and activity levels ( light, sedentary, and moderate) in field protocols. A comparison of the data shown in Tables 5 6 and 5 7 suggest that during light and sedentary activities in laboratory and field protocols, similar inhalation rates were obtained for adult females and adult males. Accurate predictions of IR across all population groups and activity types were obtained by including body surface area ( BSA), HR, and f in multiple regression B analysis ( Adams, 1993). Adams ( 1993) calculated BSA from measured height and weight using the equation: Linn et al. ( 1993)  Activity patterns in Ozone Exposed Construction Workers  Linn et al. ( 1993) estimated the inhalation rates of 19 construction workers who perform heavy outdoor labor before and during a typical work shift. The workers ( laborers, iron workers, and carpenters) were employed at a site on a hospital campus in suburban Los Angeles. The construction site included a new hospital building and a separate medical office complex. The study was conducted between mid July and early November, 1991. During this period, ozone ( O ) 3 levels were typically high. Initially, each subject was calibrated with a 25 minute exercise test that included slow walking, fast walking, jogging, lifting, and carrying. All calibration tests were conducted in the mornings. VR Table 5 6. Summary of Average Inhalation Rates ( m / hr) by Age Group and Activity Levels for Laboratory Protocols 3 Age Group Resting Sedentary Light Moderate Heavy a b c d e Young Children 0.37 0.40 0.65 DNP DNP f g Children 0.45 0.47 0.95 1.74 2.23 h Adult Females 0.43 0.48 1.33 2.76 2.96 i j Adult Males 0.54 0.60 1.45 1.93 3.63 k Resting defined as lying ( see Appendix Table 5A 1 for original data). a Sedentary defined as sitting and standing ( see Appendix Table 5A 1 for original data). b Light defined as walking at speed level 1.5  3.0 mph ( see Appendix Table 5A 1 for original data). c Moderate defined as fast walking ( 3.3  4.0 mph) and slow running ( 3.5  4.0 mph) ( see Appendix Table 5A 1 for original data). d Heavy defined as fast running ( 4.5  6.0 mph) ( see Appendix Table 5A 1 for original data). e Young children ( both genders) 3  5.9 yrs old. f DNP. Group did not perform this protocol or N was too small for appropriate mean comparisons. All young children did not run. g Children ( both genders) 6  12.9 yrs old. h Adult females defined as adolescent, young to middle aged, and older adult females. i Older adults not included in mean value since they did not perform running protocols at particular speeds. j Adult males defined as adolescent, young to middle aged, and older adult males. k Source: Adapted from Adams, 1993.

Table 5 7. Summary of Average Inhalation Rates ( m / hr) by Age Age Group Light Sedentary Moderate 3 Group and Activity Levels in Field Protocols a b c Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 9 Young Children DNP DNP 0.68 d e Children DNP DNP 1.07 f Adult Females 1.10 0.51 DNP g h Adult Males 1.40 0.62 1.78 i j Light activity was defined as car maintenance ( males), a housework ( females), and yard work ( females) ( see Appendix Table 5A 2 for original data). Sedentary activity was defined as car driving and riding ( both b genders) ( see Appendix Table 5A 2 for original data). Moderate activity was defined as mowing ( males); wood c working ( males); yard work ( males); and play ( children) ( see Appendix Table 5A 2 for original data). Young children ( both genders) = 3  5.9 yrs old. d DNP. Group did not perform this protocol or N was too small e for appropriate mean comparisons. Children ( both genders) = 6  12.9 yrs old. f Adult females defined as adolescent, young to middle aged, and g older adult females. Older adults not included in mean value since they did not ( Linn et al., 1993). Inhalation rates were higher in hospital h perform this activity. Adult males defined as adolescent, young to middle aged, and i older adult males. Adolescents not included in mean value since they did not j perform this activity. Source: Adams, 1993.

and HR were measured simultaneously during the test. The data were analyzed using least squares regression to derive an equation for predicting VR at a given HR. Following the calibration tests, each subject recorded the type of activities to be performed during their work shift ( i. e., sitting/ standing, walking, lifting/ carrying, and " working at trade"  defined as tasks specific to the individual's job classification). Location, and self estimated breathing rates (" slow" similar to slow walking, " medium" similar to fast walking, and " fast" similar to running) were also recorded in the diary. During work, an investigator recorded the diary information dictated by the subjects. HR was recorded minute by minute for each subject before work and during the entire work shift. Thus, VR ranges for each breathing rate and activity category were estimated from the HR recordings by employing the relationship between VR and HR obtained from the calibration tests. A total of 182 hours of HR recordings were obtained during the survey from the 19 volunteers; 144 hours reflected actual working time according to the diary records. The lowest actual working hours recorded was 6.6 hours and the highest recorded for a complete work shift was 11.6 hours ( Linn et al., 1993). Summary statistics for predicted VR distributions for all subjects, and for job or site defined subgroups are presented in Table 5 8. The data reflect all recordings before and during work, and at break times. For all subjects, the mean IR was 1.68 m / hr with a standard 3 deviation of ± 0.72 ( Table 5 8). Also, for most subjects, the 1st and 99th percentiles of HR were outside of the calibration range ( calibration ranges are presented in Appendix Table 5A 3). Therefore, corresponding IR percentiles were extrapolated using the calibration data ( Linn et al., 1993). The data presented in Table 5 9 represent distribution patterns of IR for each subject, total subjects, and job or site defined subgroups by self estimated breathing rates ( slow, medium, fast) or by type of job activity. All data include working and non working hours. The mean inhalation rates for most individuals showed statistically significant increases with higher self estimated breathing rates or with increasingly strenuous job activity site workers when compared with office site workers ( Table 5 9). In spite of their higher predicted VR workers at the hospital site reported a higher percentage of slow breathing time ( 31 percent) than workers at the office site ( 20 percent), and a lower percentage of fast breathing time, 3 percent and 5 percent, respectively ( Linn et al., 1993). Therefore, individuals whose work was objectively heavier than average ( from VR predictions) tended to describe their work as lighter than average ( Linn et al., 1993). Linn et al. ( 1993) also concluded that during an O pollution 3 episode, construction workers should experience similar microenvironmental O exposure concentrations as other 3 healthy outdoor workers, but with approximately twice as high a VR. Therefore, the inhaled dose of O should be 3 almost two times higher for typical heavy construction workers than for typical healthy adults performing less strenuous outdoor jobs. A limitation associated with this study is the small sample size. Another limitation of this study is that calibration data were not obtained at extreme conditions. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 10 August 1997 Table 5 9. Individual Mean Inhalation Rate ( m / hr) by Self Estimated Breathing Rate or Job Activity Category for Outdoor Workers 3 Self Estimated Breathing Rate ( m / hr) 3 Job Activity Category ( m / hr) 3 Population Group and Subgroup Slow Med Fast Sit/ Std Walk Carry Tradeb All Subjects ( n= 19) 1.44 1.86 2.04 1.56 1.80 2.10 1.92 Job GCW / Laborers ( n= 5) a 1.20 1.56 1.68 1.26 1.44 1.74 1.56 Iron Workers ( n= 3) 1.38 1.86 2.10 1.62 1.74 1.98 1.92 Carpenters ( n= 11) 1.62 2.04 2.28 1.62 1.92 2.28 2.04 Site Office Site ( n= 7) 1.14 1.44 1.62 1.14 1.38 1.68 1.44 Hospital Site ( n= 12) 1.62 2.16 2.40 1.80 2.04 2.34 2.16 GCW  general construction worker a Trade  " Working at Trade" ( i. e., tasks specific to the individual's job classification) b Source: Linn et al., 1993 Table 5 8. Distributions of Individual and Group Inhalation/ Ventilation Rate for Outdoor Workers Ventilation Rate ( VR) ( m / hr) 3 Percentile Population Group and Subgroup Mean ± SD 1 50 99 a All Subjects ( n = 19) 1.68 ± 0.72 0.66 1.62 3.90 b Job GCW / Laborers ( n= 5) 1.44 ± 0.66 0.48 1.32 3.66 c Iron Workers ( n= 3) 1.62 ± 0.66 0.60 1.56 3.24 Carpenters ( n= 11) 1.86 ± 0.78 0.78 1.74 4.14 Site Medical Office Site ( n= 7) 1.38 ± 0.66 0.60 1.20 3.72 Hospital Site ( n= 12) 1.86 ± 0.78 0.72 1.80 3.96 Each group or subgroup mean was calculated from individual means, not from pooled data. a n = number of individuals performing specific jobs or number of individuals at survey sites. b GCW  general construction worker. c Source: Linn et al., 1993.

Therefore, it was necessary to predict IR values that were self estimated breathing rates may be another source of outside the calibration range. This may introduce an uncertainty in the inhalation rates estimated. An advantage unknown amount of uncertainty to the data set. Subjective is that this study provides empirical data useful in exposure Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 11 V = E x H x VQ ( Eqn. 5 3) E where: V = ventilation rate ( L/ min or m / hr); E 3 E = energy expenditure rate; [ kilojoules/ minute ( KJ/ min) or megajoules/ hour ( MJ/ hr)]; H = volume of oxygen [ at standard temperature and pressure, dry air ( STPD) consumed in the production of 1 kilojoule ( KJ) of energy expended ( L/ KJ or m / MJ)]; and 3 VQ = ventilatory equivalent ( ratio of minute volume ( L/ min) to oxygen uptake ( L/ min)) unitless. assessments for a subpopulation thought to be the most reported in the 1977 78 USDA NFCS and the second highly exposed common occupational group ( outdoor National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey workers). ( NHANES II). The survey sample for NHANES II was Layton ( 1993)  Metabolically Consistent Breathing Rates for Use in Dose Assessments  Layton ( 1993) presented a new method for estimating metabolically consistent inhalation rates for use in quantitative dose assessments of airborne radionuclides. Generally, the approach for estimating the breathing rate for a specified time frame was to calculate a time weighted average of ventilation rates associated with physical activities of varying durations ( Layton, 1993). However, in this study, breathing rates were calculated based on oxygen consumption associated with energy expenditures for short ( hours) and long ( weeks and months) periods of time, using the following general equation to calculate energydependent inhalation rates:

Three alternative approaches were used to estimate daily chronic ( long term) inhalation rates for different age/ gender cohorts of the U. S. population using this methodology. First Approach Inhalation rates were estimated by multiplying average daily food energy intakes for different age/ gender cohorts, volume of oxygen ( H), and ventilatory equivalent ( VQ), as shown in the equation above. The average food energy intake data ( Table 5 10) are based on approximately 30,000 individuals and were obtained from the USDA 1977 78 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey ( USDANFCS The food energy intakes were adjusted upwards by a constant factor of 1.2 for all individuals 9 years and older ( Layton, 1993). This factor compensated for a consistent bias in USDA NFCS attributed to under reporting of the foods consumed or the methods used to ascertain dietary intakes. Layton ( 1993) used a weighted average oxygen uptake of 0.05 L O / KJ which was determined from data 2 approximately 20,000 participants. The ventilatory equivalent ( VQ) of 27 used was calculated as the geometric mean of VQ data that were obtained from several studies by Layton ( 1993). The inhalation rate estimation techniques are shown in footnote ( a) of Table 5 11. Table 5 11 presents the daily inhalation rate for each age/ gender cohort. The highest daily inhalation rates were reported for children between the ages of 6 8 years ( 10 m / day), for males between 15 18 3 years ( 17 m / day), and females between 9 11 years ( 13 3 m / day). Estimated average lifetime inhalation rates for 3 males and females are 14 m / day and 10 m / day, 3 3 respectively ( Table 5 11). Inhalation rates were also calculated for active and inactive periods for the various age/ gender cohorts. The inhalation rate for inactive periods was estimated by multiplying the basal metabolic rate ( BMR) times the oxygen uptake ( H) times the VQ. BMR was defined as " the minimum amount of energy required to support basic cellular respiration while at rest and not actively digesting food"( Layton, 1993). The inhalation rate for active periods was calculated by multiplying the inactive inhalation rate by the ratio of the rate of energy expenditure during active hours to the estimated BMR. This ratio is presented as F in Table 5 11. These data for active and inactive inhalation rates are also presented in Table 5 11. For children, inactive and active inhalation rates ranged between 2.35 and 5.95 m / day and 6.35 to 13.09 m / day, 3 3 respectively. For adult males ( 19 64 years old), the average inactive and active inhalation rates were approximately 10 and 19 m / day, respectively. Also, the average inactive and 3 active inhalation rates for adult females ( 19 64 years old) were approximately 8 and 12 m / day, respectively. 3 Second Approach Inhalation rates were calculated by multiplying the BMR of the population cohorts times A ( ratio of total daily energy expenditure to daily BMR) times H times VQ. The BMR data obtained from literature were statistically analyzed and regression equations were developed to predict BMR from body weights of various age/ gender cohorts ( Layton, 1993). The statistical data used to develop the regression equations are presented in Appendix Table 5A 4. The data obtained from the second Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 12 August 1997 Table 5 10. Comparisons of Estimated Basal Metabolic Rates ( BMR) with Average Food Energy Intakes for Individuals Sampled in the 1977 78 NFCS Cohort/ Age Body Weight BMR Energy Intake ( EFD) Ratio a ( years) kg MJ d kcal d MJ d kcal d EFD/ BMR  1b  1c  1  1 Children Under 1 7.6 1.74 416 3.32 793 1.90 1 to 2 13 3.08 734 5.07 1209 1.65 3 to 5 18 3.69 881 6.14 1466 1.66 6 to 8 26 4.41 1053 7.43 1774 1.68 Males 9 to 11 36 5.42 1293 8.55 2040 1.58 12 to 14 50 6.45 1540 9.54 2276 1.48 15 to 18 66 7.64 1823 10.8 2568 1.41 19 to 22 74 7.56 1804 10.0 2395 1.33 23 to 34 79 7.87 1879 10.1 2418 1.29 35 to 50 82 7.59 1811 9.51 2270 1.25 51 to 64 80 7.49 1788 9.04 2158 1.21 65 to 74 76 6.18 1476 8.02 1913 1.30 75 + 71 5.94 1417 7.82 1866 1.32 Females 9 to 11 36 4.91 1173 7.75 1849 1.58 12 to 14 49 5.64 1347 7.72 1842 1.37 15 to 18 56 6.03 1440 7.32 1748 1.21 19 to 22 59 5.69 1359 6.71 1601 1.18 23 to 34 62 5.88 1403 6.72 1603 1.14 35 to 50 66 5.78 1380 6.34 1514 1.10 51 to 64 67 5.82 1388 6.40 1528 1.10 65 to 74 66 5.26 1256 5.99 1430 1.14 75 + 62 5.11 1220 5.94 1417 1.16 Calculated from the appropriate age and gender based BMR equations given in Appendix Table 5A 4. a MJ d  mega joules/ day b  1 kcal d  kilo calories/ day c  1 Source: Layton, 1993. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 13 Table 5 11. Daily Inhalation Rates Calculated from Food Energy Intakes Daily Inhalation Inhalation Rates Rate Sleep MET Value Inactive Active a b c c Cohort/ Age ( years) L ( m / day) ( h) A F ( m / day) ( m / day) d 3 e f 3 3 Children < 1 1 4.5 11 1.9 2.7 2.35 6.35 1  2 2 6.8 11 1.6 2.2 4.16 9.15 3  5 3 8.3 10 1.7 2.2 4.98 10.96 6  8 3 10 10 1.7 2.2 5.95 13.09 Males 9  11 3 14 9 1.9 2.5 7.32 18.3 12  14 3 15 9 1.8 2.2 8.71 19.16 15  18 4 17 8 1.7 2.1 10.31 21.65 19  22 4 16 8 1.6 1.9 10.21 19.4 23  34 11 16 8 1.5 1.8 10.62 19.12 35  50 16 15 8 1.5 1.8 10.25 18.45 51  64 14 15 8 1.4 1.7 10.11 17.19 65  74 10 13 8 1.6 1.8 8.34 15.01 75+ 1 13 8 1.6 1.9 8.02 15.24 Lifetime average 14 g Females 9  11 3 13 9 1.9 2.5 6.63 16.58 12  14 3 12 9 1.6 2.0 7.61 15.20 15  18 4 12 8 1.5 1.7 8.14 13.84 19  22 4 11 8 1.4 1.6 7.68 12.29 23  34 11 11 8 1.4 1.6 7.94 12.7 35  50 16 10 8 1.3 1.5 7.80 11.7 51  64 14 10 8 1.3 1.5 7.86 11.8 65  74 10 9.7 8 1.4 1.5 7.10 10.65 75+ 1 9.6 8 1.4 1.6 6.90 11.04 Lifetime average 10 g Daily inhalation rate was calculated by multiplying the EFD values ( see Table 5 10) by H x VQ x ( m 1,000 L ) for subjects under 9 years of age and by 1.2 x H x a 3  1 VQ x ( m 1,000 L ) ( for subjects 9 years of age and older ( see text for explanation). 3  1 Where: EFD = Food energy intake ( Kcal/ day) or ( MJ/ day) H = Oxygen uptake = 0.05 LO / KJ or 0.21 LO / Kcal 2 2 VQ = Ventilation equivalent = 27 = geometric mean of VQs ( unitless)

MET = Metabolic equivalent b Inhalation rate for inactive periods was calculated as BMR x H x VQ x ( d 1,440 min ) and for active periods by multiplying inactive inhalation rate by F ( See c  1 footnote f); BMR values are from Table 5 10. Where: BMR = Basal metabolic rate ( MJ/ day) or ( kg/ hr)

L is the number of years for each age cohort. d For individuals 9 years of age and older, A was calculated by multiplying the ratio for EFD/ BMR ( unitless) ( Table 5 10) by the factor 1.2 ( see text for e explanation).

F = ( 24A  S)/( 24  S) ( unitless), ratio of the rate of energy expenditure during active hours to the estimated BMR ( unitless) f Where: S = Number of hours spent sleeping each day ( hrs)

Lifetime average was calculated by multiplying individual inhalation rate by corresponding L values summing the products across cohorts and dividing the result g by 75, the total of the cohort age spans.

Source: Layton, 1993. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 14 August 1997 approach are presented in Table 5 12. Inhalation rates for sleep, MET= 1; light activity, MET= 1.5; moderate activity, children ( 6 months  10 years) ranged from 7.3 9.3 m / day MET= 4; hard activity, MET= 6; and very hard activity, 3 for male and 5.6 to 8.6 m / day for female children and ( 10 MET= 10. The physical activities were based on recall by 3 18 years) was 15 m / day for males and 12 m / day for the test subject ( Layton, 1993). The survey sample was 3 3 females. Adult females ( 18 years and older) ranged from 2,126 individuals ( 1,120 women and 1,006 men) ages 20 9.9 11 m / day and adult males ( 18 years and older) ranged 74 years that were randomly selected from four 3 from 13 17 m / day. These rates are similar to the daily communities in California. The BMRs were estimated 3 inhalation rates obtained using the first approach. Also, the using the metabolic equations presented in Appendix Table inactive inhalation rates obtained from the first approach are 5A 4. The body weights were obtained from a study lower than the inhalation rates obtained using the second conducted by Najjar and Rowland ( 1987) which randomly approach. This may be attributed to the BMR multiplier sampled individuals from the U. S. population ( Layton, employed in the equation of the second approach to 1993). Table 5 13 presents the inhalation rates ( V ) in calculate inhalation rates. m / day and m / hr for adult males and females aged 20 74 Third Approach years at five physical activity levels. The total daily Inhalation rates were calculated by multiplying inhalation rates ranged from 13 17 m / day for adult males estimated energy expenditures associated with different and 11 15 m / day for adult females. levels of physical activity engaged in over the course of an The rates for adult females were higher when average day by VQ and H for each age/ gender cohort. The compared with the other two approaches. Layton ( 1993) energy expenditure associated with each level of activity reported that the estimated inhalation rates obtained from was estimated by multiplying BMRs of each activity level the third approach were particularly sensitive to the MET by the metabolic equivalent ( MET) and by the time spent value that represented the energy expenditures for light per day performing each activity for each age/ gender activities. Layton ( 1993) stated further that in the original population. The time activity data used in this approach time activity survey ( i. e., conducted by Sallis et al., 1985), were obtained from a survey conducted by Sallis et al. time spent performing light activities was not presented. ( 1985) ( Layton, 1993). In that survey, the physical activity Therefore, the time spent at light activities was estimated categories and associated MET values used were E 3 3 3 3 Table 5 12. Daily Inhalation Rates Obtained from the Ratios of Total Energy Expenditure to Basal Metabolic Rate ( BMR)

Gender/ Age Body Weight BMR H Inhalation Rate, V ( yrs) ( kg) ( MJ/ day) VQ A ( m O / MJ) ( m / day) a b c 3 2 E 3 d Male 0.5  < 3 14 3.4 27 1.6 0.05 7.3 3  < 10 23 4.3 27 1.6 0.05 9.3 10  < 18 53 6.7 27 1.7 0.05 15 18  < 30 76 7.7 27 1.59 0.05 17 30  < 60 80 7.5 27 1.59 0.05 16 60+ 75 6.1 27 1.59 0.05 13 Female 0.5  < 3 11 2.6 27 1.6 0.05 5.6 3  < 10 23 4.0 27 1.6 0.05 8.6 10  < 18 50 5.7 27 1.5 0.05 12 18  < 30 62 5.9 27 1.38 0.05 11 30  < 60 68 5.8 27 1.38 0.05 11 60+ 67 5.3 27 1.38 0.05 9.9 Body weight was based on the average weights for age/ gender cohorts in the U. S. population. a The BMRs ( basal metabolic rate) are calculated using the respective body weights and BMR equations ( see Appendix Table 5A 4). b The values of the BMR multiplier ( EFD/ BMR) for those 18 years and older were derived from the Basiotis et al. ( 1989) study: Male = 1.59, c Female = 1.38. For males and females under 10 years old, the mean BMR multiplier used was 1.6. For males and females aged 10 to < 18 years, the mean values for A given in Table 5 11 for 12 14 years and 15 18 years, age brackets for males and females were used: male = 1.7 and female = 1.5. Inhalation rate = BMR x A x H x VQ; VQ = ventilation equivalent and H = oxygen uptake. d Source: Layton, 1993. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 15 Table 5 13. Daily Inhalation Rates Based on Time Activity Survey Age ( yrs)

and Activity MET Males Females Body Weighta ( kg) BMRb ( KJ/ hr) Durationc ( hr/ day) Ed ( MJ/ day) V E e ( m / day)

3 V E f ( m / hr)

3 Body Weighta ( kg) BMRb ( KJ/ hr) Durationc ( hr/ day) Ed ( MJ/ day) V E e ( m / day)

3 V E f ( m / hr)

3 20 34 Sleep Light Moderate Hard Very Hard Totals 1 1.5 4 6 10 76 76 76 76 76 320 320 320 320 320 7.2 14.5 1.2 0.64 0.23 24 2.3 7.0 1.5 1.2 0.74 17 3.1 9.4 2.1 1.7 1.0 17 0.4 0.7 1.7 2.6 4.3 62 62 62 62 62 283 283 283 283 283 7.2 14.5 1.2 0.64 0.23 24 2.0 6.2 1.4 1.1 0.65 11 2.8 8.3 1.8 1.5 0.88 15 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.3 3.8 35 49 Sleep Light Moderate Hard Very Hard Totals 1 1.5 4 6 10 81 81 81 81 81 314 314 314 314 314 7.1 14.6 1.4 0.59 0.29 24 2.2 6.9 1.8 1.1 0.91 13 3.0 9.3 2.4 1.5 1.2 17 0.4 0.6 1.7 2.5 4.2 67 67 67 67 67 242 242 242 242 242 7.1 14.6 1.4 0.59 0.29 24 1.7 5.3 1.4 0.9 0.70 9.9 2.3 7.2 1.8 1.2 0.95 13 0.3 0.5 1.3 2.0 3.2 50 64 Sleep Light Moderate Hard Very Hard Totals 1 1.5 4 6 10 80 80 80 80 80 312 312 312 312 312 7.3 14.9 1.1 0.50 0.14 24 2.3 7.0 1.4 0.94 0.44 12 3.1 9.4 1.9 1.3 0.6 16 0.4 0.6 1.7 2.5 4.2 68 68 68 68 68 244 244 244 244 244 7.3 14.9 1.1 0.5 0.14 24 1.8 5.4 1.1 0.7 0.34 9.4 2.4 7.4 1.4 1.0 0.46 13 0.3 0.5 1.3 2.0 3.3 65 74 Sleep Light Moderate Hard Very Hard Totals 1 1.5 4 6 10 75 75 75 75 75 256 256 256 256 256 7.3 14.9 1.1 0.5 0.14 24 1.9 5.7 1.1 0.8 0.36 9.8 2.5 7.7 1.5 1.0 0.48 13 0.3 0.5 1.4 2.1 3.5 67 67 67 67 67 221 221 221 221 221 7.3 14.9 1.1 0.5 0.14 24 1.6 4.9 1.0 0.7 0.31 8.5 2.2 6.7 1.3 0.9 0.42 11 0.3 0.4 1.2 1.8 3.0 Body weights were obtained from Najjar and Rowland ( 1987)

a The basal metabolic rates ( BMRs) for the age/ gender cohorts were calculated using the respective body weights and the BMR equations ( Appendix Table 5A 4)

b Duration of activities were obtained from Sallis et al. ( 1985)

c Energy expenditure rate ( E) was calculated by multiplying BMR ( KJ/ hr) x ( MJ/ 1000 KJ) x duration ( hr/ day) x MET d V ( inhalation rate) was calculated by multiplying E ( MJ/ day) by H( 0.05 m oxygen/ MJ) by VQ ( 27)

e E 3 V ( m / hr) was calculated by multiplying BMR ( KJ/ hr) x ( MJ/ 1000 KJ) x MET x H ( 0.05 m oxygen/ MJ) x VQ ( 27)

f E 3 3 Source: Layton, 1993. 60 min hr x m3 1000L x L min Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 16 August 1997 by subtracting the total time spent at sleep, moderate, heavy, this study are somewhat subjective, the explanation that and very heavy activities from 24 hours ( Layton, 1993). activity pattern differences is responsible for the lower level The range of inhalation rates for adult females were 9.6 to obtained with the metabolic approach ( 25 percent) 11 m / day, 9.9 to 11 m / day, and 11 to 15 m / day, for the compared to the activity pattern approach is not well 3 3 3 first, second, and third approach, respectively. The supported by the data, and different populations were used inhalation rates for adult males ranged from 13 to 16 m / day in each approach which may introduce error. 3 for the first approach, and 13 to 17 m / day for the second 3 and third approaches. Inhalation rates were also obtained for short term exposures for various age/ gender cohorts and five energyexpenditure categories ( rest, sedentary, light, moderate, and heavy). BMRs were multiplied by the product of MET, H, and VQ. The data obtained for short term exposures are presented in Table 5 14. The major strengths of the Layton ( 1993) study are that it obtains similar results using three different approaches to estimate inhalation rates in different age groups and that the populations are large, consisting of men, women, and children. Explanations for differences in results due to metabolic measurements, reported diet, or activity patterns are supported by observations reported by other investigators in other studies. Major limitations of this study are that activity pattern levels estimated in 5.2.3. Relevant Inhalation Rate Studies International Commission on Radiological Protection ( ICRP) ( 1981)  Report of the Task Group on Reference Man  The International Commission of Radiological Protection ( ICRP) estimated daily inhalation rates for reference adult males, adult females, children ( 10 years old), infant ( 1 year old), and newborn babies by using a time activity ventilation approach. This approach for estimating inhalation rate over a specified period of time was based on calculating a time weighted average of inhalation rates associated with physical activities of varying durations. ICRP ( 1981) compiled reference values ( Appendix Table 5A 5) of minute volume/ inhalation rates from various literature sources. ICRP ( 1981) assumed that the daily activities of a reference man and woman, and child ( 10 yrs) consisted of Table 5 14. Inhalation Rates for Short Term Exposures Gender/ Age ( yrs) Weight BMR ( kg) ( MJ/ day) a b Activity Type Rest Sedentary Light Moderate Heavy MET ( BMR Multiplier)

1 1.2 2 4 10 c d e Inhalation Rate ( m / hr) 3 f, g Male 0.5  < 3 14 3.40 0.19 0.23 0.38 0.78 1.92 3  < 10 23 4.30 0.24 0.29 0.49 0.96 2.40 10  < 18 53 6.70 0.38 0.45 0.78 1.50 3.78 18  < 30 76 7.70 0.43 0.52 0.84 1.74 4.32 30  < 60 80 7.50 0.42 0.50 0.84 1.68 4.20 60+ 75 6.10 0.34 0.41 0.66 1.38 3.42 Female 0.5  < 3 11 2.60 0.14 0.17 0.29 0.60 1.44 3  < 10 23 4.00 0.23 0.27 0.45 0.90 2.28 10  < 18 50 5.70 0.32 0.38 0.66 1.26 3.18 18  < 30 62 5.90 0.33 0.40 0.66 1.32 3.30 30  < 60 68 5.80 0.32 0.39 0.66 1.32 3.24 60+ 67 5.30 0.30 0.36 0.59 1.20 3.00 Body weights were based on average weights for age/ gender cohorts of the U. S. population a The BMRs for the age/ gender cohorts were calculated using the respective body weights and the BMR equations ( Appendix Table 5A 4). b Range of 1.5  2.5. c Range of 3  5. d Range of > 5  20. e The inhalation rate was calculated by multiplying BMR ( MJ/ day) x H ( 0.05 L/ KJ) x MET x VQ ( 27) x ( d/ 1,440 min) f Original data were presented in L/ min. Conversion to m / hr was obtained as follows: g 3 Source: Layton, 1993. DIR ' 1 T j K i ' 1 IR i t i Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 17 8 hours of rest and 16 hours of light activities. It was also as research objective itself and the available studies have assumed that 16 hours were divided evenly between been for specific subpopulations such as obese, asthmatics, occupational and nonoccupational activities. It was or marathon runners. The data compiled by the U. S. EPA assumed that a day consisted of 14 hours resting and 10 ( 1985) for each age/ gender cohorts were obtained at various hours light activity for an infant ( 1 yr). A newborn's daily activity levels. These levels were categorized as light, activities consisted of 23 hours resting and 1 hour light moderate, or heavy according to the criteria developed by activity. Table 5 15 presents the daily inhalation rates the EPA Office of Environmental Criteria and Assessment obtained for all ages/ genders. The estimated inhalation for the Ozone Criteria Document. These criteria were rates were 22.8 m / day for adult males, 21.1 m / day for developed for a reference male adult with a body weight of 3 3 adult females, 14.8 m / day for children ( age 10 years), 3.76 70 kg ( U. S. EPA, 1985). The minute ventilation rates for 3 m / day for infants ( age 1 year), and 0.78 m / day for adult males based on these activity level categories are 3 3 newborns. detailed in Appendix Table 5A 6.

Table 5 15. Daily Inhalation Rates Estimated From Daily Activitiesa Inhalation Rate ( IR)

Subject Resting Light Daily Inhalation ( m / hr) Activity Rate ( DIR) 3 ( m / hr) ( m / day) 3 b 3 Adult Man 0.45 1.2 22.8 Adult Woman 0.36 1.14 21.1 Child ( 10 yrs) 0.29 0.78 14.8 Infant ( 1 yr) 0.09 0.25 3.76 Newborn 0.03 0.09 0.78 Assumptions made were based on 8 hours resting and 16 hours light activity a for adults and children ( 10 yrs); 14 hours resting and 10 hours light activity data presented in Tables 5 16 and 5 17, a daily inhalation for infants ( 1 yr); 23 hours resting and 1 hour light activity for newborns. b IR = Corresponding inhalation rate at i activity i th t = Hours spent during the i activity i th k = Number of activity periods T = Total time of the exposure period ( i. e., a day)

Source: ICRP, 1981 A limitation associated with this study is that the validity and accuracy of the inhalation rates data used in the compilation were not specified. This may introduce some degree of uncertainty in the results obtained. Also, the approach used involved assuming hours spent by various age/ gender cohorts in specific activities. These assumptions may over/ under estimate the inhalation rates obtained. U. S. EPA ( 1985)  Development of Statistical Distributions or Ranges of Standard Factors Used in Exposure Assessments  Due to a paucity of information in the literature regarding equations used to develop statistical distributions of minute ventilation/ ventilation rate at all activity levels for male and female children and adults, the U. S. EPA ( 1985) compiled measured values of minute ventilation for various age/ gender cohorts from early studies. In more recent investigations, minute ventilations have been measured more as background information than Table 5 16 presents a summary of inhalation rates by age, gender, and activity level ( detailed data are presented in Appendix Table 5A 7). A description of activities included in each activity level is also presented in Table 5 16. Table 5 16 indicates that at rest, the average adult inhalation rate is 0.5 m / hr. The mean inhalation rate for 3 children at rest, ages 6 and 10 years, is 0.4 m / hr. Table 5 3 17 presents activity pattern data aggregated for three microenvironments by activity level for all age groups. The total average hours spent indoors was 20.4, outdoors was 1.77, and in transportation vehicle was 1.77. Based on the rate was calculated for adults and children by using a timeactivity ventilation approach. These data are presented in Table 5 18. The calculated average daily inhalation rate is 16 m / day for adults. The average daily inhalation rate for 3 children ( 6 and 10 yrs) is 18.9 m / day ([ 16.74 + 21.02]/ 2). 3 A limitation associated with this study is that many of the values used in the data compilation were from early studies. The accuracy and/ or validity of the values used and data collection method were not presented in U. S. EPA ( 1985). This introduces uncertainty in the results obtained. An advantage of this study is that the data are actual measurement data for a large number of subjects and the data are presented for both adults and children. Shamoo et al. ( 1990)  Improved Quantitation of Air Pollution Dose Rates by Improved Estimation of Ventilation Rate Shamoo et al. ( 1990) conducted this study to develop and validate new methods to accurately estimate ventilation rates for typical individuals during their normal activities. Two practical approaches were tested for estimating ventilation rates indirectly: ( 1) volunteers were trained to estimate their own VR at IR ' 1 T j K i ' 1 IR i t i Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 18 August 1997 Table 5 16. Summary of Human Inhalation Rates for Men, Women, and Children by Activity Level ( m / hour) 3 a nb Restingc n Lightd n Moderatee n Heavyf Adult male 454 0.7 102 0.8 102 2.5 267 4.8 Adult female 595 0.3 786 0.5 106 1.6 211 2.9 Average adultg 0.5 0.6 2.1 3.9 Child, age 6 years 8 0.4 16 0.8 4 2.0 5 2.3 Child, age 10 years 10 0.4 40 1.0 29 3.2 43 3.9 Values of inhalation rates for males, females, and children ( male and female) presented in this table represent the mean of values reported for each activity level a in 1985. ( See Appendix Table 5A 7 for a detailed listing of the data from U. S. EPA, 1985.) n = number of observations at each activity level. b Includes watching television, reading, and sleeping. c Includes most domestic work, attending to personal needs and care, hobbies, and conducting minor indoor repairs and home improvements. d Includes heavy indoor cleanup, performance of major indoor repairs and alterations, and climbing stairs. e Includes vigorous physical exercise and climbing stairs carrying a load. f Derived by taking the mean of the adult male and adult female values for each activity level. g Source: Adapted from U. S. EPA, 1985.

Table 5 17. Activity Pattern Data Aggregated for Three Microenvironments by Activity Level for all Age Groups Microenvironment Activity Each Microenvironment at Level Each Activity Level Average Hours Per Day in Indoors Resting 9.82 Outdoors Resting 0.505 In Transportation Resting 0.86 Vehicle Light 0.86 Light 9.82 Moderate 0.71 Heavy 0.098 TOTAL 20.4 Light 0.505 Moderate 0.65 Heavy 0.12 TOTAL 1.77 Moderate 0.05 Heavy 0.0012 TOTAL 1.77 Source: Adapted from U. S. EPA, 1985. Table 5 18. Summary of Daily Inhalation Rates Grouped by Age and Activity level Subject ( m / day) Daily Inhalation Rate ( m / day) Total 3 a Daily IRb 3 Resting Light Moderate Heavy Adult Male 7.83 8.95 3.53 1.05 21.4 Adult 3.35 5.59 2.26 0.64 11.8 Female Adult 5.60 6.71 2.96 0.85 16 Averagec Child 4.47 8.95 2.82 0.50 16.74 ( age 6)

Child 4.47 11.19 4.51 0.85 21.02 ( age 10)

Daily inhalation rate was calculated using the following equation: a IR = inhalation rate at i activity ( Table 5 18) i th t = hours spent per day during i activity ( Table 5 19) i th k = number of activity periods T = total time of the exposure period ( e. g., a day)

Total daily inhalation rate was calculated by summing the specific activity b ( resting, light, moderate, heavy) daily inhalation rate.

Source: Generated using the data from U. S. EPA ( 1985) as shown in Tables 5 16 and 5 17.

various controlled levels of exercise; and ( 2) individual VR al., 1990). In the first approach, the training session and HR relationships were determined in another set of involved 9 volunteers ( 3 females and 6 males) from 21 to volunteers during supervised exercise sessions ( Shamoo et 37 years old. Initially the subjects were trained on a Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 19 treadmill with regularly increasing speeds. VR competitive aerobic trainers. This subset of sample measurements were recorded during the last minute of the population tended to underestimate their own physical 3 minute interval at each speed. VR was reported to the activity levels at higher VR ranges. Shamoo et al. ( 1990) subjects as low ( 1.4 m / hr), medium ( 1.5 2.3 m / hr), heavy attributed this to a " macho effect." In the second approach, 3 3 ( 2.4 3.8 m / hr), and very heavy ( 3.8 m / hr or higher) a regression analysis was conducted that related the 3 3 ( Shamoo et al., 1990). logarithm of VR to HR. The logarithm of VR correlated Following the initial test, treadmill training sessions better with HR than VR itself ( Shamoo et al., 1990). were conducted on a different day in which 7 different A limitation associated with this study is that the speeds were presented, each for 3 minutes in arbitrary population sampled is not representative of the general U. S. order. VR was measured and the subjects were given population. Also, ventilation rates were not presented. feedback with the four ventilation ranges provided Training individuals to estimate their VR may contribute to previously. After resting, a treadmill testing session was uncertainty in the results because the estimates are conducted in which seven speeds were presented in subjective. Another limitation is that calibration data were different arbitrary order from the training session. VR was not obtained at extreme conditions; therefore, the VR/ HR measured and each subject estimated their own ventilation relationship obtained may be biased. An additional level at each speed. The correct level was then revealed to limitation is that training subjects may be too laboreach subject after his/ her own estimate. Subsequently, two intensive for widespread use in exposure assessment 3 hour outdoor supervised exercise sessions were studies. An advantage of this study is that HR recordings conducted in the summer on two consecutive days. Each are useful in predicting ventilation rates which in turn are hour consisted of 15 minutes each of rest, slow walking, useful in estimating exposure. jogging, and fast walking. The subjects' ventilation level and VR were recorded; however, no feedback was given to the subjects. Electrocardiograms were recorded via direct connection or telemetry and HR was measured concurrently with ventilation measurement for all treadmill sessions. The second approach consisted of two protocol phases ( indoor/ outdoor exercise sessions and field testing). Twenty outdoor adult workers between 19 50 years old were recruited. Indoor and outdoor supervised exercises similar to the protocols in the first approach were conducted; however, there were no feedbacks. Also, in this approach, electrocardiograms were recorded and HR was measured concurrently with VR. During the field testing phase, subjects were trained to record their activities during three different 24 hour periods during one week. These periods included their most active working and nonworking days. HR was measured quasi continuously during the 24 hour periods that activities were recorded. The subjects recorded in a diary all changes in physical activity, location, and exercise levels during waking hours. Selfestimated activities in supervised exercises and field studies were categorized as slow ( resting, slow walking or equivalent), medium ( fast walking or equivalent), and fast ( jogging or equivalent). Inhalation rates were not presented in this study. In the first approach, about 68 percent of all self estimates were correct for the 9 subjects sampled ( Shamoo et al., 1990). Inaccurate self estimates occurred in the younger male population who were highly physically fit and were Shamoo et al. ( 1991)  Activity Patterns in a Panel of Outdoor Workers Exposed to Oxidant Pollution  Shamoo et al. ( 1991) investigated summer activity patterns in 20 adult volunteers with potentially high exposure to ambient oxidant pollution. The selected volunteer subjects were 15 men and 5 women ages 19 50 years from the Los Angeles area. All volunteers worked outdoors at least 10 hours per week. The experimental approach involved two stages: ( 1) indirect objective estimation of VR from HR measurements; and ( 2) self estimation of inhalation/ ventilation rates recorded by subjects in diaries during their normal activities. The approach consisted of calibrating the relationship between VR and HR for each test subject in controlled exercise; monitoring by subjects of their own normal activities with diaries and electronic HR recorders; and then relating VR with the activities described in the diaries ( Shamoo et al., 1991). Calibration tests were conducted for indoor and outdoor supervised exercises to determine individual relationships between VR and HR. Indoors, each subject was tested on a treadmill at rest and at increasing speeds. HR and VR were measured at the third minute at each 3 minute interval speed. In addition, subjects were tested while walking a 90 meter course in a corridor at 3 self selected speeds ( normal, slower than normal, and faster than normal) for 3 minutes. Two outdoor testing sessions ( one hour each) were conducted for each subject, 7 days apart. Subjects exercised on a 260 meter asphalt course. A session Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 20 August 1997 involved 15 minutes each of rest, slow walking, jogging, subject wore Heart Watches which recorded their HR once and fast walking during the first hour. The sequence was per minute during the field study. Ventilation rates were also repeated during the second hour. HR and VR estimated for the following categories: sleep, slow, medium, measurements were recorded starting at the 8th minute of and fast. each 15 minute segment. Following the calibration tests, a Calibration data were fit to the equation log ( VR) = field study was conducted in which subject's self monitored intercept + ( slope x HR), each individual's intercept and their activities by filling out activity diary booklets, self slope were determined separately to provide a specific estimated their breathing rates, and their HR. Breathing equation that predicts each subject's VR from measured HR rates were defined as sleep, slow ( slow or normal walking); ( Shamoo et al., 1991). The average measured VRs were medium ( fast walking); and fast ( running) ( Shamoo et al., 0.48, 0.9, 1.68, and 4.02 m / hr for rest, slow walking or 1991). Changes in location, activity, or breathing rates normal walking, fast walking and jogging, respectively during three 24 hr periods within a week were recorded. ( Shamoo et al., 1991). Collectively, the diary recordings These periods included their most active working and non showed that sleep occupied about 33 percent of the subject's working days. Each time; slow activity 59 percent; medium activity 7 percent; 3 and fast activity 1 percent. The diary data covered an average of 69 hours per subject ( Shamoo et al., 1991). Table 5 19 presents the distribution pattern of predicted ventilation rates and equivalent ventilation rates ( EVR) obtained at the four activity levels. EVR was defined as the VR per square meter of body surface area, and also as a percentage of the subjects average VR over the entire field monitoring period ( Shamoo et al., 1991).

Table 5 19. Distribution Pattern of Predicted VR and EVR ( equivalent ventilation rate) for 20 Outdoor Workers VR ( m / hr) EVR ( m / hr/ m body surface) 3 a b 3 2 Self Reported Arithmetic Geometric Arithmetic Geometric Activity Level N Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD c Sleep 18,597 0.42 ± 0.16 0.39 ± 0.08 0.23 ± 0.08 0.22 ± 0.08 Slow 41,745 0.71 ± 0.4 0.65 ± 0.09 0.38 ± 0.20 0.35 ± 0.09 Medium 3,898 0.84 ± 0.47 0.76 ± 0.09 0.48 ± 0.24 0.44 ± 0.09 Fast 572 2.63 ± 2.16 1.87 ± 0.14 1.42 ± 1.20 1.00 ± 0.14 Percentile Rankings, VR 1 5 10 50 90 95 99 99.9 Sleep 0.18 0.18 0.24 0.36 0.66 0.72 0.90 1.20 Slow 0.30 0.36 0.36 0.66 1.08 1.32 1.98 4.38 Medium 0.36 0.42 0.48 0.72 1.32 1.68 2.64 3.84 Fast 0.42 0.54 0.60 1.74 5.70 6.84 9.18 10.26 Percentile Rankings, EVR 1 5 10 50 90 95 99 99.9 Sleep 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.36 0.48 0.60 Slow 0.18 0.18 0.24 0.36 0.54 0.66 1.08 2.40 Medium 0.18 0.24 0.30 0.42 0.72 0.90 1.38 2.28 Fast 0.24 0.30 0.36 0.90 3.24 3.72 4.86 5.52 Data presented by Shamoo et al. ( 1991) in liters/ minute were converted to m / hr. a 3 EVR = VR per square meter of body surface area. b Number of minutes with valid appearing heart rate records and corresponding daily records of breathing rate. c Source: Shamoo et al., 1991 Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 21 The overall mean predicted VR was 0.42 m / hr for sleep; substantially misleading in individual cases. Another 3 0.71 m / hr for slow activity; 0.84 m / hr for medium activity; limitation of this study is that elevated HR data of slow 3 3 and 2.63 m / hr for fast activity. activity at the second hour of the exercise session reflect 3 The mean predicted VR and standard deviation, and the persistent effects of exercise and/ or heat stress. Therefore, percentage of time spent in each combination of VR, predictions of VR from the VR/ HR relationship may be activity type ( essential and non essential), and location biased. ( indoor and outdoor) are presented in Table 5 20. Essential activities include income related work, household chores, child care, study and other school activities, personal care and destination oriented travel. Non essential activities include sports and active leisure, passive leisure, some travel, and social or civic activities ( Shamoo et al., 1991). Table 5 20 shows that inhalation rates were higher outdoors than indoors at slow, medium, and fast activity levels. Also, inhalation rates were higher for outdoor non essential activities than for indoor non essential activity levels at slow, medium, and fast self reported breathing rates ( Table 5 20). An advantage of this study is that subjective activity diary data can provide exposure modelers with useful rough estimates of VR for groups of generally healthy people. A limitation of this study is that the results obtained show high within person and between person variability in VR at each diary recorded level, indicating that VR estimates from diary reports could potentially be Shamoo et al. ( 1992)  Effectiveness of Training Subjects to Estimate Their Level of Ventilation  Shamoo et al. ( 1992) conducted a study where nine non sedentary subjects in good health were trained on a treadmill to estimate their own ventilation rates at four activity levels: low, medium, heavy, and very heavy. The purpose of the study was to train the subjects self estimation of ventilation in the field and assess the effectiveness of the training ( Shamoo et al., 1992). The subjects included 3 females and 6 males between 21 to 37 years of age. The tests were conducted in four stages. First, an initial treadmill pretest was conducted indoors at various speeds until the four ventilation levels were experienced by each subject; VR was measured and feedback was given to the subjects. Second, two treadmill training sessions which involved seven 3 minute segments of varying speeds based on initial tests were conducted; VR was measured and feedback was given to the subjects. Another similar session was conducted; however, the subjects estimated Table 5 20. Distribution Pattern of Inhalation Rate by Location and Activity Type for 20 Outdoor Workers Location Activity Type Activity Level % of Time ± SD % of Avg. a Self reported Inhalation rate ( m / hr) 3 b c Indoor Essential Sleep 28.7 0.42 ± 0.12 69 ± 15 Slow 29.5 0.72 ± 0.36 106 ± 43 Medium 2.4 0.72 ± 0.30 129 ± 38 Fast 0 0 0 Indoor Non essential Slow 20.4 0.66 ± 0.36 98 ± 36 Medium 0.9 0.78 ± 0.30 120 ± 50 Fast 0.2 1.86 ± 0.96 278 ± 124 Outdoor Essential Slow 11.3 0.78 ± 0.36 117 ± 42 Medium 1.8 0.84 ± 0.54 130 ± 56 Fast 0 0 0 Outdoor Non essential Slow 3.2 0.90 ± 0.66 136 ± 90 Medium 0.8 1.26 ± 0.60 213 ± 91 Fast 0.7 2.82 ± 2.28 362 ± 275 Essential activities include income related, work, household chores, child care, study and other school activities, personal care, and destination a oriented travel; Non essential activities include sports and active leisure, passive leisure, some travel, and social or civic activities. Data presented by Shamoo et al. ( 1991) in liters/ mintue were converted to m / hr. b 3 Statistic was calculated by converting each VR for a given subject to a percentage of her/ his overall average. c Source: Adapted from Shamoo et al., ( 1991). 60 min hr x m3 1000L x L min Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 22 August 1997 their own ventilation level during the last 20 seconds of each segment and VR was measured during the last minute of each segment. Immediate feedback was given to the subject's estimate; and the third and fourth stages involved 2 outdoor sessions of 3 hours each. Each hour comprised 15 minutes each of rest, slow walking, jogging, and fast walking. The subjects estimated their own ventilation level at the middle of each segment. The subject's estimate was verified by a respirometer which measured VR in the middle of each 15 minute activity. No feedback was given to the subject. The overall percent correct score obtained for all ventilation levels was 68 percent ( Shamoo et al., 1992). Therefore, Shamoo et al. ( 1992) concluded that this training protocol was effective in training subjects to correctly estimate their minute ventilation levels. For this handbook, inhalation rates were analyzed from the raw data provided by Shamoo et al. ( 1992). Table 5 21 presents the mean inhalation rates obtained from this analysis at four ventilation levels in two microenvironments ( i. e., indoors and outdoors) for all subjects. The mean inhalation rates for all subjects were 0.93, 1.92, 3.01, 4.80 m / hr for low, medium, heavy, and very heavy activities, 3 respectively.

Table 5 21. Actual Inhalation Rates Measured at Four Ventilation Levels Subject Location Mean Inhalation Rate ( m / hr) a 3 a Low Medium Heavy Heavy Very All Indoor 1.23 1.83 3.13 4.13 subjects ( Treadmill post) Outdoor 0.88 1.96 2.93 4.90 Total 0.93 1.92 3.01 4.80 Original data were presented in L/ min. Conversion to m / hr was a 3 obtained as follows: among both men and women of different age groups. All Source: Adapted from Shamoo et al., 1992 The population sample size used in this study was small and was not selected to represent the general U. S. population. The training approach employed may not be cost effective because it was labor intensive; therefore, this approach may not be viable in field studies especially for field studies within large sample sizes. AIHC ( 1994)  The Exposure Factors Sourcebook  AIHC ( 1994) recommends an average adult inhalation rate of 18 m / day and presents values for children of various 3 ages. These recommendations were derived from data presented in U. S. EPA ( 1989). The newer study by Layton ( 1993) was not considered. In addition, the Sourcebook presents probability distributions derived by Brorby and Finley ( 1993). For each distribution, the @ Risk formula is provided for direct use in the @ Risk simulation software ( Palisade, 1992). The organization of this document makes it very convenient to use in support of Monte Carlo analysis. The reviews of the supporting studies are very brief with little analysis of their strengths and weaknesses. The Sourcebook has been classified as a relevant rather than key study because it is not the primary source for the data used to make recommendations in this document. The Sourcebook is very similar to this document in the sense that it summarizes exposure factor data and recommends values. As such, it is clearly relevant as an alternative information source on inhalation rates as well as other exposure factors.

5.2.4. Recommendations In the Ozone Criteria Document prepared by the U. S. EPA Office of Environmental Criteria and Assessment, the EPA identified the collapsed range of activities and its corresponding VR as follows: light exercise ( V < 23 L/ min or 1.4 m / hr); moderate/ medium E 3 exercise ( V = 24 43 L/ min or 1.4 2.6 m / hr); heavy E 3 exercise ( V = 43 63 L/ min or 2.6 3.8 m / hr); and very E 3 heavy exercise ( V > 64 L/ min or 3.8 m / hr), ( Adams, E 3 1993). Recent peer reviewed scientific papers and an EPA report comprise the studies that were evaluated in this Chapter. These studies were conducted in the United States are widely available. The confidence ratings in the inhalation rate recommendations are shown in Table 5 22. Each study focused on ventilation rates and factors that may affect them. Studies were conducted among randomly selected volunteers. Efforts were made to include men, women, different age groups, and different kinds of activities. Measurement methods are indirect, but reproducible. Methods are well described ( except for questionnaires) and experimental error is well Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 23 Table 5 22. Confidence in Inhalation Rate Recommendations Considerations Rationale Rating Study Elements C Peer Review Studies are from peer reviewed journal articles and an EPA peer reviewed High report. C Accessibility Studies in journals have wide circulation. High EPA reports are available from the National Technical Information Service. C Reproducibility Information on questionnaires and interviews were not provided. Medium C Focus on factor of interest Studies focused on ventilation rates and factors influencing them. High C Data pertinent to U. S. Studies conducted in the U. S. High C Primary data Both data collection and re analysis of existing data occurred. Medium C Currency Recent studies were evaluated. High C Adequacy of data collection period Effort was made to collect data over time. High C Validity of approach Measurements were made by indirect methods. Medium C Representativeness of the population An effort has been made to consider age and gender, but not systematically. Medium C Characterization of variability An effort has been made to address age and gender, but not systematically. High C Lack of bias in study design Subjects were selected randomly from volunteers and measured in the same High way. C Measurement error Measurement error is well documented by statistics, but procedures measure Medium factor indirectly. Other Elements C Number of studies Five key studies and six relevant studies were evaluated. C Agreement between researchers There is general agreement among researchers using different experimental High methods. Overall Rating Several studies exist that attempt to estimate inhalation rates according to High age, gender and activity.

documented. There is general agreement with these yrs), and older adults ( 65+ yrs). The daily average estimates among researchers. inhalation rates for long term exposure for adults are: 11.3 The recommended inhalation rates for adults, m / day for women and 15.2 m / day for men. These values children, and outdoor workers/ athletes are based on the key are averages of the inhalation rates provided for males and studies described in this chapter ( Table 5 23). Different females in each of the three approaches of Layton ( 1993) survey designs and populations were utilized in the studies ( Tables 5 11 through 5 14). An upper percentile is not described in this Chapter. A summary of these designs, data recommended. Additional research and analysis of activity generated, and their limitations/ advantages are presented in pattern data and dietary data in the future is necessary to Table 5 24. Excluding the study by Layton ( 1993), the attempt to calculate upper percentiles. population surveyed in all of the key studies described in The recommended value for the general population this report were limited to the Los Angeles area. This average inhalation rate, 11.3 m / day for women and 15.2 regional population may not represent the general U. S. m / day for men, is different than the 20 m / day which has population and may result in biases. However, based on commonly been assumed in past EPA risk assessments. other aspects of the study design, these studies were In addition, recommendations are presented for various ages selected as the basis for recommended inhalation rates. and special populations ( athletes, outdoor workers) which The selection of inhalation rates to be used for also differ from 20 m / day. Assessors are encouraged to use exposure assessments depends on the age of the exposed values which most accurately reflect the exposed population and the specific activity levels of this population population. during various exposure scenarios. The recommended For exposure scenarios where the distribution of values for adults, children ( including infants), and outdoor activity patterns is known, the following results, calculated workers/ athletes for use in various exposure scenarios are from the studies referenced are shown in Table 5 25. Based discussed below. These rates were calculated by averaging on these key studies, the following recommendations are the inhalation rates for each activity level from the various made: for short term exposures in key studies ( see Table 5 25). Adults ( 19 65+ yrs)  Adults in this recommendation include young to middle age adults ( 19 64 3 3 3 3 3 3 Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 24 August 1997 Table 5 23. Summary of Recommended Values for Inhalation Population Mean Upper Percentile Long term Exposures Infants < 1 year 4.5 m / day

Children 1 2 years 6.8 m / day  3 5 years 8.3 m / day  6 8 years 10 m / day  9 11 years males 14 m / day  females 13 m / day  12 14 years males 15 m / day  females 12 m / day  15 18 years males 17 m / day  females 12 m / day  summarized in Table 5 27. For short term exposures, the Adults ( 19 65+ yrs) females 11.3 m / day  males 15.2 m / day  3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Short term Exposures Adults Rest 0.4 m / hr  Sedentary Activities 0.5 m / hr  Light Activities 1.0 m / hr  Moderate Activities 1.6 m / hr  Heavy Activities 3.2 m / hr  3 3 3 3 3 Children Rest 0.3 m / hr  Sedentary Activities 0.4 m / hr  Light Activities 1.0 m / hr  Moderate Activities 1.2 m / hr  Heavy Activities 1.9 m / hr

Outdoor Workers Hourly Average 1.3 m / hr 3.3 m / hr Slow Activities 1.1 m / hr Moderate Activities 1.5 m / hr Heavy Activities 2.5 m / hr 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Note: See Tables 5 25, 5 26, and 5 27 for reference studies.

which distribution of activity patterns are specified, the recommended average rates are 0.4 m / hr during rest; 0.5 3 m / hr for sedentary activities; 1.0 m / hr for light activities; 3 3 1.6 m / hr for moderate activities; and 3.2 m / hr for heavy 3 3 activities. Children ( 18 yrs old or less including infants)  For the purpose of this recommendation, children are defined as males and females between the ages of 1 18 years old, while infants are individuals less than 1 year old. The inhalation rates for children are presented below according to different exposure scenarios. The daily inhalation rates for long term dose assessments, are based on the first approach of Layton ( 1993) ( Table 5 11) and are summarized in Table 5 26. Based on the key study results ( i. e., Layton, 1993), the recommended daily inhalation rate for infants ( children less than 1 yr), during long term dose assessments is 4.5 m / day. For children 1 2 years old, 3 5 years old, and 3 6 8 years old, the recommended daily inhalation rates are 6.8 m / day, 8.3 m / day, and 10 m / day, respectively. 3 3 3 Recommended values for children aged 9 11 years are 14 m / day for males and 13 m / day for females. For children 3 3 aged 12 14 years and 15 18 years, the recommended values are shown in Table 5 23. For short term exposures for children aged 18 years and under, in which activity patterns are known, the data are recommended average hourly inhalation rates are based on these key studies. They are averaged over each activity held as follows: 0.3 m / hr during rest; 0.4 m / hr for sedentary 3 3 activities; 1.0 m / hr for light activities; 1.2 m / hr for 3 3 moderate activities; and 1.9 m / hr for heavy activities. The 3 recommended short term exposure data also include infants ( less than 1 yr). These values represent averages of the activity level data from key studies ( Table 5 27). Outdoor Worker  Inhalation rate data for outdoor workers/ athlete are limited. However, based on the key studies ( Linn et al., 1992 and 1993), the recommended average hourly inhalation rate for outdoor workers is 1.3 m / hr and the upper percentile rate is 3.3 m / hr ( see 3 3 Tables 5 5 and 5 8). This is calculated as the weighted mean of the 99th percentile values reported for the individuals on Panels 1 and 7 in Tables 5 5 and the 19 subjects in Table 5 8. The recommended average inhalation rates for outdoor workers based on the activity levels categorized as slow ( light activities), medium ( moderate activities), and fast ( heavy activities) are 1.1 m / hr, 1.5 m / hr, and 2.5 m / hr, respectively. These values 3 3 3 are based on the data from Linn et al. ( 1992 and 1993) and are the weighted mean of the values for the individuals on Panels 1 and 7 in Table 5 5 and the 19 outdoor workers in Table 5 9. Inhalation rates may be higher among outdoor workers/ athletes because levels of activity outdoors may be higher. Therefore, this subpopulation group may be more susceptible to air pollutants and are considered a " high risk" subgroup ( Shamoo et al., 1991; Linn et al., 1992). Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 25 Table 5 24. Summary of Inhalation Rate Studies Study Population Surveyed Survey Time Period Data Generated Limitations/ Advantages KEY INHALATION RATE STUDIES:

Adams, 1993 n= 160, ages 6 77; n = 40, ages 3 12. Three 25 min phases of resting protocol in the lab 6 mins of active protocols in the lab. 30 min phases of field protocols repeated once. Mean values of IR for adult males and females and children by their activity levels. HR correlated poorly with IR.

Layton, 1993 NFCS survey: n . 30,000; NHANES survey:

n . 20,000 Time Activity survey: n . 2,126 Daily IRs; IRs at 5 activity levels;

and IR for short term exposures at 5 activity levels. Reported food biases in the dietary surveys employed; time activity survey was based on recall.

Linn et al., 1992 Panel 1  20 healthy outdoor workers, ages 19

50; Panel 2  17 healthy elementary school students, ages 10 12; Panel 3  19 healthy high school students, ages 13 17; Panel 4  49 adult asthmatics, ages 18 50; Panel 5  24 adult asthmatics, ages 19 46; Panel 6  13 young asthmatics, ages 11 16; Panel 7  7 construction workers, ages 26 34. Late spring and early autumn. 3 diary days. Construction workers' diary day. Mean and upper estimates of IR;

Mean IR at 3 activity levels. Small sample size; Calibration data not obtained over full HR range; activities based on short term diary data.

Linn et al., 1993 n= 19 construction workers. ( Mid July early November, 1991)

Diary recordings before work, during work and break times Distribution patterns of hourly IR by activity level. Small sample population size; breathing rates subjective in nature; activities based on short term diary data.

Spier et al., 1992 n= 36 students, ages 10 17. ( Late September  October) Involved 3 consecutive days of diary recording Distribution patterns of hourly IR by activity levels and location Activities based on short term diary data;

self estimated breathing rate by younger population was biased; small sample population size.

RELEVANT INHALATION RATE STUDIES:

ICRP, 1974 Based on data from other references  Reference daily IR for adult females,

adult males, children ( 10 yrs), and infant ( 1 yr) Validity and accuracy of data set employed not defined; IR was estimated not measured.

Shamoo et al., 1990 n= 9 volunteer workers ages 21 37, n= 20 outdoor workers, 19 50 years old. Involved 3 min indoor session/ two 3

hr outdoor session at 4 activity levels No IR data presented. No useful data were presented for dose assessments studies.

Shamoo et al., 1991 n= 20 outdoor workers, ages 19 50 Diary recordings of three 24 hr.

periods within a week. Distribution patterns of IR and EVR by activity levels and location. Small sample size; short term diary data.

Shamoo et al., 1992 n= 9 non sedentary subjects, ages 21 37. 3 min. intervals of indoor exercises/ two 3 hr outdoor exercise sessions at 4 activity levels. Actual measured ventilation rates presented. Small sample size; training approach may not be cost effective; VR obtained for outdoor workers which are sensitive subpopulation.

U. S. EPA, 1985 Based on data from several literature sources  Estimated IR for adult males, adult females and children ( ages 6 and 10)

by various activity levels. Validity and accuracy of data set employed not defined; IR was estimated not measured.

Note: IR = inhalation rate; HR = heart rate; EVR = equivalent ventilation rate. Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5 26 August 1997 Table 5 25. Summary of Adult Inhalation Rates for Short Term Exposure Studies Arithmetic Mean ( m / hr) 3 Reference Activity Level Rest Sedentary Light Moderate High 0.5 0.5 1.4 2.4 3.3 Adams, 1993 ( Lab protocols)

 0.6 1.2 1.8  Adams, 1993 ( Field protocols)

0.4 0.4 0.7 1.4 3.6 Layton, 1993 ( Short term exposure)

0.4  0.6 1.5 3.0 Layton, 1993 ( 3rd approach)

  1.0 1.6 3.0 Linn et al., 1992 Table 5 26. Summary of Children's ( 18 years old or less) Inhalation Rates for Long Term Exposure Studiesa Arithmetic Mean ( m / day) 3 Age Males Females Females Reference Males and less than 1 yr   4.5 Layton, 1993 1 2 years   6.8 Layton, 1993 3 5 years   8.3 Layton, 1993 6 8 years   10 Layton, 1993 9 11 years 14 13  Layton, 1993 12 14 years 15 12  Layton, 1993 15 18 years 17 12  Layton, 1993 Layton, 1993 1st approach. a Table 5 27. Summary of Children's Inhalation Rates for Short Term Exposure Studies Arithmetic Mean ( m / hr) 3 Reference Activity Level Rest Sedentary Light Moderate High 0.4 0.4 0.8   Adams, 1993 ( Lab protocols)

   0.9  Adams, 1993 ( Field protocols)

0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.5 Layton, 1993 ( Short term data)

  1.8 2.0 2.2 Spier et al., 1992 ( 10 12 yrs)

  0.8 1.0 11 Linn et al., 1992 ( 10 12 yrs) Volume I  General Factors Chapter 5  Inhalation Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5 27 5.3. REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 5 Adams, W. C. ( 1993) Measurement of breathing rate and Sallis, J. F.; Haskell, W. L.; Wood, P. D.; Fortmann, S. P.; volume in routinely performed daily activities, Final Rogers, T.; Blair, S. N.; Paffenbarger, Jr., R. S. ( 1985) Report. California Air Resources Board ( CARB) Physical activity assessment methodology in the Five Contract No. A033 205. June 1993. 185 pgs. City project. Am. J. Epidemiol. 121: 91 106. American Industrial Health Council ( AIHC). ( 1994) Shamoo, D. A.; Trim, S. C.; Little, D. E.; Linn, W. S.; Exposure factors sourcebook. AIHC, Washington, Hackney, J. D. ( 1990) Improved quantitation of air DC. pollution dose rates by improved estimation of Basiotis, P. P.; Thomas, R. G.; Kelsay, J. L.; Mertz, W. ventilation rate. In: Total Exposure Assessment ( 1989) Sources of variation in energy intake by men Methodology: A New Horizon, pp. 553 564. Air and and women as determined from one year's daily Waste Management Assoc., Pittsburgh, PA. dietary records. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 50: 448 453. Shamoo, D. A.; Johnson, T. R.; Trim, S. C.; Little, D. E.; Benjamin, G. S. ( 1988) " The lungs." In: Fundamentals Linn, W. S.; Hackney, J. D. ( 1991) Activity patterns in of Industrial Hygiene, Third Edition, Plog, B. A., ed. a panel of outdoor workers exposed to oxidant Chicago, IL: National Safety Council, p. 31 45. pollution. J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidem. 1( 4): 423 Brorby, G.; Finley, B. ( 1993) Standard probability 438. density functions for routine use in environmental Shamoo, D. A.; Trim, S. C.; Little, D. E.; Whynot, J. D.; health risk assessment. Presented at the Society of Linn, W. S. ( 1992) Effectiveness of training subjects Risk Analysis Meeting, December 1993, Savannah, to estimate their level of ventilation. J. Occ. Med. Tox. GA. 1( 1): 55 62. ICRP. ( 1981) International Commission on Radiological Spier, C. E.; Little, D. E.; Trim, S. C.; Johnson, T. R.; Linn, Protection. Report of the task group on reference W. S.; Hackney, J. D. ( 1992) Activity patterns in man. New York: Pergammon Press. elementary and high school students exposed to Layton, D. W. ( 1993) Metabolically consistent breathing oxidant pollution. J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epid. rates for use in dose assessments. Health Physics 2( 3): 277 293. 64( 1): 23 36. U. S. EPA. ( 1985) Development of statistical Linn, W. S.; Shamoo, D. A.; Hackney, J. D. ( 1992) distributions or ranges of standard factors used in Documentation of activity patterns in " high risk" exposure assessments. Washington, DC: Office of groups exposed to ozone in the Los Angeles area. In: Health and Environmental Assessment; EPA report Proceedings of the Second EPA/ AWMA Conference No. EPA 600/ 8 85 010. Available from: NTIS, on Tropospheric Ozone, Atlanta, Nov. 1991. pp. 701 Springfield, VA; PB85 242667. 712. Air and Waste Management Assoc., Pittsburgh, U. S. EPA. ( 1989) Exposure factors handbook. PA. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Linn, W. S.; Spier, C. E.; Hackney, J. D. ( 1993) Activity Development, Office of Health and Environmental patterns in ozone exposed construction workers. J. Assessment. EPA/ 600/ 18 89/ 043. Occ. Med. Tox. 2( 1): 1 14. U. S. EPA. ( 1992) Guidelines for exposure assessment. Menzel, D. B.; Amdur, M. O. ( 1986) Toxic responses of Washington, DC: Office of Research and the respiratory system. In: Klaassen, C.; Amdur, Development, Office of Health and Environmental M. O.; Doull, J., eds. Toxicology, The Basic Science Assessments. EPA/ 600/ Z 92/ 001. of Poisons. 3rd edition. New York: MacMillan U. S. EPA. ( 1994) Methods for derivation of inhalation Publishing Company. reference concentrations and application of inhalation Najjar, M. F.; Rowland, M. ( 1987) Anthropometric dosimetry. Washington, DC: Office of Health and reference data and prevalence of overweight: United Environmental Assessment. EPA/ 600/ 8 90/ 066F. States. 1976 80. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services: DHHS Publication No. ( PHS) 87 1688. Palisade. ( 1992) @ Risk User Guide. Newfield, NY: Palisade Corporation. Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5A 1 APPENDIX 5A VENTILATION DATA Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5A 3 Table 5A 1. Mean Minute Ventilation ( V , L/ min) by Group and Activity for Laboratory Protocols E Activity Young Children Children Adult Females Adult Males a Lying 6.19 7.51 7.12 8.93 Sitting 6.48 7.28 7.72 9.30 Standing 6.76 8.49 8.36 10.65 Walking 1.5 mph 10.25 DNP DNP DNP 1.875 mph 10.53 DNP DNP DNP 2.0 mph DNP 14.13 DNP DNP 2.25 mph 11.68 DNP DNP DNP 2.5 mph DNP 15.58 20.32 24.13 3.0 mph DNP 17.79 24.20 DNP 3.3 mph DNP DNP DNP 27.90 4.0 mph DNP DNP DNP 36.53 Running 3.5 mph DNP 26.77 DNP DNP 4.0 mph DNP 31.35 46.03 DNP 4.5 mph DNP 37.22 47.86 57.30 5.0 mph DNP DNP 50.78 58.45 6.0 mph DNP DNP DNP 65.66 b b b b Young Children, male and female 3 5.9 yr olds; Children, male and female 6 12.9 yr olds; Adult Females, adolescent, young a to middle aged, and older adult females; Adult Males, adolescent, young to middle aged, and older adult males; DNP, group did not perform this protocol or N was too small for appropriate mean comparisons Older adults not included in the mean value since they did not perform running protocol at particular speeds. b Source: Adams, 1993.

Table 5A 2. Mean Minute Ventilation ( V , L/ min) by Group and Activity for Field Protocols E Activity Young Children Children Adult Females Adult Males a Play 11.31 17.89 DNP DNP Car Driving DNP DNP 8.95 10.79 Car Riding DNP DNP 8.19 9.83 Yardwork DNP DNP 19.23 26.07 / 31.89 Housework DNP DNP 17.38 DNP Car Maintenance DNP DNP DNP 23.21 Mowing DNP DNP DNP 36.55 Woodworking DNP DNP DNP 24.42 e b c d e e Young Children, male and female 3 5.9 yr olds; Children, male and female 6 12.9 yr olds; Adult Females, adolescent, a young to middle aged, and older adult females; Adult Males, adolescent, young to middle aged, and older adult males; DNP, group did not perform this protocol or N was too small for appropriate mean comparisons; Mean value for young to middle aged adults only b Mean value for older adults only c Older adults not included in the mean value since they did not perform this activity. d Adolescents not included in mean value since they did not perform this activity e Source: Adams, 1993. Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5A 4 August 1997 Table 5A 3. Characteristics of Individual Subjects: Anthropometric Data, Job Categories, Calibration Results Subj. # Age ( years) Ht. ( in.) Wt. ( lb.) Calibration Ethnic Group Job Site HR Range r a b c d 2e 1761 26 71 180 Wht GCW Ofc 69 108 .91 1763 29 63 135 Asn GCW Ofc 80 112 .95 1764 32 71 165 Blk Car Ofc 56 87 .95 1765 30 73 145 Wht GCW Ofc 66 126 .97 1766 31 67 170 His Car Ofc 75 112 .89 1767 34 74 220 Wht Car Ofc 59 114 .98 1768 32 69 155 Blk GCW Ofc 62 152 .95 1769 32 77 230 Wht Car Hosp 69 132 .99 1770 26 70 180 Wht Car Hosp 63 106 .89 1771 39 66 150 Wht Car Hosp 88 118 .91 1772 32 71 260 Wht Car Hosp 83 130 .97 1773 39 69 170 Wht Irn Hosp 77 128 .95 1774 23 68 150 His Car Hosp 68 139 .98 1775 42 67 150 Wht Irn Hosp 76 118 .88 1776 29 70 180 His Car Hosp 68 152 .99 1778 35 76 220 Ind Car Hosp 70 129 .94 1779 40 70 175 Wht Car Hosp 72 140 .99 1780 37 75 242 His Irn Hosp 68 120 .98 1781 38 65 165 His Lab Hosp 66 121 .89 Mean 33 70 181 70 123 .94 SD 5 4 36 8 16 .04 Abbreviations are interpreted as follows. Ethnic Group: Asn = Asian Pacific, Blk = Black, His = Hispanic, Ind = American Indian, Wht = a White Job: Car = carpenter, GCW = general construction worker, Irn = ironworker, Lab = laborer b Site: Hosp = hospital buidling, Ofc = medical office complex. Calibration data c HR range = range of heart rates in calibration study d r = coefficient of determination ( proportion of ventilation rate variability explainable by heart rate variability under calibration study e 2 conditions, using quadratic prediction equation). Source: Linn et al., 1993.

Table 5A 4. Statistics of the Age/ Gender Cohorts Used to Develop Regression Equations for Predicting Basal Metabolic Rates ( BMR)

Gender/ Age BMR Body Weight ( y) MJ d ± SD CV ( kg) N BMR Equation r  1 a b c d Males Under 3 3 to < 10 10 to < 18 18 to < 30 30 to < 60 60 + 1.51 0.918 0.61 6.6 162 0.249 bw  0.127 0.95 4.14 0.498 0.12 21 338 0.095 bw + 2.110 0.83 5.86 1.171 0.20 42 734 0.074 bw + 2.754 0.93 6.87 0.843 0.12 63 2879 0.063 bw + 2.896 0.65 6.75 0.872 0.13 64 646 0.048 bw + 3.653 0.6 5.59 0.928 0.17 62 50 0.049 bw + 2.459 0.71 Females Under 3 3 to < 10 10 to < 18 18 to < 30 30 to < 60 60 + 1.54 0.915 0.59 6.9 137 0.244 bw  0.130 0.96 3.85 0.493 0.13 21 413 0.085 bw + 2.033 0.81 5.04 0.780 0.15 38 575 0.056 bw + 2.898 0.8 5.33 0.721 0.14 53 829 0.062 bw + 2.036 0.73 5.62 0.630 0.11 61 372 0.034 bw + 3.538 0.68 4.85 0.605 0.12 56 38 0.038 bw + 2.755 0.68 Coefficient of variation ( SD/ mean) a N = number of subjects b Body weight ( bw) in kg c coefficient of correlation d Source: Layton, 1993. Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5A 6 August 1997 Table 5A 5. Selected Ventilation Values During Different Activity Levels Obtained From Various Literature Sources Col. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Line Subject W ( kg) Resting Light Activity Heavy Work Maximal Work During Exercise f VT V* f VT V* f VT V* f VT V*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Adult Man 1.7 m SA 2 30y; 170 cm L 20 33 y Woman 30 y; 160 cm L 20 25 y; 165.8 cm L Pregnant ( 8th mo) 68.5 70.4 54 60.3 12 12 15 12 15 16 750 500 500 340 400 650 7.4 6 7.5 4.5 6 10 17 16 19 20 1670 1250 860 940 29 20 16 19 21 30 2030 880 43 25 40 46 3050 2100 111 90 9 10 11 12 Adolescent male, 14 16 y male, 14 15 y female, 14 16 y female, 14 15 y; 164.9 cm L 59.4 56 16 15 330 300 5.2 4.5 53 52 2520 1870 113 88 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Children 10 y; 140 cm L males, 10 11 y males, 10 11 y; 140.6 cm L females, 4 6 y females, 4 6 y; 111.6 cm L Infant, 1 y Newborn 20 hrs 13 wk 9.6 hrs 6.6 days 36.5 32.5 20.8 18.4 2.5 2.5 5.3 3.6 3.7 16 30 34 25 29 300 48 15 21 21 4.8 1.4a 0.5 0.5 0.6 24 600 14 58 61 70 66 68b 1330 1050 600 520 51a, b 71 61 40 34 3.5b W = body weights referable to the dimension quoted in column 1; f = frequency ( breaths/ min); VT = tidal volume ( ml); V* = minute volume ( l/ min); SA = surface area; cm L =

length/ height; y = years of age; wk = week.

Calculated from V* = f x VT.

a Crying.

b Source: ICRP, 1981. Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5A 7 Table 5A 6. Estimated Minute Ventilation Associated with Activity Level for Average Male Adult a Level of work L/ min Representative activities Light 13 Level walking at 2 mph; washing clothes Light 19 Level walking at 3 mph; bowling; scrubbing floors Light 25 Dancing; pushing wheelbarrow with 15 kg load; simple construction; stacking firewood Moderate 30 Easy cycling; pushing wheelbarrow with 75 kg load; using sledgehammer Moderate 35 Climbing stairs; playing tennis; digging with spade Moderate 40 Cycling at 13 mph; walking on snow; digging trenches Heavy 55 Cross country skiing; rock climbing; stair climbing Heavy 63 with load; playing squash or handball; chopping Very heavy 72 with axe Very heavy 85 Level running at 10 mph; competitive cycling Severe 100+ Competitive long distance running; cross country skiing Average adult assumed to weigh 70 kg. a Source: Adapted from U. S. EPA, 1985 Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Page Exposure Factors Handbook 5A 8 August 1997 Table 5A 7. Minute Ventilation Ranges by Age, Sex, and Activity Level Ventilation ranges ( liters/ minute)

Age Sex Resting Light Moderate Heavy ( years) n Range Mean n Range Mean n Range Mean n Range Mean Infants M/ F 316 0.25  2.09 0.84

2 F

M

3 F

M

4 F    2 32.0  32.5 32.3 M    4 39.3  43.3 41.2 5 F    3 31.0  35.0 32.8 M    3 30.9  42.6 37.5 6 F    2 35.9  38.9 37.4 M 8 5.0  7.0 6.5 16 5.0  32.0 13.9 4 28.0  43.0 33.3 3 35.5  43.5 40.3 7 F    3 48.2  51.4 49.6 M    2 44.1  55.8 50.0 8 F    4 51.2  67.6 57.6 M    3 59.3  62.2 60.7 9 F    27 55.8  63.4 50.9 M    7 59.5  75.2 65.7 10 F    21 46.2  71.1 60.4 M 10 5.2  8.3 7.1 20 5.2  35.0 17.2 9 41.0  68.0 53.4 6 63.9  74.6 70.5 F    7 49.7  80.9 63.5 M  20  20.3 20  33.1 9 47.6  77.5 65.5 12 F 54 4.1  16.1 15.4  4 19.6  46.3 26.5 31 65.5  79.9 71.8 M 56 7.2  16.3 15.4  6 18.5  46.3 34.1 9 58.1  84.7 67.7 13 F 5 7.2  15.4 9.9  5 18.5  46.3 30.3 7 67.6  102.6 87.7 M 16 3.1  15.4 8.9 30 3.1  24.9 16.4 29 14.4  48.4 32.8 38 27.8  105.0 57.9 14 F 53 3.1  15.6 14.9  3 21.6  37.1 28.1 5 80.7  100.7 88.9 M 77 3.1  27.8 14.2  24 24.7  55.0 39.7 16 42.2  121.0 86.9 15 F 1  6.2  1  26.8 6 68.4  97.1 87.1 M 8 3.1  26.8 11.1  7 27.8  46.3 39.3 6 48.4  140.3 110.5 16 F 50  15.2    8 73.6  119.1 93.9 M 50  15.6   3 79.6  132.2 102.5 17 F    2 91.9  95.3 93.6 M 12 5.8  9.0 7.3  12 40.0  63.0 48.6 3 89.4  139.3 107.7 18 F

M    9 99.7  143.0 120.9 Adults F 595 4.2  11.66 5.7 786 4.2  29.4 8.1 106 20.7  34.2 26.5 211 23.4  114.8 47.9 Adults M 454 2.3  18.8 12.2 102 2.3  27.6 13.8 102 14.4  78.0 40.9 267 34.6  183.4 80.0 n = number of observations Note: Values in liters/ minute can be converted to units of m / hour by multiplying by the conversion factor, 60 minutes/ hour 3 1000 liters/ m Source: Adapted from U. S. EPA, 1985. Volume I  General Factors Appendix 5A Exposure Factors Handbook Page August 1997 5A 9