AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

THE TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST

Epiphytic lichens used in air quality monitoring from Kah Shakes Cove,
Misty Fiords

Karen L. Dillman*, Linda H. Geiser ** and Gregory Brenner***

USDA Forest Service, Tongass National Forest, PO Box 309, Petersburg
Alaska 99833

USDA Forest Service, Suislaw National Forest, PO Box 1148, Corvallis,
Oregon 97339

Pacific Analytics LLC, PO Box 1064, Corvallis, Oregon  97339

December 2007

I. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents

Executive Summary and Acknowledgements	i

Introduction	3

Methods	8

Summary of Percent Sulfur Analysis	16

Summary of Percent Nitrogen Analysis	30

Summary of Al Analysis Results	40

Summary of B Analysis Results 	52

Summary of Ba Analysis Results	64

Summary of Be Analysis Results 	75

Summary of Ca Analysis Results 	76

Summary of Cd Analysis Results 	87

Summary of Co Analysis Results	100

Summary of Cr Analysis Results 	111

Summary of Cu Analysis Results	123

Summary of Fe Analysis Results	135

Summary of K Analysis Results	147

Summary of Li Analysis Results 	159

Summary of Mg Analysis Results	170

Summary of Mn Analysis Results 	181

Summary of Mo Analysis Results	194

Summary of Na Analysis Results 	205

Summary of Ni Analysis Results 	217

Summary of P Analysis Results 	229

Summary of Pb Analysis Results 	241

Summary of Rb Analysis Results	253

Summary of Si Analysis Results 	254

Summary of Sr Analysis Results	265

Summary of Ti Analysis Results	276

Summary of V Analysis Results 	287

Summary of Zn Analysis Results 	298

Thresholds	310

Conclusions	311		.

Literature Cited	320

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Air quality on the Tongass National Forest and in Southeast Alaska is
very good.  The prevailing winds off the Pacific Ocean, the relatively
small amount of industrial development and population centers, and the
general lack of smoke from wildland fire all contribute to maintaining
clean air in the region.  However, localized air pollution from sources
such as mining operations, marine vessels and cruise ships, wood-burning
stoves, vehicle exhaust, diesel power and asphalt plants, incinerators,
and unpaved roads all contribute to the deterioration of air quality
that can impact resources on the Tongass National Forest.  Additionally,
trans-Pacific pollutants such as nitrogen are a growing concern for all
of western North America. .

Federal land managers, including the Forest Service, are required to
protect, manage and improve (where appropriate) air quality on National
Forest Lands by; 1) the Clean Air Act of 1970 (CCA) and its amendments
(Sec 165 (d) (2) (B), 2) the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource
Planning Act of 1974 as amended by the National Forest Management Act
(NFMA) (16 U.S.C. 1602), and 3) the Federal Land Management Policy Act
of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.).  Forest Service managers are also
directed to monitor the effects of air pollution and atmospheric
deposition on forest resources (FSM 2580.44).  Furthermore, the
Chief’s 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge (10YWSC) identifies
air as one of the ten most critical challenge elements for wilderness
stewardship.  Several tasks for wilderness managers concerning air are
to determine if air quality in wilderness is changing, and to develop
strategies for improvement.  These wilderness stewardship goals and
other directives can only be accomplished through establishing a
baseline for air quality values and monitoring of air quality.

Since 1989, air quality biomonitoring has been an integral part of
natural resource management on the Tongass National Forest.  Lichens are
well known sensitive receptors for air pollution and are used as
biomonitors of air quality worldwide.  Some species of lichens are very
tolerant of containments; others are very intolerant and can succumb due
to high levels of contaminants over time.  The most immediate benefit of
biomonitoring is the ability to map conditions at a sampling intensity
(spatial and temporal) which is prohibitively expensive using instrument
monitors.  Lichens are intimately tied to local conditions.  Along with
moisture from the surrounding environment, airborne contaminants are
absorbed easily into the lichen thalli and become concentrated in the
lichen tissues.  Through lichen biomonitoring, areas needing additional
instrument monitoring for human health concerns can also be identified.
Elemental concentration of contaminants in lichens varies by lichen
species, the amount of precipitation , and the exposure time to wet and
dry deposition.  Worldwide ranges are used for certain contaminants
expected at both polluted and clean environments (i.e. natural
background levels) to help determine if enhancements are anthropogenic
or natural.

Results of the most recent biomonitoring initiative using lichens are
reported here, its objectives were to: 1) Establish monitoring sites in
wilderness areas that were not part of the baseline monitoring study of
1989-1994 (10YWSC, FSM 2580.44), 2) Perform elemental analysis of
lichens from wilderness areas that were part of the initial baseline
monitoring study to detect possible changes in concentrations of plant
nutrients and metal-containing contaminants over time (10YWSC, FSM
2580.44), 3) Determine whether relationships exist between element
concentrations in lichens and several physiographic site
characteristics, 4) Establish Forest-wide provisional threshold levels
for four lichen species and 27 elements (NFMA, FSM 2850.44), 5) Identify
areas on the Forest where element concentrations in lichens are elevated
above threshold (NFMA), 6) At locations where thresholds are exceeded,
determine whether enhancement is due to anthropogenic or natural sources
(10YWSC, NFMA, FSM 2580.44), and 7) Determine patterns of contaminant
accumulation in lichens near downtown Juneau on Mt Roberts and at Greens
Creek mining facility on Admiralty Island (FSM 2580.44).  Monitoring
locations outside wilderness near known polluted areas will be used in
future modeling of air pollution gradients in the Alaska Region.

Elements analyzed simultaneously in lichens at the University of
Minnesota Soil Laboratory with the inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrophotometry (ICP_AES) method were: Al, B, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd,
Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, Si, Sr, Ti, V and
Zn (expressed in ppm).  Total sulfur and nitrogen were analyzed
separately with a slightly different method.  Provisional threshold
levels for all elements were estimated for four lichen species through
the use of; 1) ICP-AES contaminant concentrations measured in Tongass
National Forest lichens from 1989 to 2005, and 2) the 97.5% quantiles
for contaminant concentrations in lichens from sites that are relatively
free from human disturbance and pollution effects.  Provisional
thresholds are the upper most limits for element concentrations expected
in target lichen species from background (clean) sites.  Concentrations
above threshold can be considered elevated due to enhancement from
natural or anthropogenic sources.  Of the 127 monitoring sites with
elemental data, 88 were used to calculate thresholds.

Except the Maurelle Islands wilderness, all wilderness areas on the
Tongass National Forest contain; 1) at least two lichen biomonitoring
plots, 2) lichen tissue analyzed for elemental content and 3) epiphytic
lichen community presence/absence and abundance data available for
future analysis.  There were no significant differences in the elemental
content from five wilderness areas and one Research Natural Area (RNA)
near a wilderness that had repeated tissue data (Kootznoowoo, Misty
Fiords, Tebenkof, Pleasant Island, and Karta Lake wilderness areas and
Pikes Lake RNA).  No significant relationships were found between
elemental content in lichens and physiographic characteristics such as
latitude, longitude, precipitation and elevation across the Tongass.

Of the 127 monitoring sites, 58 contained at least one lichen species
that was at or above the threshold for one or more elements.  Twenty of
the 58 are in wilderness areas.  Most of the elevated concentrations of
certain elements in lichens from wilderness areas were likely due to
natural variation, possibly enhanced by salt spray in exposed locations
(e.g. Ca, Mg, K, S, and Mn), local geology or windblown soils (e.g. Al,
Ba, Li, Si, Ni, Ti).  Additionally, some lichens from wilderness
monitoring sites at beach locations were above threshold for elements
such as sulfur and nitrogen (i.e. Coronation, Warren and Tebenkof).
Although ocean spray is likely the source for these elements, the bays
in these wildernesses are also popular marine vessel anchorages where
fossil fuel combustion releases nitrogen and sulfur containing
emissions.

In areas near human activities outside wilderness, lichens found to be
enhanced with contaminants may be due to unpaved road dust, vehicle
exhaust, power plants and other small industries, and past mining
activities.  The lichens analyzed near the Sitka pulp mill from the
early 1990’s were above threshold in many contaminants including S and
heavy metals.  Future work will focus on going back to Sitka to
determine if levels have dropped due to the closure of the mill.  The
ICP-AES analysis does not differentiate as to the source or type of
compounds analyzed (such as the many compounds containing S both from
anthropogenic and natural sources).  Therefore, knowledge of the area
and historic and current human uses are used to infer the sources of the
elevated elements.

Lichens from the Greens Creek Mine vicinity contained more elements
above threshold than any other monitoring site on the Tongass National
Forest.  From a site in the vicinity of the tailings pile, 19 elements
were above threshold, including S, N, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn.  Two
locations near the mine portal were sampled; lichens from approximately
250 ft away from the portal had fewer elements above threshold than the
lichens near the entrance to the portal (7 compared to 12).  Contaminant
levels of certain heavy metals in some lichen species were within the
worldwide ranges considered enhanced due to mining and smelter
activities.  Future establishment of monitoring sites in a gradient of
distances away from the mining activities may help determine at what
distance contaminant levels in lichens drop below threshold.

Lichens from Mt Roberts were above thresholds in many elements; 13
elements at the 175 ft elevation (including S, N, Cu, Fe, Cr, P, K and
Ni), five elements at the 600 ft elevation (S, K,P, V and Ni), four
elements at the 910 ft elevation (K S, Zn, P), two elements at the 1241
ft elevation (K and P) and three elements at the 1750 ft elevation (Zn,
K, P).  The contaminent levels in lichens from Mt Roberts were enhanced
by several sources including vehicle exhaust, diesel generators, wood
stoves, past mining, and cruise ship emissions.  The main source of
sulfur and nitrogen found in lichens from Mt Roberts may be due to
burning of fossil fuels by the cruise ships and other vehicles in
downtown Juneau.  To address human and ecosystem health concerns, a
gradient of monitoring sites should be established in the area to
determine how far the impacts from burning of fossil fuels in downtown
Juneau are detected in lichens.

Elevated contaminants in lichens were more indicative of localized
emission and dusts rather than poor regional air quality.  Enhanced
concentrations of certain elements in lichens are evidence that human
activities near and on the Forest generate air pollution and the
associated airborne contaminants are being introduced into the
ecosystem.  However, natural sources of some elements can also be high
in lichens.  Lichens from polluted and clean areas exist in dynamic
equilibrium with the environmental conditions in which they are growing.
 Certain containments can affect photosynthesis and other metabolic
processes in lichens more readily than others, such as sulfur, nitrogen,
and some heavy metals.  Additional work is needed to combine elemental
analysis with the diversity and abundance of expected lichen species.  A
community analysis of epiphytic lichens would provide a sensitive tool
for land managers to detect status and trends in air quality on the
Forest in general and around local or stationary sources

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The recent biomonitoring program with lichens was prompted through the
keen interest of the Tongass National Forest wilderness managers.  In
their desire to attain Tongass wilderness areas to national standards of
wilderness management for air quality they were instrumental in having
lichen plots established in most wilderness areas.  Rich Fisher and the
USDA Forest Service Air Program provided financial support during the
initiation of this recent program.  Alaska Region Air Program and
resource managers Ann Puffer and Dave Mott, and Tongass National Forest
Wilderness Program manager Bill Tremblay provided additional support to
complete this work.  Region 6 Air Program and the Siuslaw National
Forest provided technical support, interpretation of the results, and
data base management of the elemental and community data.  Much
appreciation is owed to Anne Ingersoll from Region 6, and Jim Riley who
carefully entered the lichen data into the R6 database.  Gina Siroy,
(GIS Tongass)  assisted in creating the GIS map of plot locations.  Many
thanks to the people who have helped establish biomonitoring sites:
Albert Faure and Carolyn Morehouse (State of Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation Commercial Passenger Vessel Compliance
Program) Steve Hohensee (Minerals Specialist USFS), Kerry Lear (Greens
Creek), Chiska Derr (Army Corps of Engineers-Juneau ), Brad Kreickhause
(Botanist USFS), Steve Trimble (Ecologist, USFS), Patti Krosse
(Ecologist, USFS), Rick L Turner (Ecologist USFS), Barb Schrader
(Regional Ecologist USFS), Mary Clemens (Recreation Forester USFS),
Kevin Hood (Wilderness Ranger USFS), Tim Lydon (Lead Wilderness Ranger
USFS), John Neary (Wilderness Field Manager USFS), Stephanie Clemens
(Botanist USFS), Joni Johnson (Ecologist USFS), Kyle Kinsman (Biological
Technician USFS), Mary Beth Nelson (Recreation Planner USFS), Mary
Emerick (Wilderness Manager USFS),  (Brad Hunter (Wilderness Manager
USFS), Carin Christensen (Wilderness Ranger USFS), Chris Prew
(Wilderness Manager USFS), and Dave Rak (Wilderness Manager USFS).

III. INTRODUCTION

III.I History of air quality biomonitoring with lichens on National
Forests in Alaska

The United States Congress enacted the Clean Air Act (CAA) in 1970 and
its amendments in 1977 and 1990 in response to an increased awareness of
the nationwide consequences of air pollution and environmental
degradation.  Under the CAA the Federal Land Manager has the
responsibility, specifically the Regional Forester for Alaskan national
forests, to monitor air pollution and to protect this resource.  Other
national air mandates followed include: 1) The Forest and Rangeland
Renewable Resource Planning Act of 1974 as amended by the National
Forest Management Act (16 U.S.C. 1602), 2) The Federal Land Management
Policy Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.) 3) Forest Service Manual
2580.44, and 4) Chief’s 10 year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge.

In response to the national mandates, the Tongass National Forest and
the Alaska Regional Soil, Water, and Air Program of the Forest Service
initiated the use of lichens as biomonitors of air pollution on the
Tongass National Forest (Geiser et al. 1994).  Seventy-three permanent
monitoring sites were established between 1989 and 1992 (Geiser et al
1994).  Lichen samples were collected and analyzed for baseline
pollutant concentrations (Geiser et al. 1994).  In this document, the
1989-1992 baseline monitoring period will henceforth be referred to as
baseline monitoring.

Aside from sites close to industries and major population centers, the
baseline monitoring data indicated that air quality on the Tongass was
relatively good.  A similar baseline monitoring pilot study was
initiated on the Chugach National Forest (Derr 1997).

Lichens are considered one of the most pollution sensitive components of
the vegetation within a given ecosystem and can have predictive value in
assessing future effects on vascular plants (Nash & Gries 1991)  Lichens
are composite organisms formed by a fungus and a green alga and/or
blue-green bacterium.  They lack the mechanism utilized by higher plants
for water uptake (e.g. roots, conducting tissue) and regulation of gas
exchange (e.g. stomata, waxy cuticle).  The elemental content of lichens
is strongly affected by atmospheric influences: gases, particulate
matter and precipitation.  Studies have shown the usefulness of lichens
to monitor air pollutants by translating pollutant concentration numbers
to tangible effects on biological systems (Herzig et al 1989, Sigal &
Nash 1983, Farmer et. al. 1991).  Biomonitoring can provide a sensitive
overview of air quality and detect fairly small changes in air quality
geographically or over time (Boonpragob & Nash 1990, Richardson 1988,
Garty 1988, USFS 2006).

Lichens are found in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems on the Tongass
National Forest.  An inventory listed over 500 lichens and allied fungi
from 112 genera within the Tongass National Forest (Geiser et al. 1998).

III.II Tongass Lichen Biomonitoring Program 2003-2005

In 2003, the Tongass initiated the recent phase of biomonitoring with
lichens. In this report, the 2003-2005 monitoring period will henceforth
be referred to as the second monitoring period.

To date, 127 locations contain lichen tissue chemistry data from the
Tongass National Forest and nearby environs (Figure III-1, see
Conclusions Table XXXIII-1).  Of the 127 locations, 52 are within a
wilderness boundary.  Of the 52, 13 were revisited during the second
monitoring period (Table III-1).  Except for the Maurelle Islands, all
wilderness areas on the Tongass contain permanent air quality
biomonitoring plots.

In 2005, the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Division
of Water, Commercial Passenger Vessel Environmental Compliance Program
Manager recommended that lichens be collected along an elevational
gradient on the trail to Mt. Roberts in Juneau as part of the Tongass
biomonitoring program.  The results would help determine the locations
of future instrumental air monitor installations for detecting pollution
in downtown Juneau.  Plots were also established at the Greens Creek
Mine on Admiralty Island (Figure III-1).  All lichen samples were
evaluated for their chemical composition with the Soil Analytical
Laboratory of the University of Minnesota.  The data were submitted to
Pacific Analytics for statistical analysis.

In summary, the objectives of the second biomonitoring period were to:

1) Establish monitoring sites in wilderness areas that were not part of
the baseline monitoring study of 1989-1994

 2) Perform elemental analysis of lichens from wilderness areas that
were part of the initial baseline monitoring study to detect possible
changes in concentrations of plant nutrients and metal-containing
contaminants over time

3) Determine whether relationships exist between element concentrations
in lichens and several physiographic site characteristics

4) Establish Forest-wide provisional threshold levels for four lichen
species and 27 elements

5) Identify areas on the Forest where element concentrations in lichens
are elevated above threshold

6) At locations where thresholds are exceeded, determine whether
enhancement is due to anthropogenic or natural sources

7) Determine patterns of contaminant accumulation in lichens near
downtown Juneau on Mt Roberts and at Greens Creek mining facility on
Admiralty Island

Table III-1. Summary of lichen biomonitoring plots in wilderness and
others on the Tongass National Forest visited between 2003 and 2005.
Site names in bold were first established between 2003 and 2005.

Site Name

Plot numbers	Plots from 1989-91 with tissue data that were revisited

Date

Coronation Island	513, 514	NA	July 14-15, 2005

Chuck River	491, 492, 493	NA	July 19- 20, 2003

Endicott River	506, 507, 508	NA	July 27-28, 2005

Greens Creek Mine	511, 512	NA	July 26, 2005

Karta River	159	159

August 5, 2004

Kootznoowoo	189, 190	189, 190	June 7, 2005

Kuiu	498, 499	NA	August 23, 2004

Misty Fjords	86, 88	86, 88	May 19, 2005

Mt. Roberts-Juneau	1000, 1001, 1002,1003,1004	NA	July 29, 2005

Petersburg Creek/Duncan Salt Chuck	116, 57	116	August 26, 2004

Pleasant Island	145, 146	145, 146	July 28, 2004

Russell Fjords and Pikes Lake RNA	62, 69	 69 (Pikes Lake)

Figure III-1. Lichen biomonitoring plots on the Tongass National Forest
that contain elemental data.

IV. Methods

Plots, tissue collection and abundance estimates

For the second monitoring period, lichens were collected during the
summers of 2003, 2004, and 2005.  Protocol for permanent plot
establishment followed Geiser et. al (1994) and Geiser (2004).  General
plot locations in each new wilderness visited were determined by the
accessibility to an area and the cost of the transportation methods.
Plots were established in mature and old-growth forest habitats at the
beach fringe, subalpine, and in Pinus contorta peatlands.  Except for
the presence of abundant material of the target lichen species for
chemical analysis, plot centers were arbitrarily selected without a
preconceived bias.  All plots, except for those along the Mt Robert
trail, have a narrow, one -meter aluminum or PCV plastic pole marking
plot center for relocation purposes.  Mt Roberts Trail is not on
National Forest lands.

Tissue collection and sample treatment followed Geiser (2004).  Voucher
lichens from each plot were first identified and given an abundance
rating by the lichenologist working in the field.  Later, the
identifications were verified and databased by contract lichenologists
and the Region 6 database technician in Corvallis Oregon.

Abundance estimates for each macrolichen species per plot followed Derr
(1994) and Geiser et al (1994).  Abundance ratings used are similar to
FIA (Forest Inventory Analysis) (Geiser 2004).  Abundance ratings used
in Derr (1994) were developed before FIA had formal ratings established
for lichens.  Therefore to remain consistent, the second monitoring
period continued to use ratings from Derr (1994) and Geiser et al (1994)
baseline monitoring.  If necessary, abundance ratings from this study
can be transformed into FIA ratings.

All Tongass air quality plot information, elemental values, and lichen
community and abundance data are found in the   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nacse.org/lichenair"  www.nacse.org/lichenair  website.

Mt Roberts and Greens Creek Mine

Collection sites on Mt Roberts were established at five elevations that
were determined after the first tissues were collected at 1745 ft above
sea level.   Samples were collected at; 1745, 1241, 910, 600 and 175 ft
above sea level (plot numbers 1004, 1003, 1002, 1001, and 1000
respectively).  Elevations were determined using a Garmin Vista GPS
altimeter with less than 20 ft accuracy where possible.

Plots at Greens Creek were intentionally located near suspected
pollution sources; about 250 ft upstream from the mine portal (Plot
511a), just across the bridge from the portal on the road (Plot 511b)
and near the ore tailings pile (Plot 512).  Samples collected at 511b
were not collected from an established plot, but from trees scattered
along the edge of the road leading into the mine that receive road dust
and other airborne elements related to the mine portal.  The other two
locations (511a, and 512) have permanent plot markers.

Samples for Elemental Analysis

The lichens collected for elemental analysis are: Alectoria sarmentosa
(Witch’s Hair lichen), Hypogymnia enteromorpha, H. appinata, H.
inactiva ( Tube lichens), Lobaria oregana  (Lettuce lichen), and
Platismatia glauca  (Varied Rag lichen).  Depending on the dominant
species of Hypogymnia in the plot area, a single species of Hypogymnia
was collected at a given plot for elemental analysis.  However, for the
data analysis the elemental data for all Hypogymnia species were
combined because little difference in pollution tolerance or
accumulation rates exists among the species in this genus.  The lichen
P. glauca was not targeted for elemental analysis during the baseline
monitoring period.  Therefore, the second monitoring period contains
baseline values of P. glauca for the Tongass.

  SHAPE  \* MERGEFORMAT

Figure IV-1 Alectoria sarmentosa (Witche’s Hair) at Hugh Smith Lake,
Misty Fiords. Photo by Karen L. Dillman

Figure IV-2. Hypogymnia apinnata (Tube lichen) is one of several species
in the genus Hypogymnia collected for air quality biomonitoring.  Photo
by Karen L. Dillman

Figure IV-3 Lobaria oregana (Lung lichen) from Tebenkof wilderness.
Photo by Karen L. Dillman

Figure IV-4. Platismatia glauca (Rag lichen) from Endicott River
wilderness. Photo by Karen L. Dillman

Laboratory analysis

Lichens were prepared and sent to the University of Minnesota’s Soil
Analytical Laboratory at the end of each field season.  This laboratory
also analyzed the lichen tissue from the baseline monitoring.  Protocols
for sample preparation for the inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrophotometry (ICP_AES) analysis are found in Geiser et al.
(1994).  Standards were the same as those from the baseline monitoring
period (Geiser et al 1994).  No analytical splits were run with the
samples.  Duplicates from the tissue sample were run at the same time as
the rest of the samples.  Duplicate means were used in the statistical
analysis for lichen species per element.

Nitrogen and sulfur are anlysed in lichens separately (see below).  The
elements determined simultaneously in ICP are: calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), aluminum
(Al), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni),
lead (Pb), beryllium (Be), barium (Ba), boron (B), vanadium (V),
molybdenum (Mo), rubidium (Rb), lithium (Li), strontium (Sr), silicon
(Si) and tititanium (Ti).  The values for beryllium, molybdenum, and
rubidium were below the detection limits of the ICP machine and will not
be described in detail in this report.  Baseline monitoring did not
report data for beryllium, barium, vanadium, lithium, strontium,
silicon, and titanium.  Therefore, the second monitoring period also
contains baseline data for these seven elements.

All elements, except nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) are reported in ppm
(parts per million).  For example, 2,500 mg of Calcium (Ca) per
1,000,000 mg of plant material is expressed on a dry weight basis of
plant material (ppm).  Nitrogen and sulfur are presented in percent (%)
of dry weight.  Nitrogen and sulfur are traditionally expressed in
percent rather than ppm due to the generally higher levels of N and S
found in plant material as compared to other elements.  Percent can
easily be converted to ppm by moving the decimal of the value over four
places to the right.  For example, if percent N is 1.25 then this is
equivalent to 12,500 ppm.

During the second monitoring period, 241 individual samples were
analyzed for all elements, with 76 percent of the samples analyzed for
nitrogen and 83 percent of the samples analyzed for sulfur (Table IV.
1).

Table IV-1 Summary for lichen samples analyzed for all elements,
nitrogen, and sulfur for 2003-2005.

Year	All elements	Nitrogen	Sulfur

2003	11	11	0

2004	121	101	118

2005	82	71	82

Totals	241	183	200

Nitrogen and Sulfur

A small portion of each ground sample was analyzed for total sulfur and
total nitrogen following the procedures described in Geiser et al.
(1994).  For total N, a small portion of each ground sample (except
samples of Lobaria oregana), were analyzed for total N.  Lobaria oregana
is a nitrogen-fixing lichen containing cyanobacteria that fix
atmospheric N into a usable form for plants.  Therefore, it is not a
good indicator of elevated levels of N in lichens.

Baseline monitoring contained N values only for a small subset of
Alectoria sarmentosa collected at the end of the monitoring period
(Geiser et. al 1994; Derr 1994).  The second monitoring period analyzed
all Alectoria sarmentosa for N.  The second monitoring period also
contains baseline N values for Platismatia glauca and the combined
Hypogymnia species.

Paired t-tests

Thirteen of the baseline monitoring plots were revisited during the
second monitoring period (Table IV-2).  Paired t-tests were used to
determine if element content in lichens changed in pre-2000 and
post-2000 samples.  Paired t-tests are used where the entities measured
in each sample are pairwise dependent. The goal is to test whether the
mean difference between paired values is significantly different from
zero (Ramsey and Schafer 1997).

Table IV-1. Revisited sites from which data were used for paired
t-tests. Sites in bold are those where elemental analysis was repeated
for nitrogen in Alectoria sarmentosa .

Plot Number	Location	Plot Number	Location

TNF 30	Stikine-LeConte	TNF 145, 146 	Pleasant Island

TNF 31	Stikine-LeConte	TNF 159	Karta River

TNF033	Tebenkof	TNF 189, 190	Kootznoowoo

TNF069	Pikes Lake	TNF 86, 88	Misty Fiords

TNF101	Yakobi

TNF116	Petersburg Ck

Trends in Relation to Physiographic Features

Data were analyzed by regression to detect possible trends in lichen
accumulation of elements in relation to year, latitude, longitude,
precipitation, and elevation. Average precipitation was determined by
using data for the nearest station at   HYPERLINK
"http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/stationlocator"
www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/stationlocator

Provisional Thresholds

Provisional element analysis thresholds are levels of elements in
certain lichen species that above which can be considered elevated.  For
this study, threshold is based on lichen species and background levels
of air pollutants found in southeast Alaska.  Thresholds were estimated
for each element and lichen species by using the non-parametric 97.5%
quartile in the data recorded from sites that are considered relatively
free of human disturbance and pollution effects.  Thresholds were
calculated from 88 of the 127 plots that contain elemental tissue data
collected between 1989 and 2005.  Fifty-one of the 52 wilderness plots
were considered pristine, even though some mining has occurred in the
past in some wilderness areas.  Fishing vessels also anchor off shore of
many wilderness areas.  Russell Fiords plot 62, which is within a mile
of an existing road was excluded as a pristine area and is shown in the
graphs as a non-wilderness plot.  Some of the non-wilderness plots
considered pristine are from Pikes Lake Research Natural Area (RNA), Old
Toms Creek RNA, Dog Island, Kell Bay, Cape Fanshaw RNA, and Crystal
Mountain on Mitkof Island.  Thresholds are displayed as a solid line for
each element and lichen species in the graphed figures for elemental
content by year.  A summary of the thresholds by element is found in
Chapter XXXII.

To provide a broader picture of the elemental content of lichens from
the Tongass, threshold levels are cursorily compared to published
background levels from the Pacific Northwest.  The term “background
level” refers to the normal elemental content in a species in
environments without enrichment of elements from natural or
anthropogenic sources (USDA 1999).  The term “baseline level” refers
to the elemental content in collections from a given area that is
recorded as historical points of reference (USDA 1999).  Tongass
baseline levels for three of the four lichen species analyzed in this
report are found in Geiser et al. (1994).  Tongass threshold levels are
generally higher than background and baseline levels due to the natural
enhancement of some elements from the hypermaritime environment and
active geologic processes of the region.

Software used for all statistical analyses was S-Plus 2000 (MathSoft
1988-1999).

V. Summary of results for percent Sulfur (% S) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a by-product of coal or fuel-oil combustion, ore
reduction, paper manufacturing or other industrial processes, and
vehicle exhaust.  It is considered to be the primary factor causing
lichen mortality in most urban and industrial areas, with fruticose or
hair- like lichens being more susceptible to SO2 than many foliose or
crustose lichens (Seaward 1974).  The first indications of SO2 damage in
lichens are the inhibition of nitrogen fixation in lichens that contain
cyanobacteria, increased electrolyte leakage, and decreased
photosynthesis and respiration followed by discoloration and death of
the algae (Fields 1988).

The ICP analysis used in biomonitoring cannot distinguish between
different forms of sulfur in a lichen sample.  The two forms that are
generally considered are inorganic sulfur (sulfates) and organic sulfur
(sulfur in combination with organic molecules of the plant).  The ICP
method converts both forms into SO2 gas and then measures the SO2 by
infra-red detection.  This is the total sulfur reported (% S).  Natural
sources of sulfur can come from seawater and can be deposited on
vegetation from ocean spray.  Industrial pollution is also caused by
sulfates (SO2 gas from smokestakes that has combined with water in the
atmosphere to form sulfates). Although many lichens are very sensitive
to sulfur pollution, the lichens used in biomonitoring studies are
relatively tolerant to elevated sulfur levels.  Deposition must be high
to have potentially toxic effects to sulfur tolerant lichens.

The lichens in wilderness areas on the Tongass are not expected to be
high in sulfur due to considerable distances from anthropogenic sources
in the region.  Threshold values for % S in lichens are the following:
Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar) (.06 %), Hypogymnia species (.09%),
Lobaria oregana (Lobore)(.13%) and Platismatia glauca (Plagla) (.08%).

Elemental plot means for % S in wilderness for each lichen species per
year are at or below the % S threshold levels reported above (Figure
V-1).  Exceptions are plots 33 and 510 for Alesar (Figure V-4 for
Tebenkof and Warren Island respectively) and plots, 500 and 516 for
Lobore (Figure V-8 for Tebenkof and South POW respectively), which
report plot means slightly above the % S threshold.  Plot mean for % S
in Plagla and Hypogymnia in some non-wilderness plots (Greens Creek mine
and Mt Roberts) also report above threshold (see: Figure V-2 for plot
means in non-wilderness per year ((blue diamonds and pink squares for
2005)), Figure V-4 for Alesar (plots 1000, 512), Figure V- 6 for
Hypogymnia (plots 512, 511b), and Figure V-10 for Plagla (plots 511a,
511b, 512).

 SUMMARY OF PERCENT SULFUR DATA ANALYSIS

Figure V-1. Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur

in All Species per year.

Figure V-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table V-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Alectoria
sarmentosa per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.0344	0.0019	0.0292	0.0395

1989	Wilderness	0.0402	0.0030	0.0326	0.0478

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.0352	0.0033	0.0283	0.0420

1990	Wilderness	0.0264	0.0030	0.0190	0.0338

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.0259	0.0011	0.0236	0.0281

1991	Wilderness	0.0287	0.0027	0.0213	0.0361

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.0236	0.0011	0.0210	0.0262

2004	Wilderness	0.0386	0.0039	0.0304	0.0467

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.0592	0.0113	0.0302	0.0883

2005	Wilderness	0.0418	0.0039	0.0329	0.0506

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.6884, df = 8, p-value = 0.1298

There is no evidence of a difference in mean % S content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post-2000(p-value = 0.1298).  This analysis
was for ten plots that had repeated values for % sulfur in Alectoria
sarmentosa: Karta River (#159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake
RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116),
Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty
Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures V-3,
V-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure V-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure V-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table V-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Hypogymnia
species per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.0620	0.0060	0.0142	0.1382

1989	Wilderness	0.0599	0.0014	0.0560	0.0637

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.0821	0.0078	0.0656	0.0986

1990	Wilderness	0.0511	0.0030	0.0438	0.0585

2004	Wilderness	0.0603	0.0012	0.0572	0.0634

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.2466	0.1004	0.1854	0.6786

2005	Wilderness	0.0746	0.0032	0.0673	0.0820

No t-tests were preformed for Hypogymnia due to any repeated samples.

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( see V-5 and V-6)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure V-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure V-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table V-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Lobaria oregana
per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.0966	0.0065	0.0760	0.1172

1989	Wilderness	0.1055	0.0073	0.0851	0.1259

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.1203	0.0038	0.1122	0.1285

1990	Wilderness	0.1016	0.0036	0.0922	0.1109

2004	Wilderness	0.0980	0.0067	0.0824	0.1136

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.1242	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.1147	0.0067	0.0932	0.1361

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.1448, df = 4, p-value = 0.8884

There is no evidence of a difference in mean % S content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.8884).  This
analysis was for five plots that had repeated values for % S in Lobaria
oregana, Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#
86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( see Figures V-7
and V-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure V-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure V-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table V-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Platismatia
glauca per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.053483	0.002511	0.047802	0.059164

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.166472	0.046996	0.06016	0.272784

2005	Wilderness	0.066829	0.004328	0.056595	0.077063

No t-test was done due to lack of repeat samples.  The values for % S
are baseline for Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Platismatia glauca
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( see Figures
V-9 and V-10 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure V-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure V-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: Percent Sulfur (% S) and all lichen species

 General lichen enhancement levels for S due to urban or industrial
sources are between .20 and 1.3 % S (USDA 1999).  All thresholds of S
for all lichen species are below .20 ppm.  However, mean S in some
lichens are above threshold and therefore within the range of the
enhanced levels.  Some of the enhanced lichens are in urban areas, but
others are in wilderness.  Since the ICP analysis does not differentiate
between the sulfur types, it is difficult to determine if the wilderness
lichens are elevated in sulfur due to their proximity to the ocean and
in the variation in precipitation that washes pollutants out over time.
It is most likely that the lichens with enhanced % S in urban and
industrial areas are due to anthropogenic sources, as the lichens are
not growing in exposed maritime beach locations in these urban or
industrial areas.  The difficulty lies in determining if the enhanced
values in some of the wilderness lichens are due to the close proximity
to the marine environment or to popular marine vessel anchorages and/or
passageways in some.  Trends in sulfur content can only be detected
through repeated monitoring efforts to elucidate patterns of
accumulation that may exist in these areas of elevated sulfur.
Therefore, more sampling at regular intervals (every five years) is
needed to determine the extent of the % S accumulation in the areas with
values above threshold.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

The estimated background for S in Alesar in the Pacific Northwest is 350
ppm (or .035 % S) (USDA 1999).  Threshold for % S from Alesar in
Southeast Alaska (.060 %) is elevated above the background .035 % due to
the hypermaritime environment in this region.  Yet, Alesar accumulates
less and has a lower % S threshold compared to other lichens (Fig V-1
and V-2).  Plot means of % S are above threshold in Alesar from plots
240, 33, 1000, 512, and 510 (Figure V-4).  Plot 240, established in
1990, was within 3 km of the Sitka pulp mill which emitted sulfur
dioxide in the paper bleaching process.  This plot was not revisited
during the second monitoring phase.  The elevated % S in plots 33 and
510 could be due to close proximity to the open ocean and influence from
extreme salt spray conditions in Tebenkof Bay and Warren Island.  The
waters adjacent to the plots in these wilderness areas are also used as
anchorages for marine vessels.  The other lichens analyzed from plot 33;
the % S in Lobaria oregana and Platismatia glauca were just below
threshold (see discussion below and Figures V-8 and V-10 respectively).
There are no known industrial point sources near either wilderness.
Plot 1000 is 175 ft. in elevation above sea level and is in the vicinity
of the cruise ship docking area in downtown Juneau.  Mean % S in plot
512 is probably enhanced due to the close proximity to the tailings pile
and associated road machinery and power source at the Greens Creek mine
in Admiralty Island.

Hypogymnia

Lichens analyzed in the genus Hypogymnia include H. enteromorpha, H.
duplicata, H inactiva, and H. appinata.  These lichens accumulate at
similar rates and the results are combined for calculating the % S
threshold for the genus Hypogymnia (.09%).  The estimated background for
% S in Hypogymnia enteromorpha is .075% in the Pacific Northwest (USDA
1999).  The species H. enteromorpha was one of the four species with
data that was combined in this study as little variation exists in
elemental uptake in the genus Hypogymnia (USDA 1999).  Elevated levels
of % S in plots 511b (on road at mine portal) and 512 (area close to
tailings pile) from Greens Creek are probably due to close proximity to
industrial activities.  Plot mean for % S in the wilderness plots 507
and 508 from Endicott River are just at threshold.  It is difficult to
determine if these levels are natural background due to oceanic
influence or resulting from marine traffic along Lynn Canal or in
Glacier Bay.  Plots along the Sitka road system and near the pulp mill
(plots 243, 242, 239 and 244) are above threshold from the baseline
monitoring period in the 1990’s.  These areas should be revisited to
determine if the lichens are now lower in S since the mill has since
closed.

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Most plots containing Lobore report at or below threshold for % S (see
Figures V-7 and V-8 above).  The general background level for % S in
Lobore is .12% in the P acific Northwest (USDA 1999).  As shown with the
other lichens in this study, threshold for Lobore are slightly higher
(.13%) than the background in the Pacific Northwest.  The wilderness
plots from South POW and Tebenkof that are slightly above the threshold
for mean % S in Lobore are located in the beach fringe in exposed beach
locations.  The few plot means that report above threshold are from
Sitka when the pulp mill was operating in 1990 (Figure V-8).  Although
considered a fair accumulator, Lobore was not collected at each plot.
It is not analyzed for nitrogen due to this species nitrogen fixing
physiology.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Platismatia glauca (Plagla) was not used during baseline biomonitoring.
Therefore, this report contains baseline for % S and Plagla (Table V.5).
 Background for % S in the Pacific Northwest for Plagla is .06% (USDA
1999), which is slightly lower than the threshold .08% on the Tongass.
The wilderness plot from Egg Harbor on Coronation Island reported mean %
S at the.08% threshold.  Sulfur enhancement in the lichens could be due
to the marine influence in this exposed location or due to it being an
anchorage for fishing vessels.  There was also mining at Egg Harbor
during the turn of the 20th century.  The non-wilderness plots that
report above threshold are from Greens Creek mine, both near the portal
(511a and 511b) and the tailings pile (512) (Figure V-10).  It is
noteworthy to mention that the tissue collected at the mine portal
(511b) appears higher in mean sulfur than at the plot 250 feet away from
the road (511a).  The other non-wilderness plots 1000, 1001 and 1002 are
elevated above threshold from the 175, 600, and 910 ft elevations
respectively on Mt Roberts (Figure V-10). Elevated S is most likely due
to industrial sources in this area of Juneau.

Plagla was also collected in Tebenkof and Warren Island, but both do not
report elevated levels of % S as are reported in Alesar for these
wildernesses (Figure V-4).  Platismatia glauca is faster growing lichen
and perhaps the tissue collected of this species was younger than the
Alesar collected at the same sites. VI. Summary of results for %
Nitrogen (N) from all species on the Tongass National Forest

Nitrogen (NO2) is a critical nutrient for many metabolic processes in
plants and is often found in limited quantities in the environment.
Nitrogen becomes a pollutant when more reactive N is released into the
environment than can be assimilated without degradating air, land and
water resources.   Some of the largest sources of reactive N are
airborne emissions (from the combustion of fossil fuels) and the
production and use of nitrogen fertilizers.  Besides being emitted in
differing quantities from some areas within Alaska, nitrogen pollutants
can also be transported across the Pacific Ocean from Asia.  Long-term
deposition of N compounds in elevated levels may affect resistance to
insects and pathogens, soil microbiological processes, winter injury in
conifers, and foliar leaching.  Potential effects of long term N
deposition are also changes in ecosystem structure and diversity, such
as the replacement of some plants in nitrogen-poor systems with plants
having higher N tolerances (Miller et. al. 1978).

Total N represents contributions from ammoniacal and oxidized forms of N
and wet and dry deposition.  Because this region has high precipitation,
tissue analysis cannot differentiate wet from dry deposition, and is
difficult to distinguish different forms of N (e.g. nitrate vs.
ammoniacal forms of N).  The lichens in wilderness areas on the Tongass
are not generally expected to be high in N due to distances from point
source pollutions in the region.  Threshold (in percent) for % N in
lichens from pristine areas are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(.56%), Hypogymnia species (.88%), and Platismatia glauca (.80%).  Plot
means per year in wilderness and non-wilderness areas for each lichen
species are all below the % N threshold (Figures VI-1 and VI-2.).
However, some individual plot means are above threshold (Figures VI-4,
VI-6, and VI-8).  Additionally, plot means in % N in lichens collected
from 1989 to 2005 appear to show an increase over time.  (Figures V-1,
V-2, V-4, V-6 and V-10)

VI. SUMMARY OF PERCENT NITROGEN DATA ANALYSIS

Figure VI-1. Wilderness plot means of Percent Nitrogen

in All Species per year.

Figure VI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Nitrogen

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table VI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Percent Nitrogen content of Alectoria
sarmentosa per year.

Percent Nitrogen	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.24	0.0082	0.2236	0.2578

1991	Wilderness	0.26	0.0184	0.2089	0.3111

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.24	0.0082	0.2236	0.2578

2003	Wilderness	0.25	0.0724	-0.6719	1.1684

2004	Wilderness	0.32	0.0084	0.3031	0.3378

2005	Wilderness	0.46	0.0503	0.3453	0.5730

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.59	0.1142	0.2996	0.8865

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.9604, df = 4, p-value = 0.3912

There is no evidence of a difference in mean % N content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3912).
Wilderness areas and plots close to wilderness that were compared for
differences in % N from Alesar were: Pikes Lake RNA (69), Pleasant
Island,(145, 146)  Karta River (159) and Kootznoowoo (189, 190).

Relationships are not strong in the % N content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VI-3, VI-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent
Nitrogen

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure VI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent
Nitrogen

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table VI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Percent Nitrogen content of Hypogymnia
species per year.

Percent Nitrogen	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.29	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.50	0.0144	0.4670	0.5409

2005	Wilderness	0.65	0.0495	0.5393	0.7676

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.71	0.0465	0.5067	0.9069

No t-test was done for Hypogymnia due to any repeated samples.

Relationships are not strong in the % N content in Hypogymnia species
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VI-5, VI-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent
Nitrogen

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure VI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent
Nitrogen

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table VI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Percent Nitrogen content of Platismatia
glauca per year.

Percent Nitrogen	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.35	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.49	0.0192	0.4435	0.5321

2005	Wilderness	0.64	0.0379	0.5529	0.7321

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.73	0.0520	0.6118	0.8472

No t-test was done for Platismatia glauca due to lack of repeat samples.
 The values for N are baseline for Platismatia glauca on the Tongass.

Relationships are not strong in the % N content in Platismatia glauca
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VI-5, VI-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent
Nitrogen

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure VI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent
Nitrogen

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: Percent Nitrogen (% N) and all lichens species

In Alectoria sarmentosa, the mean % N appears to increase over time from
the early 1990’s to 2005(Figure VI-2).  Nitrogen levels in lichens
collected from the 2003 to 2005 also show an apparent increase in mean
nitrogen over time.  However, the sample size is not large enough to
determine if levels are statistically different across years.  More
regular sampling is needed to get trend information for N deposition.
Steady rise in N deposition on the Tongass could be due to transpacific
sources, as most of the plots in this recent study are from wilderness
areas that are generally far from pollution point sources.  Background
values for % N from the Pacific Northwest are not available.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Alesar accumulates less and therefore has a lower % N threshold (.56%)
compared to other lichens (Fig VI-1).  Plot means of % N are above
threshold in Alesar from plots 1000, 510, 512, and 513 (Figure VI-4).
Plot 1000 is 175 ft. above the cruise ship docking area in downtown
Juneau.  The % N in Alesar could be elevated due to proximity to this
industry and other urban sources.  Plot 510 from Warren Island
wilderness has no known industrial sources.  However, the nearby Warren
Cove is an anchorage for marine fishing vessels in transit.  Plot 512 is
from Greens Creek near the tailings pile and associated pollution from
the mine.  Plot 513 from Egg Harbor on Coronation is also an anchoring
location, and elevated % N could be due to this influence.

Hypogymnia

Plot means for % N were not elevated above threshold in the samples of
Hypogymnia collected (Figures VI-5 and VI-6).  The Endicott River plot
506 is just at threshold for % N.  It is mentioned here because Plagla
from plot 506 is also right at threshold. It is unclear weather this is
natural background for this area or due to marine vessel traffic on Lynn
Canal and Glacier Bay.  Hypogymnia was not collected for N analysis in
the first monitoring period.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

The plot mean for % N in Plagla is elevated above threshold in plot
1000, which is 175 ft above the cruise ship docking area in Juneau
(Figure VI-8).  Plot means of % N in Plagla for plot 1004 (Mt Roberts at
1700 ft) and 506 (Endicott River wilderness) were at threshold.  All
other plot means were below the % N threshold for Plagla (Figure VI-8).
Again, plot means by year show an increase in nitrogen from 2003, 2004
and 2005 in Plagla as in Hypogymnia and Alectoria.  More sampling is
needed in the Juneau area around the downtown cruise ship docking area
to determine the extent of the nitrogen deposition from cruise ship
emissions and other industrial sources in the downtown area.

VII. Summary of results for Aluminum (Al) from all lichen species on the
Tongass National Forest

Aluminum (Al) is mineralogically abundant on earth.  Elevated levels in
lichens are usually associated with road dust.

Provisional thresholds for Al on the Tongass are the following in ppm:
Alectoria sarmentosa (56.78 ppm), Hypogymnia (1126.44 ppm), Lobaria
oregana (580.03 ppm), and Platismatia glauca (1063.57ppm).

Plot means for Al are above threshold in Alesar from Greens Creek
tailings pile area (plot 512), area 175 ft above Juneau on Mt Roberts
(plot 1000) the Sitka, Kuiu and Hoonah road systems (plots 108, 240,
219, and 143), Tebenkof Bay Wilderness (plot 33), and Endicott River
Wilderness (plot 508) (Figure VII-4).  Plots means for Al are above
threshold in Hypogymnia for the Greens Creek mine tailing pile area
(plot 512), Russell Fiords (plot 62), near the Shrine of St Therese off
the Juneau road system (plot 43), and Mitkof Island near Petersburg
(plot 44) (Figure VII-6).  The Russell Fiord plot 62 is just inside the
wilderness boundary and is not considered a pristine wilderness plot in
this study due to the proximity to the Dangerous River Bridge, the
airstrip, and the unpaved road system of Yakutat (shown as an open
triangle indicating non-wilderness).  Plot means for Al in Lobore are
above threshold in Russell Fiords (plot 62) (Figure VII-8).  Plot means
for Al in Plagla are above threshold in three plots; Greens Creek
tailing pile (512), Pikes Lake plot within 5 miles of the Yakutat road
(69) and the Russell Fiord plot near the Dangerous River bridge (Figures
VII-9 and VII-10).VII. SUMMARY OF Al PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure VII-1. Wilderness plot means of Al ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure VII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table VII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	20.44	3.8508	9.7485	31.13

1989	Wilderness	31.61	2.3594	25.5455	37.6768

1990	Non-Wilderness	39.00	3.8960	30.9901	47.0066

1990	Wilderness	30.64	4.2295	20.2942	40.9929

1991	Non-Wilderness	33.60	3.4532	26.3451	40.8549

1991	Wilderness	32.50	7.1454	12.6625	52.3401

1992	Non-Wilderness	52.0302	13.7371	19.5470	84.5133

2003	Wilderness	28.17	11.1950	0	170.4120

2004	Wilderness	27.10	2.2231	22.5006	31.6982

2005	Non-Wilderness	50.47	13.9491	14.6127	86.3273

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.2644, df = 8, p-value = 0.7981

There is no evidence of a difference in mean Al content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.7981).  This
analysis was for six wildernesses or near wilderness plots that had
repeated values for Al in Alectoria sarmentosa: Karta River (# 159),
Pleasant Island (# 145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (#189,
190), Petersburg Creek (# 116), and Tebenkof (#33).

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VII-3, VII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure VII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table VII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	229.50	205.5000	0	2840.6250

1989	Wilderness	411.83	142.6811	15.6871	807.9796

1990	Non-Wilderness	502.16	78.3077	337.6395	666.6763

1990	Wilderness	185.71	11.4701	157.6480	213.7806

2003	Wilderness	246.07	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	572.74	104.7184	303.5572	841.9314

2005	Non-Wilderness	1,122.16	294.7619	0	2390.4146

2005	Wilderness	443.83	110.8418	188.2312	699.4344

No t-tests were preformed for Hypogymnia due to the lack of repeat
samples.

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Hypogymnia species
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VII-5, VII-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure VII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table VII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	35.08	12.3516	0	74.3917

1989	Wilderness	57.15	15.2926	14.6874	99.6057

1990	Non-Wilderness	55.69	11.2639	31.1439	80.2279

1990	Wilderness	37.93	17.2154	0	82.1850

2004	Wilderness	242.58	72.9612	64.0497	421.1091

2005	Non-Wilderness	689.71	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	98.79	44.7471	0	241.1986

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.9293, df = 4, p-value = 0.1259

There is no evidence of a difference in mean Al content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.1259).  This
analysis was for three wildernesses areas that had repeated values for
Al in Lobaria oregana: Stikine-LeConte (# 30, 31), Tebenkof (#33), and
Misty Fiords (#86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures VII-7,
VII-8 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure VII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure VII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table VII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	213.86	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	483.88	88.8447	282.8962	684.8574

2005	Non-Wilderness	781.3696	97.6291	560.5172	1002.2219

No t-test was done for Platismatia glauca due to the lack of repeat
samples.  Values are baseline for Al and Plagla.

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Platismatia glauca
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VII-9, VII-10 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure VII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: Aluminum (Al) and all lichen species

The provisional threshold for Al in lichens on the Tongass is slightly
higher than the estimated background and enhanced cutoff values from the
Pacific Northwest (USDA 1999).  This could be due to the geology and the
large amount of exposed rock from retreating glaciers and other
geomorphic features that occur in southeast Alaska.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

The background value for Al in the Pacific Northwest is 50 ppm, which is
almost equal to the threshold of 56.78 ppm (USDA 1999).  The proximity
to unpaved roads may explain the elevated values of Al in lichens from
the Greens Creek plot near the tailings pile, and other plots near road
systems (plot 219 from Kuiu,108 and 240 from Sitka, 221 from Douglas,
and 143 from Whitestone area near Hoonah) (Figure VII-4).  Plot 33 from
Tebenkof is also slightly above threshold.  It is unclear why Al would
be elevated in this maritime location.  Plot 508 from Endicott River
could be elevated due to the close proximity to Glacier Bay and glacial
dust.

Hypogymnia

The general background values for Al in Hypogymnia are between 500 and
700 ppm, which is lower than the Tongass threshold of 1126 ppm (USDA
1999).  The plot means for Al in Hypogymnia are elevated above threshold
from plot 512 (Greens Creek Tailings pile), plot 62 (Russell Fiord near
Harlequin Lake), and plots 243 and 244 (Sitka road system) (Figure
VII-6).  Elevated levels can be attributed to the close proximity to
unpaved roads.  The Harlequin Lake plot is also within a half mile of an
unpaved airstrip which may induce more windblown dust to the area.
Natural erosion and windblown soils from the Yukon during high pressure
conditions can bring massive sand clouds over the region as well (James
per comm. 2007).  Mean Al from plot 508 in the Endicott River wilderness
is just below the threshold.  All other plot means are at or below the
Al threshold for Hypogymnia (Figure VII-5 and VII-6).

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

The background value for Al in Lobore is 200 ppm, which is lower than
the Tongass threshold of 580 ppm (USDA 1999).  The plot means for Al in
Lobore are elevated above threshold from plot 62 (Russell Fiords)
(Figure VII-8).  The elevated level is possibly due to the reasons
stated above under Hypogymnia.

Platismatia glauca

Background for Al for the Pacific Northwest in Plagla is 500 ppm and the
threshold value for the Tongass is 1063 ppm (USDA 1999).  The plot means
for Al in Plagla are elevated above threshold from plot 69 (Pike Lake)
and plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings pile area) (Figure VII-10).  Again,
the elevated levels in Plagla are probably due to the close proximity to
unpaved roads.  Plot 69 near Pike Lake may also be enhanced by windblown
soils from the Yukon as described above under Hypogymnia for the
Harlequin Lake plot as the Pike Lakes area is within a few miles of
Harlequin Lake.  Plot 508 from Endicott has levels of Al just below
threshold.  This plot shows elevated levels of Al in Alesar, Hypo and
Plagla.  It is unclear why this area is elevated, but it could be due to
windblown dusts from Glacier Bay and the Chilkat Peninsula.

VIII. Summary of results for Boron (B) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Boron is a naturally occurring element.  Borates are boron combined with
oxygen and other elements in compounds.  Boron (B) enters the
environment mainly from weathering of boron-containing rocks, from
seawater in the form of boric acid vapor, and from volcanic and other
geothermal activities.  Although to a lesser extent, boron is also
released from human activities.  These include the use of
borate-containing fertilizers and herbicides, and the burning of
plant-based products such as wood, coal, or oil (IPCS 1998).  Boron also
enters into the environment from the use of borates and perborates in
the home and industry, through leaching from treated wood or paper and
from sewage and sewage sludge disposal.  Plants and lichens can
accumulate boron, but it does not accumulate to a greater extent along
the food chain when animals consume plants.  Boron is an essential
nutrient for plants, but in some plants there is only a narrow margin
between deficiency and toxicity.

Provisional thresholds for B on the Tongass are the following: Alectoria
sarmentosa (9.33 ppm), Hypogymnia (9.47 ppm), Lobaria oregana (4.06
ppm), and Platismatia glauca (6.05 ppm).

Mean boron is elevated above threshold from various locations and in all
lichen species.  The Stikine-LeConte plot 195 is slightly elevated in
Plagla from the recent monitoring period (Figure VIII-10).  Samples from
the Sitka road system when the pulp mill was operating are above
thresholds (in Alesar plot 108, 208, 209, and 246 in Figure VIII-4; in
Hypo plots 243 245, 246, 108 and 113 in Figure VIII-6; in Lobore plot
246, Figure VIII-8).

VIII. SUMMARY OF B PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure VIII-1. Wilderness plot means of B ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure VIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table VIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.53	0.0586	0.3626	0.6878

1989	Wilderness	1.54	0.5888	0.0263	3.0535

1990	Non-Wilderness	2.78	0.7734	1.1994	4.3790

1990	Wilderness	0.66	0.1238	0.3587	0.9646

1991	Non-Wilderness	1.77	0.1778	1.3973	2.1443

1991	Wilderness	3.37	1.5110	0	7.5697

1992	Non-Wilderness	7.50	1.9605	2.8674	12.1389

2003	Wilderness	0.50	0.0362	0.0366	0.9557

2004	Wilderness	1.22	0.1280	0.8574	1.3870

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.92	0.0905	0.6893	1.1545

2005	Wilderness	0.99	0.1800	0.5786	1.3929

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 1.2005, df = 8, p-value = 0.2643

There is no evidence of a difference in mean B content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2643).  This
analysis was for ten plots with repeated values for B in Alesar from:
Karta River (# 159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69),
Kootznoowoo (#189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116), and Tebenkof (#33).

Figure VIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure VIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table VIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Hypogymnia species per
year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.97	1.56	0	21.7917

1989	Wilderness	5.01	1.1197	1.9060	8.1236

1990	Non-Wilderness	6.87	0.8718	5.0392	8.7024

1990	Wilderness	2.18	0.4829	0.9978	3.3612

2003	Wilderness	2.86	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	3.04	0.3202	2.2151	3.8615

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.08	0.5080	0	3.2650

2005	Wilderness	2.87	0.4287	1.8815	3.8586

T-tests were not performed on Hypogymnia data due to lack of repeat
samples.

Relationships are not strong in B content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures VIII-5,
VIII-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure VIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure VIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table VIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.27	0.0419	1.1408	1.4075

1989	Wilderness	1.63	0.2415	0.9576	2.2988

1990	Non-Wilderness	3.00	0.7282	1.4169	4.5900

1990	Wilderness	0.84	0.1442	0.4670	1.2083

2004	Wilderness	1.84	0.4057	0.8450	2.8304

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.93	na	na	na

2005	Wilderness	1.59	0.3193	0.5711	2.6036

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.4197, df = 4, p-value = 0.2287

There is no evidence of a difference in B content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2287). This analysis
was for three wildernesses areas that had repeated values for B in
Lobaria oregana: Tebenkof (#33), Misty Fiords (# 86, 88), and
Stikine-LeConte (# 30, 31).

Relationships are not strong in B content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures VIII-7, VIII-8 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure VIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure VIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table VIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Platismatia glauca per
year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	3.33	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	2.75	0.5855	1.4256	4.0747

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.73	0.3344	0.9751	2.4879

2005	Wilderness	2.77	0.6650	1.1995	4.3447

No t-tests were performed on the data for Platismatia glauca due to lack
of repeat samples.  Values are baseline for B in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in B content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures VIII-9, VIII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure VIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure VIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: for Boron (B) and all lichen species

Background levels of boron in the Pacific Northwest are lower than the
threshold levels on the Tongass (between 2.0 and 4.0 ppm and 4.0 to 9.47
ppm respectively).  Higher threshold values may be due to the
hypermaritime environment, where boron is released from the ocean in the
form of boric acid vapor across the region.  It may also be due to the
region’s relatively close proximity to recent volcanic activity.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Tongass threshold level for boron in Alesar is higher than the
background value for boron in the Pacific Northwest (9.33 ppm and
approximately 2.0 ppm respectively) (USDA 1999).  None of the plot means
for B in Alesar are above threshold in the recent monitoring period, but
are elevated from the past monitoring period in plots 108 and 246
(Figure VIII-2) on the Sitka road system near the pulp mill.  Pike Lakes
RNA has two plots elevated (208 and 209) and one that is on the
threshold line (plot 212) (Figure VIII-2).  This may be due to the
proximity to the glaciated areas around Yakutat.  One plot from Pleasant
Island wilderness is also at threshold for B from the first monitoring
period (Plot 146) (Figure VIII-4).  This island is located near the
entrance to Glacier Bay in Icy Strait.  Re-sampling of this plot in 2004
did not detect a statistically significant change in B for Alesar (Table
VIII-2).  Pleasant Island consists of volcanic rock.

Hypogymnia

Background value for B in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest is lower
than on the Tongass (approximately 2.0 to 3.0 ppm and 9.47 ppm
respectively) (USDA 1999).  All plot means of B are below threshold for
the genus Hypogymnia, except for plots 243, 245 and 246 on the Sitka
road system, and plot 113 from Berners Bay near Cove Point (Figure
VIII-5).  Elevated levels may be due to the close proximity to Lynn
Canal and wind blown glacial dust.

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Background value for B for Lobore in the Pacific Northwest is lower than
on the Tongass (approximately 2.0 ppm and 4.06 ppm respectively).  Plot
means for B in Lobore are below threshold except for plot 246 on the
Sitka road system, plot 67 from the Yakutat road system and 113 from
Berners Bay (Figure VIII-8).  All elevated lichens are from plots from
the baseline monitoring period and were not revisited.  These areas may
be elevated due to their proximity to industry (Sitka) and to wind blown
glacial dusts.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Background for B in Plagla from the Pacific Northwest is 4.0 ppm (USDA
1999) and threshold is 6.0 ppm from the Tongass.  Plot means for B in
Plagla are above the threshold in Stikine-LeConte wilderness on Gut
Island (Figure VIII-10).  Elevated B could be due to natural sources of
boron in saltwater and windblown soils (i.e. from loess on the Stikine
Delta).

IX. Summary of results for Barium (Ba) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Barium is an alkaline-earth metal found only in combination with other
elements in nature (mainly combined with peroxide, chloride, sulfate,
carbonate, nitrate and chlorate).  Two forms of barium, barium sulfate
and barium carbonate, are often found in nature as underground ore
deposits (USPHS 1992).  It is also found in small quantities in igneous
rocks, feldspar and micas.  Pure Ba oxidizes readily and reacts with
water to emit hydrogen, which is similar to calcium (Weast et al 1987).
Barium naturally occurs in most surface waters, and marine plants and
invertebrates may accumulate Ba from sea water.  General background of
Ba is very low.  However, the most likely source of elevated Ba is from
industrial emissions (USPHS 1992).  It is used by the oil and gas
industries to make drilling muds which augment rock drilling.  Barium
sulfate is used to make paints, bricks, tiles, glass, and rubber.  Due
to its particulate form, it is expected to have a residence time of
hundreds of years and is not expected to be very mobile in soils.

The laboratory analysis during the first monitoring period did not
include Ba in the ICP analysis.  During the second monitoring period,
baseline elemental analyses of Ba and provisional thresholds have been
established for the Tongass.  Thresholds for target lichen species are
the following: Alectoria sarmentosa (15.84 ppm), Hypogymnia (16.46 ppm),
Lobaria oregana (76.62 ppm), and Platismatia glauca (53.80 ppm).

Plot means for Ba are above threshold in Alesar for the Greens Creek
(plot 512) near the tailing pile and Endicott River wilderness (plot
508) (Figure IX-4).  Plot 1000 near Juneau and Endicott River wilderness
(plot 507) are at threshold in Alesar.  Plot means for Endicott River
wilderness plot 508 was above threshold for Hypogymnia (Figure IX-6).
Plot means for Ba in the Stikine-LeConte wilderness plot 495 was
slightly above threshold in Lobore (Figure IX-8).  Plot means for Plagla
at Greens Creek (plots 511a and 512) and Endicott River wilderness (plot
508) contain elevated Ba (Figures IX-10).

IX. SUMMARY OF Ba PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure IX-1. Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure IX-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XI-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Ba ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	1.65	0.5999	0.4113	2.8934

2005	Non-Wilderness	20.39	13.2402	0	54.4205

2005	Wilderness	4.28	2.1299	0	9.0980

No t-tests were performed on this data due to lack of repeated samples.
The values for Ba are baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Relationships are not strong in the Ba content in Alesar after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures IX-3, IX-4
for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure IX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure IX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table XI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	3.50	0.6441	1.8491	5.1605

2005	Non-Wilderness	55.13	9.0562	16.1617	94.0930

2005	Wilderness	25.42	9.1365	4.3554	46.4929

No t-tests were performed on this data due to lack of repeat samples.
The values for Ba are baseline for Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Ba content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures IX-5, IX-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure IX-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure IX-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table IX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Ba ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	9.03	2.5273	2.8483	15.2166

2005	Non-Wilderness	12.98	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	4.13	3.1883	-6.0131	14.2803

No t-tests were performed on this data.  The values for Ba are baseline
for Lobaria oregana.

Relationships are not strong in Ba content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures IX-6, IX-6 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure IX-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure IX-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table IX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Ba ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	12.49	3.6615	4.2085	20.7742

2005	Non-Wilderness	38.39	5.3959	26.1874	50.6000

2005	Wilderness	23.15	7.3451	5.7827	40.5196

No t-tests were performed on this data.  The values for Ba are baseline
for Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Ba content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures IX-9, IX-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure IX-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure IX-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

IX. Conclusions for Barium and all lichen species.

Background levels for barium have not been compiled for the Pacific
Northwest region (USDA 1999).

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Plot mean for Ba is quite elevated above threshold for plot 512 (over 80
ppm in Figure IX-4) (Greens Creek tailings pile).  The yearly means for
Ba in all non- wilderness plots are elevated above threshold (over 20
ppm in Figure IX-5).  Above threshold values in lichens are most likely
due to the close proximity of the plots to the road system dusts and the
tailings pile at Greens Creek.  Plot 508 in Endicott Wilderness is
slightly elevated above threshold, along with plots 507 (upper Endicott
River) and 1000 (Mt Roberts) at threshold.  Higher Ba from upper
Endicott River plots could be due to the glacial influence and exposed
geology in the area.  The lower slope of Mt Roberts is also the home of
a closed mine, near the cruise ship dock and downtown Juneau, all of
which could account for the higher levels of Ba at 175 ft (compared to
the Mt Roberts plots at higher elevations that are not elevated).

Hypogymnia

Plot mean for Ba is slightly elevated in the Endicott River wilderness
plot 508.  This plot is located upstream from the mouth of the river at
least 10 miles and is not near a point pollution source.  Source of
barium is most likely attributed to natural airborne dusts from nearby
Glacier Bay and exposed rocks.

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Mean Ba in Lobore from Plot 495 from Flemer Cabin on the Stikine River
is elevated above threshold.  This could be attributed to the proximity
to the nearby glaciers up the river in British Columbia.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Mean Ba in two places from Greens Creek have elevated levels in Plagla.
Plot 511b is at the portal of the mine and plot 512 is near the tailing
pile and elevated levels are likely due to this industry.  The
wilderness plot 508 from Endicott River is also elevated in Ba.  This
may be due to the proximity to windblown dust from Glacier Bay and
Canada.X. Summary of results for Beryllium (Be) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Beryllium in almost all forms is known to have adverse effects upon
human health.  Beryllium extraction processes generate emissions that
include beryllium salts, acids, beryllium oxide and other compounds in
the form of dust, fume or mist.

Beryllium values are not discussed further in this report as the levels
of Be in Tongass lichens were below the detection limits of .04 ppm in
ICP machine.

XI. Summary of results for Calcium (Ca) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Calcium is the fifth most abundant metallic element in the earth’s
crust.  It is particulary abundant in sites that have limestone or
carbonate geology.  Areas that have exposed rocks will have Ca
enrichment in lichens and levels will appear elevated (USDA 1999).  This
may be in areas near roads, glaciers, cliffs and other exposed rock
areas.  While Ca can be enhanced near urban/industrial areas, it is also
found in lichens near the seashore as surface layers of the ocean are
also sources for this element (Davidson et al. 1985; Neiboer et al
1978).  Neiboer and Richardson (1981) define Ca background levels in
lichens to be less than 1000 ppm in areas without marine or crustal
influences.

Southeast Alaska is an area of strong marine influence.  Many of the
lichen biomonitoring plots are located within a few miles of saltwater,
and some are on the beach fringe forest edge ecotone.  Threshold for Ca
in all lichens from the Tongass are above background (> 1000 ppm) for
non-enriched areas: Alectoria sarmentosa (9689.25 ppm), Hypogymnia
(24671.17ppm), Lobaria oregana (1158.10 ppm) and Platismatia glauca
(4104.48 ppm).

Plot means for Ca in Alesar are elevated above threshold in a few
maritime plots on Kuiu Island (#81) and on Revilla Island (#130) (Figure
XI- 4).  Plot means for Hypogymnia are at or above threshold for plot
506 (lower Endicott River) and plot 79 (Kell Bay, Kuiu) (Figure XI-6).
Mean Ca in plot 506 on the Endicott River is above threshold in Lobaria
oregana and Platismatia glauca (Figures XI-8 and XI-10 respectively).

XI. SUMMARY OF Ca PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XI-1. Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure XI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	2081.72	529.9073	610.4615	3552.9785

1989	Wilderness	5234.99	954.3677	2781.7141	7688.2748

1990	Non-Wilderness	3567.36	560.4786	2415.2845	4719.4451

1990	Wilderness	4729.97	1012.8840	2251.5300	7208.4080

1991	Non-Wilderness	6727.52	1359.4200	3871.4850	9583.5570

1991	Wilderness	6504.13	1181.7710	3223.0110	9785.2540

1992	Non-Wilderness	4556.83	NA	2775.5152	6338.1427

2003	Wilderness	1889.64	776.6950	7979.2070	11758.4840

2004	Wilderness	4146.98	373.4374	3374.4615	4919.4896

2005	Non-Wilderness	3604.71	463.4197	2413.4502	4795.9665

2005	Wilderness	6938.53	604.0697	5572.0295	8305.0305

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 1.5029, df = 8, p-value = 0.1713

There is no evidence of a difference in Ca content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.1713).
Samples remeasured are from the wilderness areas of: Tebenkof Bay (#33),
Pleasant Island (# 145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (#69), Petersburg Creek (#
116), Kootznoowoo (# 189, 190), and Karta River (# 159).

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Alesar after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-3, XI-4 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure XI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table XI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	4245.50	1452.5000	14210.2600	22701.2600

1989	Wilderness	10509.67	2082.5800	4727.4980	16291.8350

1990	Non-Wilderness	10596.47	1541.7000	7357.4740	13835.4560

1990	Wilderness	10759.10	2303.8300	5121.8270	16396.3630

2003	Wilderness	9740.80	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	9139.63	1222.0490	5998.2480	12281.0040

2005	Non-Wilderness	10365.47	1652.7150	3254.4090	17476.5250

2005	Wilderness	14090.39	1292.1380	11110.7120	17070.0650

T-tests were not performed with Hypogymnia data due to no repeated
samples.

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-5, XI-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure XI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table XI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	334.17	19.7224	271.4013	396.9321

1989	Wilderness	390.24	35.9300	290.4857	490.0010

1990	Non-Wilderness	467.88	27.8034	407.3061	528.4631

1990	Wilderness	418.34	28.4251	345.2751	491.4133

2004	Wilderness	739.66	76.1875	553.2329	926.0812

2005	Non-Wilderness	877.24	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	698.11	262.3059	NA	1532.8808

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.4706, df = 4, p-value = 0.2153

There is no evidence of a difference in Ca content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2153).  Wilderness
areas remeasured are Tebenkof (#33), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), and
Misty Fiords (#86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-5, XI-6 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure XI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table XI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	2505.97	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	2294.39	219.3717	1798.1345	2790.6412

2005	Non-Wilderness	2523.86	235.6644	1990.7517	3056.9716

2005	Wilderness	2860.64	380.3439	1961.2671	3760.0079

No t-tests were performed on this data.  The mean values for Ca are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-9, XI-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure XI-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: For Calcium (Ca) and all lichen species

Background levels of Ca for seashore enhanced lichens vary among species
and range between 40,000 and 50,000 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass thresholds
for Ca range between 1158 and 24,671 ppm which are well below the levels
considered enhanced by the seashore environment.  High precipitation on
the Tongass eventually washes nutrients and other elements from the
lichen thalli over time.  However, the Ca in all lichen species analysed
from the Tongass is higher than background levels (those that are not
enhanced by the seashore) found in the Pacific Northwest (USDA 1999).

Alectoria sarmentosa

Calcium background level for Alesar in the Pacific Northwest is 2500
ppm, which is well below the 9689 ppm threshold for Ca on the Tongass
(USDA 1999).  Very few plots are above threshold for Ca in Alesar.
Plots 130 (Settlers Cove on Revilla Island) and 81 (Kell Bay on Kuiu
Island) from the baseline monitoring period are above threshold (Figure
XI-4).  Both of these plots are near marine beaches in exposed
locations.  Just at or below threshold are plots 514, 513 (Coronation)
and 507 (Endicott River), all of which are located in areas with
calcareous geology (Nowacki et al. 2001).  Plot 33 from Tebenkof
wilderness is particulary high in total sulfur (Figure V-4), and yet it
was one of the lowest in Ca (Figure XI-4).  In Geiser et al (1994) there
were depressed levels of calcium near the pulp mill in Sitka, which was
interpreted as damage from high sulfur from that industry.

Hypogymnia, Lobaria oregana (Lobore) and Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Plot 506 from the lower Endicott River contains elevated levels for Ca
in Hypogymnia, Lobore and Plagla that are probably related to the
carbonate geology on the river and surrounding landscape (Nowacki et al
2001).

XII. Summary of results for Cadmium (Cd) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Cadmium is an element that occurs naturally in the earths crust.  In the
pure form, it is a soft metal but it is not found in the environment as
a metal.  It is usually found combined with other elements such as
oxygen (cadmium oxide) chlorine (cadmium chloride) or sulfur (cadmium
sulfate or sulfide) (USPHS 1993).  Cadmium can enter the air from the
buring of coal and household waste, or in the metal mining and refining
process.  Attached to small particles in the air, Cd may get into the
air and travel great distances before coming back to earth as dust or in
rain and snow.  Where it lands, it does not break down and is eventually
taken up by fish, plants and animals (USPHS 1993).

As expected, thresholds for Cd in all lichens from the Tongass are below
the mine and smelter enhanced levels (30 to 330 ppm).  Threshold levels
are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa (.40 ppm), Hypogymnia (.61ppm),
Lobaria oregana (.55 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (.32 ppm).

Some areas contain elevated levels of mean Cd above threshold: plots
108, 107 (Sitka road system), 76 (Dog Island), 221 (Douglas Island), 512
(Greens Creek tailings pile), 189 (Kootznoowoo) and 118 (Mitkof Island)
for Alesar (Figure XII-4).  Mean levels are elevated in Hypogymnia for
the plots 511b (Greens Creek mine portal) and plot 512 (Greens Creek
tailing pile) (Figure XII-6).  Plot 110 (Amalga Trail) is the only area
with elevated levels in Lobore (Figure XII-8).  Greens Creek mine
contains elevated levels of Cd from three locations in Plagla (plot
511a, 511b and 512) (Figure XLL-10).

There is suggestive evidence that Cd levels have changed from the
pre-2000 (baseline monitoring period) to the post 2000 (second
monitoring period) for three wilderness areas in Lobaria oregana (Table
XII-3).

XII. SUMMARY OF Cd PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XII-1. Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure XII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.13	0.0087	0.1068	0.1552

1989	Wilderness	0.14	0.0327	0.0576	0.2257

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.29	0.0527	0.1768	0.3936

1990	Wilderness	0.21	0.0315	0.1320	0.2861

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.2189	0.0205	0.1757	0.2620

1991	Wilderness	0.30	0.0474	0.1722	0.4355

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.21	0.0657	0.0533	0.3642

2003	Wilderness	0.12	0.0000	0.1200	0.1200

2004	Wilderness	0.16	0.0125	0.1383	0.1902

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.37	0.1416	0.0072	0.7353

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0004	0.2197	0.2215

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 0.957, df = 8, p-value = 0.3666

There is no evidence of a difference in Cd content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3666).
Plots with repeated samples for Cd in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Cd content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
XII-3, XII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure XII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table XII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.15	0.0500	0.4853	0.7853

1989	Wilderness	0.22	0.0726	0.0150	0.4184

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.35	0.0623	0.2235	0.4853

1990	Wilderness	0.30	0.0570	0.1557	0.4347

2003	Wilderness	0.17	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.26	0.0711	0.0809	0.4466

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.04	1.4535	3.2093	9.2986

2005	Wilderness	0.31	0.0576	0.1775	0.4432

No t-tests were performed on this data due to any repeated samples.

Relationships are not strong in Cd content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XII-5,
XII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure XII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table XII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.10	0.0000	0.1000	0.1000

1989	Wilderness	0.18	0.0800	0.0421	0.4021

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.15	0.0519	0.0388	0.2651

1990	Wilderness	0.20	0.0664	0.0261	0.3673

2004	Wilderness	0.12	0.0000	0.1200	0.1200

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.22	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0000	0.2200	0.2200

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -2.5145, df = 4, p-value = 0.0657

There is suggestive evidence of a slight difference in Cd content in
Lobaria oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.0657).
This analysis was for three wilderness areas that had repeated values
for Cd in Lobaria oregana, Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Tebenkof (#33) and
Misty Fiords (# 86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the Cd content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures XII-7,
XII-8 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure XII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table XII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.12	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.16	0.0298	0.0878	0.2227

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.71	0.9383	0.4089	3.8361

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0000	0.2200	0.2200

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Cd are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Cd content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XII-9, XII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure XII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: for Cadmium (Cd) and all lichen species

Cadmium in lichens from enhanced areas due to mining and smelter
activities range between 30 and 330 ppm, depending on the species (USDA
1999).  The highest Cd levels in lichens on the Tongass are from near
the tailings pile (between 1.0 and 4.0 ppm) and near the mine portal
(between 5 ppm and 10ppm) at Greens Creek.  The high rainfall in our
region may flush the accumulation of Cd from lichens and other
vegetation around the mining zone, but individual plot means near the
mine are still higher than provisional threshold levels.  Since the Cd
levels are slightly higher in all species compared to the Pacific
Northwest background levels, it may be that the lichens are universally
enhanced in Cd due to the marine and crustal influence.

There is suggestive evidence that Cd levels have changed from the
pre-2000 (baseline monitoring period) to the post 2000 (second
monitoring period) for three wilderness areas: Stikine-LeConte, Tebenkof
and Misty Fiords (Table XII-3).  The slight change over time of Cd in
Lobaria oregana cannot be explained except for the natural variation in
Cd, as these areas are not near industry.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Threshold for Cd in Alesar on the Tongass is slightly higher than in the
Pacific Northwest (.40 ppm compared to .20 ppm respectively) (USDA
1999).  This may be attributed to the natural variation of Cd in lichens
explained by environmental factors such as oceanic influence and the
geology of the region.  Some locations on the Tongass contain above
threshold for Cd in Alesar such as on the Sitka road system near the
pulp mill from the early 1990’s (plots 107, 108), Greens Creek tailing
pile area ( plot 512), Dog Island (Plot 76), and Douglas Island near
Eaglecrest (plot 221).  Mitkof Island on Froot Road (plot 118) and
Kootznoowoo wilderness in Gambier Bay (189) were slightly above
threshold (Figure XII-4).  Plot 189 on Admiralty Island was remeasured
during the second monitoring period and Cd levels are not statistically
different from the first monitoring period (Table XII-2).  Douglas
Island (plot 221) is about 1300 ft off the Eagle Creek Road and elevated
Cd levels could be attributed to the ski and housing developments, and
automobile traffic in the area.  It was not revisited in the second
monitoring period.  There is also mining history on Douglas Island.  Dog
Island (plot 76) is a small island off of Duke Island, and consists of
gabbro, which is an igneous rock and can contain Cd as a mineral.  The
slightly elevated levels of Cd on Mitkof and Admiralty Islands must be
part of the natural variation of Cd on the Tongass.

Hypogymnia

Background level for Cd in Hypogymnia in the Pacific Northwest is .25
ppm (USDA 1999), which is slightly lower than the Tongass threshold of
.61 ppm.  Plots from Greens Creek contain Cd levels nearly four times
above threshold (Figure XII-6).  Plots 511b (near the portal) and 512
(tailings pile) are near the industrial sections and road corridors of
the mine, so it is likely these are the sources of the Cd in the
lichens.  Lichens at the tailing pile muskeg appeared healthy, but the
lichens from the trees near the portal were covered in road dust and did
not appear very robust.  Douglas Island plot 112 near Eaglecrest also
contains slightly elevated Cd, which could be attributed to close
proximity to development in that area.  Sitka road system plot 246 is
elevated above threshold during the first monitoring period and was not
revisited.  Elevated levels are probably due to the proximity to the
road and the pulp mill.  Endicott River wilderness plot 506 has slightly
elevated levels of Cd which is unexplained at this time except for
natural variation and crustal sources.

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Plot 110 from the Amalga Trail area in Juneau is above threshold for Cd
(Figure XII-8).  This area is in the vicinity of a mine from the past
century and could explain the elevated levels.  Exposed rock can produce
windblown dust in the area, as well as the surrounding glaciers.  The
suggestive evidence in the changes of mean Cd levels (Table XII-3) may
be due to the natural variation and not human enhancement of Cd in the
wilderness areas sampled (ie in Tebenkof).

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Pacific Northwest background for Cd in Plagla is .25 ppm, while the
Tongass threshold is .32 ppm (USDA 1999).  All three Greens Creek plots
contain elevated levels of Cd, with the area closest to the portal at
the bridge being the highest among all the plots analyzed on the Tongass
(at over 9.0 ppm) (Figure XIV-10).  While not as high as the 30 ppm that
is considered the low end for mine enhanced levels (USDA 1999), it is
high considering the amount of rainfall and leaching that occurs in this
hyper maritime region.

XIII. Summary of results for Cobalt (Co) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Cobolt is a compound that occurs in nature and in many different
chemical forms.  It is not currently mined in the United States.  All
cobalt used in industry is imported or obtained by recycling scrap
metals.  Cobalt is used to make alloys, colored pigments, and for
enameled paints on appliances.  It is part of vitamin B-12 that is
essential for human health.  Natural sources of cobalt are soils, dust
and seawater.  It is also released into the environment from burning oil
and coal, and from automobile exhaust (USPHS 1992)

Cobalt detection levels in the ICP analysis varied between 2004 and
2005.  In 2004, the Co detection in the ICP machine was .240 ppm.  In
2005, the ICP utilized had a higher detection limit of .780 ppm.
Samples of Alesar were below detection limit of .78 for Co.  Provisional
threshold of colbalt on the Tongass are: Hypogymnia (1.25 ppm), Lobaria
oregana (.83 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (1.14 ppm).  Cobalt was not
analyzed in the first monitoring period, or in the 2003 samples.
Therefore, threshold were established from 2004 and 2005 data.

Elevated levels of Co are reported for Hypogymnia from plot 512 (Greens
Creek tailing pile), and 62 (Russell Fiord Harlequin Lake area) (Figure
XIIV-6).  For Lobore plot 62 (Russell Fiords) is just above threshold
(Figure XIIV-8).  For Plagla plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings) and 508
and 506 (Endicott River wilderness) are elevated above threshold (Figure
XIIV-10).

XIII. SUMMARY OF Co PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XIII-1. Wilderness plot means of Co ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure XIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Co	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.78	0.0000	0.7800	0.7800

2005	Wilderness	0.78	0.0000	0.7800	0.7800

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
below the detection limit of the ICP machine. Baseline in Alectoria
sarmentosa is .78 ppm.

Figure XIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure XIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table XIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Co ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.11	0.1754	0.3530	1.8626

2005	Wilderness	0.84	0.0579	0.7044	0.9714

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Figure XIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure XIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table XIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Co ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.85	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.78	0.0000	0.7800	0.7800

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
baseline in Lobaria oregana.

Figure XIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure XIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table XIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Co ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.86	0.0611	0.7240	1.0006

2005	Wilderness	0.87	0.0592	0.7304	1.0101

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Figure XIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure XIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: for Colbalt (Co) and all lichen species

Background levels for Co are not available from the Pacific Northwest.
Tongass thresholds are just above the ICP detection limit for Co, which
indicates that background on the Tongass lichens are very low.  The
locations that indicate elevated levels may be enhanced due to crustal
influences.  Plot 512 from Greens Creek is elevated in both Hypogymnia
and Plagla, indicating that the exposed rock from the tailings pile may
be the source.  Plot 62 from Russell Fiord is above threshold in Co for
the Hypogymnia and Lobore samples.  This plot is near the airstrip, the
dirt road and Dangerous River Bridge, and receives windblown dusts from
the surrounding glaciers and exposed rocks.  Endicott River plots 508
(upper river) and 506 (near saltwater) are at threshold, and may be
elevated above the ICP detection limit due to natural sources of the
highly glaciated area.

XIV. Summary of results for Chromium (Cr) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in rocks, animals,
plants, soil, and volcanic dust and gases.  It is present in the
environment in different forms.  The common forms are chromium 0,
chromium III and chromium VI.  Chromium III occurs naturally and is an
essential nutrient for humans (USPHS 1990).  Chromium VI and 0 are
generally produced by industrial processes such as producing steel and
brick linings for furnaces, and through the burning of coal and oil.  In
smaller amounts it is used in drilling muds for mining, rust and
corrosion inhibitors, textiles and toner for copy machines. In the air,
chromium compounds are present as a fine dust, and rain and snow help
remove it from the air.  The different types of chromium are not
differentiated in the ICP analysis.

Provisional thresholds for Cr on the Tongass are: Alectoria sarmentosa
(.73 ppm) Hypogymnia (2.38 ppm), Lobaria oregana (1.51 ppm) and
Platismatia glauca (3.29 ppm).

Plots elevated above threshold for Cr are the following: from Sitka road
system plots 236, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245, and 246 (Figures XIV-4, 6 and
8),  Greens Creek  plots 512 and 511b (Figures XIV-10), Berners Bay plot
113  (Figure XIV-4) Harlequin Lake plot 62 (Figures XIV-8 and 10),
downtown Juneau plot 1000 (Figures XIV-10) and Yakutat road system plot
66 (Figure XIV-4 and 6).

XIV. SUMMARY OF Cr PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XIV-1. Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure XIV-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XIV-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.30	0.0422	0.1807	0.4153

1989	Wilderness	0.21	0.0712	0.0253	0.3914

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.49	0.0650	0.3587	0.6261

1990	Wilderness	0.39	0.0969	0.1573	0.6317

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.2420	0.0176	0.2050	0.2790

1991	Wilderness	0.26	0.0547	0.1063	0.4098

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.43	0.0633	0.2809	0.5801

2003	Wilderness	0.32	0.0148	0.1270	0.5040

2004	Wilderness	0.31	0.0214	0.2669	0.3556

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.44	0.0869	0.2152	0.6622

2005	Wilderness	0.29	0.0034	0.2783	0.2936

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.3201, df = 8, p-value = 0.7571

There is no evidence of a difference in Cr content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.7571).
Plots with repeated samples for cadmium in Alesar are: Karta River
(#159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo
(# 189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi
(#101), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Cr content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
XIV-3, XIV-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XIV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure XIV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table XIV-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.75	0.4500	4.9678	6.4678

1989	Wilderness	0.78	0.2223	0.1629	1.3971

1990	Non-Wilderness	2.84	0.6270	1.5275	4.1620

1990	Wilderness	0.66	0.1472	0.2969	1.0174

2003	Wilderness	0.55	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.50	0.1066	0.2285	0.7766

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.97	1.1188	0.8457	8.7817

2005	Wilderness	0.90	0.2141	0.4055	1.3927

No t-tests were performed on this data due to the lack of repeat samples
of Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Cr content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIV-5,
XIV-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XIV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure XIV-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table XIV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.51	0.0344	0.3990	0.6177

1989	Wilderness	0.28	0.1005	-0.0038	0.5545

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.62	0.1445	0.3005	0.9302

1990	Wilderness	0.38	0.1932	-0.1181	0.8753

2004	Wilderness	0.75	0.1450	0.3920	1.1017

2005	Non-Wilderness	2.32	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.41	0.0994	0.0943	0.7272

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.19, df = 4, p-value = 0.2999

There is no evidence of a difference in Cr ppm content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2999).  This
analysis was for three wilderness areas that had repeated values for
chromium in Lobaria oregana, Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Tebenkof (#33)
and Misty Fiords (# 86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the Cr content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures XIV-7,
XIV-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XIV-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure XIV-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table XIV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.58	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.94	0.1798	0.5371	1.3504

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.02	0.5248	1.8331	4.2077

2005	Wilderness	1.17	0.3019	0.4538	1.8817

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Cr are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Cr content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIV-9, XIV-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XIV-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure XIV-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: for Chromium (Cr) and all lichen species

Smelter and mine enhanced values for Cr are between 25 and 130 ppm (USDA
1999).  The highest value for Cr on the Tongass is the Greens Creek
tailing pile from Plagla at nearly 7ppm (Figure XIV-10).  Precipitation
has helped to remove the accumulated Cr from the lichens in this
industrial area. Plot 62, just inside the Russell Fiords wilderness, is
above threshold in three lichen species for Cr, but means levels are
lower than Greens Creek area.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Background for Cr in Alesar from the Pacific Northwest is .50 ppm, which
is slightly lower than the Tongass threshold of .73 ppm (USDA 1999).
Analysis from the second monitoring period contains Plot 494 on the
Stikine River and plot 512 from Greens Creek above threshold for Cr in
Alesar (Figure XIV-4).  It is unclear why the Stikine River plot at
Andrews Slough is elevated in Cr as no industrial sources are nearby.
Elevated levels may pertain to the geology of the area and the glacial
dusts that blow down the Stikine corridor.  The Greens Creek tailing
pile and the associated road are most likely the source of Cr in Alesar
as it is emitted in the mining process and is a natural occurring
substance in rock.  From the baseline monitoring period, four plots are
elevated above threshold; 113 (Berners Bay), 246 and 240 (Sitka road
system near mill), and 66 (Yakutat road system near Greens Pond).
Elevated Cr near roads is probably due to vehicle traffic and dust that
potentially brings Cr into the air from where it eventually settles on
the lichens nearby.  The Yakutat area also receives windblown soils from
the Yukon and could enhance certain elemental values.  Berner’s Bay
elevated levels is unexplained, however this area was the site of old
mines in the past century.  It is now the site of a large mine, and so
the geology may play a role in the elevated levels.  Repeated sampling
in that area may reveal changes in many elements as the mine continues
to develop.

Hypogymnia

Background level of Cr in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest is
between 2 and 3 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass threshold is between these
values at 2.38 ppm.  From the baseline monitoring period, plots 236,
239, 242, 243, 244, 245 (Sitka road system) and 66 (Yakutat Greens
pond), are elevated above threshold.  This can be explained by the close
proximity to unpaved roads and proximity to industry (in the case of
Sitka).  The second monitoring period revealed two places, plot 62 near
Harlequin Lake and plot 512 ( Greens Creek tailing pile) as above
threshold.  Harlequin Lake is also high in Cr from Plagla.  Therefore
high Cr may be due to the close proximity to the Dangerous River Bridge,
air traffic at the gravel airstrip, or windblown dusts from the north.

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Background for Cr in Lobore is 1 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass threshold is
similar at 1.51 ppm.  Plot 246 from the Sitka road system and plot 62
from Harlequin Lake were both above threshold level for Cr in Lobore at
2.0 ppm and above (Figure XIV-8).  The Sitka road system vehicle traffic
and proximity to the pulp mill can help explain elevated levels.  The
Alesar from this plot was also elevated in Cr.  The plot near Harlequin
Lake and the Dangerous River is elevated in Cr from Lobore, as well as
Hypogymnia and Plagla (see Figures XIV-8, 6 and 10).  See explanations
for elevated Cr levels above under Hypogymnia.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Background for Plagla in the Pacific Northwest for Cr is 2.0 ppm (USDA
1999).  Tongass threshold is slightly higher at 3.29 ppm.  Several plots
where Plagla was collected have elevated Cr above thresholds.  Greens
Creek plots 512 (tailings pile) and 511b (near portal) are both high in
Cr (Figure XIV-10).  This is most likely explained by the close
proximity to the industry and the roads.  Plot 1000 is 175 feet above
the cruise ship docking area and downtown Juneau which could be sources
of Cr.  Harlequin Lake plot 62 is elevated in Cr for three lichen
species (Figures XIV-6, 8 and 10).  More repeated sampling may be needed
to determine if this is part of the natural variation of Cr in areas
that are near glaciers and interior dust storms

XV. Summary of results for Copper (Cu) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Copper is a metal that occurs naturally in rock, soil, water, sediment,
and air.  On the average, the concentration of copper in the earth’s
crust is about 50 ppm (USPHS 1990).  It is an essential element for all
living organisims including humans and other animals.  Many compounds
exist, including both natural and man-made.  The most commonly used
compound is copper sulfate.  Copper is extensively mined and processed
in the US.  Some copper in the environment is less tightly bound to dirt
particals and can be taken up by plants and animals.  Other copper
compounds are so stringly attached to to dust and dirt, or embedded in
minerals that they cannot easily be enhaled or absorbed.

Thresholds for Cu on the Tongass are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(1.86 ppm), Hypogymnia (31.31 ppm), Lobaria oregana (10.18) and
Platismatia glauca (7.55 ppm).

Lichens with plot means elevated in Cu above threshold in Alesar
include: plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings pile), downtown Juneau above
cruise ships (plot 1000) and Tebenkof Bay (plot 033) (Figure XV-4).
Plots with elevated Cu in Hypogymnia include: Petersburg Creek
wilderness (plot 237) Sitka road system (plot 239), and Greens Creek
(Plot 512 and 511b) (Figure XV-6).  Plots with elevated levels of Cu in
Lobore include: Yakutat road system (064 and 066) and Harlequin Lake
(062) (Figure XV-8).  For Plagla, elevated Cu was found at Greens Creek
(plots 511a, 511b, and 512) (Figure XV-10).

XV. SUMMARY OF Cu PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XV-1. Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm

in All Species per year.

Figure XV-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm

in All Species per year.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XV-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.57	0.0882	0.3278	0.8178

1989	Wilderness	0.82	0.1500	0.4340	1.2053

1990	Non-Wilderness	1.13	0.1382	0.8430	1.4111

1990	Wilderness	0.81	0.1116	0.5357	1.0819

1991	Non-Wilderness	2.6288	1.6673	0.8741	6.1316

1991	Wilderness	0.98	0.0606	0.8124	1.1487

1992	Non-Wilderness	1.09	0.0759	0.9061	1.2649

2003	Wilderness	0.80	0.2785	2.7402	4.3372

2004	Wilderness	0.86	0.0944	0.6616	1.0522

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.88	0.4529	0.7204	3.0487

2005	Wilderness	0.96	0.1280	0.6719	1.2511

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.4902, df = 8, p-value = 0.6371

There is no evidence of a difference in Cu content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.6371).
Plots with repeated samples for copper in Alesar are: Karta River
(#159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo
(# 189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi
(#101), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Cu content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
XV-3, XV-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure XV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group.

Table XV-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.81	1.1650	12.9977	16.6077

1989	Wilderness	4.48	0.7630	2.3619	6.5988

1990	Non-Wilderness	12.63	4.8302	2.4776	22.7735

1990	Wilderness	24.51	21.0863	27.0854	76.1073

2003	Wilderness	2.55	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	3.57	0.2028	3.0491	4.0920

2005	Non-Wilderness	39.17	12.5573	14.8553	93.2039

2005	Wilderness	4.58	0.7303	2.8918	6.2601

No t-tests were performed on these data due to lack of repeat samples of
Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Cu content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XV-5, XV-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure XV-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Lobaria oregana

Table XV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	2.57	0.9786	-0.5428	5.6861

1989	Wilderness	3.63	0.7151	1.6415	5.6126

1990	Non-Wilderness	6.20	0.9823	4.0605	8.3410

1990	Wilderness	4.34	1.1448	1.3957	7.2812

2004	Wilderness	4.36	0.9396	2.0595	6.6578

2005	Non-Wilderness	11.34	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	3.52	0.9518	0.4891	6.5474

Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.438, df = 4, p-value = 0.684

There is suggestive evidence of a difference in Cu ppm content in
Lobaria oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.0684).
This analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for
copper in Lobaria oregana, Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake),
Tebenkof (33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88).  This is probably due to the
Harlequin Lake plot 62 being above threshold in Cu during the second
monitoring period.

Relationships are not strong in the Cu content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XV-7, XV-8
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results

Figure XV-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure XV-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table XV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	1.86	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	2.72	0.3458	1.9337	3.4983

2005	Non-Wilderness	21.42	9.3170	0.3387	42.4915

2005	Wilderness	3.67	0.7104	1.9930	5.3526

No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Cu are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Cu content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XV-9, XV-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XV-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure XV-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: for Copper (Cu) and all lichen species

Thresholds for copper on the Tongass are above baseline for the Pacific
Northwest in all species of lichens.  The closest in comparison is for
Alectoria sarmentosa, with the threshold of 1.86 ppm similar to the
Pacific Northwest baseline of 1.50 ppm (USDA 1999).  Threshold for
Hypogymnia (31.31 ppm) is within the range considered to be mine or
smelter enhanced for Cu (15 to 1100 ppm).  It is unclear why Cu in
Hypogymnia on the Tongass is high, but it is possible that the geology