UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460

	OFFICE OF PREVENTION, PESTICIDES

                                                                                AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES

January 21, 2009

  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 MEMORANDUM

Subject:	Crop Grouping – Part VII:  Analysis of the USDA IR-4 Petition to Amend the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) (11) and Commodity Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (g)] Related to the Crop Group 11 Pome Fruit.

PC Code:  NA	DP Barcode:   NA

Decision No.: NA	Registration No.:  NA

Petition No.: NA	Regulatory Action:  Crop Grouping Regulation

Risk Assessment Type: None 	Case No.: NA

TXR No.: NA	CAS No.:  NA

MRID No.: 468579-01	40 CFR: 180.41 (c) (11) and 180.1 (g)

FROM:	Bernard A. Schneider, Ph.D., Senior Plant Physiologist

Chemistry and Exposure Branch

Health Effects Division (7509P)

THROUGH:	William Donovan, Ph.D. and Michael Doherty, Ph.D., Chairpersons

HED Chemistry Science Advisory Council (ChemSAC)

		Health Effects Division (7509P)

TO:	Barbara Madden, Minor Use Officer

Risk Integration, Minor Use, and Emergency Response Branch (RIMUERB)

		Registration Division (7505P)

cc: 	IR-4 Project, Bill Barney, Jerry Baron, Dan Kunkel, Van Starner

REQUEST:

	Dr Hong Chen, Crop Grouping Project Coordinator, USDA Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR-4), State Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University has submitted a petition (May 11, 2006) on behalf of the IR-4 Project, and the Pome Fruits Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) to amend the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) (11) Crop Group 11, Pome Fruits Group, and propose Commodity Definitions 40 CFR 180.1 (g) for crabapple.

	The above mentioned Pome fruit crop group petition requested the following three amendments:

1. Amend the existing crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) (11) that consists of the following seven commodity entries:

Apple, Malus domestica Borkh.

Crabapple, Malus spp.

Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

Mayhaw, Crataegus aestivalis, C. opaca, and C. rufula.

Pear, Pyrus communis L.

Pear, oriental, Pyrus pyrifolia L.

Quince, Cydonia oblonga Mill.

To an expanded crop group that consists of the following 10 commodity entries:

Apple, Malus domestica Borkh. (Rosaceae)

Crabapples, Malus  spp. (Rosaceae) (Chinese apple, Chinese crabapple, Chinese flowering Apple, Crabapple, Cutleaf crabapple, Florentine crabapple, Hall crabapple, Iowa crabapple, Japanese crabapple, Kai do crabapple, Manchurian crabapple, Paradise apple, Sargent's crabapple, Siberian crabapple, Soulard crabapple, Southern crabapple, Sweet crabapple, Tea crabapple, Toringa crabapple, Western Crabapple, Yunnan crabapple, and varieties and/or hybrids of these)

Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (Rosaceae)

Mayhaw, Crataegus aestivalis, C. opaca, and C. rufula (Rosaceae)

Medlar, Mespilus germanica L. (Rosaceae)

Pear, Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae)

Pear, Oriental, Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae)

Quince, Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae)

Quince, Chinese, Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai (Rosaceae)

Tejocote, Crataegus pubescens (Rosaceae)

And all varieties and/or hybrids of these

2. Retain the current commodities, Apple, and Pear, as representative commodities also for the expanded group.

3. Expand the commodity term for crabapples to include: Chinese apple, Chinese crabapple, Chinese flowering Apple, Crabapple, Cutleaf crabapple, Florentine crabapple, Hall crabapple, Iowa crabapple, Japanese crabapple, Kai do crabapple, Manchurian crabapple, Paradise apple, Sargent's crabapple, Siberian crabapple, Soulard crabapple, Southern crabapple, Sweet crabapple, Tea crabapple, Toringa crabapple, Western Crabapple, Yunnan crabapple, and varieties and/or hybrids of these).

BACKGROUND:

	All seven commodities in the current Crop Group 11, Pome fruits Group in 40 CFR 180.41 are members of the Rosaceae or Rose botanical family.  Apple and pear were selected as representative commodities for this group.  The crop group regulation for Pome Fruits Group has facilitated establishment of 47 group tolerances on pome fruits.

It is interesting to view the production data for some pome fruits from FAO agriculture statistics.  The world total acreage for apples, pears, and quinces decreased from 7,817,276 hectare in 1995 to 6,681,092 hectare in 2005, however the total production of these fruits has increased from 63,428,802 metric tons in 1995 to 834,719,870 metric tons in 2005 (FAO 2005; Table 6).  Some “minor” pome fruits commodities have become more popular in some countries and areas today than they were 10 years ago, such as crabapples, mayhaw, and the “orphan” crops medlar and tejocote.  Some of these fruits don’t have large commercial production, and thus have little chance to be added to pest control products labels unless they are placed in the pome fruit group.  Some of these “minor” pome fruits have great potential to be grown on a larger scale in some areas in the future due to their unique nutritional and medicinal values, such as mayhaw.  Mayhaw contains the highest red pigment and pectin among fruits, which give it a natural food color and texture for jelly and its vitamin and mineral components are also among the highest of the fruits, and the vitamin C content is next to dates and kiwifruit and is 18 times higher than apple.  In a news release in 2005, it was reported that mayhaws were growing in popularity in Louisiana, where production was almost doubled in 2004.  USDA CSREES Newsroom reported last year that the farm gate value of Louisiana mayhaw production increased from less than $200 in 1992 to $123,678 in 2004, and the market value for orchard mayhaw products last year was more than $500,000.  Currently mayhaw has not been included in either Codex or EU pome fruits group, but there is relatively larger commercial mayhaw production in some countries such as China.  It will benefit growers and consumers if this commodity is also added to both the Codex and the EU groups.  The “orphan” crops medlar and tejocote were not included in the existing U.S. EPA pome fruits group, but they are listed in both Codex and EU pome fruits groups.  Adding these two commodities in the EPA pome fruits group will help our effort in harmonizing with the Codex and EU crop classification systems.  Being excluded from the crop groups, tolerances requested for these commodities would have to be established based on separate residue studies.  Without a doubt the inclusion of these commodities in crop groups will benefit growers, consumers, save time and tax payer’s money on residue studies, save government agencies time in review residue data, as well as facilitating the establishment of import tolerances.

This petition proposes “Pome fruits Group 11” with 10 commodity entries in the genera Malus, Eriobotrya, Chaenomeles, Crataegus, Mespilus, Pseudocydonia, Pyrus and Cydonia, which are all in the Rosaceae botanical family.  Compared to the many other crop groups, commodities in this group are all closely related since they are all in the same family and especially share similar morphological and cultural characteristics.  The 10 commodities in the proposed crop group are temperate season perennial trees grown for edible fruits.  The fact that these fruits are in the same botanical family with similar biological and cultural aspects suggests they should also encounter similar pest problems and hence have similar needs for pest control products in similar use patterns.  Commodities and their varieties and/or hybrids proposed in this group will include all the commodities in the Codex Classification of Pome Fruits Group and EU Crop List of Pome Fruits Group.

The Crop Group 11 proposal was generated at the USDA/IR-4 Crop Grouping Symposium in Washington, DC, October 2002 by the Temperate Tree and Small Fruit Workgroup Chaired by Van Starner of USDA, IR-4 and Co-Chaired by Craig Hunter, Canadian Horticultural Center, Rick Melnicoe, University of California Department of Environmental Toxicology, Dr. Richard Loranger and Chris Olinger, EPA, HED and John Wise, Michigan State University.  It was further discussed and developed within the pome fruits Workgroup of the ICGCC.  This workgroup consists of over 200 crop or regulatory experts from the US, and NAFTA, EU, Asia, Middle East, and Latin America Regions representing over 40 countries.  The Workgroup discussed and validated each of the proposed commodities and representative commodities.  Representative commodities in the existing EPA Pome Fruits Group, apple and pear, have been recommended by the Workgroup to be representative commodities for the proposed amended group.  Another important aspect is the harmonization with the Codex crop classification.  The Codex Classification of foods and animal feeds for Pome Fruit Group is also undergoing revision.  The IR-4/EPA Crop Grouping Working Group and the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) are making every effort to collaborate with the revision of the Codex crop classification.  The expanded Pome Fruit Group and the representative commodities proposed in this petition would facilitate the harmonization of the U.S. and the Codex crop classification systems.

HED RECOMMENDATIONS:

	Each of the proposals and recommendations will be discussed below, followed by a series of other recommendations on terminology, database development, and harmonization with Codex.  The EPA would like to commend the valuable and high quality input of the ICGCC, all its members, and the Committee Chairperson Dr Hong Chen and Bill Barney, USDA IR-4, as well as Dr. Yuen-Shaung Ng, Biologist, HED, Jessie Cordova, HED Information Technical Specialist, Susan Stanton, Roger Chesser and Laura Nollen, Biologists, RD, EPA for their input and development of various databases in this report and Dr. Paul Schwartz, USDA, Office of Minor Use Pesticides for his advice and peer review.

IR-4 Proposal 1:

1. “Amend the existing crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) (11) that consists of the following seven commodity entries:

Apple, Malus domestica Borkh.

Crabapple, Malus spp.

Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

Mayhaw, Crataegus spp.

Pear, Pyrus communis L.

Pear, oriental, Pyrus communis L.

Quince, Cydonia oblonga Mill.

To an expanded crop group that consists of the following 10 commodity entries:

Apple, Malus domestica Borkh. (Rosaceae)

Crabapple, Malus  spp. (Rosaceae) (Chinese apple, Chinese crabapple, Chinese flowering Apple, Crabapple, Cutleaf crabapple, Florentine crabapple, Hall crabapple, Iowa crabapple, Japanese crabapple, Kai do crabapple, Manchurian crabapple, Paradise apple, Sargent's crabapple, Siberian crabapple, Soulard crabapple, Southern crabapple, Sweet crabapple, Tea crabapple, Toringa crabapple, Western Crabapple, Yunnan crabapple, and varieties and/or hybrids of these)

Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (Rosaceae)

Mayhaw, Crataegus spp. (Rosaceae)

Medlar, Mespilus germanica L. (Rosaceae)

Pear, Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae)

Pear, Oriental, Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae)

Quince, Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae)

Quince, Chinese, Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai (Rosaceae)

Tejocote, Crataegus pubescens (Rosaceae)

And all varieties and/or hybrids of these.”

HED Recommendation for Proposal 1:

	Based on similarities and characteristics of the Roseaceae or Rose family which includes all the proposed members to the Pome Fruit Crop Group 11, as well as a comparison of pome fruits, cultural practices, edible food and animal feed portions, residue levels, geographical location, pest problems, established tolerances, and for international harmonization purposes, I recommend that ChemSAC concur to amend the Pome Fruit Crop Group 11 from seven commodities to twelve commodities.

	While USDA IR-4 submitted a amended crop group with three new commodities (Medlar, Chinese quince, and Tejocote), further research and International comments provided supporting data to add an additional two commodities (Azarole and Japanese quince) to the group.  In addition to Chinese quince, we recommend to add Japanese quince to the list of commodities, since they are distinct crops in that growing regions and fruit size are different.  There were no crop subgroups proposed by IR-4 or recommended for this crop group.

	The scientific names of the twelve commodities were also updated and are listed below.

“HED Corrected Proposed Pome Fruit Crop Group 11 - 09”.

Commodities

Apple, Malus domestica Borkh.

Azarole, Crataegus azarolus L.

Crabapple, Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill., Malus prunifolia (Willd.) Borkh.

Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

Mayhaw, Crataegus aestivalis (Walter) Torr. & Gray, C. opaca Hook. & Arn., and C. rufula Sarg.

Medlar, Mespilus germanica L.

Pear, Pyrus communis L

Pear, Asian, Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm. f.) Nakai var. culta (Makino) Nakai

Quince, Cydonia oblonga Mill.

Quince, Chinese, Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Naka, Pseudocydonia sinensis (Thouin) C.K. Schneid.

Quince, Japanese, Chaenomeles japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. Ex Spach

Tejocote, Crataegus mexicana DC.

Cultivars, varieties and/or hybrids of those above commodities

	Additional notes:

HED also recommends that crabapple not include all the others common names associated with the crop as was proposed.  These terms will be included in the Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary as lookup terms and crabapple will be the preferred commodity name.

HED also recommends changing the preferred commodity name for Oriental pear to Asian pear, since Asian pear has become the prefer commodity name in the marketplace trade and in grocery stores.

HED also recommends that in the crop group table the term “varieties and/or hybrids of these” should be changed to, “varieties, cultivars and hybrids, of these commodities” to avoid all confusion with terminology regarding whether they are varieties, cultivars, or hybrids of the any pome fruit commodities.

IR-4 Proposal 2:

2. “Retain the current commodities, Apple, and Pear, as representative commodities also for the proposed expanded group.”

HED Recommendation for Proposal 2:

	I recommend ChemSAC concur to retain apple and pear as the representative commodities for the amended Pome Fruit Crop Group 11.  These two representative commodities account for > 99 % of the harvested acres for the members of the amended Pome Fruit Group.  The representative commodities are based on similarities in fruit and cultural practices and geographical locations, as well as their high production (both acres and yield) and consumption.  A comparison of established tolerances on pome fruit commodities also supports that residue levels will be similar between members of the crop group.

IR-4 Proposal 3:

“A commodity definition for Crabapples will need to be established in 40 CFR 180.1 (g) to list all the types of crabapples such as Crabapples, Malus  spp. (Rosaceae) (Chinese apple, Chinese crabapple, Chinese flowering Apple, Crabapple, Cutleaf crabapple, Florentine crab apple, Hall crabapple, Iowa crabapple, Japanese crabapple, Kai do crabapple, Manchurian crabapple, Paradise apple, Sargent's crabapple, Siberian crabapple, Soulard crabapple, Southern crabapple, Sweet crabapple, Tea crabapple, Toringa crabapple, Western Crabapple, Yunnan crabapple, and varieties and/or hybrids of these).”

HED Recommendation for Proposal 3 Commodity Definition for Crabapple:

	I recommend rejecting the Crabapple commodity definition under 40 CFR Part 180.1(h) because these crabapples will be listed in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed) as lookup terms and the preferred term for all of them will be crabapple.

Additional HED Recommendations/Conclusions:

HED Recommendation 4:

	Another important aspect of crop grouping is the harmonization effort with the Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds.  The current EPA crop group for Pome fruit group 11 is similar to the corresponding Codex Pome fruits (Crop Group 002).  The Codex Group 002, Pome Fruits, consists of eleven commodities including six of the seven commodities in the current EPA crop group 8.  The only exceptions are mayhaw which is in the U.S. crop grouping system and medlar which is in the Codex system.  The U.S. Crop group is also proposing to add three new commodities: azarole, Chinese quince, and tejocote that are not yet in the Codex classification system.  EPA will change the name of the commodity Oriental pear to Asian pear based on the international usage of Asian pear as a trade name for this commodity.  The eleven Codex commodities really consist of seven distinct commodities with the rest being multiple entries, or varieties of cultivar of other commodities listed.  The scientific name for Oriental pear in the Codex system is incorrect Pyrus pyritolia should be Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm. f.) Nakai var. culta (Makino) Nakai and the scientific name for pear should be Pyrus communis L. not Pyrus pyrifolia.  Note that the current Codex crop group does not have representative commodities.  A revision of the Codex Classification is underway with consideration to include adding new commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities.

HED Recommendation 5:

Guidance for HED SOP 99.6 -  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1  “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of Blending” issued August 20, 1999, and HED SOP 2000.1 – “  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 Guidance for Translation of Field Trial Data from Representative Commodities in the Crop Group Regulation to Other Commodities in Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 2000 can be updated to reflect the amendment to the Pome fruit group 11.

HED Recommendation 6:

Guidance on expressing tolerance terminology for the Pome fruit crop group 11 is discussed under the “Tolerance expression guidance section of this analysis.

HED Recommendation 7:

	The Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database prepared by Dr’s. Yuen-Shaung NG and B. A. Schneider, was updated on September, 2008 in Table 44 for the Pome Fruit Group.

HED Recommendation 8:

New lookup and preferred EPA terms for the members of the Pome Fruit Crop Group are listed in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary section of this report and these terms should be added to the updated EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary website (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed).

ANALYSIS OF THE USDA IR-4 PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH AN AMENDED POME FUIT GROUP 10

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES:

	Pome fruits are all members of the family Rosaceae.  The family Rosaceae or Rose family has four subfamilies of which the pome fruits are contained in the Maloideae subfamily.  This petition proposes “Pome fruits Group 11” with 10 commodity entries in the genera Malus, Chaenomeles, Crataegus, Cydonia, Eriobotrya, Mespilus, and Pyrus, all in the same Rosaceae botanical family.  Compared to the many other crop groups, commodities in this group are all closely related since they are all in the same family/subfamily and share similar morphological, cultural characteristics, and pest problems.  There are over 100 genera and over three thousand species in the Rosaceae family.  The greatest diversity of members of the Rosaceae is in Europe, Asia, or North America.  The family includes some of the most well-known garden trees and shrubs, including the rose, cotoneaster, pyracantha, geums, kerria, and British native species such as hawthorn and rowan.  The family also includes many fruits of temperate regions, including apple, pear, cherry, plum, peach, raspberry and strawberry.

	While there are many different types of   HYPERLINK "http://science.jrank.org/pages/2878/Fruits.html"  fruits  in the rose family, ranging from single-seeded, soft, fleshy, fruits known as drupes to harder, fleshy pseudocarps such as a pome or hip.  In the genera Malus (apples and crabapples), Chaenomeles, and Rosa, the true fruit is engulfed in a fleshy structure called the hypanthium, which is composed of the swollen stem or base of petals and sepals.  In the mature pseudocarp (pome), the true fruit is centrally located and contains five distinct carpels which may contain one or more   HYPERLINK "http://science.jrank.org/pages/6061/Seeds.html"  seeds  each.  The fleshy   HYPERLINK "http://science.jrank.org/pages/6847/Tissue.html"  tissue  which surrounds the fruit is the hypanthium.  A pome is an   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_fruit" \o "Accessory fruit"  accessory fruit  composed of five or more   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpel" \o "Carpel"  carpels  in which the   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocarp" \o "Exocarp"  exocarp  forms an inconspicuous layer.  The   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesocarp" \o "Mesocarp"  mesocarp  is usually fleshy, and the   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocarp" \o "Endocarp"  endocarp  forms a leathery case around the   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed" \o "Seed"  seed .  Outside of the endocarp is the most edible part of this fruit, derived from the floral tube (torus) and other parts, which corresponds to what is commonly called the core.  The shriveled remains of the sepals, style and stamens can be seen at the end of a pome opposite the stem, demonstrating that the ovary is   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovary_%28plants%29" \l "Inferior_ovary" \o "Ovary (plants)"  inferior  in these flowers.  This type of fruit is called a pome (See Figure 1).  In botany, a pome (after the   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" \o "French language"  French  name for an   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple" \o "Apple"  apple : pomme) is a type of   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit" \o "Fruit"  fruit  produced by   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant" \o "Flowering plant"  flowering plants  in the Subfamily   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maloideae" \o "Maloideae"  Maloideae  of the Family   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosaceae" \o "Rosaceae"  Rosaceae .  A special fruit type is given to apple and related fruits - the pome.  The subfamily   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maloideae" \o "Maloideae"  Maloideae  includes apple, pear, Chinese quince, quince, loquat, medlar, mayhaw, and tejocote.  The bulk of the fleshy edible portion derives from the hypanthium or floral cup, not the ovary as most fruits and is called an accessory fruit since it derives from other floral parts.  Seeds are relatively small and black, and mildly poisonous.

	The best know example of a pome fruit is the apple.  Other examples of plants that produce fruit classified as a pome are pear, loquat, azarole, mayhaw, quince, cotoneaster, hawthorn, Pyracantha, rowan, and whitebeam.

Figure 1. Cross Section of a Pome Fruit (Apple is a Classic Example of a Pome Fruit).

The current Crop Group 10, Pome fruit group, has been successful in establishing tolerances for the seven members of this group.  There are three pome fruit “orphan crops” grown commercially or in small scales, and sold and consumed in the U.S. or other regions or countries.  Many of these crops are of economic importance or have a great potential to be grown in larger scale in the future due to their nutritional value, or the increased market demand driven by both the growing ethnic populations and greater awareness of these crops by the non-ethnic population as a whole.  Being excluded from the crop groups, tolerances requested for these commodities would have to be established based on separate residue studies.  Without a doubt the inclusion of these commodities in crop groups will benefit growers, consumers, save time and tax payer’s money on residue studies, save government agencies time in review residue data.

ORIGIN, HISTORY OF CULTIVATION

	The center of diversity of the genus Malus is the eastern Turkey, southwestern Russia region of Asia Minor (Republic of Kazakhstan).  Apples were probably improved through selection over a period of thousands of years by early farmers.  Alexander the Great is credited with finding dwarfed apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC; and he brought back to Greece may well have been the progenitors of dwarfing rootstocks.  Apples were brought to North America with colonists in the 1600's, and the first apple orchard on this continent was said to be near Boston in 1625.  From New England origins, apples moved west with pioneers, John Chapman (alias Johnny Appleseed) and various missionaries during the 1700's and 1800's.  In the 1900s, irrigation projects in Washington State began and allowed the development of the pome fruit industry of which the apple is the leading species.  Apples are grown between latitudes 30° and 50° north and south.  Limiting factor in apple production at latitudes lower than 30° is a lack of adequate chilling in the winter.  There are over 10,000 apple cultivars worldwide but only a few dozen have international importance (Table 17).  The development of more heat tolerant apple cultivars and long growing season varieties like ‘Granny Smith’ and ‘Fuji” and the use of irrigation has extended apple production to areas with a warmer climate.  Apples can grow on a wide range of soil types.  The optimum soil pH ranges from 6.5 – 7.0.  The ten commodities in the proposed crop group are all cool season temperate perennial trees gown for their fruits.

	Pears are placed in the Rose family (Rosaceae), subfamily Pomoideae along with apple and quince.  The genus Pyrus is composed of about 22 species, found in Asia, Europe, and northern Africa.  Two major species are commercially cultivated:  European pear: Pyrus communis L.  This species does not occur in nature, and possibly derives from P. caucasia and P. nivalis (snow pear).  This is the major pear of commerce.  The other pear is the Asian pear P. pyrifolia (Burm. f.) Nak. [syn. P. serotina L.] and it is also called "Japanese" or "Oriental" pear, or "Nashi".  Grown mostly in the Orient, this fruit has been increasing in popularity in the USA over the last 20 years.

Like its relative the apple, the European pear is not found in the wild.  Its probable ancestors are native to Eastern Europe and Asia Minor near the Mediterranean, but it is not known when they may have hybridized to yield P. communis.  The European pear has been selected and improved since prehistoric times, and has been cultivated in Europe since 1000 BC.  Pears probably came to the U.S. with the first settlers on the east coast in the 1700’s, and spread westward with pioneers.  When moved to the Pacific Northwest in the 1800s, European pears were able to escape fire blight, a serious bacterial disease that limited pear cultivation in the east.  Today, over 90 % of the pear crop is grown in the Pacific Northwest, such as the Hood River Valley of Oregon and California.  There are relatively few cultivars of European or Asian pear grown worldwide.  Only about 20 - 25 European and 10 - 20 Asian cultivars represent virtually all the pears of commerce.  Almost all European cultivars were chance seedlings or selections originating in Western Europe, mostly France.  'Bartlett' is the most common pear cultivar in the world, and represents about 75% of US pear production.

Asian pears were domesticated in China about the same time European pears were in Europe, 3000 years ago.  Pyrus pyrifolia is native to central and southern China, and probably the first to be domesticated since fruit of wild trees is edible.  Fruit of the wild P. ussuriensis is astringent, small, and course-textured, so that it was probably hybridized with P. pyrifolia prior to domestication.  Chinese writings dating from 200 - 1000 BC describe pear propagation and culture.  All of the Asian cultivars originated in Japan and China.  Asian pears moved from China to Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, where they are still cultivated commercially today.  Asian pears appear more like apple than European pear, and have hard, crisp flesh like apples when ripe, unlike the soft flesh of the European pears.  Also, Asian pears will ripen on trees like apples, but European pears are subject to core breakdown if allowed to ripen fully on-tree.

	The common European pears have a pyriform shape while Asian pears have a round fruit shape.  As in apple, the fleshy edible portion is derived from hypanthium tissue.  There are five central seed cavities, usually bearing two seeds each as in apple.  The flesh contains grit cells (termed brachysclereids), which are thick-walled, lignified cells that give the characteristic European pear flesh texture.  Pears are thinned to 1 - 2 fruit per spur branch and spaced 6 inches apart.

The members of this crop group have similar uses, and all are consumed fresh or consumed cooked or raw in various recipes including salads, jellies, and juices.  They can also be used fresh or in a dehydrated form.  Some of these pome fruits also have medicinal properties.  The fact that these pome fruits are in the same family with similar biological and cultural aspects suggests they should also encounter similar pest problems and hence have similar needs for pest control products in similar use patterns.

Among the 10 commodities proposed only three are new to this crop group (Chinese quince, Japanese quince, medlar, and tejocote.  Azarole and Japanese quince were also found to have similar characteristics to become a member of the Pome fruit group.  Apples and pears are the widely grown pome fruits in the world with largest acreages and are the representative commodities for the current pome fruit group.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE POME FRUIT CROPS

	Understanding how the pome fruit crops grow and develop is a key part of developing a pest control strategy for optimum fruit yield and quality and a helpful reference for analysis of residue field trials by EPA scientists.  Proper timing of pesticide applications, based on crop growth stage and pest growth cycle can improve a product’s efficacy and prevent crop injury and yield losses.  Pesticide labels often use crop growth stages and codes to identify when to apply a pesticide, as well as the pome fruit State Extension pest control recommendations and spray schedules are based on these distinct growth stages.  For example, the growth stages in Tables 2, 3, and 4 do not show when

spray treatments must be applied but will show when any combination of a pest control treatment when needed can be applied.  Rarely, if ever, will a grower need to apply treatments at all of the key growth stages shown for a given fruit.  The number, distribution, and content of needed treatments will vary between the major fruit growing regions of the world and within any given region and are dependent on pest pressures which reduce the yield, quality, and marketability of the fruit.  In our reviews we often have to consider the number of days from a specific apple growth stage to harvest in order to determine the total number of pesticide applications and to establish a preharvest interval (PHI).  Pesticide spray application are timed according to specific growth stages, with early season pesticide applications  are timed according to the opening of the leaf and flower buds in the spring (see Table 5, dormant through bloom stages), and later season applications are called full tree cover sprays.

	Some of the internationally recognized growth stages for the pome fruits are listed as BBCH Codes (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemical industry) and are shown in Table 1.  They are based on the principal growth stage such as leaf development and flowering and list a standard BBCH Code for each stage as well as a description of each code.  Pome fruit growth stages for apple (Table 2) and pear (Table 3) are also essential for identifying the propose timings to scout pest problems for control of these pests and for applications of pesticides as part of an integrated pest management program (IPM).  A comparison of the growth stages for apple and pear such as petal fall stage during growth and flowering will help the reviewer understand similar growth stages for evaluating spray schedules and label direstions (Table 4).  Fruit set is a growth stage reached in apple, for example, 5 to 10 days after the end of bloom or when one can readily see which blossoms have at least temporarily set fruit and which ones have not set fruit.  In a "normal" year fungicides may be needed to be applied at the growth stages (Table 2) green tip, half inch green, tight cluster, pink, petal fall, and fruit set stages.  After the petal fall stage in apple and pear (Tables 2 and 3), the pesticide applications are often called “cover sprays” and up to seven cover sprays may be needed.  There are also separate spray schedules for apples intended for processing and for nonbearing fruit trees.  Examples of growth stage use in apples is for controlling of apple scab infections is a dominant concern of New York pome fruit growers.  The most effective time to use oil spray to control the European red mite and for powdery mildew is at the tight cluster stage.  In areas where the plum curculio is troublesome, the treatment applied at the fruit set stage has been called "the curculio spray" and treatments applied at the petal fall and fruit set stages are important in a program to control this pest.  Similarly for pears pesticide treatments are used primarily for the control of pear psylla and fire blight.  One or two oil sprays applied in the bud swell stage provides good initial control of the psylla and blister mite (Table 3).  Fire blight may be contained by good control of its vectors which are psylla, plant bugs, and aphids in the green cluster and petal fall sprays and by use of a bactericide in full bloom stage.

Table 1.  Selected Principal Growth Stages for Pome Fruit Group (Apple and Pear).  BBCH Identification Codes (Adapted from Meier, 1994).

BBCH Code 	Principal Growth Stage	General Description

00	Sprouting/Bud development	Dormancy: leaf buds and the thicker inflorescence buds closed and covered by dark brown scales.

01	Sprouting/Bud development 	Beginning of leaf bud swelling: buds visibly swollen, bud scales elongated, with light colored patches

03	Sprouting/Bud development	End of leaf bud swelling: bud scales light colored with some parts densely covered by hairs.

07	Sprouting/Bud development	Beginning of bud break, first green leaf tips just visible.

09	Sprouting/Bud development 	Green leaf tips about 5 mm above bud scales.

10	Leaf development	Mouse-ear stage: Green leaf tips 10 mm above the bud scales; first leaves separating.

11	Leaf development 	First leaves unfolded (others still unfolding.

15	Leaf development	More leaves unfolded, not yet at full size.

19	Leaf development 	First leaves fully expanded.

31	Shoot development	Beginning of shoot growth; axes of developing shoots visible.

32	Shoot development	Shoots about 20% of final length

33	Shoot development	Shoots about 30% of final length

39	Shoot development 	Shoots about 90% of final length.

51	Inflorescence emergence	Inflorescence buds swelling: bud scales elongated, with light colored patches.

52	Inflorescence emergence	End of bud swelling: light colored bud scales visible with parts densely covered by hairs

3	Inflorescence emergence	Bud burst: green leaf tips enclosing flowers visible.

54	Inflorescence emergence	Mouse-ear stage: green leaf tips 10 mm above bud scales; first leaves separating.

55	Inflorescence emergence	Flowers visible still closed.

56	Inflorescence emergence	Green bud stage: single flowers separating but still closed.

57	Inflorescence emergence	Pink bud stage: flower petals elongating; sepals slightly open; petals just visible.

59	Inflorescence emergence	Most flowers with petals forming a hollow ball.

60	Flowering	First flowers open.

61	Flowering	Beginning of flowering: about 10% of flowers open

62	Flowering	About 20% of flowers open

63	Flowering	About 30% of flowers open

64	Flowering	About 40% of flowers open

65	Flowering	Full flowering: at least 50% of flowers open, first petals falling.

67	Flowering	Flowers fading: majority of petals fallen

69	Flowering	End of flowering, all petals fallen.

71	Development of Fruit	Fruit size up to 10 mm; fruit fall after flowering.

72	Development of Fruit	Fruit size up to 20 mm.

73	Development of Fruit	Second fruit fall

74	Development of Fruit	Fruit diameter up to 40 mm; fruit erect. (T-stage: underside of fruit and stalk forming a T).

75	Development of Fruit	Fruit about half final size

76	Development of Fruit	Fruit about 60% final size

77	Development of Fruit	Fruit about 70% final size

79	Development of Fruit 	Fruits about 90% of final size.

81	Maturity of fruit	Beginning of ripening: first appearance of cultivar-specific color.

83	Maturity of fruit 	Fruit ripe for picking, has not developed variety specific color.

85	Maturity of fruit	Advanced ripening: increase in intensity of cultivar-specific color.

87	Maturity of fruit	Fruit ripe for picking

89	Maturity of fruit 	Fruit ripe for consumption, fruit has typical taste and firmness, beginning of senescence and fruit abscission.

91	Senescence, beginning of dormancy	Shoot growth completed; terminal bud developed; foliage still fully green.

92	Senescence, beginning of dormancy	Leaves begin to discolor

93	Senescence, beginning of dormancy	Beginning of leaf fall, abscission of older leaves.

95	Senescence, beginning of dormancy	50% of leaves discolored

97	Senescence, beginning of dormancy 	All leaves fallen.

99	Senescence, beginning of dormancy	Harvested product

Table 2. Apple Fruit Growth Development Stages.  (Adapted from P. Chapman and G. Catlin.  'Growth Stages in Fruit Trees', From Dormant to Fruit Set.  New York Food and Life Sciences Bulletin, No. 58, February 1976, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, NY and Michigan State University Extension Service website http://web1.msue.msu.edu/fruit/applgrw.htm)

APPLE

  	Final fruit size is a result of the number of fruit on the tree and the growing conditions that year.

Table 3.  Pear Fruit Growth Development Stages.  (Adapted from P. Chapman and G. Catlin.  'Growth Stages in Fruit Trees', From Dormant to Fruit Set.  New York Food and Life Sciences Bulletin, No. 58, February 1976, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, NY) and Michigan State University Extension Service website http://web1.msue.msu.edu/fruit/applgrw.htm).

Harvest

Table 4.  Comparison of the Terminology Used for the Pome Fruits Apple and Pear Growth Stages.

  HYPERLINK "http://web1.msue.msu.edu/fruit/applgrw.htm"  APPLE 	NOTES PEAR	NOTES

Dormant	Overwinter stage, fruit buds inactive.  No bud swelling visible. 	Dormant	Overwinter stage, fruit buds inactive.

Silver Tip	Applies only to apple. Fruit bud scales separated at tip, showing light gray tissue.  Swollen buds become noticeable and silvery fuzzy leaf tissue begins to emerge from the tip of the bud.	Bud Swell or Swollen bud	Applies to all fruits except apple.  Swollen Bud is equivalent to silvertip stage in apple. Fruit buds swollen, scales separated to expose areas of lighter colored tissue.

Green Tip

0.25" Green

0.5" Green	Applies only to apples.  Fruit buds broken at tip, which shows about 1 /16 inch (1 - 2 mm) green.  At the 0.5 inch green stage a half inch of green tissue is visible at the midtip.  Leaves start to fold back from the bud.  This stage is often called "Mouse Ears".	Bud Burst	Applies to pear, and is equivalent to green tip stage in apple.  Fruit buds broken at tip, showing tips of blossom buds.

Tight Cluster	Applies only to apple. Blossom buds mostly exposed, tightly grouped, stems short.	Green Cluster	Applies only to pear.  Blossom buds green, mostly separated in the cluster, stems lengthened.

Open Cluster	The individual flower buds have separated.	White Bud Applies to pear.  Blossom buds white, separated in the exposed cluster and stems lengthened.

Pink 	The flower buds have grown enough to expose the petals of the flowers.	Popcorn	The flower petals form a hollow ball that resembles popped popcorn

King Bloom	The center "King Bloom" has opened. The King bloom has the potential to have the largest fruit	First Bloom	The first flowers are opening

Full Bloom	Blossom buds fully open, 60 - 80% or more of the flowers on the tree or in the orchard are open.	Full Bloom	Blossom buds fully open 80% or more of the flowers on the tree or in the orchard are open.

Petal Fall	Flower petals begin falling from the tree.  Stage after about 75 per cent of the petals have fallen applies to all fruits.  Sprays after petal fall are often referred to as “cover sprays.” 	Petal Fall	Flower petals are falling from the tree.  Stage after about 75 per cent of the petals have fallen applies to all fruits. Sprays after petal fall are often referred to as “cover sprays.”

8 mm Fruit	The number refers to fruit diameter in millimeters. Six or eight mm is the beginning of the apple thinning window	8 mm Fruit	The number refers to fruit diameter in millimeters. Late bloom after the bloom period is over is called 'rat tail bloom' and seldom develops fruit.

10 mm Fruit	Apple fruit are easiest to spray thin when they are 10 to 15 mm in diameter.	10 mm Fruit	Pear fruit expanding in diameter.

12 mm Fruit	As the fruit cluster develops size difference between the king and side blooms become more pronounced. 	12 mm Fruit

	15 mm Fruit	"June drop" describes the fall of smaller fruit from the flower cluster early in development. Spray thinners enhance this natural fruit drop and control the crop.	15 mm Fruit

	18 mm Fruit	By the time the fruit are this size they are hard to thin and growers use higher unpredictable rates, in an effort to reduce the crop.	18 mm Fruit

	21 mm Fruit	The end of the June drop marks the end of the thinning window.	21 mm Fruit

	1.0" Fruit	By the time the fruit is one inch in diameter the final fruit count as been determined. Some growers will thin by hand.	1.0" Fruit

	1.25" Fruit	Fruit growth seems to slow down as the fruit enlarges. Actually the amount of growth stays the same but since the fruit is larger the growth seems slower.	1.25" Fruit

	1.5" Fruit

1.5" Fruit

	1.75" Fruit

1.75" Fruit

	2.0" Fruit

2.0" Fruit

	2.25" Fruit

2.25" Fruit

	2.5" Fruit	These fruit are nearing harvest. Two and a half inches is about the smallest commercial size for fresh market apples.	2.5" Fruit

	2.75" Fruit

2.75" Fruit

	3.0" Fruit

3.0" Fruit

	3.25" Fruit

3.25" Fruit

	3.5" Fruit

3.5" Fruit

	3.75" Fruit	Maximum fruit size.	3.75" Fruit	Maximum fruit size.

Harvest	Final apple fruit size is a result of the number of fruit on the tree and the growing conditions that year.	Harvest	Reach final size ready for pear harvest.

Apples may have pesticide applications or various cultural practices conducted at several growth stages depending upon pest or physiological problem (s) to be controlled.  Using integrated pest management practices, pest populations are carefully monitored before a pesticide application is recommended.  Again not all of the growth stages of apples will receive a pesticide treatment, but are listed for guidance when the pesticide label lists them as a spray application for the specific growth stage or timing (Table 5).

Table 5.  Days Between Growth Stages of Apples.

GROWTH STAGE	DESCRIPTION	DAYS BETWEEN GROWTH STAGE	CUMULATIVE MATURITY DAYS	NOTES

Dormant	Before buds

Swell or break	   0	   0	Early April

Silver Tip	After buds swell or start to open, before bud break	   7	   7

	Green Tip	Reported as green, ¼ or green, ½ inch.  First visual green leaf tip tissue.	   7 – 14	  14 - 21

	Tight Cluster	Flowers still arranged in a cluster and are unopened.	   7	  21 – 28

	Prepink	When the center flowers or blooms first show pink	   4 – 7	  25 – 35	Also considered the open cluster stage.

Pink	Just before full bloom, flower buds are pink	   7	  32 - 42

	Bloom or Full Bloom	All flowers opened	   2 – 4 	  34 – 46	Covers a period of 10 days.  Insecticides are not recommended at the bloom stage to prevent killing pollinator insects.

Petal Fall	Most of the flower petals have fallen 	   7	  41 – 53

	First Cover	Leaves are fully developed	10 – 14	  51 – 67	Cover sprays can be applied at biweekly periods until harvest

Second Cover	Same cover spray	10 - 14 	  61 - 81

	Third Cover

10 - 14	  71 – 95

	Fourth Cover

10 – 14	  81 – 109	The fourth cover spray until 10 to 14 days before harvest are also called “summer cover sprays.”

Fifth Cover

10 – 14	  91 – 123

	Sixth Cover

10 – 14	101 – 137

	Seventh Cover

10 – 14	110 – 151

	Eight Cover

10 – 14	120 – 165

	Ninth Cover

10 – 14	131 – 179

	Harvest

  7 – 14	137 – 193

CLIMATE AND SOILS AFFECT POME FRUIT ADAPTATION TO CERTAIN REGIONS:

Apples are adaptable to various climates, but can be considered best adapted to the cool temperate zone from about 25 - 52° latitude.  They have a more northern range than many other tree fruits due to relatively late blooming and extreme cold hardiness.  Apples reach maturity about 120 - 150 days after bloom, with some cultivars maturing in as short as 70 days, and others as long as 180 days.  Apples are grown on a wide variety of soils worldwide, but they prefer well-drained, loamy soils with pH 6 - 7.  A minimum rooting depth of 4 - 5 feet is desirable.  Trees on shallow soils will be more affected by drought and by root injury during extended severe cold spells.  Apple trees will not tolerate waterlogged soils for extended periods during the growing season.  Loquat also prefers a  deep, well-drained, loamy soil with a pH 6 – 7, and they tolerate temperatures down to -11°C (12°F), but flower buds will be killed at -2 to -7°C (18 - 28°F).  Because flowering occurs in late autumn, frost kills the open flowers nearly every year when grown outside the tropics, so fruiting is rare outside of Florida, coastal Georgia, and California in the US.  Pears tolerate heavy, poorly drained soils better than most tree fruits.  Productivity is best on deep, well-drained loams with pH 6 - 7.  Pears have very similar climatic requirements to apples, but are much more susceptible to fire blight so they cannot tolerate humid, wet springs.  Asian pears have lower chill requirements than pears and can be grown as far south as northern Florida.  Pears have similar or slightly lower cold hardiness than apples, tolerating 10 to -20 F.  Pears bloom one to three weeks before apple, and are therefore prone to frost damage in most regions.  Pears can mature in as little as 90 days, or as long as 200 days.  'Bartlett' pear is referred to as "summer pears" since they ripen in July - August in California (115 - 140 days).  ‘Winter pears’ are those harvested in autumn and marketed throughout the winter months, such as 'Anjou', 'Bosc', 'Comice', 'Hardy', 'Winter Nelis', and 'Packham's Triumph'.

U.S./NAFTA AND WORLD PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE POME FRUIT COMMODITIES:

	Proposed members of the Pome fruit crop group find widespread distribution throughout the world.  Pome fruits are one of the largest fruit crops produced in the world, next to grape, banana, and citrus.  Table 6 provides a list of the hectares and production in metric tons from various countries that are members of the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) as countries that grow apples, pears, and quince.  While the world total acreage for apples, pears, and quinces have decreased from  7,817,276 ha in 1995 to 6,681,092 ha in 2007, however the total production of these fruits has increased from 63,428,802 metric tons in 1995 to 84,719,870 metric tons in 2007 (FAO 2005; Table 6).  Some “minor” pome fruits commodities have also become more popular.  This is an indication of improved productivity.  Worldwide, the apple is by far the most harvested pome fruit at 74 % of the hectares followed by pear at 25 %, and by quince at < 1.0 %.  The average yields in Mt/ha for the major pome fruits is 12.1 for apple, 11.2 for pear, and 7.1 for quince.  Asia is the predominant pome fruit producing regions accounting for 62 % of the apples hectares and 56 % of the production (Mt), 79% of the pear hectares and 69 % of the production, and 57 % of the quince hectares and 60 % of the production.  The United States has 6.7 % of their total world hectares for apples and accounts for 6.7 % of the total production (Mt), while it accounts for 1.5 % of the total world hectares and 3.8 % of the total world production (Mt).

Table 6. Major Pome Fruit Production in 2007.

 (FAO 2005; NAGASAWA 2006c, Norden, 2005c)

Countries/ Regions	Apple

	Pear	Quince

Africa	124,980 ha

1,863,070 Mt	47,240 ha

611,828 Mt	4,560 ha

39,160 Mt

C. America	63,160 ha

635175 Mt	4,850 ha

30,500 Mt	700 ha

7,200 Mt

S. America	141,097 ha

4,032,227 Mt	33,507 ha

815,147 Mt	4,448 ha

38,016 Mt

Canada

	17,705 ha

405,089 Mt	1,147 ha

13,381 Mt	No data

Mexico

	60,000 ha

605,000 Mt	4,850 ha

30,500 Mt	700 ha

7,200 Mt

Asia	3,068,586 ha

38,522,314 Mt	1,364,149 ha

14392003 Mt	44,233 ha

324,768 Mt

Australia	20,000 ha

221000 Mt	7,000 ha

150,000 Mt	No data

Europe	1,319,129 ha

13,950,045 Mt	208,706 ha

3,133,284 Mt	10,475 ha

 80,523 Mt

Japan	41,000 ha

850,000 Mt	17,000 ha

325,000 Mt	40 ha

300 Mt

New Zealand	10,000 ha

380,000 Mt	800 ha

35,000 Mt	70 ha

1,000 Mt

U.S.	156,000 ha

4,237,730 Mt	28,000 ha

799,180 Mt	No data

World Total	4,921,117 ha

64,248,520 Mt	1,695,489 ha

19,980,683 Mt	64,486 ha

490,667 Mt

Comparing World Total in 1995	6,318,724 ha 50,298,738 Mt	1,457,026 ha 12,835,108 Mt	41,526 ha

294,956 Mt

	In the U.S pome fruits are widely consumed with the per capita consumption in 2006 for the following pome fruits reported as apple at 51.2 lb with 35 % from fresh and 52 % from juice, and 8 % from canned apples (Table 7).  Consumption of apples since 1970 has increased from 31.2 lb to 51.2 lb per capita due to increased apple juice consumption from 6.4 lb to 26.8 lb/capita.  Pears in 2007 accounted for 5.4 lb/year consumption in the diet with fresh pears counting for 57 % and canned pears accounting for 43 % (Table 8).  Since 1970 pear consumption has only increased by 0.4 lb/capita, but fresh pears has increased rapidly (1.9 to 3.1 lb/capita) with a decline in canned pear consumption (3.3 to 2.3 lb/capita).

Table 7. Apple U.S. per Capita Consumption (lb/year) for 1970, and 2004 – 2006 (USDA ERS Food Availability, July 2008).

Apple	Fresh	Canned	Juice	Frozen	Dried 	Other	Total Apple

2006	17.8	4.2	26.8	0.84	0.93	0.59	51.2

2005	16.7	4.2	22.3	0.66	0.73	0.50	45.1

2004	18.8	4.5	25.3	0.86	0.70	0.45	50.7

1970	17.0	5.6	  6.4	0.99	0.90	0.64	31.5

Table.8. Pear per Capita Consumption (lb/year) for 1970, and 2004 – 2007 (USDA ERS Food Availability, July 2008).

Pear	Fresh	Canned	Dried	Total Pear

2007	3.1	2.3	-	5.4

2006	3.2	2.4	-	5.6

2005	2.9	2.3	0.02	5.2

2004	3.0	2.5	0.03	5.5

1970	1.9	3.3	0.06	5.2

	Based on the USDA CSFII 1994 – 1996, 1998 survey, using two day individual consumption for determined pome fruit consumption (g/day) is listed in Table 9, the highest consumption is for fresh apples with peel at 14.2 g/day and apple juice at 18.5 g/day, followed by the fresh pear at 3.3 g/day.  The dietary value of the pome fruits, per 100 gram edible portion is listed in APPENDIX III: Dietary Value of the Pome Fruits.  Apple juice accounts for approximately 67 % of the total noncitrus fruit juice consumption.

Table 9.  Consumption of the Pome Fruits Based on USDA CSFII

1994 – 1996, 1998 survey.

COMMODITY	CONSUMPTION (g/day)

Apple, dried	  0.0843

Apple, dried - babyfood	  0.000445

Apple, fruit with peel	14.2

Apple, juice	18.5

Apple, juice - babyfood	  0.494

Apple, peeled fruit	  0.933

Apple, peeled fruit - babyfood	  0.0494

Apple, sauce	  3.22

Apple, sauce - babyfood	  0.254

Pear	  3.36

Pear, dried	  0.00578

Pear, juice	  0.423

Pear, juice, babyfood	  0.0818

Pear, babyfood	  0.112

IMPORTS/EXPORTS OF THE POME FRUITS:

	Despite the U.S. being a major producer of pome fruits (Table 5) significant amounts of some of the pome fruits are imported.  The amount of a commodity can vary widely from year to year based on differences in U.S. production, weather effects, and consumer demand.  Apples are the most widely imported pome fruit shipped into the U.S. (Table 10).  In 1980 the import share of apple and pear consumption was 4.0 and 3.4 %, while in 2001 it greatly increased to 7.0 % and 20.6 %, respectively.  Also in 1980, apple juice consumption due to imports was 19.3 % while in 2001 it increased to 63.4 %.  In 2006, 7.1 % of the apple crop consumed was from imports, apple juice 80.2 %, and 23.1 % from fresh pears.  In 2007 over 206,563 MT of fresh apples were imported to the U.S. (USDA Foreign Agriculture Trade Statistics, FATUS).  Compared to 1975 consumption of fresh apples (2.8 %) and pears (2.6 %) and apple juice (15.3 %) due to imports has greatly increased.  Approximately 60 % of the apples were imported from Chile, 23 % from New Zealand, and 15 % from Canada.  Frozen apple juice concentrate in 2007 was 169,348 Kiloliter with 43 % Brazil, 37 % from Peoples Republic of China, and 11 % from Turkey, and 5 % from Argentina.  Apple juice not frozen in 2007 was 2,113,643 kiloliters with 54 % from Peoples Republic of China 19 % from Argentina, and 17.0% from Chile.  There were 7,118 MT dried apples imported from Chile (43 %), Peoples Republic of China (39 %), and Argentina (16 %).  Imported fresh pears in 2006 totaled over 106,887 MT with 49 % from Argentina, 28 % from Chile, 10 % from Republic of Korea, and 8.7 % from Peoples Republic of China.  Pear juice has been imported at over 190, 991 KL from Argentina at 56 %, Peoples Republic of China at 38 % and Chile at 4 %.  According to the USDA, ERS in 2006 approximately 270,669,000 lb of fresh market apples were imported, and 171,704,000 lb of fresh market pears and quinces were imported.  Approximately 425,085,000 single strength apple juices were imported to the U.S.

Table 10.  U.S. Pome Fruit Imports for 2005-2006. (USDA NASS, 2008 Fr Nt 1-3, USDA ERS, FTS – 2007, USDA FATUS, 2008).

Fruiting Vegetable	2005	2006

Apple, fresh	679,095 (1,000 lb)	686,791 (1,000 lb)

Pear, fresh	171,704 (1,000 lb)	197,504 (1,000 lb)

Apple, juice	503,458

(1,000 single strength equivalent, gallons)	425,085

(1,000 single strength equivalent, gallons)

	The U.S. is also a major exporter of pome fruit commodities (Table 11).  In 2007, approximately 172,979 MT of fresh apples were exported to Mexico accounting for 27 %, Canada for 20 %, and Taiwan at 7 % (USDA FATUS).  Apple juice exports were over 29,024 KL with Canada accounting for 56 %, Japan at 18 %, Mexico at 7 %, and Republic of Korea for 4.7 % and Dominican Republic at 2.7 %.  Over 3,614 MT of dried apples were exported to Canada at 50 %, Mexico at 14 % and Australia at 13 % and 11 % to the United Kingdom.  Fresh pears were exported with over 144,443 MT with Mexico accounting for 38 %, Canada for 31 %, Brazil for 6.0 %, and the Russian Federation for 4.0 %.  Canned pears also accounted for 6,445 MT of the exports with Canada receiving 51 %, Thailand at 25 %, Mexico at 15 % and Costa Rica and Australia each at 2 %.  According to the USDA, ERS in 2006 approximately 1,408,859,000 lb of fresh market apples were imported, and 300,506,000 lb of fresh market pears and quinces were exported.  Approximately 7,028,000 single strength apple juices were exported.  Pear had over 7,058 (1,000 single strength equivalent, gallons) exported to other countries.

Table 11.  U.S. Pome Fruit Exports, Metric Tons (MT) for 2005-2006

(USDA NASS, 2008 Fr Nt 1-3, USDA ERS, FTS – 2007, USDA FATUS, 2008).

Pome Fruit	2005	2006

Apple, fresh	   270,669 (1,000 lb)	   345,440 (1,000 lb)

Pear, fresh	  318,210 (1,000 lb)	  300,748 (1,000 lb)

Apple, juice	      6,927

(1,000 single strength equivalent, gallons)	      7,058

(1,000 single strength equivalent, gallons)

U.S. POME FRUIT PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL PRODUCTION:

	Production in the U.S. is based on the USDA 2006 Agricultural Statistics, FAO Statistics, 2007, USDA ERS 2007 Noncitrus Fruits Summary, USDA NASS Crop Production, 2007, and the U.S. Agricultural Census, 2002:  According to the 2002 AGCensus pome fruits (apples and pears) were grown on over 544,826 A.  The planted acreages for the pome fruits in the United States are listed in Table 12.  Apples are grown commercially in 35 states.  Over 37 % of the apple acres are in Washington followed by New York and Michigan at 11 % each (Table 13).  Washington State produces over 71 % of the total U.S. fresh market apple production followed by New York at 11 %, Michigan at 4.4 %, California at 2.5 %, and Pennsylvania at 2 %.  Apple yield/acre averages 12.6 T/A, while the average yield/A for pears is14.7 T/A (Table 12).  The top pear producing states is Washington with 40.3 % of the total U.S. acres, while California and Oregon each have over 26 % of the pear acres (Table 14).  Pear yields will depend on the state where they are grown and range from 5 to 16.8 T/A.

.	A map of the harvested apple acres is found in Appendix I, Figure 1, and harvested pear acres in Appendix I, Figure 2.

Table 12. U.S. Pome Fruit Planted Acres in 2002 (AGCensus, 2002) and Domestic Production for 2007 (USDA NASS, 2007, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2007).

POME FRUIT	PLANTED ACRES (A)	PERCENT OF TOTAL POME FRUIT ACREAGE DOMESTIC POME FRUIT PRODUCTION  (Tons 2005)	YIELD PER ACRE (Tons)

Apple	464,025	85.1 %	4,801,300	12.6

Pear	  80,801	14.8 %	1,145,100	14.7

TOTAL	544,826	99.9 %	5,946,400	-

Table 13. Top U.S. States in Production of Apples.

(USDA AG Census, 2002, (USDA NASS, 2007, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2007).

STATE	APPLE ACRES (A)	STATE PERCENT OF TOTAL U.S. APPLE ACRES

Washington	172,810	37 .7 %

New York	  53,233	11.5 %

Michigan	  50,539	10.9 %

California	  38,268	  8.2 %

Pennsylvania	  28,110	  6.1 %

Virginia	  19,331	  4.2 %

North Carolina	    8,538	  1.8 %

Ohio	    8,485	  1.8 %

Oregon	    7,237	  1.6 %

Wisconsin	    6,797	  1.5 %

Massachusetts	    4,479	  1.0 %

Illinois	    3,926	  0.8 %

Total	464,025

Table 14. Top U.S. States in Production of Pears and Yield/A.  (USDA AG Census, 2002, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2007).

STATE	PEAR (A)

2002	STATE % OF ACRES	YIELD/ACRE (2007)

Washington	30,979	40.3 %	14.8

California	20,349	26.5 %	16.8

Oregon	20,035	26.1 %	14.0

New York	  1,986	  2.6 %	  9.2

Pennsylvania	  1,287	  1.7 % 	  5.0

Michigan	  1,128	  1.5 %	  5.3

Texas	    668	  0.9 %	-

Virginia	    356	  0.4 %	-

Total	76,788

-

	Over 99 % of the apples produced are utilized fresh or processed.  Over 94 % of the pear production is utilized.  The apple and pear crops (Table 15) are utilized for juice (51 %), fresh market (37 %), canned (9 %), dried and frozen at 1.0 % each, and for fresh slices (< 1.0 %).

Table15.  Apple and Pear Processed Utilization (million pounds)

 for Canned, Juice and Cider, Frozen, Dried, and Fresh Slices.

Use and State	Utilized Quantity 2006 in million pounds	Utilized Quantity 2007 in million pounds

Canned U.S.	1,164	1,055

MI	   215	   170

NY	   300	   320

PA	   258	   230

VA	   150	   120

Juice and Cider	1,561	1,264

WA	   700	   450

MI	   175	   140

NY	   190	   220

PA	     67	     90

Frozen	   199	   178

NY	     50	     50

Apple Dried	   253	   204

Pear, Fresh Slices	   190	   215

Pear, Dried (tons)	   400	NA

	The percent of the total produce sales for the pome fruits sold in U.S. grocery stores for the years 2005 – 2007 is shown in Table 16 (The Packer, Fairchild, 2007, 2008).  Apples account for 7.5% of the total produce pome fruit sales followed by pear and Asian pear.  In appears that apples are increasing in popularity from 2005 to 2007 by 0.6 %.  The Asian pear is also increasing in number of pounds sold by over 2.6 million during the same time period.  The pome fruit group accounts for > 8.7 % of the total produce sold in the U.S.

Table 16.  The Packer (Fairchild, 2007, 2008) List the Percent of the Total Grocery Store Produce Sales for the Fruiting Vegetables Sold for the Years 2005 – 2007.

Commodity	Percent of Total Produce Sales – 2005 and Pounds Sold in 2005	Percent of Total Produce Sales – 2006 and Pounds Sold in 2006 Percent of Total Produce Sales – 2007 and Pounds Sold in 2007

Apple	6.9 % and 1,756,026,239 lb	7.2 % and

1,764,619,280 lb	7.5 % and 1,774,338,686 lb

Asian pear	> 0.1 % and 6,669,974 lb	> 0.1 % and

7,274,024 lb	> 0.1 % and

9,265,852 lb

Pear	1.2 % and 274,576,278 lb	1.2 % and

282,567,278 lb	1.2 % and

290,392,821 lb

Specific Pome Fruit Crop Production:

Apple:

	Apples are the most important tree fruit produced in the temperate zone.  Apples are also grown in EPA Crop Production Regions 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, and 11.  Other commercial production regions include significant imports from Canada, New Zealand, Chile, South Africa, China, and Brazil.  In 2002 China had produced 20.9 million tons on 2,365,000 ha while the U.S. produced 4.7 million t on 185,000 ha.  However, yield in t/ha varied from 8.9 t/ha in China to 25.2 t/ha in the USA.   There are over 2000 apple cultivars, with eleven cultivars accounting for over 90 % of the apples sold in the US and worldwide about 40 cultivars supply the commercial world production (Table 17).  Of it’s over 2.3 million hectares, China has over 45 % of its apple production limited to only the ‘Fuji’ cultivar.  Despite the wide availability of newer apple cultivars, ‘Red Delicious’ is still the most widely grown cultivar in the world.

Table 17.  Worldwide Apple Cultivar Trends, Excluding China.

(O’Rourle, 2000, Freere, 2003)

Apple Cultivar	2000 Estimates Tons (X 1,000) Produced	2010 Projected Tons (X 1,000) Produced

Red Delicious	 5,334	 5,423

Golden Delicious	 4,982	 5,212

Granny Smith	 1,711	 1,828

Idared	 1,433	 1,148

Fuji	 1,633	 1,857

Gala	 1,688	 2,594

Jonagold	 1,039	 1,208

Jonathan	    678	    727

Braeburn	    429	    710

Rome Beauty	    565	    540

Total	26,313	30,429

Azarole:

	Azarole ranges from Europe to western Asia, and is a deciduous tree growing to 10 m and has been long grown in Europe.  It is hardy to zone 6 and is not frost tender.  It is in flower in June.  The scented flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by midges.  The plant prefers sandy, loamy and can grow in heavy clay soil.  The plant prefers acid, neutral or basic soils and can grow in very alkaline soil.  It can grow in semi-shade or no shade.  Azarole requires moist or wet soil and can tolerate drought.  The plant can tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure, and it can also tolerate atmospheric pollution.  In South Australia it is listed as a noxious weed.  In Asia the fruits are eaten fresh and mixed with sugar to make a sweet wine, jam, or jelly.  This plant can also be used as an ornamental for its brightly colored flowers and for wildlife cover.

Crabapple:

	Crabapples are native species of apple-like fruits that are grown mostly for pollinators in apple orchards or as an ornamental specimen.  There are varieties such as ‘Hyslop’ and ‘Red Siberian’ that produce relatively large fruit that can be used as a food crop and are processed for cinnamon apple rings.  These are hybrids of native species with apples and in general, the trees are hardier than most apple varieties. These are round yellow fruits 1 to 2 inches in diameter that have a red to maroon blush.  Pollinator and ornamental varieties are grown everywhere apples are grown.  Crabapples are grown in California, New York, and Washington, and other commercial production regions include British Columbia, Canada.

Loquat:

The loquat is a cold-tender evergreen tree native to Southeast Asia that grows in subtropical areas or tropical highlands.  It has been grown in Japan for >1000 yr, where over 17,000 tons are produced annually.  Brazil also has some production near Sao Paulo.  More commonly, it is grown as an ornamental tree in the southeastern US and California, Mediterranean countries, and some parts of central and South America.  Domestic cultivars include ‘Champagne’, ‘Thales’, ‘Advance’, ‘Fletcher’ and ‘Miller’.  It is produced in the U.S. in California, Hawaii, and Florida and other commercial production regions include Japan, India, Spain, Pakistan, Turkey, and Israel.  Japan grew 1,890 hectares producing 6,730 tons in 2005 (NAGASAWA 2006c).  In 2000, the major producing loquat country was China with over 40,000 ha and 200,000 Mt of produce.

Mayhaw:

	Mayhaws are native to the United States and are shrubs or round-topped small tree to 30 feet tall.  Mayhaws flower early to late February to mid-March in southern Georgia and the fruit ripens mostly in early May but some ripen through June.  The fruit is a small pome, yellow to red, acid and juicy, resembling cranberries in appearance.  In the U.S. it is grown in North Carolina south to northern Florida and west to east Texas and throughout California.  Mayhaws are native to the swamps and lowlands of the Gulf Coast states in the U.S.  They have been collected from wild trees in the Deep South since antebellum times, and are rarely cultivated in orchards today.  Over 75 varieties have been developed since 1986.  In China there were 240 million trees and 4,500 million pounds of fruit annually in 1996.  Mayhaws are native to north temperate zone.11 and to temperate zones of China.  EPA production Regions are 2, 3, 4, and 6.

Medlar:

	The Medlar is native to the eastern part of the Mediterranean and the eastern part of Turkey.  This plant is small, flat topped, deciduous tree that grows to 20 feet high.  It is a close relative of hawthorn which lacks thorns. In late spring, large white or slightly pink blossoms are borne singly on ends of short shoots and almost every flower sets fruit.  The fruit is 1 to 2½ inches in diameter and resembles a small russet apple, tinged dull yellow or brown color with the calyx end flared open.  The flesh is as soft as a baked apple.  Embedded in the pulp are five large stone like seeds.  Fruit are best picked at early leaf drop prior to heavy frost.  At harvest, the fruit are rock hard and must soften prior to consumption.  Ripening takes two weeks to one month after harvest. . The wood of the medlar is used for spears and walking canes.  Cultivation is still common in France and Germany.

Pear:

	Pears are a temperate zone fruit and grown on a wide variety of soils.  They are similar to apples in many respects.  The tree is of medium size, up to 30 to 40 feet in height, but usually held to under 20 feet by pruning.  They differ from apples in having "grit" cells in the flesh of the fruit. In general, pears are pyriform in shape, tapering toward the stem, although some varieties are nearly round.  Fruit size varies in varieties from less than 2 inches in diameter up to 3 inches.  Fruit surface in some varieties is russet but in others is free of russet and covered with a thin layer of wax.  Trees tend to be more upright than apples. Pears can be classified by maturity date; summer, autumn and winter.  They are the only temperate tree fruit that cannot be left on the tree to ripen.  Major production in U.S. is of the common or European pear.  Major commercial varieties/types of this pear include: ‘Anjou’, ‘Bartlett’, ‘Bosc’, ‘Comice’, and ‘Seckel’.  Days after full bloom to harvest for the varieties range from 110 – 150 days.  There are significant imports from Chile and Argentina.  Other growing regions of pears include Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, South Africa and Europe.  EPA Crop Production Regions for pears includes Regions 1, 10, and 11.

Pear, Oriental (Asian):

Most cultivars of the Oriental pear, now called Asian pears do resemble apples in that they have fruit that are round and have a crunchy texture.  The Japanese cultivars tend to be more circular in shape, while the Chinese cultivars are more oval or pyriform (pear-shaped).  All Asian pear cultivars should be considered self-incompatible.  Mature trees can reach heights of more than 20 feet.  Asian pears comprise a large group of pears that are crisp in texture and, when mature, are good to eat as soon as harvested or for several months after picking if held in cold storage.  This ready-to-eat feature may make them more acceptable to some people than European pears that are usually served when soft and juicy, which condition takes about a week to occur after removal from cold storage.  There are three types of Asian pears based on shape and color.  These are: (1) round or flat fruit with yellow to green fruit; (2) round or flat fruit having a bronze colored skin with rusetting, and (3) pear shaped fruit with either smooth or russeted skin.  Asian pears have been grown commercially in Asia for centuries and are very popular in Japan, China, and Korea.  Most new Asian pear plantings in California are in Fresno, Tulare and Kern Counties.  A few plantings exist in Yakima and Wenatchee, Washington, and others are found in Hood River and Willamette Valley in Oregon. In the last few years plantings of Asian pears were made in New Zealand, Australia, Chile, France, and the eastern and southeastern United States.  It is roughly estimated that 4,000 - 5,000 acres of Asian pears are planted in California, Oregon and Washington.  Since 1984 about 100,000 trees (500 acres) of Asian pears have been planted every year in California.  Most popular Oriental pears are 20th Century ‘Nijisseiki’, ‘Kosui’, ‘Kikusui’, ‘Hosui’, ‘Shinseiki’, ‘Shinsui’, ‘Shinko’, and ‘Niitaki’.  There are a few cultivars of hybrid origin.  Other commercial production regions: Japan grew 15,200 hectares producing 361,400 tons in 2005 (NAGASAWA 2006c), and some fruit is exported to the United States in October and November.  China and Korea are also growing these pears for domestic consumption and export to the US and Canada.

Quince:

	Quinces are fruits closely related to apples and pears, but are of lesser economic importance.  It is thought that it is native to northern Iran and Turkestan.  The plants are deciduous thornless shrubs or small trees.  Generally they are not over 20 feet high.  Fruits are mostly 2 inches up in diameter, covered with pubescence.  Fruit color is generally yellow.  Fruit flesh is rather hard with a bitter acid taste.  The most common cultivars/varieties include “Champion”, “Pineapple”, “Smyrna” and Van Deman”.  The quince has been cultivated for over two thousand years for its edible fruit and its seed. It is also much used as a dwarfing rootstock for pears and some other fruits.  California is key production area with 100 - 200 acres.  No available statistical information from other areas.  Other commercial production regions: Mediterranean, Argentina, and the Middle East.  Argentina produces over 20,000 t/ha.  The largest are of quinces is in the Mediterranean area (35.2%) and China (22.3%).

Quince, Chinese and Quince, Japanese:

The Chinese quince is native to China and Indo-China, and cultivated in Japan.  Chinese quince was introduced to Europe in 1796 and Japanese quince in 1869.  The crop is cultivated in the north and Eastern Europe including Baltic areas and Latvia.   It is hardy to zone 5 and is not frost tender.  It is in flower from February to June, and the seeds ripen in October.  The flowers are hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and are pollinated by bees.  It is noted for attracting wildlife.  The fruit can be apple or pear-shaped and up to 6.5 cm long x 6.5 cm wide.  It is a very ornamental plant and a good bee plant, flowering early in the year and providing pollen and nectar.  The Japanese quince is a closely related species and also occurs in central and south Japan, and it has been planted in Latvia in the 1970’s and in 1996 approximately 300 ha had an average yield of 12 – 15 T/ha.  It can grow 0.6 – 1.2 m tall and 5 m wide.  Commercial production of the Japanese quince is in Belarus, Finland, Germany, and Poland.  Other production regions include Japan grew 55 hectares producing 335 tons in 2003.  Both of these quinces are also grown for ornamental purposes.

Tejocote:

	Tejocote is native to America and it is hardy to hardiness zone 7 and is not frost tender.  The flowers are hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and are pollinated by insect midges.  The plant prefers sandy, loamy and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil.  The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils.  It can grow in semi-shade or light woodland or no shade.  It requires moist or wet soil and can tolerate drought.  The plant can tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure.  It can tolerate atmospheric pollution.

COMPARISON OF POME FRUIT CULTURAL PRACTICES:

General Planting Design, Training, and Pruning (adapted from Rieger, 2006, Robinson, 2003, and USDA Crop Profiles, 2003):

	Pome fruit orchard planting systems are designed to improve the production efficiency by managing variables of rootstock, tree spacing, arrangement, canopy shape, pruning, tree training methods and support systems.

	The more modern planting systems are based on higher tree densities than 50 years ago when the tree density ranged from 70 - 100 tree/ha to today range from 1000 – 6000 trees/ha.  The increase in density is due to development of dwarfing rootstocks.  In the nursery, apple scions and rootstock are grafted together.  A scion is the detached shoot or twig containing buds from a desired tree, used in grafting.  Rootstock is selected for tolerance to pressures such as pests or cold, in addition to how well it influences the final tree’s vigor, size, and fruit quality.  Yields may be realized in the third year after planting compared to 5 - 6 in an older orchard planting density.  However, many highly productive commercial orchards today have 150 - 180 trees per acre and higher density could be anything over 180 trees per acre. For the purposes of this publication, there are several characteristics in addition to tree number that are included in a high density orchard system. Besides having an increased number of trees per acre, a high density orchard must come into bearing within 2 - 3 years after planting.  Each type of planting system has different pruning and planning plans.

Consistent early fruit production is essential to offset the increased establishment costs.  It is also very costly to hold trees on more vigorous rootstocks in an allotted space required for a high density orchard.  To maximize the production of a high density orchard, it is also necessary to modify the training system and training and pruning techniques from traditional methods.  Since trees will be bearing fruit early, a permanent tree support system is also required.  It is essential to crop trees very early in the life of the orchard to offset the costs of establishment and to aid in managing vegetative growth. Early production is directly related to number, the greater the light interception by that acre of land early in the life of the orchard.  To the extreme, there are orchards planted in Europe and the Pacific Northwest with 5,000 - 9,000 trees per acre. Although, these orchards may be very productive early in their life, it is doubtful that they would be profitable, or manageable, under economic conditions in the Southeast.  Research conducted at Cornell University’s Geneva Research Station in New York found that for the first seven years of an orchard, the yield increased with tree density, independent of the size-controlled rootstock used.  The most dwarfing rootstocks produced significantly larger yields in the third year.  As tree density increased, profit ability increased up to approximately 1,000 trees per acre.  Preliminary studies in North Carolina indicate that tree densities of 450 - 600 trees per acre are most profitable for the Southeast given the climate, soils, and markets.

	Orchard planting systems are categorized from tree canopy shapes.  Four basic canopy shapes are: spherical, conic, flat-fan, and Y - or V - canopy shapes.  The spherical shaped canopy system was most common in early 1900’s and contained a large tree with a height of 6 - 8 m and a main trunk diameter of 1.8 – 2.0 m.  These large globe canopies took 10 – 15 years to produce high yields.  Primary advantage of the spherical shapes is that they are the natural shape of an apple tree.  This system was replaced in the mid 1900’s and in the early 1960’s the conic system developed as an improved tree form to allow more light penetration through the canopy.  The mini-central leader system was developed at Cornell University to have semi-dwarf trees supported with a 2.5 m tree spike supporting the trees and ranging from 500 – 1000 trees/ha.  The spindle bush system was also developing in the early 1960’s designed to improve yields and it became the dominant planting system in Europe.  The trees are fully dwarf, narrow, cone shaped trees to allow for high density plantings ranging from 1500 – 4000 trees/ha.  The narrow slender shape of the canopy helps the leaves to be well exposed to sunlight.  The conic shaped system are currently the dominant tree form in most of the world’s apple growing regions and allows the tree to grow in a fairly natural shape with minimal labor allowing good light penetration throughout the canopy, but the upper branches of the tree as they mature may begin to shade out the lower limbs.  The slender spindle is most common in Northern Europe and the vertical axis system is most common in the rest of the world.  The flat fan canopy systems utilize trellis to improve labor efficacy.  This tree system trains a tree to a 3 m tall using a 4 – 6 wire vertical trellis which also serves to support the tree.  Tree height is maintained at 4 – 5 m and densities of 100 - 2000 trees/ha.  Common tree spacings are 1.5 – 2.5 m in the row and 3 – 4 m between rows.  The advantage of the flat fan systems is the ease of tree training and to help mechanize orchard picking operations as well as allow good light penetration within the canopy.  The disadvantages of flat systems are the labor costs to maintain the canopy and low tree planting densities.  The V shaped apple canopies became popular with the development of the Tatura trellis in 1970’s to utilize dwarfing rootstocks.  They are categorized by tree shape and branch training protocols using either a V- shape of Y- shape tree.  The Y- shaped trees have a vertical trunk with the arms or limbs trained to either side of the trellis.  The V- shaped trees have the whole tree leaned to one side of the trellis while the next tree in the row leans to the opposite side of the V - trellis.  The Tatura trellis keep the trees headed at 50 cm height with 6 wires per side and close in row spacings of 1 m with 5 m between rows.  The Geneva trellis system is aY - shaped system trained in a more fan type position with a 2 m tall trellis and three wires per side with 1.5 – 1.8 m in row spacings and 4 m between rows.  The V - shaped systems have become very popular over the last 25 years because they have high yields at maturity and allow good light penetration.  With a vertical trunk and is conducive to use of mechanical equipment between rows.  Also less fruit sun scald occurs in this type of trellis system.  The disadvantage of the V systems is the initial cost of establishment and tree training, and while fruit size may be smaller than with other training systems, the yields may be higher with this system.

Efficient use of labor to harvest and prune from the ground or from a short stool is another advantage of using a high density system.  It is difficult to find workers who are willing to climb ladders to work in traditional orchards in today’s market, not to mention the liability that must be assumed for their employees.  Another advantage is the potential to have higher quality fruit for a longer period of time by maintaining light interception in the smaller trees of higher density orchards. Pesticide application efficiency may be much higher in higher density orchards as well.  Although there are many advantages to high density orchards, the disadvantages must also be considered.  The primary disadvantage is the high cost of planting orchard establishment.  High density orchards are also unforgiving in terms of lack of management systems require more training and minimal pruning during the first 6 years than traditional systems, especially during the summer.  Another potential disadvantage involves re-educating orchard managers and workers in the training and pruning techniques required for higher density orchards.

The ideal site for a pome fruit orchard is an area of rolling land.  Plant pome fruits on slopes that are not too steep to be safely traversed with equipment.  The tops of hills are not necessarily good sites as orchards located there are more vulnerable to freezes than the sides of hills.  Also, soils on the tops of hills are frequently shallow due to erosion.

Specific Individual Pome Fruit Cultural Practices:

Apple:

Small to medium sized tree with spreading canopy, to 30 ft in wild, generally are maintained to 6 - 15 ft in cultivation.  Tree size and shape is heavily dependent on rootstock and training system.  Leaves are elliptical with serrate margins, dark green with light pubescence on underside.  Petals are white when open, but have red-pink undersides when opening, hence the "pink" bloom stage. The ovary is inferior, embedded in the floral cup or hypanthium, containing 5 locules, usually 2 ovules per locule.  The inflorescence is a cyme of 4 - 6 flowers, with the center flower opening first; the central flower is often called the "King bloom", and has the potential to produce a larger fruit than other flowers.  Flowers are produced terminally from mixed buds (containing both leaves and flowers) on spurs, or to a lesser extent on long shoots.  Spurs form on two year old and older wood, and generally grow only a fraction of an inch each year.  Fruiting begins 3 - 5 years after budding, although a few fruit may be produced in the second year. This varies with rootstock (dwarfing) and cultural practices (excessive pruning = delay). Fruit are usually thinned to 1 per spur, with spurs spaced 4 - 6 inches apart for attainment of marketable size. Apples are generally thinned with chemicals such as the insecticide carbaryl or the synthetic auxins such as naphthalene acetic acid (NAA).

	The apple tree is of medium size, up to 30 to 40 feet in height, but usually held to under 20 feet or less by pruning.  They are propagated by budding or grafting onto rootstocks.  Leaves are entire and up to 4 inches long, pubescent when young, near glabrous later.  The fruits are oblate to slightly conic in shape, with depressions at the stem and calyx ends, 2 1/4 up to 3 1/2 inches in diameter.  They consist of a thin outer peel, a thickened edible flesh and a central core of 5 carpels, in which the small seeds are borne.  The peel is pubescent when young, later becoming smooth and waxy.  Formerly some russeted varieties were grown.  These have disappeared in commercial orchards, but russeted areas may occur on some varieties due to weather or other injury.  Important commercial varieties/types include: ‘Braeburn’, ‘Crispin’, ‘Mutsu’, ‘Empire’, ‘Fuji’, ‘Gala’, ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Ida Red’, ‘Jonagold’, ‘Jonathan’, ‘McIntosh’, ‘Red Delicious’, and ‘Rome’.  Throughout its history of cultivation, at least 10,000 apple cultivars were developed, many of which are now lost.  Apples are adaptable to various climates, but can be considered best adapted to the cool temperate zone from about 35 - 50° latitude.  After planting rootstocks full production may not occur until 5 – 6 years later.  Bloom to harvest in 70 to 170 days, depending on variety and location.  For example Red Delicious is harvested 140 – 160 days after full bloom (Table 18).  The maturity dates for each apple cultivar will vary depending upon the environmental conditions (temperature, rainfall, soil types) in the Region where they are grown.  Some representative examples and ranges of apple cultivar maturity and days after full bloom to harvest are listed in Table 18, and to determine the number of days from petal fall to harvest for a specific apple cultivar and you would subtract seven days from the days after full bloom (DAFB).  Apples are T- or chip-budded in the nursery, and sold as 1-year-old whips on 1.5 to 2-year-old rootstocks.  Rootstocks are also produced vegetatively, generally by mound layerage.  The range of rootstocks available for apple permits a wide variety of orchard designs and tree training systems.  In most cases, trees are grown in rectangular arrangements or hedgerows.  Conventional apple orchards on seedling rootstocks require spacings of 20 x 20 (110 trees/acre) to 40 x 40 ft (27 trees/acre).  More intensive orchards (400 trees/acre) are generally planted to form hedgerows or solid rows of fruiting wood where individual trees lose their identity.  Apples must be picked by hand to avoid bruising and reduction of fresh market quality grade.  Fruit must be picked carefully to avoid damaging the spur, where next season's fruit will be borne.

Table 18.  Days from Full Bloom to Harvest for Various Apple Cultivars.

Apple Cultivar	Bloom Timing	Days from Bloom to Harvest	Harvest

Braeburn	Midseason	150 - 185	Late October

Cameo	Midseason	155 - 165	Mid. October

Cortland	Midseason	125 - 140	Mid October

Elstar	Mid- late season	110- 150	Early September

Empire	Midseason	125 - 140	Early October

Freedom	Mid- late season	140 - 155	Late September

Fuji	Mid- late season	140 - 185	Late October – mid. November

Gala	Midseason	110 - 140	Late August

Ginger gold	Midseason	  95 - 105	Early August

Golden Delicious	Midseason	135 - 160	Mid. September to early October

Granny Smith	Late season	165 - 180	Early November

Gravenstein	Early season	110 - 115	Early September

Honeycrisp	Early season	125 - 140	Mid. September

Idared	Early season	145 - 160	Early October

Jonagold	Midseason	135 – 160	Late September

Jonathan	Midseason	135 - 160 	Mid-late September

Liberty	Early season	120 - 135	Late September

McIntosh	Midseason	120 – 145	Mid September

Mutsu (Crispin)	Midseason	160 - 170	Late October

Paulared	Early season	  95 - 105	Early September

Pink lady	Mid-late season	180 - 195	Mid–late September

Red delicious	Midseason	135 -160	Late September

Rome Beauty	Late season	160 - 175	Late October

Stayman	Early season	160 - 175	Late October

Winesap	Late season	165 - 180	Late October

York	Midseason	170 - 180	Late October

Azarole:

	Azarole is a very easily grown plant; it prefers a well-drained loamy soil.  Once established, it succeeds in excessively moist soils and also tolerates drought.  It grows well on a chalk soil and also in heavy clay soils and grows up to 10m tall.  A position in full sun is best when plants are being grown for their fruit, they also succeed in semi-shade though fruit yields and quality will be lower in such a position.   Most members of this genus succeed in exposed positions, they also tolerate atmospheric pollution.  The azarole has long been cultivated for its edible fruit in Southern Europe, though it is now not as popular.  Seedling trees take from 5 - 8 years before they start bearing fruit, though grafted trees will often flower heavily in their third year.  The flowers have a smell somewhat like decaying fish.  This attracts midges which are the main means of fertilization.  When freshly open, the flowers have more pleasant scent with balsamic undertones.  Hawthorns in general hybridize freely with other members of the genus.  Seedlings should not be left in a seedbed for more than 2 years without being transplanted.  Seed - this is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame, some of the seed will germinate in the spring, though most will probably take another year.  Stored seed can be very slow and erratic to germinate, it should be warm stratified for 3 months at 15° C and then cold stratified for another 3 months at 4° C.  It may still take another 18 months to germinate.  Scarifying the seed before stratifying it might reduce this time.  Fermenting the seed for a few days in its own pulp may also speed up the germination process.  Another possibility is to harvest the seed 'green', as soon as the embryo has fully developed but before the seed coat hardens and plant it immediately in a cold frame.  If timed well, it can germinate in the spring.  If you are only growing small quantities of plants, it is best to pot up the seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle and grow them on in individual pots for their first year, planting them out in late spring into nursery beds or their final positions.  When growing larger quantities, it might be best to sow them directly outdoors in a seedbed, but with protection from mice and other seed-eating creatures.  Grow them on in the seedbed until large enough to plant out, but undercut the roots if they are to be left undisturbed for more than two years.  The   crop may grow from 6 – 10 m high, and the fruit will ripen in August – September.  The small red fruit has a pleasant aromatic flavor.  It ripens in early to mid-autumn.  There are yellow, red, and white fruited varieties.  Fruits are harvest mechanically or hand picked.

Crabapple:

A crabapple is basically a small apple, and is not as important crop as apples.  The plants are grown primarily as ornamentals and cultivars are chosen because of their beautiful flowers, foliage, or fruit, although a few growers produce the fruit commercially.  The fruit is preserved or pickled or it is used in making jellies.  No production data are available on the quantity of fruit that is used commercially.  The general appearance is similar to a small bearing apple tree.  Culture is also similar to the culture of apple trees.  The flower is similar to that of the apple.  The fruit are round yellow fruits 1 to 2 inches in diameter that have a red to maroon blush.  Crabapples are native species of apple-like fruits that are grown mostly for pollinators in apple orchards or as a beautiful ornamental specimen.  If commercial fruit production is anticipated, and crabapple trees are grown along with other fruit trees in commercial orchards, there is likelihood that additional pollinating insects will be required.  If the grower is providing bees for his other fruits, then he should provide enough for crabapples also.  There are varieties such as ‘Hyslop’ and ‘Red Siberian’ that produce relatively large fruit that can be used as a food crop and are processed for cinnamon apple slices.  Crabapples are considered to be apples except for being less than 2 inches in diameter, but some crabapples are greater than 2 inches in diameter and some dessert apples are small.  Western crabapple is native to North America.  Shrub or small tree, to 35 feet tall, armed with sharp spur-shoots, the older bark is deeply fissured.  Leaves are alternate, deciduous, lance- to egg-shaped, to 10 cm long, pointed at the end, toothed, with irregular lobes; the leaves turn red or yellow-orange in fall.  Flowers are white to pink (mid-April/mid-May), showy, calyx of 5 lobes, petals 5, styles 3 - 4 from inferior ovary, numerous stamens.  Fruits are pomes, initially green becoming yellow or reddish, to 15mm and egg-shaped, tart.  Bloom to harvest in approximately 4 months.  Western crabapple is harvested in late summer and early fall. Flower in May.  Flowering crabapples may be planted almost any time of the year.  Balled and bur lapped stock and containerized trees can be planted any time after spring frosts end through fall until about three weeks before the ground freezes.  However, bare root trees should only be planted in the spring.  Bare root trees become too stressed if planting is delayed past early spring.  Crabapples prefer light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, require well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil.  The plant prefers acid, neutral and alkaline soils.  It can grow in semi-shade and light woodland or no shade and requires moist soil.

Loquat

	Loquat grows in subtropical areas or tropical highlands.  Propagated by seed or grafting.  The first crop will mature in 2 - 3 years after grafting while trees from seedlings which will take 8 – 10 years to mature.  They are extremely long lived up to 90 years.  Loquats can be propagated by various grafting methods, including shield-budding or side-veneer grafting and cleft-grafting.  The use of loquat seedling rootstock usually results in a comparatively large tree with a high canopy.  Cultivars grown on quince rootstock produce a dwarfed tree of early bearing character.  The smaller tree has no effect on fruit size and gives adequate fruit production with the advantage of easier picking.   Loquat trees are evergreen, rounded in form, up to 30 feet high.  Dark green leaves vary from eight inches to a foot long.  Trees are spaced about 20 - 25 ft apart in orchards and at a density of 500 – 600 trees/ha.  Trees will stand winter temperatures down to about 12 ° F.  It prefers a soil ranging from pH of 5.0 – 8.0.  Flowering time is unusual; occurs in November - January, depending on location.  Flowers open and set fruit in autumn, and if temperatures reach 25 ° F or lower in winter, fruit crop will be lost.  Flowers and fruits are produced on large panicles.  Individual fruits are pyriform or oval, l 1/2 to near 3 inches long, and covered with a tough, pubescent skin which separates readily from the pulp when ripe.  The fruit is a white or yellow pome, like apple and pear, generally 2 – 5 cm in diameter with 3 to 5 seeds, and with the calyx persistent and weighs 30 – 40g with some cultivars ranging up to 200g.  Flesh is firm and creamy, mild, sub-acid in flavor.  Domestic cultivars include ‘Champagne’, ‘Thales’, ‘Advance’, ‘Fletcher’ and ‘Miller’.  Loquat is propagated by seed or grafting, and the first crop will be in 2 - 3 years after grafting.  The crop timing from bloom to maturity is 120 - 200 days.  Harvest time in California is from March to June, and in Florida it matures in March and takes 7 – 10 days to harvest the crop.  Fruit must be picked by hand to avoid injury and classified by grade based on quality and size.  It is eaten out of hand fresh or fruit salads.  Also cooked for desserts, sauces or preserves, and are also grown as an ornamental.

Mayhaw:

	Mayhaw is a long living (> 50 years) perennial shrub or round-topped small tree to 30 feet tall and look similar to crabapple trees.  The name "Mayhaw" is a conjugation of the month of ripening (May) and the common name for Crataegus spp. (Hawthorn).  Mayhaws are a group of species in the genus Crataegus, family Rosaceae.  Primary species include C. aestivalis, C. opaca, and C. rufula.  They are closely related to apple and pear, and have been used as exotic dwarfing rootstocks for both.  In the U.S. over 75 varieties of mayhaws have been developed.  Mayhaws flower early (late February to mid-March in southern Georgia) and the fruit ripens mostly in early May but some ripen through June.  The fruit is a small pome that is ½ to 1 inch in diameter, yellow to red, acid and juicy with a whitish pulp, resembling crabapples or cranberries in appearance.  Two to five pieces of hard-shelled seeds are located in the center of the fruit.  Since mayhaws contain a high red pigment and pectin they are a natural source of color and texture for jelly.  The bloom to harvest is about 3 months and some can be harvested for about 30 days.  Mayhaws are ripe in April and early May and can be harvested by shaking the tree and catching the fruit by using nets under the tree or by hand.  Under natural conditions seed do not germinate until over wintered.  Mayhaw softwood stem cuttings can also be rooted under intermittent mist or in a humidity chamber during the summer.  Mayhaws are easily grafted during dormancy (late winter).  For rootstocks mayhaw appears to be initially compatible with any hawthorn species.  A few selections have been made, like the relatively large-fruited 'Texas Superberry' or the even-ripening 'Lodi'  Bloom occurs over an extended period of time and the fruit are reported to be fairly frost hardy once past the bloom period.  The suggested tree spacing for a permanent orchard is 4.6 - 6.1 m (15 - 20 ft) in the row and 5.5 - 6.1 m (18 - 20 ft) between rows giving 270 - 400 trees/ha or 109 - 161 trees/A.  Tree height ranges from 1 – 12 m tall.  The fruit is mainly used to make jelly.

Medlar:

	This plant is small, flat topped, deciduous tree that grows to 20 feet high, that is native to the eastern part of the Mediterranean and the eastern part of Turkey.  Medlar is a close relative of the hawthorn which lacks thorns.  In late spring, large white or slightly pink blossoms are borne singly on ends of short shoots.  Almost every flower sets fruit.  The fruit is 1 to 2½ inches in diameter and resembles a small russeted apple, tinged dull yellow or brown color with the calyx end flared open.  The flesh is as soft as a baked apple.  Embedded in the pulp are five large stone like seeds.  Fruit are best picked at early leaf drop prior to heavy frost.  At harvest, the fruit are rock hard and must soften prior to consumption.  Ripening takes two weeks to one month after harvest.  After harvest the fruits are left until they become brown inside and half rotten and this process is called bletting and this process takes 2 – 4 weeks after harvest.  Once bletted the fruit will keep for several weeks and has a taste like applesauce with some cinnamon.  Flowering occurs in late May or June and the fruit matures in October to December.  The fruits are small in size 1 ½ inch diameter (4 cm), and are left on trees until they are over ripe.  The fruit weight can vary from 10 - 80 g and a yield of 30 – 35 kg/tree is possible.  The planting site must be in a sunny position and protected from the wind, as the trees are very brittle and susceptible to wind damage.  Young trees are best if thinned and pruned to desired shape.  Medlars are slow growing but bear fruit at an early age with the tree height dependent on the rootstock.  They will reach up to 3.5 m (12 ft) in height when grafted onto a quince rootstock or 4.5 m (15 ft) or taller if grafted onto a pear rootstock and may be productive for more than 30 years.  The trees are spaced in the row from 3.5 6.0 m.

Pear:

	A medium sized, upright tree growing to 30 ft tall, generally 8 - 18 ft in cultivation.  Tree size is heavily dependent on rootstock and training system.  Leaves are elliptical to ovate with acute tips, with finely serrate or entire margins, 2 - 4 in length.  Flowers are about one inch diameter with white petals, and similar to apple except for having longer pedicels.  The inflorescence is corymbose, containing 5 - 7 flowers also different from apple.  Pears are a temperate zone fruit and grown on a wide variety of soils.  They are similar to apples in many respects.  The tree is of medium size, up to 30 to 40 feet in height, but usually held to under 20 feet by pruning.  They differ from apples in having "grit" cells in the flesh of the fruit.  In general, pears are pyriform in shape, tapering toward the stem, although some varieties are nearly round.  Fruit size varies in varieties from less than 2 inches in diameter up to 3 inches.  Fruit surface in some varieties is russeted but in others is free of russet and covered with a thin layer of wax.  Trees tend to be more upright than apples.  Pears can be classified by maturity date; summer, autumn and winter.  They are the only temperate tree fruit that cannot be left on the tree to ripen.  Major production in U.S. is of the common or European pear.  Major commercial varieties/types of this pear include: ‘Anjou’, ‘Bartlett’, ‘Bosc’, ‘Comice’, and ‘Seckel’.  'Bartlett' and its sports are referred to as "summer pears" since they ripen in July - August in California (115 - 140 days).  "Winter pears" are those harvested in autumn and marketed throughout the winter months, such as 'Anjou', 'Bosc', 'Comice', 'Hardy', 'Winter Nelis', and 'Packham's Triumph'.  Bloom to harvest in 90 to 200 days (Table 19).  The cultivar ‘Bartlett’ has a 110 – 133 day from bloom to harvest, ‘Bosc’ from 130 - 145, and ‘D’Anjou from 120 – 150 days.  Pears are propagated by budding or grafting onto rootstocks.  T-budded or chip-budded, quince rootstock are generally dwarfing, but sometimes require double budding.  Pear orchards are designed very similar to apple orchards.  Standard trees are spaced at 25 x 25 ft (70 trees/acre), but hedgerow forms are more common in high density plantings, with hundreds of trees per acre.  Pollinizers are planted in alternate rows, or every 10th or 15th tree within hedgerows.  The most common system is central leader for free-standing trees and some form of palmette for trellised orchards.  Initial tree training is particularly important with pear since scaffolds tend to grow nearly vertically, causing poor crotch angles and delayed fruiting.  Other than this tendency to grow upright and therefore greater need for limb spreaders, pears are trained and pruned in the same way as apples.  European pears are harvested when "firm mature"; flesh firmness is the most reliable indicator of pear maturity.  Firmness in the range of 10 - 15 lbs as measured by a pressure tester is desirable.  Pears for are picked by hand several times over a 7 - 20 day period depending upon maturity..

Table 19.  Days from Full Bloom to Harvest for Various Pear Cultivars.

Pear Cultivar	Bloom Timing	Days from Bloom to Harvest

Bartlett	Midseason	115 - 170

Seckel	Midseason	120 - 140

Anjou	Midseason	140 - 165

Bosc	Late	150 - 165

Packham’s Triumph	Midseason	150 - 165

Comice	Late	150 – 170

Forelle	Early	160 - 190

Kieffer	Early	170 - 190

Pear, Oriental (Asian):

Most cultivars of Asian pears do resemble apples in that they have fruit that are round and have a crunchy texture.  The Japanese cultivars tend to be rounder in shape, while the Chinese cultivars are more oval or pyriform (pear-shaped).  All Asian pear cultivars should be considered self-incompatible.  Mature trees can reach heights of more than 20 feet and 12 feet wide.  Asian pears comprise a large group of pears that are crisp in texture and, when mature, are good to eat as soon as harvested or for several months after picking if held in cold storage.  This ready-to-eat feature may make them more acceptable to some people than European pears that are usually served when soft and juicy, which condition takes about a week to occur after removal from cold storage.  Asian pears have been grown commercially in Asia for centuries.  In Japan about 500,000 tons are grown and some fruit is exported to the United States in October and November. China and Korea also grow these pears for domestic consumption and export to the US and Canada. Most new Asian pear plantings in California are in Fresno, Tulare and Kern Counties.  A few plantings exist in Yakima and Wenatchee, Washington, and others are found in Hood River and Willamette Valley in Oregon.  In the last few years plantings of Asian pears were made in New Zealand, Australia, Chile, France, and the eastern and southeastern United States.  It is roughly estimated that 4,000 - 5,000 acres of Asian pears are planted in California, Oregon and Washington.  Since 1984 about 100,000 trees (500 acres) of Asian pears have been planted every year in California.  Most popular Oriental pears are 20th Century ‘Nijisseiki’, ‘Kosui’, ‘Kikusui’, ‘Hosui’, ‘Shinseiki’, ‘Shinko’, and ‘Niitaki’.  There are a few cultivars of hybrid origin.  Asian pear cultivars are partially self-fruitful but better crops are set where two or more cultivars are planted together.  It is suggested that every 4 to 8 rows of a single cultivar have a pollinizer row or that growers plant a block of 4 to 8 rows of a second cultivar adjacent to the first.  Asian pears should be planted in deep, well-drained soils in a location as frost-free as possible.  Sites that are prone to late spring frosts or provide frost protection where late frosts are likely should be avoided.  The chilling requirement of Asian pears is thought to be in the range of 900 to 1000 hours.  Under California conditions the fruit must be picked before 180 days after full bloom to avoid browning during storage (Table 20).  Plant trees at least 10 to 15 feet apart in either fall or early spring.  Plantings for standard size trees range from 140 – 380 trees/A and for dwarf types 300 – 400 trees/A.  In California the trees are pruned and trtained to be a vase shape - On young trees, a good portion of the fruit is borne at or near the tips of one - year-old shoots.  As the tree matures, most of the fruit is produced on the scaffold branches.  These spurs have a productive life of about 10 years.  Pruning should be done to remove about 10 percent of these terminal spurs every year.

Table 20.  Days from Full Bloom to Harvest for Various Asian Pear Cultivars.

Asian Pear Cultivar	Bloom Timing	Days from Bloom to Harvest	Fruit Shape or Color

Kosui	Midseason	120 - 130	Good quality.

Shinseiki	Midseason	125 - 135	Round, yellow skin one of top cultivars in California

Hosui	Midseason	135 - 145	Large, sweet, low acid, bronze-russeted skin. Ripens                                                          in August.

Nijisseiki/20th Century	Midseason	140 - 155	Round and yellow skinned. Originated in Japan.

Chojuro	Midseason	140 - 155	Fruit orange to brown and flat.

Olympic	Midseason	115 - 170	Large round golden russet skin.

Ya Li	Early	150 - 165	Green pear shaped and large.  Popular in China.

Tsu Li	Early	150 - 165	Large football shaped green fruit.

Okusankichi	Midseason	190 – 210	Medium size with brown russet finish. Originally from Korea.

Quince:

		Quinces are fruits closely related to apples and pears, but are of lesser economic importance.  The plants are deciduous thorn less shrubs or small trees.  Generally they are not over 20 feet high.  Fruits are mostly 2 inches up in diameter, covered with pubescence.  Fruit color is generally golden yellow.  Fruit flesh is creamy yellow and it is rather hard with a bitter acid taste.  The most common cultivars/varieties include ‘Champion’, ‘Pineapple’, ‘Smyrna’ and ‘Van Deman’.  The quince has been cultivated for over two thousand years for its edible fruit and its seed.  It is also much used as a dwarfing rootstock for pears and some other fruits.  Bloom to harvest in about 150 days.  The fruit is harvested only by hand because the fruit is easily bruised.  Fruit weight varies from 197 – 461 g. and seeds vary from 15 – 42.  Yields can range from 40 – 60 t/A.  Tradionally standard tree forms are spaced 3.5 – 5.5 m between rows and 2.5 – 4.5 m between trees and bushes 3 m apart with tree densities ranging from 300 – 1200 trees/ha.  Cold storage conditions similar to apple and pear are used.  Quinces are pruned similarly to pears.  It begins to produce fruit three years after planting and orchards can remain productive for up to 45 years.  Succeeds in most soils but prefers a light moist fertile soil and a sunny position.  Succeeds in semi-shade but does not fruit well in such a position.  Plants are hardy to about -15 ° C, though the fruit seldom ripens in the north of Britain unless it is grown against a sunny wall.  The plants require warm summers in order to fully ripen their fruit.

Quince, Chinese and Quince, Japanese:

Chinese quinces are native to China, Indo-China, and are also cultivated in Japan.  Chinese quince was introduced to Europe in 1796 and Japanese quince in 1869.  It is hardy to plant hardiness zone 5 and is not frost tender.  It is in flower from February to June, and the seeds ripen in August through October.  The flowers are hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and are pollinated by bees.  It is noted for attracting wildlife.  The bright yellow fruit can be apple or pear-shaped and up to 6.5 cm long x 6.5 cm wide and be as large as 17 cm long and 8 cm broad and weigh 180 – 600 g.  It is a very ornamental plant and is considered a good bee plant, flowering early in the year and providing pollen and nectar, and can range in height from 10 - 20 ft tall and 5 – 10 ft width.  It is easily cultivated as a small tree in any reasonably good soil.  It prefers a deep moist well-drained loam, and grows well in heavy clay soils.  Tolerates full shade but requires a sunny position for best fruit production.  This species is hardy to about -25°C.  It can be propagated by seed best sown as soon as it is ripe (in February) in a sheltered position outdoors or in a cold frame.  Germination usually takes place within 6 weeks.  Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle.  If well grown, these seedlings can be large enough to plant out in the summer.  Or plant them out in late spring of the following year.  Cuttings of half-ripe wood are made in July/August or cuttings of mature wood of the current year's growth in November in a cold frame and layering in done in late spring or in autumn.  The Japanese quince is a closely related species and had some medicinal uses in China and Japan and occurs in central and south Japan.  It can grow 0.6 – 1.2 m tall and 5 m wide.  It has been planted in Latvia in the 1970’s and in 1996 approximately 300 ha had an average yield of 12 – 15 T/ha.  A maximum yield of 20 - 30 t/ha is possible.  Commercial production is also in Belarus, Finland, Germany, and Poland.  The yellow (red or yellow-green) apple shaped fruit is < 15 cm long and 8 cm diameter and weight can be less than 50 g and contain up to 80 seeds.  Chinese quince can have up to 120 seeds.  Both of these quinces are also grown for ornamental purposes.

Tejocote

	Tejocote is native to the Americas and it is hardy to zone 7 and is not frost tender.  The flowers are hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and are pollinated by midges.  The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil.  The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils.  It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade.  It requires moist or wet soil and can tolerate drought.  The plant can tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure.  It can tolerate atmospheric pollution.  It is grown from seed.  Seed will germinate in the spring, though most will probably take another year.  The tejocote prefers well-drained moisture retentive loamy soil.  Once established, it succeeds in excessively moist soils and also tolerates drought.  Full sun is best when plants are being grown for their fruit.  Seedling trees take from 5 - 8 years before they start bearing fruit, though grafted trees will often flower heavily in their third year.

Worker Activities (Adapted from USDA Apple and Pear Crop Timelines, AK, ID, MI, New England, NJ, NC, WV).

Pruning:

Virtually all apple trees are pruned by hand during the dormant season.  Most apples trees are thinned with chemical applications, but approximately 75% of the apple acres have follow-up hand thinning in March and April after chemical thinning (AK).  Nearly all of Michigan’s apple orchards require some thinning of fruit to ensure a marketable product at harvest time.  Much of this thinning is done chemically, but there is a need to do some of the thinning work by hand.  Hand thinning is primarily done from the middle of June until the first of August in Michigan, but some growers will hand thin all the way up to harvest if it is deemed necessary to ensure fruit size and quality.  A worker will typically work 8 to 10 hours doing hand-thinning work per day with the majority of work being done in the early summer.  It would be typical for a worker to do 10 to 14 days of hand thinning work per season.  Limbs are manipulated via tying to wire trellis systems or posts inserted next to the trees or through the use of spreaders (wooden or plastic pieces inserted between the limb and the trunk of the tree).  This activity is usually done when branches are supple (May - August).  Workers tie or spread branches with 2 to 5 ties/spreaders per tree and work an average day.  Branch manipulation is typically done after the spring apple scab season sprays are completed and between necessary internal feeder sprays.

	In the New England States, pruning is used to maintain a balance between vegetative growth and fruit production that allows for adequate penetration of sunlight, chemical treatments, and air flow.  Most orchards are pruned once during each winter dormant season, and usually don't begin until 3 or 4 months from the previous season's final pesticide application.  Summer pruning, undertaken in late July and early August, is less extensive and focuses primarily on unproductive vegetative sprouts blocking light from ripening fruit.  Summer pruning involves extensive contact with foliage.  Wearing protective clothing can be problematic in summer heat, and heat stroke risk poses more immediate and severe health concerns than pesticide exposure.  While there is usually some flexibility for timing summer pesticide sprays, prolonged REIs such as the 4 day REI for captan create scheduling problems for summer pruning which must be done within a time window of a few weeks.

	A number of worker activities occur throughout the year that may affect application timing, as well as the specific pesticides used.  In New Jersey, manual pruning is done during the dormant season, usually from late November through the middle of February.  No pesticides are applied during that time.  Although hand thinning can be done at any time after June, because of labor costs it is rarely a commercial practice.  Therefore, fruit thinning is usually done with plant growth regulators through normal spraying practices in late May.

	Growers use pruning to remove dead and damaged wood, develop and maintain tree structure and to maintain a balance between vegetative growth and fruit production.  Most orchards are pruned once during each winter dormant season and may be also pruned during the growing season.  Dormant pruning usually does not begin until several months after the previous season's final pesticide application.  Summer pruning on producing trees, undertaken in late June and July, is less extensive and focuses primarily on removing current seasons’ growth, which is shading the developing fruit.  Summer pruning can involve extensive contact with foliage.  Wearing protective clothing can be problematic in summer heat, and heat stroke risk poses more immediate and severe health concerns than pesticide exposure.  However, using long-handled pruners may minimize the amount of worker contact with foliage.  While there is usually some flexibility for timing summer pesticide sprays, prolonged reentry intervals (REIs) such as the 4-day REI for captan create scheduling problems for summer pruning which must be done within a limited time frame.  Thinning timing is critical for effective thinning and the effective window is often a matter of days.  Chemical thinning agents applied with the air blast sprayer often require follow-up hand thinning and visual crop inspection requiring worker access to the orchard and extensive contact with foliage.  Unfortunately, thinning is concurrent with the timing for important pesticide applications for apple scab, plum curculio, leafminers and other key pests.  Long REIs on thinning agents, insecticides, or fungicides needed at this time create a major obstacle to effective and profitable crop management and raises the pesticide exposure risk factor.  Carbaryl is one of the primary thinners used in apple orchards in North Carolina.

In Washington State, trees are pruned throughout the winter, while they are dormant.  The orchards may be pruned any time the weather is reasonable for the pruning crews’ comfort.  This operation is always complete prior to the application of dormant sprays.  This activity is one of the most labor intensive and expensive aspects of fruit production, as trees are not uniform, and must be pruned according to horticultural concepts.  Proper pruning maintains fruit quality and production over the lifetime of the orchard, and is considered the key horticultural practice.

In Idaho, trees are pruned in the winter, while they are dormant.  This operation is usually completed prior to the application of dormant sprays.  If not thinned yearly, most apple cultivars will develop an alternate bearing habit, producing a heavy crop one year, then almost no crop the next.  Biennial bearing can be reduced if a substantial number of blossoms and small fruit are removed from the spurs on the tree during bloom, or within two to three weeks after petal fall.  Hand thinning is then done to remove additional fruit to achieve the desired crop load.  Thinning the fruit by hand six to eight weeks after bloom is a very common practice.  Because it is usually done after most flower bud initiation has occurred, it does little to ensure return bloom.

	European pears are harvested when "firm mature"; flesh firmness is the most reliable indicator of pear maturity.  Firmness in the range of 10 - 15 lbs as measured by a pressure tester is desirable for most cultivars.  Pears for are picked by hand several times over a 10 - 20 day period

Sucker Control:

About half the apple orchards in Michigan have workers in the orchard from late June through July to remove suckers (waterspouts) arising from the larger limbs of the tree.  This activity involves close contact with the foliage and a worker will typically work a full day at a time (8 to 10 hours per day).  For the root suckers that sometimes arise from the base of the tree trunk, some growers use a contact herbicide in the row and do this task chemically.  Not all apple rootstocks produce root suckers so this activity is only done in about 30 % of the orchards.  A few orchardists may send a work crew through with loppers to cut off root suckers, but this is an expensive alternative and typically avoided.  The grower or a family member does most of the spraying. An average 7 day interval between sprays is typical for apple pest management programs with the majority (75 %) of pesticide application being made in late April through mid June for apple scab prevention.  Sprays to trees are mostly applied with ground equipment (air blast or tower sprayers).  Herbicide applications are made with low volume sprayers.  Typically there is an enclosed cab tractor dedicated to pesticide applications.  Training is the selection and development of a branching pattern on young apple trees so as to maximize the structure and production of high quality fruit.  It is done early in the season on new plantings and mature trees.

	In West Virginia, workers spend about two weeks in June hand thinning fruit and removing watersports on approximately 50 % of the apple acreage.  Summer pruning is conducted for about two weeks in July on approximately 10 % of the acreage.

Weed Control:

	Preemergent herbicide applications are applied in early spring, primarily with tractor mounted spray equipment.  Postemergence herbicide applications are made in early summer and occasionally after harvest primarily with tractor mounted sprayers although backpack sprayers are occasionally used (30% of Arkansas apple acres).  Row middles are mowed throughout the growing season.  Herbicides are applied in mid April to early May in New Jersey, but may be spot applied with a hand or backpack sprayer during June or July, depending on the weed species being controlled.  Mechanical cultivation may be rarely carried out 2 to 3 times a season during early May through June.  Mechanical and hand cultivation is more common in blocks of newly planted non-bearing trees that are not yet under a complete spray program.  Well managed orchards usually have grass or mixed vegetation aisles that are mowed at 10 day to 2 week intervals throughout the growing season.

Mowing is a standard orchard practice.  Mowing is done four to six times per growing season depending on need.  Mowing involves very little contact with treated bark and foliage as mowing equipment operators are riding on tractors, which may have enclosed cabs.  There is potential for operators in an open cab to brush against overhanging foliage.  Pesticide exposure is minimal.  Fertilizer applications consist of ground applications of dry granular fertilizer for nutrients and lime.  Foliar spray applications of micronutrients may be used to provide apple trees with nutrients not provided adequately in soil applications.  Most soil applications are typically made late in the dormant season and foliar applications may continue throughout the growing season depending on the element and results of foliar and soil assay analysis.  Distribution of ground-applied materials involves very little contact with treated bark and foliage as equipment operators are riding on tractors and pesticide exposure is minimal.  Foliar applications are typically made in combination with pesticide sprays where proper worker protection measures should be in place to limit pesticide exposure.  Orchard mowing in West Virginia for weed control is conducted every 3 - 4 weeks from April through August.

Pest Control:

	Insecticides and fungicides are applied from early spring up to harvest primarily with orchard blast sprayers.  White plastic tree guards are typically used on every tree to protect from the gnawing of mice and rabbits in the winter months.  These are usually applied soon after planting.  Newly established orchards receive little to no pesticide applications the first year of planting.  Mulches are often applied in the spring to the base of the trees along the length of the rows.  Depending on the thickness of the mulch and available labor, the mulch is pulled back away from the tree trunks in the fall to prevent rodent damage.  Both the laying down and the pulling away of mulches would require workers to be in orchards for an average workday.  In MI, orchard floors are routinely mowed 2 or 3 times per season to reduce pest levels such as weeds and insects and to make the orchard conditions more favorable for workers to walk through for required activities.  Mowing is done with a tractor and attached mowing implement and requires very little contact with the orchard at all.  Enclosed or non-enclosed cab tractors are typically used.  In New England, new plantings receive few pesticide sprays, so there are no major pesticide Reentry intervals (REI) issues.  Mature tree training is done at a time of year when trees typically receive little pesticide exposures for conducting summer pruning and harvest operations efficiently, and discouraging insect borers, voles and other pests.  Fertilization consists of ground applications of dry fertilizer for macro nutrients and lime, and foliar spray applications of micronutrients such as boron and magnesium to provide apple trees with replacement nutrients for those lost to harvested crops.  Applications may begin late in the dormant season and may continue throughout the growing season depending on the element.  Distribution of ground applied materials involves very little contact with treated bark and foliage as equipment operators are riding on the machines.  Pesticide exposure is minimal.  Foliar applications are typically made in combination with pesticide sprays where proper worker protection measures should be in place to limit pesticide exposure.  Thinning timing is critical for effective thinning and the available window is often a matter of days.  Unfortunately, thinning is concurrent with timing for important pesticide applications for apple scab, European apple sawfly, plum curculio, leafminers and other key pests.

Apple pollination (Adapted from Gaus, 2002 and Warmund, 2007).

Almost all cultivars of apples require cross-pollinated by honey bees or wind with another apple or crabapple cultivar.  To attain the best fruit set on apple trees, the king blossom (the largest and first one to open) in the flower cluster must be pollinated.  The bloom periods of the pollinizer and the king blossom of the apple tree must overlap.  Two dwarf apple cultivars with similar bloom periods should be spaced less than 20 feet apart to ensure the transfer of pollen between trees.  Typical apple and crabapple bloom periods are shown in (Figure 2).  The shaded area represents the bloom time.  Apple cultivars that are suitable pollinators for other cultivars are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Shows the Bloom Period of Apple and Crabapple Cultivars.

Figure 3 Shows the Apple Cultivars and Cultivars that are Suitable as Pollinizers.

Although some apple varieties, such as ‘Lodi’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Empire’, ‘Winesap’, ‘Jonathan’, ‘Jonagold’, ‘Gala’, ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Rome’ and ‘Granny Smith’ may be listed as self-fruitful, they will set more fruit on an annual basis if they are cross-pollinated and which cultivars can be used to pollinize others (Figures 2 and 3).  Some apple varieties, such as ‘Winesap’, ‘Stayman’, ‘Mutsu’ and ‘Jonagold’, produce sterile pollen and therefore cannot be used to pollinate other apple varieties.  Many nursery catalogues include pollinization compatibility charts or recommend good apple varieties to use as pollinizers.  Manchurian crabapple, with profuse white flowers, is commonly used to pollinate early- to mid-blooming apple varieties, while Snowdrift crabapple is used for mid- to late-blooming apple varieties (Figure 2).

In commercial apple plantings, a row of pollinizer trees is often planted between every four rows of the main variety of trees (Figure 4).  If pollinizers are placed within the row, every fifth semidwarf tree is a pollinizer and each pollinizer is offset in adjacent rows to stagger them throughout the orchard block. In high-density plantings of dwarf trees (5 to 6 feet between trees within the row), apple or crabapple pollinizers may be planted between eight to ten trees of another variety in the row.  Flowering crabapples are useful as pollinizers because they take up less space than a regular apple variety and may be pruned to grow in an upright position.

Figure 4. Alternative Planting Plans to Ensure Cross-pollination of Apple Trees.