in Environmental Epidemiology: Mechanisms, Limitations, and a Review
of Associations with Biomarkers of Non-persistent Chemical Exposures
during Pregnancy. Environmental Health, 18(1):43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-019-0480-8.
KEMI Swedish Chemical Agency, Occurrence and Use of Highly
Fluorinated Substances and Alternatives. 2015. Available on the
internet at: https://www.kemi.se/en/publications/reports/2015/report-7-15-occurrence-and-use-of-highly-fluorinated-substances-and-alternatives.
Kim, W. H., Nishijima, W., Shoto, E., and Okada, M. 1997.
Competitive Removal of Dissolved Organic Carbon by Adsorption and
Biodegradation on Biological Activated Carbon. Water Science and
Technology, 35(7):147-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00125-X.
King, W.D., and Marrett, L.D. 1996. Case-control Study of Bladder
Cancer and Chlorination By-products in Treated Water (Ontario,
Canada). Cancer Causes & Control, 7(6):596-604. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00051702.
Klein, R., and Lynch, M. 2018. Development of Medical Cost Estimates
for Adverse Birth Outcomes. Prepared for U.S. EPA National Center
for Environmental Economics.
Kowlessar, N.M., Jiang, H.J., and Steiner, C. 2013. Hospital Stays
for Newborns, 2011: Statistical Brief# 163. Available on the
internet at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24308074/.
Kirisits, M.J., Snoeyink, V.L. and Kruithof, J.C. 2000. The
reduction of bromate by granular activated carbon. Water Research,
34(17):4250-4260.
Kumarasamy, E., Manning, I.M., Collins, L.B., Coronell, O., and
Leibfarth, F.A. 2020. Ionic Fluorogels for Remediation of Per-and
Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances from Water. ACS Central Science,
2020(6):487-492. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.9b01224.
Lauritzen, H. B., Larose, T. L., [Oslash]ien, T., Sandanger, T. M.,
Odland, J. O., van der Bor, M., and Jacobsen, G. W. 2017. Maternal
serum levels of perfluoroalkyl substances and organochlorines and
indices of fetal growth: a Scandinavian case-cohort study. Pediatric
research, 81(1), 33-42. http://doi:10.1038/pr.2016.187.
Lenters, V., Portengen, L., Rignell-Hydbom, A., Jonsson, B.A.G.,
Lindh, C.H., Piersma, A.H., Toft, G., Bonde, J.P., Heederik, D.,
Rylander, L., and Vermeulen, R. 2016. Prenatal Phthalate,
Perfluoroalkyl Acid, and Organochlorine Exposures and Term Birth
Weight in Three Birth Cohorts: Multi-Pollutant Models Based on
Elastic Net Regression. Environmental Health Perspectives, 124:365-
372. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408933.
Li, S., Peng, Y., Wang, X., Qian, Y., Xiang, P., Wade, SW, Guo, H.,
Lopez, J.A.G., Herzog, C.A., and Handelsman, Y. 2019. Cardiovascular
Events and Death after Myocardial Infarction or Ischemic Stroke in
an Older Medicare Population. Clinical Cardiology, 42(3):391-399.
https://doi.org/10.1002/clc.23160.
Liao, S., Yao, W., Cheang, I., Tang, X., Yin, T., Lu, X., Zhou, Y.,
Zhang, H., and Li, X. 2020. Association between Perfluoroalkyl Acids
and the Prevalence of Hypertension among US Adults. Ecotoxicology
and Environmental Safety, 196(2020):110589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110589.
Lin, C.Y., Lin, L.Y., Chiang, C.K., Wang, W.J., Su, Y.N., Hung,
K.Y., and Chen, P.C. 2010. Investigation of the Associations Between
Low-Dose Serum Perfluorinated Chemicals and Liver Enzymes in US
Adults. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 105:1354-1363. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2009.707.
Lin, P., Cardenas, A., Hauser, R., Gold, D.R., Kleinman, K., Hivert,
M.F., Fleisch, A.F., Calafat, A.M., Webster, T.F., Horton, E.S., and
Oken, E. 2019. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Blood Lipid
Levels in Pre-diabetic Adults-Longitudinal Analysis of the Diabetes
Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Environment International, 129:
343-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.027.
Lipp, P., Sacher, F., and Baldauf, G. 2010. Removal of organic
micro-pollutants during drinking water treatment by nanofiltration
and reverse osmosis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 13(1-3), 226-
237. http://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1063.
Liu, C. 2017. Removal of Perfluorinated Compounds in Drinking Water
Treatment: A Study of Ion Exchange Resins and Magnetic
Nanoparticles. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Waterloo.
Available on the internet at: http://hdl.handle.net/10012/12660.
Liu, C.J., Strathmann, T.J. and Bellona, C. 2021. Rejection of per-
and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in aqueous film-forming foam
by high-pressure membranes. Water Research, 188(2021), 116546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116546.
Liu, Y. L., and Sun, M. 2021. Ion exchange removal and resin
regeneration to treat per-and polyfluoroalkyl ether acids and other
emerging PFAS in drinking water. Water Research, 207, 117781.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117781.
Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Huffman, M.D., Karmali, K.N., Sanghavi, D.M.,
Wright, J.S., Pelser, C., Gulati, M., Masoudi, F.A., and Goff, Jr.,
D.C. 2017. Estimating Longitudinal Risks and Benefits from
Cardiovascular Preventive Therapies among Medicare Patients: the
Million Hearts Longitudinal ASCVD Risk Assessment Tool: a Special
Report from the American Heart Association and American College of
Cardiology. Circulation, 135(13):e793-e813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.10.018.
Lombardo, J., Berretta, C., Redding, A., Swanson, C., and Mallmann,
T. 2018. Carbon and Resin Solutions for PFAS Removal. Evoqua Water
Technologies Webinar. March 6. Available on the internet at: https://www.evoqua.com/en/webinars/pfas-removal-3-case-studies2/#video-modal.
Lu, S., and Bartell, S.M. 2020. Serum PFAS Calculator for Adults.
Available on the internet at: www.ics.uci.edu/~sbartell/
pfascalc.html.
Ma, S., and Finch, B.K. 2010. Birth Outcome Measures and Infant
Mortality. Population Research and Policy Review, 29(6):865-891.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-009-9172-3.
Mahoney, H., Xie, Y., Brinkmann, M., and Giesy, J.P. 2022. Next
Generation Per-and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances: Status and Trends,
Aquatic Toxicity, and Risk Assessment. Eco-Environment & Health,
1(2):117-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eehl.2022.05.002.
Mastropietro, T.F., Bruno, R., Pardo, E., and Armentano, D. 2021.
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Membranes for Highly Efficient
PFASs Removal: Overview, Challenges and Future Perspectives. Dalton
Transactions, 50(16):5398-5410. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1dt00360g.
Matthis, J., and Carr, S. 2018. Reactivation of Spent Activated
Carbon Used for PFAS Adsorption. In Kempisty, D.M, Xing, Y., and
Racz, L. (Eds.), Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment:
Theory, Practice, and Innovation (pp. 303-323). Taylor & Francis.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429487125.
McCleaf, P., Englund, S., [Ouml]stlund, A., Lindegren, K., Wiberg,
K., and Ahrens, L. 2017. Removal Efficiency of Multiple Poly-and
Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Drinking Water using Granular
Activated Carbon (GAC) and Anion Exchange (AE) Column Tests. Water
Research, 120(2017):77-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.057.
McNamara, J.D., Franco, R., Mimna R., and Zappa, L. 2018. Comparison
of Activated Carbons for Removal of Perfluorinated Compounds from
Drinking Water. Journal-American Water Works Association, 110(1):E2-
E14. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2018.110.0003.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM).
2022. Guidance on PFAS Exposure, Testing, and Clinical Follow-Up.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26156.
National Institute of Environmental Health Services (NIEHS). 2020.
Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). Available on
the internet at: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc/index.cfm.
National Drinking Water Advisory Council (NDWAC). 2022. National
Drinking Water Advisory Council Fall 2022 Meeting Summary Report
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/03/29/2022-06576/meeting-of-the-national-drinking-water-advisory-council.

Negri, E., Metruccio, F., Guercio, V., Tosti, L., Benfenati, E.,
Bonzi, R., La Vecchia, C., and Moretto, A. 2017. Exposure to PFOA
and PFOS and Fetal Growth: a Critical Merging of Toxicological and
Epidemiological Data. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 47(6):489-515.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408444.2016.1271972.
Nian, M., Li, Q.Q., Bloom, M., Qian, Z.M., Syberg, K.M., Vaughn,
M.G., Wang, S.Q., Wei, Q., Zeeshan, M., Gurram, N., Chu, C., Wang,
J., Tian, Y.P., Hu, L.W., Liu, K.K., Yang, B.Y., Liu, R.Q., Feng,
D., Zeng, X.W., and Dong, GH. 2019. Liver Function Biomarkers
Disorder is Associated with Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Acids in
Adults: Isomers of C8 Health Project in China. Environmental
Research, 172:81-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.02.013.
Nicoletti, C., Salvanes, K.G., and Tominey, E. 2018. Response of
Parental Investments to Child's Health Endowment at Birth. In Health
Econometrics: Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0573-855520180000294009.
Norden. 2013. Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances in the Nordic
Countries--Use, Occurrence and Toxicology. Available on the internet
at: https://www.norden.org/en/publication/and-polyfluorinated-substances-nordic-countries.
Norwegian Environment Agency. 2017. Investigation of Sources of PFBS
into the Environment (M-759). Available on the internet at: https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/globalassets/publikasjoner/M759/M759.pdf.
National Toxicology Program (NTP). 2020. NTP technical report on the
toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of perfluorooctanoic acid
(CASRN 335-67-1) administered in feed to Sprague Dawley (Hsd:
Sprague Dawley SD) rats [NTP]. (Technical Report 598). Research
Triangle Park, NC. Available on the internet at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560147/.
NTP. 2021. Report on Carcinogens, Fifteenth Edition.; Research
Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service.
New York State Department of Health (NYDOH). 2020. Public Water
Systems and NYS Drinking Water Standards for PFAS and Other Emerging
Contaminants. Center for Environmental Health. Available on the
internet at: https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/water/drinking/docs/water_supplier_fact_sheet_new_mcls.pdf.
Ochoa-Herrera, V., and Sierra-Alvarez, R. 2008. Removal of
Perfluorinated Surfactants by Sorption onto Granular Activated
Carbon, Zeolite and Sludge. Chemosphere, 72(10):1588-1593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.04.029.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB). 2003. Circular A-4:
Regulatory Analysis. Washington, DC: OMB. Available on the internet
at: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/circulars_a004_a-4/.
Osuchukwu, O., and Reed, D. 2022. Small for Gestational Age.
StatPearls.
O'Sullivan, A.K., Rubin, J., Nyambose, J., Kuznik, A., Cohen, D.J.,
and Thompson, D. 2011. Cost Estimation of Cardiovascular Disease
Events in the US. Pharmacoeconomics, 29(8);693-704. https://doi.org/10.2165/11584620-000000000-00000.
Park, M., Wu, S., Lopez, I.J., Chang, J.Y., Karanfil, T., and
Snyder, S.A. 2020. Adsorption of Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in
Groundwater by Granular Activated Carbons: Roles of Hydrophobicity
of PFAS and Carbon Characteristics. Water Research,
170(2020):115364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.115364.
Pramanik, B.K., Pramanik, S.K., and Suja, F. 2015. A Comparative
Study of Coagulation, Granular-and Powdered-Activated Carbon for the
Removal of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate and Perfluorooctanoate in
Drinking Water Treatment. Environmental Technology, 36(20):2610-
2617. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2015.1040079.
Rahman, M.F., Peldszus, S., and Anderson, W.B. 2014. Behaviour and
Fate of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in
Drinking Water Treatment: a Review. Water Research, 50:318-340.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.10.045.
Raleigh, K.K., Alexander, B.H., Olsen, G.W., Ramachandran, G.,
Morey, S.Z., Church, T.R., Loga, P.W., Scott, L.L.F., and Allen,
E.M. 2014. Mortality and Cancer Incidence in Ammonium
Perfluorooctanoate Production Workers. Occupational Environmental
Medicine, 71:500-506. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2014-102109.
Regli, S., Chen, J., Messner, M., Elovitz, M.S., Letkiewicz, F.J.,
Pegram, R.A., Pepping, T.J., Richardson, S.D., and Wright, J.M.
2015. Estimating Potential Increased Bladder Cancer Risk Due to
Increased Bromide Concentrations in Sources of Disinfected Drinking
Waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(22):13094-13102.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03547.
R[uuml]cker, G., Schwarzer, G., Carpenter, J., and Olkin, I. 2009.
Why Add Anything to Nothing? The Arcsine Difference as a Measure of
Treatment Effect in Meta-analysis with Zero Cells. Statistics in
Medicine, 28(5):721-738. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.3511.
Sagiv, S.K., Rifas-Shiman, S.L., Fleisch, A.F., Webster, T.F.,
Calafat, A.M., Ye, X., Gillman, M.W., and Oken, E. 2018. Early
Pregnancy Perfluoroalkyl Substance Plasma Concentrations and Birth
Outcomes in Project Viva: Confounded by Pregnancy Hemodynamics?
American Journal of Epidemiology, 187:793-802. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faje%2Fkwx332.
Shearer, J.J., Callahan, C.L., Calafat, A.M., Huang, W.Y., Jones,
R.R., Sabbisetti, V.S., Freedman, N.D., Sampson, J.N., Silverman,
D.T., Purdue, M.P., and Hofmann, J.N. 2021. Serum Concentrations of
Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Risk of Renal Cell
Carcinoma. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 113(5):580-587.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djaa143.
Sorlini, S. and Collivignarelli, C. 2005. Chlorite removal with
granular activated carbon. Desalination, 176(1-3):255-265.
S[ouml]reng[aring]rd, M., [Ouml]stblom, E., K[ouml]hler, S., and
Ahrens, L. 2020. Adsorption Behavior of Per-and Polyfluoralkyl
Substances (PFASs) to 44 Inorganic and Organic Sorbents and Use of
Dyes as Proxies for PFAS Sorption. Journal of Environmental Chemical
Engineering, 8(3):103744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.103744.
Starling, A.P., Adgate, J.L., Hamman, R.F., Kechris, K., Calafat,
A.M., Ye, X., and Dabelea, D. 2017. Perfluoroalkyl Substances during
Pregnancy and Offspring Weight and Adiposity at Birth: Examining
Mediation by Maternal Fasting Glucose in the Healthy Start Study.
Environmental Health Perspectives, 125:067016. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp641.
Steenland, K., Tinker, S., Frisbee, S., Ducatman A., and Vaccarino,
V. 2009. Association of Perfluorooctanoic Acid and Perfluorooctane
Sulfonate with Serum Lipids among Adults Living Near a Chemical
Plant. American Journal of Epidemiology, 170:1269-1278. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwp279.
Steenland, K., and Woskie, S. 2012. Cohort Mortality Study of
Workers Exposed to Perfluorooctanoic Acid. American Journal of
Epidemiology, 176:909-917. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kws171.
Steenland, K., Zhao, L., and Winquist, A. 2015. A Cohort Incidence
Study of Workers Exposed to Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA).
Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 72:373-380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2014-102364.
Steenland, K., Barry, V., and Savitz, D. 2018. An Updated Meta-
Analysis of the Association of Serum PFOA and Birthweight, with an
Evaluation of Potential Biases. Paper presented at the ISEE
Conference Abstracts.
Steinle-Darling, E., and Reinhard, M. 2008. Nanofiltration for Trace
Organic Contaminant Removal: Structure, Solution, and Membrane
Fouling Effects on the Rejection of Perfluorochemicals. J. Environ.
Sciences, 42, 5292-5297. https://doi.org/10.1021/es703207s.
Summers, R.S., Kim, S.M., Shimabuku, K., Chae, S.H. and Corwin, C.J.
2013. Granular activated carbon adsorption of MIB in the presence of
dissolved organic matter. Water Research, 47(10):3507-3513.
Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. 2020a.
SEER*Stat software Incidence--SEER Research Limited-Field Data, 21
Registries, Nov 2020 Sub (2000-2018). Available on the internet at:
seer.cancer.gov/seerstat.
Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. 2020b.
SEER*Stat software Incidence-Based Mortality--SEER Research Data, 18
Registries, Nov

2020 Sub (2000-2018). Available on the internet at: seer.cancer.gov/seerstat.
Svendsgaard, D.J., and Hertzberg, R.C. 1994. Statistical Methods for
the Toxicological Evaluation of the Additivity Assumption as used in
the Environmental Protection Agency Chemical Mixture Risk Assessment
Guidelines. In Toxicology of chemical mixtures: Case studies,
mechanisms, and novel approaches. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Temple, J.A., Reynolds, A.J., and Arteaga, I. 2010. Low Birth
Weight, Preschool Education, and School Remediation. Education and
Urban Society, 42(6):705-729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124510370946.
Terry, L.G. and Summers, R.S. 2018. Biodegradable organic matter and
rapid-rate biofilter performance: A review. Water Research, 128:234-
245.
Thom, T., Kannel, W., Silbershatz, H., and D'Agostino, R. 2001.
Cardiovascular Diseases in the United States and Prevention
Approaches. Hurst's the heart, 1, 3-17.
Thomford, P. 2002. 104-Week Dietary Chronic Toxicity and
Carcinogenicity Study with Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid Potassium
Salt (PFOS; T-6295) in Rats (pp. 1-216). 3M. Available on the
internet at: https://www.ag.state.mn.us/Office/Cases/3M/docs/PTX/PTX2805.pdf.
Thompson, J., Eaglesham, G., Reungoat, J., Poussade, Y., Bartkowf,
M., Lawrence, M. and Mueller, J.F. 2011. Removal of PFOS, PFOA and
other perfluoroalkyl acids at water reclamation plants in South East
Queensland Australia. Chemosphere, 82(2011):9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.10.040.
Timmermann, C.A.G., Pedersen, H.S., Weihe, P., Bjerregaard, P.,
Nielsen, F., Heilmann, C., and Grandjean, P. 2021. Concentrations of
Tetanus and Diphtheria Antibodies in Vaccinated Greenlandic Children
Aged 7-12 years Exposed to Marine Pollutants, a Cross Sectional
Study. Environmental Research, 203:111712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111712.
Tow, E.W., Ersan, M.S., Kum, S., Lee, T., Speth, T.F., Owen, C.
Bellona, C., Nadagouda, M.N., Mikelonis, A.M., Westerhoff, P.,
Mysore, C., Frenkel, V.S., DeSilva, V., Walker, SW, Safulko, A.K.,
and Ladner, D.A. 2021. Managing and treating per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in membrane concentrates. AWWA
Water Science, 3(5), e1233. https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1233.
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (USBLS). 2021. Medical care
in U.S. city average, all urban consumers, not seasonally adjusted
1980-2021 CUUR0000SAM. Available on the internet at: https://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CUUR0000SAM?output_view=pct_12mths.
USBLS. 2022. Table 1. Employment Cost Index for total compensation,
by occupational group and industry. Employment Cost Index Historical
Listing--Volume III. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/web/eci/eci-current-nominal-.dollar.pdf.
United States Census Bureau. 2010. American Community Survey Five-
Year Estimates. American Community Survey Demographic and Housing
Estimates. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/table-and-geography-changes.2010.html.
United States Census Bureau. 2020. Annual County Resident Population
Estimates by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: April 1, 2010 to
July 1, 2019, downloaded at https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/ on May 3, 2022.
United States Census Bureau. 2022. American Community Survey 5-Year
Data (2009-2021). Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/developers/data-sets/acs-5year.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1979.
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Control of
Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water; Final Rule. 44 FR 68624-68707.
November 29, 1979.
USEPA. 1985. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Volatile
Synthetic Organic Chemicals; Inorganic Chemicals and Microorganisms.
Federal Register. 50 FR 46936-46906. November 13, 1985.
USEPA. 1986a. Guidelines for the Health Risk Assessment of Chemical
Mixtures. EPA 630-R-98-002. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-health-risk-assessment-chemical-mixtures.
USEPA. 1986b. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. Federal
Register. 51 FR 33992. September 24, 1986.
USEPA. 1987. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations--Synthetic
Organic Chemicals; Monitoring for Unregulated Contaminants; Final
Rule. Federal Register. 52 FR 25690, July 8, 1987.
USEPA. 1989. Risk assessment guidance for Superfund. Vol. 1. Human
Health Evaluation Manual (Part A). EPA/540/1-89/002.
USEPA. 1991a. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations--Synthetic
Organic Chemicals and Inorganic Chemicals; Monitoring for
Unregulated Contaminants; National Primary Drinking Water
Regulations Implementation; National Secondary Drinking Water
Regulations. Federal Register. 56 FR 3526. January 30, 1991.
USEPA. 1991b. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Vol 1: Human
Health Evaluation Manual (Part B, Development of Risk-Based
Preliminary Remediation Goals). EPA/540/R-92/003. EPA, Emergency and
Remedial Response, Washington, DC. https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part-b.
USEPA. 1994. Executive Order 12898--Federal Actions to Address
Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income
Populations. Federal Register. 59 FR 7629, February 16, 1994.
USEPA. 1997. Discussion Summary: EPA Technology Design Workshop.
Available on the internet at: https://downloads.regulations.gov/EPA-HQ-OW-2018-0780-0197/content.pdf.
USEPA. 1998a. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations:
Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts. Federal Register. 63 FR
69390-69476. December 16, 1998.
USEPA. 1998b. Announcement of Small System Compliance Technology
Lists for Existing National Primary Drinking Water Regulation and
Findings Concerning Variance Technologies. Federal Register. 63 FR
42032. August 6, 1998.
USEPA. 1998c. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Consumer
Confidence; Proposed Rule. Federal Register. 63 FR 7620, February
13, 1998.
USEPA. 1998d. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Consumer
Confidence Reports. Federal Register. 63 FR 44524, August 19, 1998.
USEPA. 1999. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment (review
draft). Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. NCEA-F-0644.
USEPA. 2000a. Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk
Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. EPA 630-R-00-002. Available on the
internet at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=20533.
USEPA. 2000b. EPA and 3M Announce Phase Out of PFOS. News Release.
May 16, 2000. Available on the internet at: https://archive.epa.gov/epapages/newsroom_archive/newsreleases/33aa946e6cb11f35852568e1005246b4.html.
USEPA. 2000c. Methodology for Deriving Ambient Water Quality
Criteria for the Protection of Human Health (2000). EPA 822-B-00-
004. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2018-10/documents/methodology-wqc-protection-hh-2000.pdf.
USEPA. 2000d. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations;
Radionuclides; Final Rule. Federal Register. 65 FR 76708. December
7, 2000.
USEPA. 2000e. Arsenic Occurrence in Public Drinking Water Supplies.
EPA 815-R-00-023.
USEPA. 2000f. Geometries and Characteristics of Public Water
Systems. EPA-815-R-00-24.
USEPA. 2001. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Arsenic
and Clarifications to Compliance and New Source Contaminants
Monitoring. Federal Register. FR 28342. July 19, 2001.
USEPA. 2002. A Review of the Reference Dose and Reference
Concentration Process. EPA 630-P-02-002F. Available on the internet
at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-12/documents/rfd-final.pdf.
USEPA. 2004. The Standardized Monitoring Framework: A Quick
Reference Guide. EPA 816-F-04-010. Available on the internet at:
https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=3000667K.txt.

USEPA. 2005. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. EPA/630/P-
03/001F. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2013-09/documents/cancer_guidelines_final_3-25-05.pdf.
USEPA. 2006a. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Stage 2
Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule; Final Rule. [EPA-HQ-
OW-2002-0043; FRL-8012-1]. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2006-01-04/pdf/06-3.pdf.
USEPA. 2006b. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Long Term
2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule. Federal Register. 71 FR
654. January 5, 2006.
USEPA. 2009a. Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 3-Final.
Federal Register. 74 FR 51850. October 8, 2009.
USEPA. 2009b. Method 537.1: Determination of Selected Per- and
Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances in Drinking Water by Solid Phase
Extraction and Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC/
MS/MS). EPA/600/R-18/352. Available on the internet at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_Report.cfm?dirEntryId=343042&Lab=NERL.
USEPA. 2009c. Community Water System Survey, Volume II: Detailed
Tables and Survey Methodology. EPA 815-R-09-002. Available on the
internet at: http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P1009USA.txt.
USEPA. 2010. Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses. Available
on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-08/documents/ee-0568-50.pdf.
USEPA. 2016a. Drinking Water Health Advisory for Perfluorooctane
Sulfonate (PFOS). EPA 822-R-16-004. Available on the internet at:
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-05/documents/pfos_health_advisory_final-plain.pdf.
USEPA. 2016b. Drinking Water Health Advisory for Perfluorooctanoic
Acid (PFOA). EPA 822-R-16-005. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-05/documents/pfoa_health_advisory_final-plain.pdf.
USEPA. 2016c. Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 4-Final.
Federal Register. 81 FR 81099. November 17, 2016.
USEPA. 2016d. Six-Year Review 3--Health Effects Assessment for
Existing Chemical and Radionuclide National Primary Drinking Water
Regulations--Summary Report. EPA 822-R-16-008. Available on the
internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-12/documents/822r16008.pdf.
USEPA. 2016e. Health Effects Support Document for Perfluorooctanoic
Acid (PFOA). EPA 822-R-16-003. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-05/documents/pfoa_hesd_final-plain.pdf.
USEPA. 2016f. Health Effects Support Document for Perfluorooctane
Sulfonate (PFOS). EPA 822-R-16-002. Available on the internet at:
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-05/documents/pfos_hesd_final_508.pdf.
USEPA. 2016g. Technical Guidance for Assessing Environmental Justice
in Regulatory Analysis. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-06/documents/ejtg_5_6_16_v5.1.pdf.
USEPA. 2017. Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule:
Occurrence Data. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/dwucmr/occurrence-data-unregulated-contaminant-monitoring-rule#3.
USEPA. 2018a. Basic Information on PFAS. Available on the internet
at: https://19january2021snapshot.epa.gov/pfas/basic-information-pfas_.html.
USEPA. 2018b. Fact Sheet: 2010/2015 PFOA Stewardship Program.
Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/fact-sheet-20102015-pfoa-stewardship-program. Last updated August 9, 2018.
USEPA. 2018c. Technologies and Costs for Treating Perchlorate-
Contaminated Waters. EPA 816-R-19-005. Available on the internet at:
https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P101340O.PDF?Dockey=P101340O.PDF.
USEPA. 2019a. Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook:
Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids. EPA 600-R-18-259F.
Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-02/documents/efh_-_chapter_3_update.pdf.
USEPA. 2019b. Method 533: Determination of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl
Substances in Drinking Water by Isotope Dilution Anion Exchange
Solid Phase Extraction and Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass
Spectrometry. EPA 815-B-19-020. Available on the internet at:
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-12/documents/method-533-815b19020.pdf.
USEPA. 2019c. Best Available Technologies and Small System
Compliance Technologies for Perchlorate in Drinking Water. EPA 816-
R-19-006.
USEPA. 2019d. Supplemental Environmental Assessment for Proposed
Revisions to Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the
Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category (EA).
USEPA. 2019e. EJSCREEN Technical Documentation. Available on the
internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-04/documents/ejscreen_technical_document.pdf.
USEPA. 2020a. Determination of Selected Per- and Polyfluorinated
Alkyl Substances in Drinking Water by Solid Phase Extraction and
Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). EPA 600-
R-20-006, Version 2.0, March 2020. Available on the internet at:
https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?Lab=NERL&dirEntryId=348508.
USEPA, 2020b. Interim Guidance on the Destruction and Disposal of
Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Materials
Containing Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances. EPA-HQ-
OLEM-2020-0527-0002. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-11/epa-hq-olem-2020-0527-0002_content.pdf.
USEPA. 2021a. Human Health Toxicity Values for Perfluorobutane
Sulfonic Acid (CASRN 375-73-5) and Related Compound Potassium
Perfluorobutane Sulfonate (CASRN 29420-49-3). EPA/600/R-20/345F.
Available on the internet at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=350888.
USEPA. 2021b. Human Health Toxicity Values for Hexafluoropropylene
Oxide (HFPO) Dimer Acid and Its Ammonium Salt (CASRN 13252-13-6 and
CASRN 62037-80-3). Also Known as ``GenX Chemicals.'' EPA/822/R-21/
010. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-10/genx-chemicals-toxicity-assessment_tech-edited_oct-21-508.pdf.
USEPA. 2021c. Assessing and Managing Chemicals under TSCA: Fact
Sheet PFOA Stewardship Program. https://www.epa.gov/assessing-andmanaging-chemicals-under-tsca/fact-sheet-20102015-pfoa-stewardship-program.
USEPA. 2021d. Announcement of Final Regulatory Determinations for
Contaminants on the Fourth Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate
List. Federal Register. 86 FR 12272, March 3, 2021.
USEPA. 2021e. Proposed Approaches to the Derivation of a Draft
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for Perfluorooctanoic Acid
(PFOA)(CASRN 335-67-1) in Drinking Water. EPA 822-D-21-001.
Available on the internet at: https://sab.epa.gov/ords/sab/f?p=100:18:16490947993:::RP,18:P18_ID:2601.
USEPA. 2021f. Proposed Approaches to the Derivation of a Draft
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid
(PFOS) (CASRN 1763-23-1) in Drinking Water. EPA 822-D-21-002.
Available on the internet at: https://sab.epa.gov/ords/sab/f?p=100:18:16490947993:::RP,18:P18_ID:2601.
USEPA. 2021g. Work Breakdown Structure-Based Cost Model for Granular
Activated Carbon Drinking Water Treatment. Available on the internet
at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-03/gac-documentation-.pdf_0.pdf.
USEPA. 2021h. Work Breakdown Structure-Based Cost Model for Ion
Exchange Treatment of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in
Drinking Water.
USEPA. 2021i. Work Breakdown Structure-Based Cost Model for Reverse
Osmosis/Nanofiltration Drinking Water Treatment. Available on the
internet at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-03/ronf-documentation-.pdf.pdf.
USEPA. 2021j. Work Breakdown Structure-Based Cost Model for
Nontreatment Options for Drinking Water Compliance. Available on the
internet at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-07/documents/wbs-nontreatment-documentation-june-2019.pdf.

USEPA. 2021k. IRIS Toxicological Review of Perfluorobutanoic Acid
(PFBA) and Related Salts (Public Comment and External Review Draft,
2021). EPA/635/R-20/424. Retrieved from https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/recordisplay.cfm?deid=350051.
USEPA. 2022a. Transmittal of the Science Advisory Board Report
titled, ``Review of EPA's Analyses to Support EPA's National Primary
Drinking Water Rulemaking for PFAS.'' EPA-22-008. Available on the
internet at: https://sab.epa.gov/ords/sab/f?p=114:12:15255596377846.
USEPA. 2022b. Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 5--Final.
Federal Register. 87 FR 68060, November 14, 2022.
USEPA. 2022c. PFAS Strategic Roadmap: EPA's Commitments to Action
2021-2024. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-strategic-roadmap-epas-commitments-action-2021-2024.
USEPA. 2022d. Drinking Water Health Advisory: Hexafluoropropylene
Oxide (HFPO) Dimer Acid (CASRN 13252-13-6) and HFPO Dimer Acid
Ammonium Salt (CASRN 62037-80-3), Also Known as ``GenX Chemicals.''
EPA/822/R-22/005. Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-06/drinking-water-genx-2022.pdf.
USEPA. 2022e. Drinking Water Health Advisory: Perfluorobutane
Sulfonic Acid (CASRN 375-73-5) and Related Compound Potassium
Perfluorobutane Sulfonate (CASRN 29420-49-3). EPA/822/R-22/006.
Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-06/drinking-water-pfbs-2022.pdf.
USEPA. 2022f. ORD Staff Handbook for Developing IRIS Assessments.
EPA 600/R-22/268. Available on the internet at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/recordisplay.cfm?deid=356370.
USEPA. 2022g. Fifth Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule.
Available on the internet at: https://www.epa.gov/dwucmr/fifth-unregulated-contaminant-monitoring-rule.
USEPA, 2022h. IRIS Toxicological Review of Perfluorohexanoic Acid
(PFHxA) and Related Salts (Public Comment and External Review
Draft). EPA/635/R-21/312a. Retrieved from https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/recordisplay.cfm?deid=352767.
USEPA. 2023a. Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) Summary Document
for a Mixture of Four Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS):
GenX Chemicals, PFBS, PFNA and PFHxS. EPA-822-P-23-004.
USEPA. 2023b. Public Comment Draft--Toxicity Assessment and Proposed
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) for Perfluorooctanoic Acid
(PFOA) (CASRN 335-67-1) in Drinking Water. EPA-822-P-23-005.
USEPA. 2023c. Public Comment Draft--Toxicity Assessment and Proposed
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) for Perfluorooctane Sulfonic
Acid (PFOS) (CASRN 1763-23-1) in Drinking Water. EPA-822-P-23-007.
USEPA. 2023d. Framework for Estimating Noncancer Health Risks
Associated with Mixtures of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
(PFAS). EPA-822-P-23-003.
USEPA. 2023e. PFAS Occurrence and Contaminant Background Support
Document. EPA-822-P-23-010.
USEPA. 2023f. EPA Response to Final Science Advisory Board
Recommendations (August 2022) on Four Draft Support Documents for
the EPA's Proposed PFAS National Primary Drinking Water Regulation.
EPA-822-D-23-001.
USEPA. 2023g. Best Available Technologies and Small System
Compliance Technologies Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)
in Drinking Water. EPA-822-P-23-009.
USEPA. 2023h. Technologies and Costs for Removing Per- and
Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Drinking Water. EPA-822-P-23-011.
USEPA. 2023i. Appendix: Economic Analysis of the Proposed National
Primary Drinking Water Regulation for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl
Substances. EPA-822-P-23-002.
USEPA. 2023j. Economic Analysis of the Proposed National Primary
Drinking Water Regulation for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances.
EPA-822-P-23-001.
USEPA. 2023k. Public Comment Draft--Appendix: Toxicity Assessment
and Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for Perfluorooctane
Sulfonic acid (PFOS) (CASRN 1763-23-1) in Drinking Water.
Washington, DC EPA-822-P-23-008.
USEPA. 2023l. Public Comment Draft--Appendix: Toxicity Assessment
and Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for Perfluorooctanoic
Acid (PFOA) (CASRN 335-67-1) in Drinking Water. Washington, DC EPA-
822-P23-006.
USEPA. 2023m. EPA Response to Letter of Peer Review for Disinfectant
Byproduct Reduction as a Result of Granular Activated Carbon
Treatment for PFOA and PFOS in Drinking Water: Benefits Analysis
Related to Bladder Cancer. EPA-815-B23-001.
Valvi, D., Oulhote, Y., Weihe, P., Dalg[aring]rd, C., Bjerve, K.S.,
Steuerwald, U., and Grandjean, P. 2017. Gestational Diabetes and
Offspring Birth Size at Elevated Environmental Pollutant Exposures.
Environment International, 107:205-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.07.016.
Verner, M.A., Loccisano, A.E., Morken, N.H., Yoon, M., Wu, H.,
McDougall, R., Maisonet, M., Marcus, M., Kishi, R., Miyashita, C.,
Chen., M.-H, Hsieh, W.-S, Andersen, M.E., Clewell III, H.J., and
Longnecker, M.P. 2015. Associations of Perfluoroalkyl Substances
(PFAS) with Lower Birth Weight: An Evaluation of Potential
Confounding by Glomerular Filtration Rate Using a Physiologically
Based Pharmacokinetic Model (PBPK). Environmental Health
Perspectives, 123(12):1317-1324. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408837.
Vieira, V.M., Hoffman, K., Shin, H., Weinberg, J.M., Webster, T.F.,
and Fletcher, T. 2013. Perfluorooctanoic Acid Exposure and Cancer
Outcomes in a Contaminated Community: A Geographic Analysis.
Environmental Health Perspectives, 121(3):318-323. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205829.
Villanueva, C.M., Cantor, K.P., Cordier, S., Jaakkola, J.J.K., King,
W.D., Lynch, C.F., Porru, S., and Kogevinas, M. 2004. Disinfection
Byproducts and Bladder Cancer: a Pooled Analysis. Epidemiology,
15(3):357-367. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000121380.02594.fc.
Villanueva, C.M., Cantor, K.P., King, W.D., Jaakkola, J.J., Cordier,
S., Lynch, C.F., Porru, S., and Kogevinas, M. 2006. Total and
Specific Fluid Consumption as Determinants of Bladder Cancer Risk.
International Journal of Cancer, 118(8):2040-2047. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.21587.
Villanueva, C.M., Cantor, K.P., Grimalt, J.O., Malats, N.,
Silverman, D., Tardon, A., Garcia-Closas, R., Serra, C., Carrato.,
A., Castano-Vinyals, G., Marcos, R., Rothman, N., Real, F.X.,
Dosemeci, M., and Kogevinas, M. 2007. Bladder Cancer and Exposure to
Water Disinfection By-products through Ingestion, Bathing,
Showering, and Swimming in Pools. American Journal of Epidemiology,
156(2):148-156. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj364.
Wang, Y., Adgent, M., Su, P.-H., Chen, H.-Y., Chen, P.-C., Hsiung,
C. A., and Wang, S.-L. 2016. Prenatal exposure to
perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) and fetal and postnatal growth in
the Taiwan Maternal and Infant Cohort Study. Environmental health
perspectives, 124(11), 1794-1800.
Wang, L., Vacs Renwick, D., and Regli, S. 2019. Re-assessing effects
of bromide and granular activated carbon on disinfection byproduct
formation. AWWA Water Science, 1(4).
Waterfield, G., Rogers, M., Grandjean, P., Auffhammer, M., and
Sunding, D. 2020. Reducing Exposure to High Levels of Perfluorinated
Compounds in Drinking Water Improves Reproductive Outcomes: Evidence
from an Intervention in Minnesota. Environmental Health, 19:1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-020-00591-0.
Weisman, R.J., Heinrich, A., Letkiewicz, F., Messner, M., Studer,
K., Wang, L., and Regli, S. 2022. Estimating National Exposures and
Potential Bladder Cancer Cases Associated with Chlorination DBPs in
US Drinking Water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 130(8):087002.
https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9985.
Westreich, P., Mimna, R., Brewer, J., and Forrester, F. 2018. The
Removal of Short[hyphen]chain and Long[hyphen]chain Perfluoroalkyl
Acids and Sulfonates via Granular Activated Carbons: A Comparative
Column Study. Remediation, 29(1)19-26. https://doi.org/10.1002/rem.21579.
Wikstr[ouml]m, S., Lin, P.I., Lindh, C.H., Shu, H., and Bornehag,
C.G. 2020. Maternal

Serum Levels of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Early Pregnancy and
Offspring Birth Weight. Pediatric Research, 87(6):1093-1099. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-019-0720-1.
Windham, G., and Fenster, L. 2008. Environmental Contaminants and
pregnancy Outcomes. Fertility and Sterility, 89(2):e111-e116.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.12.041.
Woodard, S., Berry, J., and Newman, B. 2017. Ion Exchange Resin for
PFAS Removal and Pilot Test Comparison to GAC. Remediation, 27:19-
27. https://doi.org/10.1002/rem.21515.
Yan, B., Munoz, G., Sauv[eacute], S., and Liu, J. 2020. Molecular
Mechanisms of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances on a Modified
Clay: a Combined Experimental and Molecular Simulation Study. Water
Research, 184(2020):116166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116166.
Yao, Q., Gao, Y., Zhang, Y., Qin, K., Liew, Z., and Tian, Y. 2021.
Associations of Paternal and Maternal Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl
Substances Exposure with Cord Serum Reproductive Hormones, Placental
Steroidogenic Enzyme and Birth Weight. Chemosphere, 285:131521.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131521.
Yapsakli, K., and [Ccedil]e[ccedil]en, F. 2010. Effect of Type of
Granular Activated Carbon on DOC Biodegradation in Biological
Activated Carbon Filters. Process Biochemistry, 45(3):355-362.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2009.10.005.
Yu, J., Lv, L., Lan P., Zhang, S., Pan, B., and Zhang, W. 2012.
Effect of Effluent Organic atter on the Adsorption of Perfluorinated
Compounds onto Activated Carbon. Journal of Hazardous Materials,
225:99-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.073.
Zaggia, A., Conte, L., Falletti, L., Fant, M., and Chiorboli, A.
2016. Use of Strong Anion Exchange Resins for the Removal of
Perfluoroalkylated Substances from Contaminated Drinking Water in
Batch and Continuous Pilot Plants. Water Research, 91:137-146.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.12.039.
Zeng, C., Atkinson, A., Sharma, N., Ashani, H., Hjelmstad, A.,
Venkatesh, K., and Westerhoff, P. 2020. Removing Per-and
Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Groundwaters using Activated Carbon
and Ion Exchange Resin Packed Columns. AWWA Water Science,
2(1):e1172. https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1172.

List of Subjects

40 CFR Part 141

    Environmental protection, Indians--lands, Intergovernmental
relations, National Primary Drinking Water Regulation, PFAS, Monitoring
and analytical requirements, Reporting and recordkeeping requirements,
Water supply, Incorporation by reference.

40 CFR Part 142

    Environmental protection, Administrative practice and procedure,
Indians--lands, Intergovernmental relations, National Primary Drinking
Water Regulation, PFAS, Monitoring and analytical requirements,
Reporting and recordkeeping requirements, Water supply.

Michael S. Regan,
Administrator.

    For the reasons stated in the preamble, the Environmental
Protection Agency proposes to amend 40 CFR parts 141 and 142 as
follows:

PART 141--NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS

0
1. The authority citation for part 141 continues to read as follows:

    Authority:  42 U.S.C. 300f, 300g-1, 300g-2, 300g-3, 300g-4,
300g-5, 300g-6, 300j-4, 300j-9, and 300j-11.

0
2. Amend Sec.  141.2 by adding in alphabetical order definitions for
``Hazard Index (HI)'', ``Hazard Quotient (HQ)'', ``Health-based water
concentration (HBWC)'', ``HFPO-DA or GenX chemicals'', ``PFBS'',
``PFHxS'', ``PFNA'', ``PFOA'', and ``PFOS'' to read as follows:

Sec.  141.2  Definitions.

* * * * *
    Hazard index (HI) is the sum of component hazard quotients (HQs),
which are calculated by dividing the measured regulated PFAS component
contaminant concentration in water (e.g., expressed as ppt or ng/l) by
the associated Health-Based Water Concentration (e.g., HBWC expressed
as ppt). For PFAS, a mixture HI greater than 1.0 (unitless) is an
exceedance of the MCL.
    Hazard quotient (HQ) are the ratio of potential exposure to a
substance and the level at which no health effects are expected.
    Health-based water concentration (HBWC) are levels protective of
health effects over a lifetime of exposure, including sensitive
populations and life stages.
    HFPO-DA or GenX chemicals means Chemical Abstract Service
registration number 122499-17-6, chemical formula C6F11O3-,
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry preferred name
2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)propanoate, along with its
conjugate acid and any salts, derivatives, isomers or combinations
thereof.
* * * * *
    PFBS means Chemical Abstract Service registration number 45187-15-
3, chemical formula C4F9SO3-, perfluorobutane sulfonate, along with its
conjugate acid and any salts, derivatives, isomers or combinations
thereof.
    PFHxS means Chemical Abstract Service registration number 108427-
53-8, chemical formula C6F13SO3-, perfluorohexane sulfonate, along with
its conjugate acid and any salts, derivatives, isomers or combinations
thereof.
    PFNA means Chemical Abstract Service registration number 72007-68-
2, chemical formula C9F17O2-, perfluorononanoate, along with its
conjugate acid and any salts, derivatives, isomers or combinations
thereof.
    PFOA means Chemical Abstract Service registration number 45285-51-
6, chemical formula C8F15CO2-, perfluorooctanoate, along with its
conjugate acid and any salts, derivatives, isomers or combinations
thereof.
    PFOS means Chemical Abstract Service registration number 45298-90-
6, chemical formula C8F17SO3-, perfluorooctanesulfonate, along with its
conjugate acid and any salts, derivatives, isomers or combinations
thereof.
* * * * *
0
3. Amend Sec.  141.6 by revising paragraph (a) and adding paragraph (l)
to read as follows:

Sec.  141.6  Effective dates.

    (a) Except as provided in paragraphs (b) through (1) of this
section the regulations set forth in this part shall take effect on
June 24, 1977.
* * * * *
    (l) The regulations contained in the revision to Sec. Sec.  141.50,
141.60, 141.61, 141.154, 141.151 through 141.155; and 141.201 through
141.211 are effective for the purposes of compliance on [DATE THREE
YEARS AFTER DATE OF PUBLICATION OF FINAL RULE IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER]
0
4. Amend Sec.  141.28 by revising paragraph (a) to read as follows:

Sec.  141.28  Certified laboratories.

    (a) For the purpose of determining compliance with Sec.  141.21
through 141.27, 141.30, 141.40, 141.74, 141.89, 141.402, and 141.900
through 141.905, samples may be considered only if they have been
analyzed by a laboratory certified by the State except that
measurements of alkalinity, disinfectant residual, orthophosphate, pH,
silica, temperature, and turbidity may be performed by any person
acceptable to the State.
* * * * *

0
5. Amend Sec.  141.50 by adding paragraphs (a)(24) and (25) and in the
table in paragraph (b), revising the heading for the second column and
adding an entry for ``(34)'' and footnote 1 to read as follows:

Sec.  141.50  Maximum contaminant level goals for organic contaminants.

    (a) * * *
    (24) PFOA
    (25) PFOS
    (b) * * *

------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         MCLG in mg/l (unless otherwise
             Contaminant                             noted)
------------------------------------------------------------------------

                              * * * * * * *
(34) Hazard Index PFAS (PFNA, HFPO-    1.0 (unitless).\1\
 DA, PFHxS, and PFBS).
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The PFAS Mixture HI MCLG is the sum of component hazard quotients
  (HQs), which are calculated by dividing the measured component PFAS
  concentration in water (e.g., expressed as ppt or ng/l) by the
  corresponding contaminant's Health-Based Water Concentration (e.g.,
  HBWC expressed as ppt). The HBWC for PFHxS is 9.0 ppt; the HBWC for
  HFPO-DA is 10.0 ppt; the HBWC for PFNA is 10 ppt; the HBWC for PFBS is
  2000.0 ppt. A PFAS Mixture HI MCLG greater than 1.0 (unitless)
  indicates an exceedance of the health protective level and indicates
  potential human health risk from the PFAS mixture in drinking water.
  HI MCLG = ([GenXwater]/[10 ppt]) + ([PFBSwater]/[2000 ppt]) +
  ([PFNAwater]/[10 ppt]]) + ([PFHxSwater]/[9.0 ppt]).

0
6. Amend Sec.  141.60 by adding paragraph (a)(4) to read as follows:

Sec.  141.60  Effective dates.

    (a) * * *
    (4) The effective date for paragraphs (c)(34) through (36) is [DATE
OF PUBLICATION OF FINAL RULE IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER].
* * * * *
0
7. Amend Sec.  141.61:
0
a. In the table in paragraph (b) by adding entries for ``45285-51-6'',
``45298-90-6'', and ``108427-53-8; 122499-17-6; 72007-68-2; 45187-15-
3'' at the end of the table; and
0
b. In the table in paragraph (c) by revising the heading for the third
column, adding entries for ``(34)'', ``(35)'', and ``(36)'' at the end
of the table, and adding footnote 1.
    The additions read as follows:

Sec.  141.61  Maximum contaminant levels for organic contaminants.

    (b) * * *

                            BAT for Organic Contaminants in Sec.   141.61 (a) and (c)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            CAS. No.                  Contaminant            GAC                PTA                   OX
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                                  * * * * * * *
45285-51-6......................  PFOA...............               X
45298-90-6......................  PFOS...............               X
108427-53-8; 122499-17-6; 72007-  Hazard Index PFAS                 X
 68-2; 45187-15-3.                 (PFNA, HFPO-DA,
                                   PFHxS, and PFBS.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

    (c) * * *

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                CAS. No.                            Contaminant             MCL (mg/L) (unless otherwise noted)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                                  * * * * * * *
(34) 45285-51-6.........................  PFOA...........................  0.0000040.
(35) 45298-90-6.........................  PFOS...........................  0.0000040.
(36) 108427-53-8; 122499-17-6; 72007-68-  Hazard Index PFAS (PFNA, HFPO-   1.0 (unitless).\1\
 2; 45187-15-3.                            DA, PFHxS, and PFBS.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The PFAS Mixture HI MCL is the sum of component hazard quotients (HQs), which are calculated by dividing the
  measured component PFAS concentration in water (e.g., expressed as ppt) by the relevant Health-Based Water
  Concentration (e.g., HBWC expressed as ppt. The HBWC for PFHxS is 9.0 ppt; the HBWC for HFPO-DA is 10.0 ppt;
  the HBWC for PFNA is 10.0 ppt the HBWC for PFBS is 2000.0 ppt. A PFAS Mixture HI MCL greater than 1.0 is an
  MCL violation. HI MCL = ([GenXwater]/[10 ppt]) + ([PFBSwater]/[2000 ppt]) + ([PFNAwater]/[10 ppt]) +
  ([PFHxSwater]/[9.0 ppt]).

0
8. Amend Sec.  141.151 by revising paragraph (d) to read as follows:

Sec.  141.151  Purpose and applicability of this subpart

* * * * *
    (d) For the purpose of this subpart, detected means: at or above
the levels prescribed by Sec.  141.23(a)(4) for inorganic contaminants,
at or above the levels prescribed by Sec.  141.24(f)(7) for the
contaminants listed in Sec.  141.61(a), at or above the levels
prescribed by Sec.  141.24(h)(18) for the contaminants listed in Sec.
141.61(c), at or above the levels prescribed by Sec.  141.131(b)(2)(iv)
for the contaminants or contaminant groups listed in Sec.  141.64, at
or above the levels prescribed by Sec.  141.25(c) for radioactive
contaminants, and at or above the levels prescribed Sec.  141.902(a)(9)
for PFAS listed in Sec.  141.61(c).
* * * * *

0
9. Amend Sec.  141.154 by adding paragraph (g) to read as follows:

Sec.  141.154  Required additional health information.

* * * * *
    (g) Community water systems that detect any PFAS above the MCL in
Sec.  141.61(c), as monitored and calculated under the provisions of
subpart Z of this part must include health effects language for PFAS
prescribed by appendix A to subpart O of this part.
0
10. Amend appendix A to subpart O by adding entries for ``PFOA'',
``PFOS'', and ``Hazard Index PFAS (PFHxS, HFPO-DA, PFNA, and PFBS)'' at
the end of the table and adding footnote 2 immediately after footnote 1
to read as follows:

Appendix A to Subpart O of Part 141--Regulated Contaminants

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   Traditional     To convert for                                            Major sources in         Health effects
      Contaminant (units)          MCL in mg/L    CCR, multiply by    MCL in CCR units        MCLG            drinking water             language
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                                                      * * * * * * *
PFOA...........................       0.0000040  1,000,000.........  4.0 ppt...........               0  Discharge from           Some people who drink
                                                                                manufacturing and        water containing PFOA
                                                                                industrial chemical      in excess of the MCL
                                                                                facilities, and          could develop immune
                                                                                certain firefighting     health effects, fetal
                                                                                activities.              growth effects after
                                                                                exposure during
                                                                                pregnancy, certain
                                                                                types of cancers, or
                                                                                an increased risk of
                                                                                cardiovascular
                                                                                disease or liver
                                                                                disease.
PFOS...........................       0.0000040  1,000,000.........  4.0 ppt...........               0  Discharge from           Some people, including
                                                                                manufacturing and        children, who drink
                                                                                industrial chemical      water containing PFOS
                                                                                facilities, and          in excess of the MCL
                                                                                certain firefighting     could develop immune
                                                                                activities.              health effects, fetal
                                                                                growth effects after
                                                                                exposure during
                                                                                pregnancy, certain
                                                                                types of cancers, or
                                                                                an increased risk of
                                                                                cardiovascular
                                                                                disease or liver
                                                                                disease.
Hazard Index PFAS (PFHxS, HFPO-  1.0 (unitless)  No conversion.....  No conversion.....         \2\ 1.0  Discharge from           Some people who drink
 DA, PFNA, and PFBS).                                                                                manufacturing and        water containing
                                                                                industrial chemical      PFHxS, HFPO-DA, PFNA,
                                                                                facilities, and          and PFBS in excess of
                                                                                certain firefighting     the Hazard Index MCL
                                                                                activities.              could develop
                                                                                thyroid, liver, or
                                                                                developmental health
                                                                                effects.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 * * * * * * *
\2\ Subpart A of Sec.   141.2.

* * * * *
0
11. Amend appendix A to subpart Q under the Contaminant heading ``D.
Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs)'' by adding entries for ``31'',
``32'', and ``33'' in numerical to read as follows:

Appendix A to Subpart Q of Part 141--NPDWR Violations and Other
Situations Requiring Public Notice \1\

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    MCL/MRDL/TT violations \2\    Monitoring & testing procedure
                                                 --------------------------------           violations
                                                                                -------------------------------
                   Contaminant                    Tier of public                  Tier of public
                                                      notice         Citation         notice         Citation
                                                     required                        required
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                                  * * * * * * *
31..............................................               2       141.61(c)               3          141.XX
32..............................................               2       141.61(c)               3          141.XX
33..............................................               2       141.61(c)               3          141.XX

                                                  * * * * * * *
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 * * * * * * *
\1\ Violations and other situations not listed in this table (e.g., failure to prepare Consumer Confidence
  Reports), do not require notice, unless otherwise determined by the primacy agency. Primacy agencies may, at
  their option, also require a more stringent public notice tier (e.g., Tier 1 instead of Tier 2 or Tier 2
  instead of Tier 3) for specific violations and situations listed in this appendix, as authorized under Sec.
  141.202(a) and Sec.   141.203(a).
\2\ MCL--Maximum contaminant level, MRDL--Maximum residual disinfectant level, TT--Treatment technique.

* * * * *
0
12. Amend appendix B to subpart Q by adding entries for ``PFOA'',
``PFOS'', and ``Hazard Index PFAS (PFHxS, HFPO-DA, PFNA, and PFBS)'' at
the end of the table under new heading ``J. PFAS'' and adding footnote
24 to read as follows:

Appendix B to Subpart Q of Part 141--Standard Health Effects Language
for Public Notification

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                Standard health effects
            Contaminant                   MCLG \1\ mg/L           MCL \2\ mg/L           language for public
                                                                                notification
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                                  * * * * * * *
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     J. PFAS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PFOA...............................  0.....................  0.0000040.............  Some people, including
                                                                                children, who drink water
                                                                                containing PFOA in excess
                                                                                of the MCL could develop
                                                                                immune health effects,
                                                                                fetal growth effects after
                                                                                exposure during pregnancy,
                                                                                certain types of cancers,
                                                                                or an increased risk of
                                                                                cardiovascular disease or
                                                                                liver disease.
PFOS...............................  0.....................  0.0000040.............  Some people, including
                                                                                children, who drink water
                                                                                containing PFOS in excess
                                                                                of the MCL could develop
                                                                                immune health effects,
                                                                                fetal growth effects after
                                                                                exposure during pregnancy,
                                                                                certain types of cancers,
                                                                                or an increased risk of
                                                                                cardiovascular disease or
                                                                                liver disease.
Hazard Index PFAS (PFHxS, HFPO-DA,   1.0 (unitless)........  1.0 (unitless) \24\...  Some people who drink water
 PFNA, and PFBS).                                                                     containing PFHxS, HFPO-DA,
                                                                                PFNA, and PFBS in excess
                                                                                of the Hazard Index MCL
                                                                                could develop thyroid,
                                                                                liver, or developmental
                                                                                health effects.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ MCLG--Maximum contaminant level goal.
\2\ MCL--Maximum contaminant level.
 * * * * * * *
\24\ Subpart A of Sec.   141.2.
 * * * * * * *

0
13. Amend appendix C to subpart Q by adding in alphabetical order the
acronyms ``HI'' and ``PFAS'' to read as follows:

Appendix C to Subpart Q of Part 141--List of Acronyms Used in Public
Notification Regulation

* * * * *
HI Hazard Index
* * * * *
PFAS Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
* * * * *
0
14. Subpart Z is added to read as follows:

Subpart Z--Control of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

Sec.
141.900 General requirements.
141.901 Analytical requirements.
141.902 Monitoring requirements.
141.903 Compliance requirements.
141.904 Reporting and recordkeeping requirements.
141.905 Violations.

Subpart Z--Control of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

Sec.  141.900  General requirements.

    (a) The requirements of this subpart constitute national primary
drinking water regulations. These regulations establish criteria under
which control of certain PFAS is required for community water systems
(CWS) and non-transient, non-community water systems (NTNCWS). Each CWS
and NTNCWS must comply with the maximum contaminant levels for certain
PFAS as outlined in this subpart.
    (b) Compliance dates.
    (c) CWS and NTNCWS, unless otherwise noted, must comply with the
requirement of this subpart.

Sec.  141.901  Analytical requirements.

    (a) General. (1) Systems must use only the analytical methods
specified in this section to demonstrate compliance with the
requirement of this subpart.
    (2) The following documents are incorporated by reference. This
incorporation by reference was approved by the Director of the Federal
Register in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51. Copies
may be inspected at EPA's Drinking Water Docket, 1301 Constitution
Avenue NW, EPA West, Room 3334, Washington, DC 20460 (Telephone: 202-
566-2426); or at the National Archives and Records Administration
(NARA). For information on the availability of this material at NARA,
call<PHONE_NUMBER>, or go to: http://www.archives.gov/federal_register/code_of_federal_regulations/ibr_locations.html.
    (i) EPA method 533: Determination of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl
Substances in Drinking Water by Isotope Dilution Anion Exchange Solid
Phase Extraction and Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry,
(December 2019, 815-B-19-020). https://www.epa.gov/dwanalyticalmethods/method-533-determination-and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-drinking-water-isotope;
    (ii) Method 537.1: Determination of Selected Per- and
Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances in Drinking Water by Solid Phase
Extraction and Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS/
MS) (November 2018, EPA/600/R-18/352). https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_Report.cfm?dirEntryId=343042&Lab=NERL.
    (b) PFAS--(1) Analytical methods. Systems must measure regulated
PFAS by the methods listed in the following table:

                       Table 1 to Paragraph (b)(1)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       Contaminant                          EPA method
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS).....................      533, 537.1
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)...........................      533, 537.1
Hazard Index PFAS (PFNA, HFPO-DA, PFHxS, and PFBS)......      533, 537.1
------------------------------------------------------------------------

    (2) Laboratory certification. Analyses under this section for
regulated PFAS must be conducted by laboratories that have received
certification by the State.
    (i) Beginning [DATE OF PUBLICATION OF FINAL RULE IN THE FEDERAL
REGISTER], report quantitative data for concentrations at least as low
as the ones listed in the following table for all PFAS samples analyzed
for compliance with Sec.  141.902 (Monitoring Requirements).
    (ii) [Reserved]

    (iii) To receive certification to conduct analyses for the
regulated PFAS contaminants, the laboratory must:
    (A) Analyze Performance Evaluation (PE) samples that are acceptable
to the State at least once during each consecutive 12-month period by
each method for which the laboratory desires certification.
    (B) Beginning [DATE OF PUBLICATION OF FINAL RULE IN THE FEDERAL
REGISTER], the laboratory must achieve quantitative results on the PE
sample analyses that are within the following acceptance limits:

                   Table 2 to Paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            Acceptance
                                                              limits
                       Contaminant                          (percent of
                                                            true value)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS).....................          70-130
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)...........................          70-130
Hazard Index PFAS--PFNA.................................          70-130
Hazard Index PFAS--HFPO-DA..............................          70-130
Hazard Index PFAS--PFHxS................................          70-130
Hazard Index PFAS--PFBS.................................          70-130
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sec.  141.XX.  Monitoring requirements.

    (a) General requirements. (1) Systems must take all samples during
normal operating conditions at all entry points to the distribution
system.
    (2) If the system draws water from more than one source and the
sources are combined before distribution, the system must sample at an
entry point to the distribution system during periods of representative
operating conditions.
    (3) Failure to monitor in accordance with the monitoring
requirements required under paragraph (b) of this section is a
monitoring violation.
    (4) If a system fails to collect the required number of samples,
compliance will be based on the total number of samples collected.
    (5) Systems must only use data collected under the provisions of
this subpart to qualify for reduced monitoring.
    (6) All new systems that begin operation after, or systems that use
a new source of water after, [DATE OF PUBLICATION OF FINAL RULE IN THE
FEDERAL REGISTER] must demonstrate compliance with the MCLs within a
period of time specified by the State. The system must also comply with
initial sampling frequencies required by the State to ensure that the
system can demonstrate compliance with the MCLs. Routine and increased
monitoring frequencies must be conducted in accordance with the
requirements in this section.
    (7) For purposes of this section, the trigger level is defined as
1.3 ppt for PFOA and PFOS and a Hazard Index of 0.33 for PFAS.
    (8) Based on initial monitoring results, for each sampling point at
which a contaminant listed in Sec.  141.61(c) is detected at a level
greater than or equal to the trigger level, the system must monitor
quarterly for all regulated PFAS beginning in the next quarter, in
accordance with Sec.  141.902(a).
    (9) For purposes of this section, a reportable detection means at
or above one-third of the levels described in the table outlined in
Sec.  141.903(f)(1)(i)(3).
    (b) Monitoring requirements for PFAS--(1) Initial compliance
period. (i) Groundwater CWS and NTNCWS serving greater than 10,000 and
all surface water CWS and NTNCWS must take four consecutive quarterly
samples for each contaminant listed in Sec.  141.61(c).
    (ii) All groundwater CWS and NTNCWS serving 10,000 or fewer shall
take two samples for each contaminant listed in 141.61(c) at least
ninety days apart within a 12-month period.
    (iii) All groundwater under the direct influence (GWUDI) CWS and
NTNCWS shall follow the surface water CWS and NTNCWS monitoring
schedule based on system size, though a State may require more frequent
monitoring on a system-specific basis.
    (iv) Systems must monitor at a frequency indicated in the following
table:

                                         Table 1 to Paragraph (b)(1)(iv)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             Type of system                 Minimum monitoring frequency               Sample location
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Groundwater CWS and NTNCWS serving        Four consecutive quarters of      EPTDS.
 greater than 10,000 persons and all       samples per entry point to the
 surface water CWS and NTNCWS.             distribution system (EPTDS).
                                           Samples must be taken at least
                                           ninety days apart.
Groundwater CWS and NTNCWS serving        In a consecutive 12-month         EPTDS.
 10,000 or fewer persons.                  period, two samples per each
                                           EPTDS. Samples must be acquired
                                           at least ninety days apart.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

    (v) To satisfy initial compliance period monitoring requirements a
State may accept data that has been previously acquired by a water
system to count toward the initial monitoring requirements listed in
table 1 to paragraph (b)(1)(iv) of this section. Such data may only be
used if it was collected in accordance with Sec.  141.40 and that such
samples were collected starting on or after January 1, 2023. Data
collected between January 1, 2019, and December 31, 2022, may also be
used if it is below the rule trigger level of 1.3 ppt for PFOA and PFOS
and below an HI of 0.33.
    (vi) If systems have multiple years of data, the most recent data
must be used. If a system has fewer than the number of samples required
for initial monitoring as listed in the table, then all surface water
systems, GWUDI systems, and groundwater systems serving greater than
10,000 must collect at least one sample in each quarter of a calendar
year that was not acquired, and groundwater systems serving 10,000 or
fewer must collect one sample in a different quarter of the calendar
year than the one in which the previous sample was acquired. This must
be completed by [DATE THREE YEARS AFTER DATE OF PUBLICATION OF FINAL
RULE IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER].
    (2) Compliance monitoring. (i) Based on initial monitoring results,
or on compliance monitoring results after the initial monitoring
period, systems may reduce monitoring at each sampling point at which
the rule trigger level was not met or exceeded in accordance with the
following table, except as otherwise provided by the State.

                     Table 2 to Paragraph (b)(2)(i)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 You may reduce
     If you are a . . .       monitoring if your .      To this level
                                       . .
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CWS and NTNCWS serving more   Averages from         In a consecutive 12-
 than 3,300 persons.           initial monitoring    month period, two
                               period or             samples per each
                               compliance            EPTDS during each
                               monitoring running    three-year
                               annual averages for   compliance period.
                               PFOA and PFOS are     Samples must be
                               each <1.3 ppt and     acquired at least
                               HI <0.33.             ninety days apart.
CWS and NTNCWS serving 3,300  Averages from         One sample at each
 or fewer persons.             initial monitoring    EPTDS during each
                               period or             three-year
                               compliance            compliance period
                               monitoring running    for a total of one
                               annual averages for   sample per three-
                               PFOA and PFOS are     year compliance
                               each <1.3 ppt and     period.
                               HI <0.33.
------------------------------------------------------------------------

    (ii) If a system is monitoring less frequently than quarterly and
if a contaminant listed in Sec.  141.61(c) is detected at a level
exceeding the trigger level of 1.3 ppt for either PFOS or PFOA, or a
Hazard Index of 0.33 for PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA, and PFBS in any sample,
then the system must monitor quarterly beginning in the next quarter at
each sampling point which resulted in a detection in accordance with
Sec.  141.902(a). The triggering sample must be used as the first
quarter of monitoring for the running annual average calculation.
    (iii) Systems that are at or exceed the trigger level of 1.3 ppt
for either PFOS or PFOA, or a Hazard Index of 0.33 for PFNA, PFHxS,
HFPO-DA, and PFBS must conduct quarterly monitoring for regulated PFAS
for at least four consecutive quarters. If after four consecutive
quarters of quarterly monitoring, the running annual average is less
than the trigger level, then the State may determine that the system is
reliably and consistently below the MCL for regulated PFAS and allow
the system to return to reduced monitoring as shown in table 2 to
paragraph (b)(2)(i) of this section.
    (iv) The State may require a confirmation sample for any sampling
result. If a confirmation sample is required by the State, the result
must be averaged with the first sampling result and the average must be
used for the compliance determination as specified by Sec.  141.903.
States may delete results of obvious sampling errors from this
calculation.
    (v) The State may increase the required monitoring frequency, where
necessary, to detect variations within the system (e.g., fluctuations
in concentration due to seasonal use, changes in water source).
    (vi) Each public water system shall monitor at the time designated
by the State within each compliance period.

Sec.  141.903  Compliance requirements.

    (a) Compliance with Sec.  141.61(c) shall be determined based on
the analytical results obtained at each sampling point. If one sampling
point is in violation of an MCL, the system is in violation of the MCL.
    (b) For systems monitoring more than once per year, compliance with
the MCL is determined by a running annual average at each sampling
point.
    (c) If a system fails to collect the required number of samples,
compliance will be based on the total number of samples collected.
    (d) Systems monitoring triennially whose sample result equals or
exceeds the trigger level of 1.3 ppt for either PFOS or PFOA, or a
Hazard Index of 0.33 for PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA, and PFBS must begin
quarterly sampling. If the sample result exceeds an MCL, the system
will not be considered in violation of the MCL until it has completed
one year of quarterly sampling with the triggering sample used as the
first quarter of monitoring for the running annual average calculation.
    (e) If any sample result will cause the running annual average to
exceed the MCL at any sampling point, the system is out of compliance
with the MCL immediately.
    (f) Systems must calculate compliance using the following method:
    (1) For each PFAS regulated by an individual MCL:
    (i) For systems monitoring quarterly, divide the sum of the
measured concentrations for each analyte by the number of samples
collected for that analyte during the consecutive quarters. If more
than one compliance sample for that analyte is available in the
quarter, systems must average all the results in a quarter then average
the quarterly averages. If the value calculated exceeds the MCL, the
system is not in compliance with the MCL requirements.
    (ii) For systems monitoring less frequently than quarterly, report
the results of each sampling event:
    (A) For systems taking one sample during each three-year compliance
period, if more than one compliance sample is available systems must
average all the results to determine compliance. If the value
calculated exceeds the MCL, the system is required to initiate
quarterly monitoring with the sampling result used as the first quarter
of monitoring for the running annual average calculation.
    (B) For systems taking two samples during each three-year
compliance period, divide the sum of the measured concentrations for
each analyte by the number of samples collected during the three-year
compliance period. If more than one compliance sample is available for
a quarter, systems must average all of the results of that quarter then
average the two quarterly averages. If the value calculated exceeds the
MCL, the system is required to initiate quarterly monitoring, with the
sample result used as the first quarter of monitoring for the running
annual average calculation.
    (iii) If a sample result is less than the practical quantitation
limit for a regulated PFAS, in accordance with the following table,
zero will be used for that analyte to calculate the annual average.

                    Table 1 to Paragraph (f)(1)(iii)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       Contaminant                           PQL (ppt)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
PFOA....................................................             4.0
PFOS....................................................             4.0
HFPO-DA.................................................             5.0
PFHxS...................................................             3.0
PFNA....................................................             4.0
PFBS....................................................             3.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------

    (2) For each PFAS regulated under the Hazard Index:
    (i) For systems monitoring quarterly, divide observed sample
analytical results by the corresponding HBWC listed in Sec.  141.61(c)
to obtain a Hazard Quotient for each sampling event at each EPTDS. Sum
the resulting Hazard Quotients together to determine the Hazard Index.
If more than one compliance sample is available for an analyte in a
quarter, systems must average all the results for that analyte in that
quarter and then determine the Hazard Quotient(s) from those average
values. If the Hazard Index exceeds the MCL, the system is not in
compliance with the Hazard Index MCL requirements.

    (ii) For systems monitoring less frequently, divide the observed
sample analytical results by the corresponding HBWC listed in Sec.
141.61(c) to obtain a Hazard Quotient. Sum the resulting Hazard
Quotients together to determine the Hazard Index.
    (A) For systems taking one sample during each three-year compliance
period, if more than one compliance sample is available for an analyte,
systems must average all the results for that analyte to determine the
Hazard Quotient and the Hazard Index. If the Hazard Index exceeds the
MCL, the system is required to initiate quarterly monitoring with the
Hazard Index sampling result used as the first quarter of monitoring
for the running annual average calculation.
    (B) For systems taking two samples during each three-year
compliance period, if more than one sample is available for an analyte,
systems must average all the results for that analyte to determine the
Hazard Quotient(s) and the Hazard Index for that quarter. Average the
two Hazard Indices calculated during the compliance period. If the
average of the Hazard Indices exceeds the MCL, the system is required
to initiate quarterly monitoring with the Hazard Index average sampling
result used as the first quarter of monitoring for the running annual
average calculation.
    (iii) If a sample result is less than the practical quantitation
limit for a regulated PFAS, in accordance with the table in paragraph
(f)(1)(i)(C) of this section, zero will be used for that analyte to
calculate the annual average.

Sec.  141.904  Reporting and recordkeeping requirements.

    Systems required to sample must report to the State according to
the timeframes and provisions of Sec.  141.31. Systems must report the
information specified in the following table:

                        Table 1 to Sec.   141.904
------------------------------------------------------------------------
        If you are a . . .                  You must report . . .
------------------------------------------------------------------------
System monitoring for regulated     1. All sample results, including the
 PFAS under the requirements of      location, number of samples taken
 Sec.   141.902 on a quarterly       at each location, date, and result
 basis.                              during the previous quarter.
                                    2. The running annual average at
                                     each sampling point of all samples
                                     taken in the last four quarters.
                                    3. Whether, based on Sec.   141.902,
                                     the MCL was violated.
                                    4. Whether, based on Sec.   141.902,
                                     the trigger level was met or
                                     exceeded.
System monitoring for regulated     1. The location, date, and result of
 PFAS under the requirements of      each sample taken during the last
 Sec.   141.902 less frequently      monitoring period.
 than quarterly.
                                    2. The running annual average at
                                     each sampling point of all samples
                                     taken in the last twelve months.
                                    3. Whether, based on Sec.   141.902,
                                     the trigger level was met or
                                     exceeded.
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sec.  141.905  Violations.

    (a) PFAS MCL violations, both for PFOA and PFOS MCLs as well as the
Hazard Index MCL are based on a running annual average under Sec.
141.XX.d. Failure to monitor in accordance with the requirements under
Sec.  141.XX.c (monitoring requirements) of this section is a
monitoring violation.
    (b) Compliance with Sec.  141.61(c) must be determined based on the
analytical results obtained at each sampling point. If one sampling
point is in violation of an MCL, the system is in violation of the MCL.
    (1) For systems monitoring quarterly, compliance with the MCL is
determined by a running annual average at each sampling point.
    (2) Systems monitoring triennially whose sample result is at or
exceeds the trigger level as defined by Sec.  141.902(a)(7) of this
section must begin quarterly sampling. The system will not be
considered in violation of the MCL until it has completed one year of
quarterly sampling.
    (i) If any sample result will cause the running annual average to
exceed the MCL at any sampling point, the system is out of compliance
with the MCL immediately.
    (ii) If a system fails to collect the required number of samples,
compliance will be based on the total number of samples collected.
    (iii) If a sample result is less than the practical quantitation
limit for regulated PFAS as shown in Sec.  141.903(f)(1)(i)(C), zero
will be used to calculate the annual average.

PART 142--NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS
IMPLEMENTATION

0
15. The authority citation for part 142 continues to read as follows:

    Authority:  42 U.S.C. 300f, 300g-1, 300g-2, 300g-3, 300g-4,
300g-5, 300g-6, 300j-4, 300j-9, and 300j-11.

0
16. Amend Sec.  142.16 by adding paragraph (r) to read as follows:

Sec.  142.16  Special primacy requirements.

* * * * *
    (r) Requirements for States to adopt 40 CFR part 141, subpart Z. In
addition to the general primacy requirements elsewhere in this part,
including the requirements that State regulations be at least as
stringent as Federal requirements, an application for approval of a
State program revision that adopts 40 CFR part 141, subpart Z, must
contain the following:
    (1) The States procedures for use of pre-existing data to meet the
initial monitoring requirements specified in Sec.  141.902, including
the criteria that will be used to determine if the data is acceptable.
    (2) The States procedures for ensuring all systems complete the
initial monitoring period requirements that will result in a high
degree of monitoring compliance by the regulatory deadlines.
    (i) The initial monitoring plan must describe how systems will be
scheduled during the initial monitoring period and demonstrate that the
analytical workload on certified laboratories has been taken into
account.
    (ii) The State will update the initial monitoring plan as necessary
and must demonstrate that the monitoring plan is enforceable under
State law.
    (3) After the initial monitoring period, States establish the
initial monitoring requirements for new systems and new sources. States
must explain their initial monitoring schedules and how these
monitoring schedules ensure that public water systems and sources
comply with MCL's and monitoring requirements. States must also specify
the time frame in which new systems will demonstrate compliance with
the MCLs.
0
17. Amend Sec.  142.62 by revising paragraph (a) to read as follows:

Sec.  142.62  Variances and exemptions from the maximum contaminant
levels for organic and inorganic chemicals.

    (a) The Administrator, pursuant to section 1415(a)(1)(A) of the
Act, hereby identifies the following as the best available technology,
treatment techniques, or other means available for achieving compliance
with the maximum contaminant levels for the PFAS listed in Sec.
141.61(c) of this chapter, for the purposes of issuing variances and
exemptions, as shown in tables 1 and 2 to this paragraph (a).

     Table 1 to Paragraph (a)--BAT for PFAS Listed in Sec.   141.61
------------------------------------------------------------------------
               Contaminant                              BAT
------------------------------------------------------------------------
PFOA....................................  Ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
                                           GAC, nanofiltration.
PFOS....................................  Ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
                                           GAC, nanofiltration.
Hazard Index PFAS (PFHxS, HFPO-DA, PFNA,  Ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
 PFBS).                                    GAC, nanofiltration.
------------------------------------------------------------------------

                 Table 2 to Paragraph (a)--List of Small System Compliance Technologies for PFAS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                  Operator skill level   Raw water quality range
          Unit technologies            Limitations \a\ \b\ \c\          required            and considerations
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ion Exchange.........................  a, b...................  Basic to Intermediate..  All ground waters.
GAC..................................  B......................  Basic to Intermediate..  All waters.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\a\ Mostly operated as a single use. The regeneration solution contains high concentrations of the organic
  solvents not typically used in the regeneration of resins contaminated with other pollutants. Disposal options
  should be considered before choosing this technology.
\b\ Waste media may contain high concentrations of the contaminant. Disposal options should be considered before
  choosing this technology.
\c\ Point of use is not currently accepted as a small system compliance technology, however POU treatment is
  reasonably anticipated to become a compliance option for small systems in the future if third-party
  certification organizations develop a new certification standard that meets or requires treatment to
  concentrations lower than EPA's proposed MCLs.

* * * * *
[FR Doc. 2023-05471 Filed 3-23-23; 11:15 am]
BILLING CODE 6560-50-P


[Federal Register: July 5, 2011 (Volume 76, Number 128)]
[Notices]
[Page 39090-39091]
[DOCID:fr05jy11-62]

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

[Docket No. RM09-2-001]

Contract Reporting Requirements of Intrastate Natural Gas
Companies; Notice of Extension of Time and Notice of Corrections

    In a May 20, 2011, filing in this proceeding, the Texas Pipeline
Association requests that the Commission extend the deadline by which
section 311 of the Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978 and Hinshaw pipelines
must comply with the requirements of Order Nos. 735 and 735-A.\1\
Specifically, it requests a delay until 90 days after the revised Form
No. 549D, XML schema format, and Data Dictionary and Instruction have
been finalized and posted on the FERC Web site. Enogex LLC and Atmos
Energy filed comments in support.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    \1\ Contract Reporting Requirements of Intrastate Natural Gas
Companies, 133 FERC ] 61,150 (May 20, 2010) (Order No. 735), 133
FERC ] 61,216 (December 16, 2010) (Order No. 735-A).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    For good cause shown and because the Office of Management & Budget
(OMB) has approved the corrected versions of the Form 549D, the Data
Dictionary and Instructions, notice is hereby given that all section
311 and Hinshaw pipelines are granted an extension of time. The
deadline for filing Form 549D for the first quarter of calendar year
2011 shall be extended until September 9, 2011. However, Respondents
will not be able to eFile their data until August 15, 2011. The
deadline for filing Form 549D for the second quarter of calendar year
2011 shall be extended until September 30, 2011. The third and fourth
quarter reports are due 60 days after the end of their respective
quarters.
    Commission Staff has corrected the Data Dictionary and Instructions
for filing Form 549D. Staff also corrected and completed testing of a
corrected XML XSD file (XML Schema) and corrected fillable Form 549D
PDF with assistance of a Form 549D Test Group.\2\ The Test Group was
formed with the approval by OMB. Staff wishes to acknowledge the
efforts of the Test Group and thank them for their participation.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    \2\ The Form 549D Test Group consisted of Humble Gas Pipeline
Company, Enterprise Products Partners, L.P., Enbridge, Pacific Gas &
Electric Company, AGL Resources, Energy Transfer Partners, L.P.
Spectra Energy Corp., Regency Energy Partners and Kinder Morgan.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    Staff is publishing the following corrected documents on the FERC
Web site for use by Respondents and

software developers who wish to create tools to facilitate compliance
with the requirements of Order Nos. 735 and 735-A: (1) Fillable Form
549D PDF, (2) XML XSD file, and (3) Data Dictionary and Instruction for
completing the Form 549D. Only these documents should be used to eFile
the Form 549D.
    Staff is also publishing in eLibrary a log of the changes to help
Respondents understand the changes that were made and a redline/
strikeout copy of the Data Dictionary and Instructions. The log of
changes and the redline/strikeout copy of the Data Dictionary and
Instructions will not be published in the Federal Register. Respondents
should consult the Form 549D web page, especially the filing tips and
instructions on the FERC Web site for more detailed information. Any
questions should be sent to the<EMAIL_ADDRESS>mail box.

    Dated: June 24, 2011.
Nathaniel J. Davis, Sr.
Deputy Secretary.
[FR Doc. 2011-16693 Filed 7-1-11; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 6717-01-P