I'm going to be teaching y'all how to react to a chemical or biological hazard attack on station 3. Tasks, react to chemical or biological hazard attack, decon your skin, decon individual equipment. Conditions, you're given a protective mask, individual decon kits, and a tactical environment which chemical weapons have been or may be used by the enemy. Standards, react to a chemical or biological hazard attack without becoming a casualty. Performance steps, don your protective mask when there is a high probability of a chemical attack. Other reasons why you would don your pro mask, a chemical alarm sounds, a positive readings obtained on a detector paper, individuals exhibit symptoms of chemical or biological agent poisoning.   If you observe signs of a chemical or biological attack, you can go ahead and indicate for people to put on their mask. Better safe than sorry. And also if you're responding to the commander's policy of automatic masking procedures, you should most definitely have your mask set up inside your carrier so that it's as easy as possible to take it out and put it on your face as fast as you can. So what most people do is they put the hood of the mask that's on the back, bring it over to the front so that whenever they open their mask carrier with their left hand, take it out with their right. They can just grab that hood from the front because there's a little latch on it and just pull it over their heads and then proceed to tighten the straps on the sides. Whenever you're done putting on your mask, you will give the alarm, right? There's two alarms that you can give, right? If you hear the alarm after you're done putting on your mask, you can yell gas, gas, gas and at the same time give the hand signal for gas, gas, gas, which is this motion right here.


Section 59 of Gray's Anatomy, Part 4, this is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Morgan Scorpion. Anatomy of the Human Body, Part 4 by Henry Gray. The Internal Ear or Labyrinth, Part 1. 1-D4, The Internal Ear or Labyrinth. Oris Intona. The Internal Ear is the essential part of the organ of hearing, receiving the ultimate distribution of the auditory nerve. It is called the labyrinth from the complexity of its shape, and consists of two parts. The Osseous Labyrinth, a series of cavities within the petrous part of the temple bone, and the Membranous Labyrinth, a series of communicating membranous sacs and ducts contained within the bony cavities. The Osseous Labyrinth, Labyrinthus Osseous. The Osseous Labyrinth consists of three parts, the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea. These are cavities hollowed out of the substance of the bone and lined by periosteum. They contain a clear fluid, the perilymph, in which the membranous labyrinth is situated. The vestibule, vestibulum. The vestibule is the central part of the Osseous Labyrinth, and is situated medial to the tympanic cavity behind the cochlea and in front of the semicircular canals. It is somewhat a rodent shape, but flattened transversely. It measures about five millimetres from before backward, and the same from above downward, and about three millimetres across. In its lateral or tympanic wall is the finestra vestibule, closed in the fresh state by the base of the stapes and annular ligament. On the medial wall at the forepart is a small circular depression, the recessus fericus, which is perforated at its anterior and inferior part by several minute holes, macular cribrosa media, for the passage of filaments of the acoustic nerve to the succule, and behind this depression is an oblique ridge, the crystal vestibule, the anterior end of which is named the pyramid of the vestibule. This ridge bifurcates below to enclose a small depression, the fossa cochlearis, which is perforated by a number of holes for the passage of filaments of the acoustic nerve which supply the vestibular end of the ductus cochlearis. At the hindre part of the medial wall is the orifice of the aqueductus vestibule, which extends to the posterior surface of the petrus portion of the temporal bone. It transmits a small vein, and contains a tubular prolongation of the membranous labyrinth, the ductus endolymphaticus, which ends in a cul-de-sac between the layers of the duramata within the cranial cavity. On the upper wall or roof is a transversely oval depression, the recessus ellipticus, separated from the recessus sphericus by the crystal vestibule already mentioned. The pyramid and adjoining part of the recessus ellipticus are perforated by a number of holes, macular cribrosa superior. The apertures in the pyramid transmit the nerves to the utricle, those in the recessus ellipticus the nerves to the ampullae of the superior and lateral semicircular ducts. Behind are the five orifices of the semicircular canals. In front is an elliptical opening, which communicates with the scala vestibuli of the cochlea. The bony semicircular canals. Canales semicircularis oceae. The bony semicircular canals are three in number, superior, posterior, and lateral, and are situated above and behind the vestibule. They are unequal in length, compressed from side to side, and each describes the greater part of the circle. Each measures about 0.8 mm in diameter, and presents a dilation at one end, called the ampullae, which measures more than twice the diameter of the tube. They open into the vestibule by five orifices, one of the apertures being common to two of the canals. The superior semicircular canal. Canales semicircularis superior. 15 to 20 mm in length is vertical indirection, and is placed transversely to the long axis of the petrus portion of the temporal bone, on the anterior surface of which its arch forms a round projection. It describes about two-thirds of a circle. Its lateral extremity is ampullated, and opens into the upper part of the vestibule. The opposite end joins with the upper part of the posterior canal to form the cruse commune, which opens into the upper and medial part of the vestibule. The posterior semicircular canal. Canales semicircularis posterior. Also vertical is directed backward, nearly parallel to the posterior surface of the petrus bone. It is the longest of the three, measuring from 18 to 22 mm. Its lower or ampullated end opens into the lower and back part of the vestibule, its upper into the cruse commune already mentioned. The lateral or horizontal canal, canales semicircularis lateralis, external semicircular canal, is the shortest of the three. It measures from 12 to 15 mm, and its arch is directed horizontally backward and lateralward. Thus each semicircular canal stands at right angles to the other two. Its ampullated end corresponds to the upper and lateral angle of the vestibule, just above the finestra vestibule, where it opens close to the ampullated end of the superior canal. Its opposite end opens at the upper and back part of the vestibule. The lateral canal of one ear is very nearly in the same plane as that of the other, while the superior canal of one ear is nearly parallel to the posterior canal of the other. The cochlea. The cochlea bears some resemblance to a common snail shell. It forms the anterior part of the labyrinth, is conical in form, and placed almost horizontally in front of the vestibule. Its apex, cupula, is directed forward and lateralward, with a slight inclination downward toward the upper and front part of the labyrinthic wall of the tympanic cavity. Its base corresponds with the bottom of the internal acoustic miatus, and is perforated by numerous apertures for the passage of the cochlea division of the acoustic nerve. It measures about 5 mm from base to apex, and its breadth across the base is about 9 mm. It consists of a conical shaped central axis, the modiolis, of a canal, the inner wall of which is formed by the central axis, wound spirally around it for two turns and three quarters. From the base to the apex, and of a delicate lamina, the osseous spiral lamina, which projects from the modiolis and, following the windings of the canal, partially subdivides it into two. In the recent state a membrane, the basilar membrane, stretches from the free border of this lamina to the outer wall of the bony cochlea and completely separates the canal into two passages, which, however, communicate with each other at the apex of the modiolis by a small opening named the helicotrema. The modiolis is the conical central axis, or pillar, of the cochlea. Its base is broad and appears at the bottom of the internal acoustic miatus, where it corresponds with the area cochlea. It is perforated by numerous orifices which transmit filaments of the cochlea division of the acoustic nerve. The nerves of the first tone and a half pass through the foramina of the tractus spiralis foraminosus, those for the apical tone, through the foramin centrale. The canals of the tractus spiralis foraminosus pass up through the modiolis and successively bend outward to reach the attached margin of the lamina spiralis ossea. Here they become enlarged and by their apposition form the spiral canal of the modiolis, which follows the course of the attached margin of the ossea spiral lamina and lodges the spiral ganglion, ganglion of corti. The foramin centrale is continued into a canal which runs up the middle of the modiolis to its apex. The modiolis diminishes rapidly in size in the second and succeeding coil. The bony canal of the cochlea takes two turns and three quarters around the modiolis. It is about 30 mm in length and diminishes gradually in diameter from the base to the summit, where it terminates in the cupula which forms the apex of the cochlea. The beginning of this canal is about 3 mm in diameter. It diverges from the modiolis toward the tympanic cavity and vestibule and presents three openings. One, the finestra cochleae communicates with the tympanic cavity. In the fresh steak this aperture is closed by the secondary tympanic membrane. Another, of an elliptical form, opens into the vestibule. The third is the aperture of the aqueductus cochleae leading to a minute funnel shaped canal which opens on the inferior surface of the petrus part of the temporal bone and transmits a small vein and also forms a communication between the subarachnoid cavity and the scarlet impani. The osseus spiral lamina, lamina spiralis ossea, is a bony shelf or ledge which projects from the modiolis into the interior of the canal and, like the canal, takes two and three-quarter turns around the modiolis. It reaches about half way toward the outer wall of the tube and partially divides its cavity into two passages or scalli of which the upper is named the scarlet vestibule, while the lower is termed the scarlet impani. Near the summit of the cochlea the lamina ends in a hook-shaped process, the hamulus laminae spiralis. This assists in forming the boundary of the small opening, the helicotrima, through which the two scarlete communicate with each other. From the spiral canal of the modiolis numerous canals pass outward through the osseus spiral lamina as far as its free edge. In the lower part of the first turn a second bony lamina, the secondary spiral lamina, projects inward from the outer wall of the bony tube. It does not, however, reach the primary osseus spiral lamina, so that if viewed from the vestibule, a narrow fissure, the vestibule fissure, is seen between them. The osseus labyrinth is lined by an exceedingly thin fibrosirus membrane. Its attached surface is rough and fibrous and closely adherent to the bone. Its free surface is smooth and pale, covered with a layer of epithelium and secretes a thin, limpid fluid, the perilymph. A delicate tubular process of this membrane is prolonged along the aqueduct of the cochlea to the inner surface of the duomata. The membranous labyrinth Labyrinthus membronicius The membranous labyrinth is lodged within the bony cavities just described and has the same general form as these. It is, however, considerably smaller and is partly separated from the bony walls by a quantity of fluid, the perilymph. In certain places it is fixed to the walls of the cavity. The membranous labyrinth contains fluid, the endolymph, and on its walls, the ramifications of the acoustic nerve are distributed. Within the osseus vestibule, the membranous labyrinth does not quite preserve the form of the bony cavity, but consists of two membranous sacs, the utricle and the saccule, the utricle utriculus. The utricle, the larger of the two, is of an oblong form, compressed transversely, and occupies the upper and back part of the vestibule, lying in contact with the recessus ellipticus and the part below it. That portion which is lodged in the recess forms a sort of pouch or cul-de-sac, the floor and anterior wall of which are thickened, and form the macular acoustica utriculi, which receives the utricular filaments of the acoustic nerve. The cavity of the utricle communicates behind with the semicircular ducts by five orifices. From its anterior wall is given off the ductus utricular sacularis, which opens into the ductus endolymphaticus. The saccule, sacculus. The saccule is the smaller of the two vestibular sacs. It is globular in form and lies in the recessus sphericus near the opening of the scarlet vestibule of the cochlea. Its anterior part exhibits an oval thickening, the macular acoustica saculi, to which are distributed the sacular filaments of the acoustic nerve. Its cavity does not directly communicate with that of the utricle. From the posterior wall a canal, the ductus endolymphaticus, is given off. This duct is joined by the ductus utricular sacularis, and then passes along the aqueductus vestibuli and ends in a blind pouch, sacus endolymphaticus, on the posterior surface of the petrus portion of the temple bone, where it is in contact with the duoromata. From the lower part of the saccule, a short tube, the canalis rhenions uphensin, passes downward and opens into the ductus cochlearis near its vestibular extremity. The semicircular ducts. Ductus semicircularis, membranus semicircular canals. The semicircular ducts are about one-fourth of the diameter of the osseous canals, but in number, shape and general form they are precisely similar, and each presents at one end an ampulla. They're opened by five orifices into the utricle, one opening being common to the medial end of the superior and the upper end of the posterior duct. In the ampulla, the wall is thickened and projects into the cavity as a fiddle-shaped, transversely placed elevation, the septum transversum, in which the nerves end. The utricle, saccule and semicircular ducts are held in position by numerous fibrous bands which stretch across the space between them and the bony walls. Structure. The walls of the utricle, saccule and semicircular ducts consist of three layers. The outer layer is a loose and flocculant structure, apparently composed of ordinary fibrous tissue containing blood vessels and some pigment cells. The middle layer, thicker and more transparent, forms a homogenous membrane, propria, and presents on its internal surface, especially in the semicircular ducts, numerous papilliform projections which, on the addition of acetic acid, exhibit an appearance of longitudinal fibrillation. The inner layer is formed of polygonal nucleated epithelial cells. In the maculi of the utricle and saccule and in the transverse septum of the ampulli of the semicircular ducts, the middle coat is thickened and the epithelium is columnar and consists of supporting cells and hair cells. The former are fusiform and their deep ends are attached to the membrane apropria, while their free extremities are united to form a thin cuticle. The hair cells are flask-shaped, and their deep, rounded ends do not reach the membrane apropria, but lie between the supporting cells. The deep part of each contains a large nucleus, while its more superficial part is granular and pigmented. The free end is surmounted by a long, tapering, hair-like filament which projects into the cavity. The filaments of the acoustic nerve enter these parts, and having pierced the outer and middle layers, they lose their medullary sheaths, and their axis cylinders ramify between the hair cells. Two rounded bodies, termed otoconia, each consisting of a mass of minute crystalline grains of carbonate of lime, held together in a mesh of gelatinous tissue, are suspended in the endolymph in contact with the free ends of her hairs projecting from the maculi. According to Bowman, the calcareous material is also sparingly scattered in the cells lining the ampullae of the semicircular ducts. End of Section 59 Section 60 of Grey's Anatomy Part 4 This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Morgan Scorpion Anatomy of the Human Body Part 4 by Henry Gray The Internal Ear or Labyrinth Part 2 The Doctor's Cochlearis Membranous Cochlear, Scarlet Media The Doctor's Cochlearis consists of a spirally arranged tube enclosed in the bony canal of the cochlear and lying along its outer wall. As already stated, the osseous spiral lamina extends only part of the distance between the modiolus and the outer wall of the cochlear, while the basilar membrane stretches from its free edge to the outer wall of the cochlear and completes the roof of the scarlet impani. A second and more delicate membrane, the vestibular membrane, vicenari, extends from the thickened periosteum covering the osseous spiral lamina to the outer wall of the cochlear, where it is attached at some little distance above the outer edge of the basilar membrane. A canal is thus shut off between the scarlet impani below and the scarlet vestibuli above. This is the Doctor's Cochlearis or Scarlet Media. It is triangular on transverse section, its roof being formed by the vestibular membrane, its outer wall by the periosteum lining the bony canal, and its floor by the membrane of basilaris and the outer part of the lamina spiralis osseous. Its extremities are closed. The upper is termed the lagina and is attached to the cochlear at the upper part of the helicotrima. The lower is lodged in the recessus cochlearis of the vestibule. Near the lower end the Doctor's Cochlearis is brought into continuity with the succul by a narrow short canal, the canalis reunions of Henson. On the membrane of basilaris is situated the spiral organ of Quartii. The vestibular membrane is thin and homogenous and is covered on its upper and under surfaces by a layer of epithelium. The periosteum forming the outer wall of the Doctor's Cochlearis is greatly thickened and altered in character and is called the spiral ligament. It projects inward below as a triangular prominence, the basilar crest, which gives attachment to the outer edge of the basilar membrane. Immediately above the crest is a concavity, the sulcus spiralis extonus. The upper portion of the spiral ligament contains numerous capillary loops and small blood vessels and is termed the striovascularis. The osteospiral lamina consists of two plates of bone and between these are the canals for the transmission of the filaments of the acoustic nerve. On the upper plate of that part of the lamina, which is outside the vestibular membrane, the periosteum is thickened to form the limbus lamina spiralis. This ends externally in a concavity, the sulcus spiralis internus, which represents on section the form of the letter C. The upper part, formed by the overhanging extremity of the limbus, is named the vestibular lip. The lower part, prolonged and tapering, is called the tympanic lip and is perforated by numerous foramina for the passage of the cochlear nerves. The upper surface of the vestibular lip is intersected at right angles by a number of furrows, between which are numerous elevations. These present the appearance of teeth along the free surface and margin of the lip and have been named by huska, the auditory teeth. The limbus is covered by a layer of what appears to be squamous epithelium, but the deeper parts of the cells with their contained nuclei occupy the intervals between the elevations and between the auditory teeth. This layer of epithelium is continuous on the one hand with that lining the sulcus spiralis internus, and on the other with that covering the undersurface of the vestibular membrane. Basilar membrane. The basilar membrane stretches from the tympanic lip of the osteospiral lamina to the basilar crest and consists of two parts, an inner and an outer. The inner is thin and is named the zona arcuata. It supports the spiral organ of corti. The outer is thicker and striated and is termed the zona pectinata. The undersurface of the membrane is covered by a layer of vascular-connective tissue. One of the vessels in this tissue is somewhat larger than the rest and is named the vaspirale. It lies below corti's tunnel. The spiral organ of corti, organon spirale, corti, organ of corti, is composed of a series of epithelial structures placed upon the inner part of the basilar membrane. The more central of these structures are two rows of rod-like bodies, the inner and outer rods, or pillars of corti. The bases of the rods are supported on the basilar membrane, those of the inner row at some distance from those of the outer. The two rows inclined toward each other and, coming into contact above, enclose between them and the basilar membrane a triangular tunnel, the tunnel of corti. On the inner side of the inner rods is a single row of hair cells, and on the outer side of the outer rods, three or four rows of similar cells, together with certain supporting cells termed the cells of detus and hensin. The free ends of the outer hair cells occupy a series of apertures in a net-like membrane, the reticular membrane, and the entire organ is covered by the tectorial membrane. Rods of corti. Each of these consists of a base or foot plate and elongated part or body, and an upper end or head. The body of each rod is finely striated, but in the head there is an oval, non-striated portion which stains deeply with calming. Occupying the angles between the rods and the basilar membrane are nucleated cells which partly envelop the rods and extend onto the floor of corti's tunnel. These may be looked upon as the undifferentiated parts of the cells from which the rods have been formed. The inner rods number nearly six thousand, and their bases rest on the basilar membrane close to the tympanic lip of the sulcus spiralis internus. The shaft or body of each is sinuously curved and forms an angle of about sixty degrees with the basilar membrane. The head resembles the proximal end of the ulna, and presents a deep concavity which accommodates a convexity on the head of the outer rod. The head plate or portion overhanging the concavity overlaps the head plate of the outer rod. The outer rods, nearly four thousand in number, are longer and more obliquely set than the inner, forming with the basilar membrane an angle of about forty degrees. Their heads are convex internally. They fit into the concavitys on the heads of the inner rods and are continued outward as thin flattened plates, termed phalangeal processes, which unite with the phalangeal processes of dita cells to form the reticular membrane. Hair cells. The hair cells are short columnar cells. Their free ends are on a level with the heads of cortis rods, and each is surmounted by about twenty hairlight processes arranged in the form of a crescent with its concavity directed inward. The deep ends of the cells reach about half way along cortis rods, and each contains a large nucleus. In contact with the deep ends of the hair cells are the terminal filaments of the cochlear division of the acoustic nerve. The inner hair cells are arranged in a single row on the medial side of the inner rods, and their diameters being greater than those of the rods, it follows that each hair cell is supported by more than one rod. The free ends of the inner hair cells are encircled by a cuticular membrane which is fixed to the heads of the inner rods. Adjoining the inner hair cells are one or two rows of columnar supporting cells, which, in turn, are continuous with the cubicle cells lining the sulcus spirulus internus. The outer hair cells number about twelve thousand, and are nearly twice as long as the inner. In the basal coil of the cochlear they are arranged in three regular rows, in the apical coil, in four, somewhat irregular rows. Between the rows of the outer hair cells are rows of supporting cells, called the cells of detas. Their expanded bases are planted on the basal membrane, while the opposite end of each presents a clubbed extremity or phalangeal process. Immediately to the outer side of deta cells are five or six rows of columnar cells, the supporting cells of Henson. Their bases are narrow, while their upper parts are expanded and form a rounded elevation on the floor of the ductus cochlearis. The columnar cells, lying outside Henson cells, are termed the cells of Claudius. A space exists between the outer rods of Cauti and the adjacent hair cells. This is called the space of Newell. The rectangular lamina is a delicate framework perforated by rounded holes, which are occupied by the free ends of the outer hair cells. It extends from the heads of the outer rods of Cauti to the external row of the outer hair cells, and is formed by several rows of minute fiddle shaped cuticular structures, called phalanges, between which are circular apertures containing the free ends of the hair cells. The innermost row of phalanges consists of the phalangeal processes of the outer rods of Cauti. The outer rows are formed by the modified free ends of deta cells. Covering the sulcus spiralis in ternus, and the spiral organ of Cauti, is the tectorial membrane, which is attached to the limbus laminis spiralis close to the inner edge of the vestibular membrane. Its inner part is thin and overlies the auditory teeth of Hushka. Its outer part is stick, and along its lower surface, opposite the inner hair cells, is a clear band, named Henson's stripe, due to the intercrossing of its fibres. The lateral margin of the membrane is much thinner. Hardesty considers the tectorial membrane as the vibrating mechanism in the cochlea. It is inconceivably delicate and flexible, far more sensitively flexible in the transverse than in the longitudinal direction, and the readiness with which it bends when touched is beyond description. It is ectodermal in origin. It consists of fine, colourless fibres embedded in a transparent matrix. The matrix may be a variety of soft keratin, of a soft collaginous, semi-solid character with marked adhesiveness. The general transverse direction of the fibres inclines from the radius of the cochlea toward the apex. The acoustic nerve, nervous acousticus, auditory nerve, or nerve of hearing, divides near the bottom of the internal acoustic miatus into an anterior or cochlea and a posterior or vestibular branch. The vestibular nerve, nervous vestibularis, supplies the utricle, the saccule, and the ampullae of the semicircular ducts. On the trunk of the nerve, within the internal acoustic miatus, is a ganglion, the vestibular ganglion, ganglion of scarper. The fibres of the nerve arise from the cells of this ganglion. On the distal side of the ganglion, the nerve splits into a superior and inferior and posterior branch. The filaments of the superior branch are transmitted through the foramina in the area vestibularis superior and end in the macular of the utricle and in the ampullae of the superior and lateral semicircular ducts. Those of the inferior branch traverse the foramina in the area vestibularis inferior and end in the macular of the saccule. The posterior branch runs through the foramin singularae at the postor inferior part of the bottom of the miatus and divides into filaments for the supply of the ampullae of the posterior semicircular duct. The cochlear nerve, nervous cochlearis, divides into numerous filaments at the base of the modiolus. Those for the basal and middle coils pass through the foramina in the tractor spiralis foraminosis. Those for the apical coil through the canalis centralis, and the nerves bend outward to pass between the lamellae of the osseous spiral lamina. Occupying the spiral canal of the modiolus is the spiral gangon of the cochlear, gangon of corti, consisting of bipolar nerve cells which constitute the cells of origin of this nerve. Reaching the outer edge of the osseous spiral lamina, the fibres of the nerve pass through the foramina in the tympanic lip. Some end by arborising around the bases of the inner hair cells, while others pass between cortis wads and across the tunnel to end in a similar manner in relation to the outer hair cells. The cochlear nerve gives off a vestibular branch to supply the vestibular end of the ductus cochlearis. The filaments of this branch pass through the foramina in the fossa cochlearis. Vessels. The arteries of the labyrinth are the internal auditory from the basilar and the stylo mastoid from the posterior auricular. The internal auditory artery divides at the bottom of the internal acoustic meatus into two branches, cochlear and vestibular. The cochlear branch subdivides into 12 or 14 twigs which traverse the canals in the modiolus and are distributed in the form of a capillary network in the lamina spiralis and basilar membrane. The vestibular branches are distributed to the utricle, succul and semicircular ducts. The veins of the vestibule and semicircular canals accompany the arteries and, receiving those of the cochlear at the base of the modiolus, unite to form the internal auditory veins which end in the posterior part of the superior petrosal sinus or in the transverse sinus. End of section 60 Section 61 of Gray's Anatomy Part 4 This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org Recording by David Lawrence Anatomy of the Human Body Part 4 by Henry Gray I. E. Peripheral Terminations of Nerves of General Sensations The peripheral terminations of the nerves associated with general sensations, i.e., the muscular sense and the senses of heat, cold, pain and pressure, are widely distributed throughout the body. These nerves may end free among the tissue elements or in special end organs where the terminal nerve filaments are enclosed in capsules. Free nerve endings occur chiefly in the epidermis and in the epithelium covering certain mucus membranes. They are well seen also in the stratified squamous epithelium of the corona and are also found in the root sheaths and papillae of the hairs and around the bodies of the pseudoriferous glands. When the nerve fiber approaches its termination, the medullary sheath suddenly disappears, leaving only the axis cylinder surrounded by the neurolema. After a time, the fiber loses its neurolema and consists only of an axis cylinder, which can be seen in preparation stained with chloride of gold to be made up of fine varicose fibrilli. Finally, the axis cylinder breaks up into its constituent fibrilli, which often present regular variscosities and anastomose with one another, and end in small knobs or discs between the epithelial cells. Under this heading may be classed the tactile discs described by Merkel as occurring in the epidermis of the pig snout, where the fibrilli of the axis cylinder end in cup-shaped discs in opposition with large epithelial cells. The special end organs exhibit great variety in size and shape, but have one feature in common, viz the terminal nerve fibrilli are enveloped by a capsule. Included in this group are the end bulbs of crouse, the corpuscles of grandry, of pachini, of golgi and mizoni, of Wagner and Meisner, and the neuro-tendinous and neuromuscular spindles. The end bulbs of crouse are minute cylindrical or oval bodies, consisting of a capsule formed by the expansion of the connective tissue sheath of emidulated fiber and containing a soft semi-fluid core in which the axis cylinder terminates either in a bulbous extremity or in a coiled-up plexiform mass. End bulbs are found in the conjunctiva of the eye, where there are spheroidal in shape in man, but cylindrical in most other animals. In the mucous membrane of the lips and tongue and in the epineurium of nerve trunks, they are also found in the penis and the clitoris and have received the name of genital corpuscles. In these situations they have a mulberry-like appearance being constricted by connective tissue septa into from two to six knob-like masses. In the synovial membranes of certain joints, e.g. those of the fingers, rounded or oval end bulbs occur and are designated articular end bulbs. The tactile corpuscles of grandi occur in the papillae of the beak and tongue of birds. Each consists of a capsule composed of a very delicate, nucleated membrane and contains two or more granular, somewhat flattened cells between these cells the axis cylinder ends in flattened discs. The pechinian corpuscles are found in the subcutaneous tissue on the nerves of the palm of the hand and sole of the foot and in the genital organs of both sexes. They also occur in connection with the nerves of the joints and in some other situations, as in the mesentery and pancreas of the cat and along the tibia of the rabbit. Each of these corpuscles is attached to and encloses the termination of a single nerve fiber. The corpuscle, which is perfectly visible to the naked eye and which can be most easily demonstrated in the mesentery of a cat, consists of a number of lamella or capsules arranged more or less concentrically around a central clear space in which the nerve fiber is contained. Each lamella is composed of bundles of fine connective tissue fibers and is lined on its inner surface by a single layer of flattened epithelioid cells. The center clear space, which is elongated or cylindrical in shape, is filled with a transparent core, in the middle of which the axis cylinder transverses the space to near its distal extremity, where it ends in one or more small knobs. Todd and Bowman have described minute arteries as entering by the sides of the nerves and forming capillary loops in the intercapsular spaces and even penetrating into the central space. Herbst has described a nerve ending somewhat similar to the Pacinian corpuscle in the mucous membrane of the tongue of the duck and in some other situations. It differs, however, from the Pacinian corpuscle in being smaller, in its capsules being more closely approximated, and especially in the act that the axis cylinder in the central clear space is coated with a continuous row of nuclei. These bodies are known as the corpuscles of Herbst. The corpuscles of Golgi and Mizoni are found in the subcutaneous tissue of the pulp of the fingers. They differ from Pacinian corpuscles in that their capsules are thinner, their contained core is thicker, and in the latter the axis cylinders ramify more extensively and end in flat expansions. The tactile corpuscles of Wagner and Meisner are oval-shaped bodies. Each is enveloped by a connective tissue capsule, and imperfect membranous septa derived from this penetrate the interior. The axis cylinder passes through the capsule, and after making several spiral turns around the body of the corpuscle ends in small globular or pyrofoam enlargements. These tactile corpuscles occur in the papillae of the corium of the hand and foot, the front of the forearm, the skin of the lips, the mucus membrane of the tip of the tongue, the palpable conjunctiva, and the skin of the mammary papilla. Corpuscles of Rafini Rafini described a special variety of nerve endings in the subcutaneous tissue of the human finger. They are principally situated at the junction of the corium with the subcutaneous tissue. They are oval in shape and consist of strong connective tissue sheaths, inside which the nerve fibers divide into numerous branches, which show varicocities and end in small free knobs. The neurotendinous spindles, organs of Golgi, are chiefly found near the junctions of tendons and muscles. Each is enclosed in a capsule which contains a number of enlarge tendon fasciculi, intrafusal fasciculi. One or more nerve fibers perforate the side of the capsule and lose their medullary sheaths. The axis cylinders subdivide and end between the tendon fibers and irregular discs or varicocities. The neuromuscular spindles are present in the majority of voluntary muscles and consist of small bundles of particular muscular fibers, intrafusal fibers. Embryonic in type, invested by capsules, within which nerve fibers, experimentally shown to be sensory in origin, terminate. These neuromuscular spindles vary in length from 0.8 mm to 5 mm and have a distinctly fusiform appearance. The large medallated nerve fibers passing to the end organ are from 1 to 3 or 4 in number. Entering the fibers capsule, they divide several times and, losing their medullary sheaths, ultimately end in naked axis cylinders and circling the intrafusal fibers to flattened expansions or irregular ovoid or rounded discs. Neuromuscular spindles have not yet been demonstrated in the tongue muscles and only a few exist in the ocular muscles. End of section 61, recording by David Lawrence in Brampton, Ontario, September 2009. Section 62 of Grey's Anatomy, Part 4. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Larianne Walden. Anatomy of the Human Body, Part 4 by Henry Gray. The Common Integument, Part 1. Integumentum commune, Skin. The integument covers the body and protects the deeper tissues from injury, from drying, and from invasion by foreign organisms. It contains the peripheral endings of many of the sensory nerves. It plays an important part in the regulation of the body temperature and has also limited excretory and absorbing powers. It consists principally of a layer of vascular connective tissue named the corium or cutis vira and an external covering of epithelium, termed the epidermis or cuticle. On the surface of the former layer are sensitive and vascular papillae. Within or beneath it are certain organs with special functions, namely the pseudoriferous and sebaceous glands and the hair follicles. The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf skin is non-vascular and consists of stratified epithelium and is accurately molded on the papillary layer of the corium. It varies in thickness in different parts. In some situations, as in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, it is thick, hard, and horny in texture. This may be in a measure due to the fact that these parts are exposed to intermittent pressure, but that this is not the only cause is proved by the fact that the condition exists to a very considerable extent at birth. The more superficial layers of cells, called the horny layer, stratum corneum, may be separated by maceration from a deeper stratum, which is called the stratum mucosum, and which consists of several layers of differently shaped cells. The free surface of the epidermis is marked by a network of linear furrows of variable size, dividing the surface into a number of polygonal or lozenge shaped areas. Some of these furrows are large, as opposite the flexures of the joints, and correspond to the folds in the corium produced by movements. In other situations, as upon the back of the hand, they are exceedingly fine and intersect one another at various angles. Upon the palmar surfaces of the hands and fingers, and upon the soles of the feet, the epidermal ridges are very distinct and are disposed in curves. They depend upon the large size and peculiar arrangements of the papillae, upon which the epidermis is placed. The function of these ridges is primarily to increase resistance between contact surfaces for the purpose of preventing slipping, whether in walking or prehension. The direction of the ridges is at right angles with the force that tends to produce slipping, or to the resultant of such forces, when these forces vary in direction. Footnote. Professor Arthur Thompson of Oxford suggests that the contraction of these muscles on follicles which contain weak, flat hairs will tend to produce a permanent curve in the follicle, and this curve will be impressed on the hair which is molded within it, so that the hair on emerging through the skin will be curled. Curved hair follicles are characteristic of the scalp of the bushman. End footnote. In each individual, the lines on the tips of the fingers and thumbs form distinct patterns unlike those of any other person. A method of determining the identity of a criminal is based on this fact. Impressions, fingerprints of these lines being made on paper covered with soot or on white paper after first covering the fingers with ink. The deep surface of the epidermis is accurately molded upon the papillary layer of the corium, the papillary being covered by a basement membrane, so that when the epidermis is removed by maceration, it presents on its undersurface a number of pits or depressions corresponding to the papillary, and ridges corresponding to the intervals between them. Fine tubular prolongations are continued from this layer into the ducts of the pseudoriferous and sebaceous glands. The epidermis consists of stratified epithelium which is arranged in four layers from within outward as follows. A. stratum mucosum, B. stratum granulosum, C. stratum lucidum, and D. stratum corneum. The stratum mucosum mucous layer is composed of several layers of cells. Those of the deepest layer are columnar in shape and placed perpendicularly on the surface of the basement membrane, since they are attached by toothed extremities. This deepest layer is sometimes termed the stratum germinativum. The succeeding strata consists of cells of a more rounded or polyhedral form, the contents of which are soft, opaque, granular, and soluble in acetic acid. These are known as prickle cells because of the bridges by which they are connected to one another. They contain fine fibrils which are continuous across the connecting processes with corresponding fibrils in adjacent cells. Between the bridges are fine intercellular clefts serving for the passage of length, and in these, lymph corpuscles or pigment granules may be found. The stratum granulosum comprises two or three layers of flattened cells which contain granules of alidin, a substance readily stained by hematoxilin or carmin, and probably an intermediate substance in the formation of keratin. They are supposed to be cells in a transitional stage between the protoplasmic cells of the stratum mucosum and the horny cells of the superficial layers. The stratum lucidum appears in section as a homogenous or dimly striated membrane composed of closely packed cells in which traces of flattened nuclei may be found and in which minute granules of a substance named keratohylin are present. The stratum corneum, horny layer, consists of several layers of horny epithelial scales in which no nuclei are discernible and which are unaffected by acetic acid, the protoplasm having become changed into horny material or keratin. According to Ranvier they contain granules of a material which has the characteristics of beeswax. The black color of the skin in the negro and the tawny color among some of the white races is due to the presence of pigment in the cells of the epidermis. This pigment is more especially distinct in the cells of the stratum mucosum and is similar to that found in the cells of the pigmentary layer of the retina. As the cells approach the surface and desiccate the color becomes partially lost. The disappearance of the pigment from the superficial layers of the epidermis is, however, difficult to explain. The pigment, melanin, consists of dark brown or black granules of very small size closely packed together within the cells but not involving the nucleus. The main purpose served by the epidermis is that of protection. As the surface is worn away new cells are supplied and thus the true skin, the vessels and nerves which it contains are defended from damage. The corium, cutisfera, dermis or true skin is tough, flexible and highly elastic. It varies in thickness in different parts of the body. Thus it is very thick in the palms of the hand and soles of the feet. Thicker on the posterior aspect of the body than on the front and on the lateral than on the medial sides of the limbs.  It consists of felted connective tissue with a varying amount of elastic fibers and numerous blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves. The connective tissue is arranged in two layers, a deeper or reticular and a superficial or papillary. Unstriped muscular fibers are found in the superficial layers of the corium wherever hairs are present and in the subcutaneous areolar tissue of the scrotum, penis, labia majora and nipples. In the nipples the fibers are disposed in bands, closely reticulated and arranged in superimposed lamini. The reticular layer, stratum reticulari, deep layer, consists of strong interlacing bands composed chiefly of white fibrous tissue but containing some fibers of yellow elastic tissue which vary in number in different parts and connective tissue corpuscles which are often to be found flattened against the white fibrous tissue bundles. Toward the attached surface the fasciculi are large in course and the areole left by their interlacement are large and occupied by adipose tissue and sweat glands. Below the reticular layer is the subcutaneous areolar tissue which except in a few situations contains fat. The papillary layer, stratum papillary, superficial layer, corpus papillary of the corium consists of numerous small highly sensitive and vascular immanences, the papilly which rise perpendicularly from its surface. The papilly are minute conical immanences having rounded or blunted extremities occasionally divided into two or more parts and are received into corresponding pits on the under surface of the cuticle. On the general surface of the body, more especially in parts endowed with slight sensibility they are few in number and exceedingly minute. But in some situations as upon the palmar surfaces of the hands and fingers and upon the plantar surfaces of the feet and toes they are long of large size closely aggregated together and arranged in parallel curved lines forming the elevated ridges seen on the free surface of the epidermis. Each ridge contains two rows of papilly between which the ducts of the pseudoriferous glands pass outward to open on the summit of the ridge. Each papilla consists of very small and closely interlacing bundles of finely fibrillated tissue with a few elastic fibers. Within this tissue is a capillary loop and in some papilly, especially in the palms of the hands and fingers there are tactile corpuscles. Development The epidermis and its appendages consisting of the hairs, nails, sebaceous and sweat glands are developed from the ectoderm while the corium or true skin is of mesodermal origin. About the fifth week the epidermis consists of two layers of cells the deeper one corresponding to the reed mucosum. The subcutaneous fad appears about the fourth month and the papilly of the true skin about the sixth. A considerable desquamation of epidermis takes place during fetal life and this desquamated epidermis mixed with sebaceous secretion constitutes the vernix caseosa with which the skin is smeared during the last three months of fetal life. The nails are formed at the third month and begin to project from the epidermis about the sixth. The hairs appear between the third and fourth months in the form of solid down growths of the deeper layer of the epidermis the growing extremities of which become inverted by papillary projections and the corium. The central cells of the solid down growths undergo alteration to form the hair while the peripheral cells are retained to form the lining cells of the hair follicle. About the fifth month the fetal hairs lanugo appear first on the head and then on the other parts they drop off after birth and give place to the permanent hairs. The cellular structures of the pseudoriferous and sebaceous glands are formed from the ectoderm while the connective tissue and blood vessels are derived from the mesoderm. All the sweat glands are fully formed at birth they begin to develop as early as the fourth month. The artery supplying the skin form a network in the subcutaneous tissue and from this network branches are given off to supply the pseudoriferous glands, the hair follicles and the fat. Other branches unite in a plexus immediately beneath the corium. From this plexus fine capillary vessels pass into the papillae forming in the smaller ones a single capillary loop but in the larger a more or less convoluted vessel. The lymphatic vessels of the skin form two networks superficial and deep which communicate with each other and with those of the subcutaneous tissue by oblique branches. The nerves of the skin terminate partly in the epidermis and partly in the corium. Their different modes of ending are described on pages 1059 to 1061. End of section 62. Section 63 of Grey's Anatomy Part 4. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Larianne Walden. Anatomy of the Human Body Part 4 by Henry Gray. The Common Integument Part 2. The Appendages of the Skin. The appendages of the skin are the nails, the hairs and the pseudoriferous and sebaceous glands with their ducts. The nails, unguys, are flattened elastic structures of a horny texture placed upon the dorsal surfaces of the terminal phalanges of the fingers and toes. Each nail is convex on its outer surface, concave within and is implanted by a portion called the root into a groove in the skin. The exposed portion is called the body and the distal extremity, the free edge. The nail is firmly adherent to the corium being accurately molded upon its surface. The part beneath the body and root of the nail is called the nail matrix because from it the nail is produced. Under the greater part of the body of the nail the matrix is thick and raised into a series of longitudinal ridges which are very vascular and the color is seen through the transparent tissue. Near the root of the nail the papillae are smaller, less vascular and have no regular arrangement and here the tissue of the nail is not firmly adherent to the connective tissue stratum but only in contact with it. Hence this portion is of a whiter color and is called the lunula on account of its shape. The cuticle as it passes forward on the dorsal surface of the finger or toe is attached to the surface of the nail a little in advance of its root. At the extremity of the finger it is connected with the under surface of the nail a little behind its free edge. The cuticle and the horny substance of the nail, both epidermic structures, are thus directly continuous with each other. The superficial horny part of the nail consists of a greatly thickened stratum lucidum, the stratum corium forming merely the thin, cuticular fold eponychium that overlaps the lunula. The deeper part consists of the stratum mucosum. The cells in contact with the papillae of the matrix are columnar in form and arranged perpendicularly to the surface. Those which succeed them are of a rounded or polygonal form, the more superficial ones becoming broad, thin and flattened and so closely packed as to make the limits of the cells very indistinct. The nails grow in length by the proliferation of the cells of the stratum mucosum and in thickness from that part of the stratum mucosum which underlies the lunula. Hairs, pilae, are found on nearly every part of the surface of the body but are absent from the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, the dorsal surfaces of the terminal phalanges, the glands penis, the inner surface of the pre-puse and the inner surfaces of the labia. They vary much in length, thickness and color in different parts of the body and in different races of mankind. In some parts, as in the skin of the eyelids, they are so short as not to project beyond the follicles containing them. In others, as upon the scalp, they are of considerable length. Again in other parts as the eyelashes, the hairs of the pubic region and the whiskers and beard, they are remarkable for their thickness. Straight hairs are stronger than curly hairs and present on transverse section a cylindrical or oval outline. Curly hairs, on the other hand, are flattened. A hair consists of a root, the part implanted in the skin and a shaft or scapus, the portion projecting from the surface. The root of the hair, radix pilae, ends in an enlargement, the hair bulb, which is whiter in color and softer in texture than the shaft and is lodged in a follicular involution of the epidermis called the hair follicle. When the hair is of considerable length, the follicle extends into the subcutaneous cellular tissue. The hair follicle commences on the surface of the skin with a funnel-shaped opening and passes inward in an oblique or curved direction, the latter in curly hairs, to become dilated at its deep extremity where it corresponds with the hair bulb. Opening into the follicle, near its free extremity, are the ducts of one or more sebaceous glands. At the bottom of each hair follicle is a small, conical, vascular eminence or papilla, similar in every respect to those found upon the surface of the skin. It is continuous with the dermic layer of the follicle and is supplied with nerve fibrils. The hair follicle consists of two coats, an outer or dermic and an inner or epidermic. The outer or dermic coat is formed mainly of fibrous tissue. It is continuous with the corium, is highly vascular, and supplied by numerous minute nervous filaments. It consists of three layers. The most internal is a hyalin basement membrane, which is well marked in the larger hair follicles, but is not very distinct in the follicles of minute hairs. It is limited to the deeper part of the follicle. Outside this is a compact layer of fibrous and spindle-shaped cells arranged circularly around the follicle. This layer extends from the bottom of the follicle as high as the entrance of the ducts of the sebaceous glands. Externally is a thick layer of connective tissue arranged in longitudinal bundles, forming a more open texture and corresponding to the reticular part of the corium.  The inner or epidermic coat is closely adherent to the root of the hair and consists of two strata named respectively, the outer and the subcutaneous. The strata named respectively, the outer and inner root sheaths. The former of these corresponds with the stratum mucosum of the epidermis and resembles it in the rounded form and soft character of its cells. At the bottom of the hair follicle these cells become continuous with those of the root of the hair. The inner root sheath consists of, one, a delicate cuticle next to the hair composed of a single layer of implicated scales with atrophied nuclei. Two. One or two layers of horny, flattened, nucleated cells known as Huxley's layer. And three. A single layer of cubicle cells with clear flattened nuclei called Henley's layer. The hair bulb is molded over the papilla and composed of polyhedral epithelial cells which as they pass upward into the root of the hair become elongated and spindle shaped except some in the center which remain polyhedral. Some of these ladder cells contain pigment granules which give rise to the color of the hair. It occasionally happens that these pigment granules completely fill the cells in the center of the bulb. This gives rise to the dark tract of pigment often found of greater or less length and the axis of the hair. The shaft of the hair, scapus pilli, consists from within outward of three parts the medulla, the cortex and the cuticle. The medulla is usually wanting in the fine hairs covering the surface of the body and commonly in those of the head. It is more opaque and deeper colored than the cortex when viewed by transmitted light but when viewed by reflected light it is white. It is composed of rows of polyhedral cells containing granules of a lidon and frequently air spaces. The cortex constitutes the chief part of the shaft. Its cells are elongated and united to form flattened fusiform fibers which contain pigment granules in dark hair and air in white hair. The cuticle consists of a single layer of flat scales which overlap one another from below upward. Connected with the hair follicles are minute bundles of involuntary muscular fibers termed the eryctories pilorum. They arise from the superficial layer of the corium and are inserted into the hair follicle below the entrance of the duct of the gland. They are placed on the side toward which the hair slopes and by their action diminish the obliquity of the follicle and elevate the hair. The sebaceous gland is situated in the angle which the erector muscle forms with the superficial portion of the hair follicle and contraction of the muscle thus tends to squeeze the sebaceous secretion out from the duct of the gland. The sebaceous glands, glandular sebaceae are small, saculated, glandular organs lodged in the substance of the corium. They are found in most parts of the skin but are especially abundant in the scalp and face. They are also very numerous around the apertures of the anus, nose, mouth and external ear but are wanting in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Each gland consists of a single duct more or less capacious which emerges from a cluster of oval or flask shaped alveoli to five in number but in some instances there may be as many as twenty. Each alveolus is composed of a transparent basement membrane enclosing a number of epithelial cells. The outer or marginal cells are small and polyhedral and are continuous with the cells lining the duct.  The ducts open most frequently into the hair follicles but occasionally upon the general surface as in the labia minora and the free margin of the lips. On the nose and face the glands are of large size distinctly lobulated and often become much enlarged from the accumulation of pent up secretion. The tarsal glands of the eyelids are elongated sebaceous glands with numerous lateral diverticula. The pseudoriferous or sweat glands glandular pseudoriphery are found in almost every part of the skin and are situated in small pits on the under surface of the corium or more frequently in the subcutaneous areolar tissue surrounded by a quantity of adipose tissue. Each consists of a single tube the deep part of which is rolled into an oval or spherical ball named the body of the gland while the superficial part or duct traverses the corium and cuticle and opens on the surface of the skin by a funnel shaped aperture. In the superficial layers of the corium the duct is straight but in the deeper layers it is convoluted or even twisted. Where the epidermis is thick as in the palms of the hand and soles of the feet the part of the duct which passes through it is spirally coiled. The size of the glands varies they are especially large in the regions where the amount of perspiration is great as in the axillae where they form a thin, mammalated layer of a reddish color which corresponds exactly to the situation of the hair in this region they are large also in the groin their number varies they are very plentiful on the palms of the hands and on the soles of the feet where the orifices of the ducts are exceedingly regular and open on the curved ridges they are least numerous and there are about 370 per square centimeter on the back of the hand about 200 forehead, 175 breast, abdomen and forearm 155 and on the leg and back from 60 to 80 per square centimeter Krause estimates the total number at about 2 million the average number of sweat glands per square centimeter of skin area in various races as shown by the fingers is as follows 558.2 American Negro 597.2 Filipino 653.6 Moro 684.4 Negrito Adult 709.2 Hindu 738.2 Negrito Youth 950 they are absent in the deeper portion of the external auditory meatus the prepuse and the gland's penis the tube both in the body of the gland and in the duct consists of two layers an outer of fine areolar tissue and an inner of epithelium the outer layer is thin and is continuous with the superficial stratum of the corium in the body of the gland the epithelium consists of a single layer of cubicle cells between the deep ends of which and the basement membrane are striped muscular fibers the ducts are destitute of muscular fibers and are composed of a basement membrane lined by two or three layers of polyhedral cells the lumen of the duct is coated by a thin cuticle when the cuticle is carefully removed from the surface of the corium the ducts may be drawn out in the form of short thread-like processes on its under surface the seruminous glands of the external acoustic meatus and the region of the eyelids are modified pseudoriferous glands End of Section 63 End of Anatomy of the Human Body Part 4 by Henry Gray


I'm very deeply grateful to the School for Democracy and to particularly to Ms. Aruna Roy for extending this invitation to me to be part of this series, which they are doing on the field. And through this, we would be able to make especially the younger generation more aware of the basic ideas and principles on which our struggle for freedom was based. This is extremely important because today, many of those values and those ideas are under threat. And therefore, those who are fighting to retain those ideas, to revive those ideas, need to be aware of how those ideas originated, how those movements were fought, what were the essential principles on which they were based. I'm going to be speaking about Gandhiji today. And as all of you know, he was the preeminent leader of India's struggle for freedom. There was already a powerful movement which existed in India before Gandhiji came to the fore. He started his political life in South Africa, where he built up a very important movement he pioneered. In fact, the first movement of Indian diaspora, most of whom were very poor indentured laborers. So he had already built up an enormous amount of experience and goodwill and expertise. By the time he came to India to take his part in India's struggle for freedom, and he had already conceptualized his basic method, what he called Satyagraha, about which I'll be talking at some length today, trying to explain to you what exactly it meant. And so when he came to India, this was in 1915, the national movement had already been around for a good 40 years or more. The Indian National Congress itself had been established in 1885, and even at least a decade before that, nationalist ideas had become current among the people, especially through the agency of the Indian language newspapers, who were the first forum where nationalist ideas, anti-beralist ideas were first articulated. So we already had a well-established movement, but the movement was twofold. One, it was under his leadership that the national movement assumed a mass character at an all-in-efficient level. The Swadeshi movement, which had taken place from 1905 to 1908, had already assumed a mass character, but not to the extent that the movement attained this character under Gandhiji, but a considerable mass character, especially in the province of Bengal, where it originated, but also to a large extent in the province of Punjab, where it acquired quite an agrarian character, and also Maharashtra, where the lower middle classes in the towns, as well as sections of the working class, actually flocked to this movement. It is worth remembering that when Lokman Nathilak was exiled by the British government in 1908, he was arrested, the working class of Bombay came out onto the streets, and there was a weak long strike, which in fact Lenin, the leader of the Russian Revolution, had characterized as the first action of the working class in India. So we already had a glorious, there was the whole, the moderates, the extremists, but still the movement had not spread at a mass level beyond the areas that I have just talked about. So among the intelligentsia, among the educated classes, it had already acquired quite an all India character. So when Gandhi came and he brought his new methods, his new ideas, the first one, as I was just explaining, was that under him it acquired a mass character, and I will soon explain how and why. The other very important aspect that he brought, new, fresh aspect that he brought to this movement, was concept of, now Satyagre is not limited to one particular method. Satyagre is the broad concept. And as I go along, as I said, I'm going to spend some time, explaining to you what that is. Within Satyagre, within the notion of Satyagre, also comes in the notion of non-violence. And I will be talking about that also at some length, in order to explain these ideas to you. So this is where we are placed. The year 1915, Gandhiji comes to India, does not take part in any political activity for a year. He goes around the country in a third class railway compartment, visiting various parts of India. But what that also revealed very interestingly was that wherever he went, large crowds flocked to see him, which means that his name was already known in India. His work in South Africa, among the poor indentured Indians for the rights of Indians in South Africa, had already made him a popular figure. So it wasn't as if he was coming to work on a blank slate. And then of course he started intervening and first it was a Champaran and then in Kerala district in Gujarat and then the mill workers strike in Ahmedabad in the years 1917 to 1918. These were three different movements which he led. All very interestingly, movements based upon the needs and the concerns and the demands of ordinary people. Champaran was about the demands of the tenants of Indigo planters who were usually European who and these tenants were forced to grow Indigo on certain conditions. This was in Champaran district of North Bihar. In Kerala, it was the peasants land, small land owning peasants who used to pay land revenue to the government and due to adverse drought, et cetera, conditions, they were not in a position to pay. So he led a movement for non-payment of taxes. And then he led the workers in Ahmedabad in a movement against the owners. Due to the wartime conditions, rising prices, et cetera, the workers wanted better conditions. They wanted more wages. They wanted some modifications in their conditions and he led them in a struggle against the mill owners, many of whom were his personal friends. So already then by 1918, the image which Kandichi had acquired in the country was of somebody who was taking up very novel kinds of demands of ordinary people for whom taking up sectional demands of small movements was not taboo. And yet he very much was interested in and was somebody who had led broad movements and very much he was a participant and keen to get into, in fact, the main struggle for freedom. Then in 1919, an occasion came when the Rowlett, what we call the Rowlett Acts were introduced. These were something like what in fact, people have compared the UAPA, the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, which is becoming notorious now. Our government is very fond of using it, particularly against nonviolent activists and academics and students. This was something like that, the Draconian Acts named after the person who chaired a committee that recommended them, where you could basically hold people behind bars without any charges being brought against them for considerable periods of time. And these were meant to be used against, guess what, those who were indulging in the people whom we call revolutionaries, who were indulging in methods of individual heroic violence. So it was against these acts then that Gandhi launched his first movement, which was called the Anti-Rowlett Satyagre in February of March of 1919. And it was as part of that protest that the notorious Jalya Malabagh incident happened in which there was a massacre of a nonviolent crowd by a British army official, General Dyer. And the rest, as they say, is history. So here we are placed in 1919 and Gandhi is on the cusp of assuming the leadership of the Indian national movement led by the National Congress. So from 1920 is when really Gandhi's leadership of the Indian national movement begins. And the first movement which he led was called the Non-Cooperation Movement, which started in 1920, where he first introduced the method of non-cooperation, as he said with evil, non-cooperation with things that are wrong, which are illegal, which are illegitimate, laws which are bad. And then non-cooperation was gradually to grow into civil disobedience, where you actively defied those laws and those rules which you thought were bad for you, bad for your country. So the movement which was known as the Non-Cooperation Movement lasted from 20 to 22. The next big wave of struggle was the civil disobedience movement from 1930 to 1933. And then of course, the famous Quit India movement of 1942. In between, of course, there were numerous other smaller, more local movements, but equally important, for example, the Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, where the direct leader was Sagar Patel, which was a movement of the peasants against the British government. Again, on the issue of land revenue, enhanced land revenue, which the peasants felt was unfair, they could not pay. So a very powerful, non-violent civil disobedience movement was launched in one Taluka of Surat district, which was the Taluka of Bardoli. But that movement in that small area, compared to the country, it was nothing actually brought the British government to its knees. So there were numerous such instances of different movements, different struggles, anti-caste struggles, the Vaikop Satyagraha, the Guruvayur Satyagraha movements in the princely states, various fasts undertaken by Gandhiji on specific issues from time to time. So it's a very rich saga that we have from 1920 onwards. Of all kinds of the Akali movement, for example, which merged into the non-cooperation movement, I could go on and on the trade union movement, the Kisan Sabha movement, all different sections, the women's movement, which was also very much part of the struggle for freedom and yet had its own identity. So we have this fascinating panorama of a multitude of movements, you could call them a million mutinies, but which are all somewhere or the other linked with the broader struggle for freedom. Some of the movements, the big ones, as I said, non-cooperation, civil disobedience, Quit India are all directly a part of the national movement and they are led by the national leadership under the ages of the Congress. Others are often led by different organizations, other parties as well, other organizations as well and yet they are in many ways small and big linked with this broader struggle for freedom. So it is this that we will be talking about and here we'll be trying to make some sense about what was specific, what was unique, what was so important and new about what Gangliji brought to this whole panorama that I have talked about. What indeed, if I could phrase it that way, are those essential truths which Gangliji embodied and which indeed have made him indestructible in my view. So there could be many answers and I will try to share with you some of those truths which have left a strong mark on me. I'd like to begin with a comment that was made by Gokhale, the early nationalist leader whom Gangliji called his political guru. Gokhale had once said about Gangliji that I quote, without doubt he was made of the stuff of which heroes and martyrs are made. This was again very perceptive but then it doesn't go much beyond saying that he had leadership qualities. But what Gokhale said in addition to that was far more important and I quote to you that. Gokhale said he has in him the marvelous spiritual power to turn ordinary men around him into heroes and martyrs. And I think if we were to dwell on that sentence for a moment, we could perhaps discover one of the very important qualities of Gambian leadership that he had in him the quality, the marvelous spiritual power as Gokhale called it to turn ordinary men around him into heroes and martyrs. This quality of being able to galvanize ordinary people, to make them perform heroic roles, it is that which distinguishes a great movement. The people at every stage of history are the same. It's the same human material, the same flesh and bones, the same hearts, the same emotions, the same brains. And yet what distinguishes these historical epochs which we call revolutionary epochs when grand changes take place, revolutionary changes take place in society in short periods of time. These epochs are the ones in which ordinary people perform the roles which is otherwise reserved for the leadership, for heroes and martyrs. Here ordinary people become heroes and martyrs because no revolution, no big change happens without the participation of the mass of the people. It was Gandhiji's success in devising this method, this method of turning ordinary people into heroes and martyrs. And this method is what he called Satyagraha. This is the name which he gave it, which gave him the ability to influence decisively the history of India and indeed of the world. So I would say that the heart of Gandhi is we have to understand is this, this ability, this quality. And this quality was there because of the method of the method which he had devised, which is that of Satyagraha. Now, what is this Satyagraha? Satyagraha or truth course, if you translate it for Gandhiji or you can call it insistence on the truth was not an abstract philosophical concept, but it was a weapon forged in the flame of struggle and sharpened on the wet stone of hard political practice. Satyagraha was not something just think spiritual. It was of the here and the now. It was practical. It was something that could be used by people for real everyday objectives. The word literally means to insist on the truth or to stick to the truth. The heart and soul of Satyagraha is resistance, resistance against injustice, resistance against discrimination, resistance against oppression. In fact, resistance to any form of wrongdoing or unfreedom, be it racism, be it colonialism, be it caste oppression, be it patriarchy, be it communalism, be it suppression of democracy and civil liberties, be it inequity or economic deprivation. The heart of Satyagraha is resistance against all forms of suppression or oppression or discrimination. Satyagraha also I would like to emphasize is not one form of struggle. In fact, the method encompasses a vast array of forms of struggle, bounded only by the limits set by non-violence. Gandhiji chose Satyagraha, the word Satyagraha, at least partly because he did not like the quietest sound of the word passive in passive resistance. But of course there was a similarity between the two, but this is why he did not like to use the word passive resistance. He also wanted very much to posit the notion of adherence to the truth rather than to the law. Both these are important. As you know for Gandhiji, the notion of truth was very, very important. In fact, you probably know this or if you don't, he started out with the proposition that God is truth. But he ended up with the proposition that truth is God. And this happened through a long series of arguments and debates with a man called Gora, who was a nationalist activist from Andhra Pradesh, who like many others, ordinary people who argued with Gandhiji and said, I don't think I agree with your proposition that God is truth. And they argued over a long period of time and finally Gandhiji said, okay, I agree with you. I will change my proposition and call it truth is God. Because Gora was an atheist and he would not accept the notion of God, but he believed in truth. So he argued with Gandhiji and ultimately Gandhiji changed his proposition. That was another feature of Gandhiji, his ability to change, his ability to adapt, his ability to incorporate the new. In fact, one of the things which he said was that one of his favorite statements was that consistency is not a virtue that I adhere to. In fact, if you want to know what is my view, you should look at what I have said latest because if I have not changed, then somewhere I'm dead.  To come back to the discussion on Satya Gray, which I had just discussed how it was, the important part about it was that it meant resistance and how it talked about adherence to the truth rather than to the law. Gandhiji was always positing the notion of legitimacy of truth against the notion of legality or the law. And in fact, much of the ability to resist much of the ability to resist the might of the state came from this notion that while the state may be doing things legally, that doesn't mean that it is always right. They have the power to make something legal, but that does not make that morally right. And we as citizens have a right to question it and to oppose it with the notion of legitimacy, with the notion of truth. If truth is higher than legality, then truth is what Satya Gray has to insist on. Gandhiji's notion of Satya Gray embodied a complex strategy of militant struggle of which non-violence was one part. It involved a deep understanding of the nature of the modern state, of the capacity of the people to struggle, of the appropriateness of different forms of struggle at different points of time, of when to launch and when to withdraw a struggle. Satya Gray ranged from non-cooperation all the way to civil disobedience. It ranged from spinning of yarn to charkha, was a form of Satya Gray. But so was boycott and burning of foreign cloth. So was the boycott of law courts and so was the non-payment of taxes. Satya Gray also included selling banned literature. It also included making of prohibited salt, defying the salt law as in the Dandi March. Satya Gray also included going on a hard pile. Shopkeepers would downshutters. Shop assistants and workers would go home, refusing to work. At the other extreme Satya Gray could mean, and it did mean going on a fast, including a fast unto death. It also includes rallies and mass meetings, sit-ins and long marches, candlelight vigils, and the offering of flowers to opponents. All this comes within the notion of Satya Gray. And I'm sure one could talk about many, many more examples. Gandhi's basic weapon for the empowerment of the people, therefore, of the masses was the participation of the people in their millions in political action. He believed that if the masses were fully active, they could secure any goal they desired. So the basic task was politicization of the people. And in that, for him, non-violence was extremely important, not only as a moral value, but because it enabled and necessitated the participation of the people. I'm using both words. It enabled, non-violent made it possible for the ordinary person to participate in the movement. But I'm also saying something else. I'm saying it necessitated. A non-violent movement could not be successful unless it had mass support. This was the Gandhian dialectic, that a non-violent movement, I'm repeating, could only be successful if it had mass participation. And mass participation could only be secured if the movement was non-violent. Thus, the choice of non-violence, I would like to emphasize, had nothing to do with any class bias in favor of the property classes, because this is sometimes an allegation that is made against Gandhiji. But in fact, the choice of non-violence was necessary in a struggle that was carried out on the terrain of moral force, in which a disarmed people were not at a disadvantage vis-a-vis the government. To quote Gandhiji, I'm quoting, an able general always gives battle at his own time on the ground of his choice. Non-violence ensured that the ground, the terrain was a moral one. Non-violence was a way of becoming equal in political resources to an armed state. One of the things about struggle, and I'm sure you at MKSS are aware of this, when you are planning how to fight against a particular adversary, one of the ways of ensuring or trying to bring about success is to make the adversary fight on the terrain on which you are stronger and not get drawn into the terrain in which your adversary is stronger. The colonial state was very strong when it came to the terrain of force. They had all the coercive apparatus that was required. They had the army which maintained the British Empire across the world. They had police. They had every form of force that could be available. But what they lacked was the moral ground. That is where they were weak. So the beauty of the Gandhian technique was to force the government to contend with the national movement on the terrain of moral force and not get drawn into fighting on the terrain in which the government was strong or the state was strong. Also, if the movement was to be a mass movement which involved the millions, including the poor and not a guerrilla movement or a movement led by a revolutionary army as in China, then non-violence was the suitable form of struggle. Gandhiji, in his own words, explained this to a group of people, a large group of people who came to the Savarbati ashram on the 10th of March, one day before he was going to start the Dandi March in 1930. I will quote a small passage from what he said. And he explained to them how non-violence enabled the widest participation of the masses and how it put the government in an unenviable quandary, how it confused the government. I quote, though the battle is to begin in a couple of days, how is it that you can come here so fearlessly? I do not think that any of you would be here if you had to face rifle shots or bombs. But you have no fear of rifle shots or bombs. Why? Supposing I had announced that I was going to launch a violent campaign, not necessarily with men armed with rifles, but even with stakes or stones, do you think the government would have left me free till now? Can you show me an example in history, be it in England or America or Russia, where the state has tolerated violent defiance of authority for a single day, but here you know that the government is puzzled and perplexed. The phrase which Gandhiji uses here that the government is puzzled and perplexed, he's actually quoting what Lord Redding, who was the viceroy during the period of the non-cooperation movement, had said in December of 1921, when the movement was quite, when the non-cooperation movement was very strong, he made a public statement where he said that the government that we are puzzled and perplexed. In fact, from August 1920 till December 1921, the non-cooperation movement was allowed to function without any obstruction by the government. Virtually no obstruction. They had no large-scale arrests, no arrests of leaders because they really didn't know what to do with a nonviolent movement, which was breaking the law. They just didn't know how to deal with it. Further explaining the power of nonviolent civil disobedience, he said, supposing 10 persons in each of the 700,000 villages in India came forward to manufacture salt and to disobey the Salt Act. What do you think this government can do? Even the worst autocrat that you can imagine would not dare to blow regiments of peaceful civil resistors out of a cannon's mouth. Therefore, if only you will bestow yourself just a little, I assure you that we should be able to tire this government out in a very short time. Gandhiji demonstrated in movement after movement how nonviolence at their work by placing the government in a no-win situation. It immobilized the government by locking it in an irresolvable dilemma. If it did not suppress a movement that brazenly defied its laws, its administrative authority would be seen to be undermined and its control would be shown to be weak. At the same time, if it suppressed it, it would be seen as a brutal anti-people government as an administration that used violence on nonviolent agitators. In either case, it was the government that would suffer a blow to its prestige and the movement which would gain by witnessing a swelling of its ranks. A British civil servant by the name of C. F. V. Williams, who was based in Madras, expressed this dilemma in early 1930 in the following Pithi's sentence, and I quote him, if we do too much, Congress will cry, repression. If we do too little, Congress will cry, victory. So the crucial words that I quoted earlier are that the government was puzzled and perplexed and as Gandhiji said to the people, we should be able to tire this government out. So the whole strategy was to leave the government to perplexed, confused and tired so that it didn't know what to do. Jawaharlal Nehru, in his famous presidential address to the Lahore Congress in 1929, where the Congress had declared complete independence to be its goal, expressed the connection between nonviolence and mass participation in the following words, I quote again. Any great movement for liberation today must necessarily be a mass movement and mass movements must essentially be peaceful except in times of organized revolt. And if the principle movement is a peaceful one, contemporaneous attempts at sporadic violence can only distract attention and weaken it. Satya Gray, I would also like to emphasize was based on intense preparation and mobilization and extensive mass contact programs. Again, I'm sure people like you who are involved in actually mass contact programs and in movements which actually involved the mass of the people will understand this very easily. You do not call for a demonstration in Jaipur or in Delhi without first preparing the people without putting in a lot of effort at the grass root level in village after village explaining the issues to the people, motivating the people, mobilizing them, training them, only then does a movement come out into the public and express its trend. So Satya Gray was based on intense preparation and mobilization and extensive mass contact programs. Gandhiji himself toured the length and breadth of the country incessantly in his third class railway carriage as well as my mula cart, my foot, my boat, my car, whatever could be the means of mode of transport that was available to him. Others followed in his footsteps. In the Gandhian method, this is another aspect that I wish to talk about. Empowerment was also achieved through inculcating fearlessness in the people. This is very, very important. If you are afraid, if you are cowed down, if you are scared of authority, you cannot ever fight any struggle. It can be a struggle inside your family. It can be a struggle in your workplace. It can be a struggle in your village. It can be a struggle at your college or wherever. The first thing that you need is courage to be able to get up and speak and after that to act. So empowerment was achieved through inculcating first and foremost fearlessness in the people. I'll go to a short passage from Jawaharlal Nehru, who was a very perceptive observer and long-time comrade of the Mahatma. In the Discovery of India, the famous book on Indian history written by Jawaharlal Nehru, 1946, this is how he describes Gandhiji's message of fearlessness. I quote, the essence of Gandhiji's teaching was fearlessness, not merely bodily courage, but the absence of fear from the mind. And then he says, but the dominant impulse in India under British rule was that of fear, pervasive or pressing, strangling fear, fear of the army, fear of the police, the widespread secret service, fear of the official class, fear of laws meant to suppress and of prison, fear of the landlords agents, fear of the money lender, fear of unemployment and starvation, which were always on the threshold. It was against this all pervading fear that Gandhiji's quiet and determined voice was raised. Be not afraid. Unquote. Gandhiji himself pointed out how non-violent struggle was the choice of the brave and not of the weak. In Hind Swaraj, he wrote, I quote, what do you think? Where in is courage required in blowing others to pieces from behind a cannon or with a smiling face to approach a cannon and be blown to pieces? Who is the true warrior? He who keeps death always as a bosom friend or he who controls the death of others? Believe me that a man devoid of courage can never be a passive resistor. It was this courage of militant non-violence, of Satyagraha, that made heroes out of ordinary men and women, enabling them to defy a mighty empire on which the sun never set. The steely resolve of the Akali jathas at Gurukabad, accepting without retaliation the blows of steel-tipped police latties. The unflinching rhythm of band after band of Satyagrahis determined to raid the salt pans at Dharasana, despite being beaten to pulp when the temperature was 112 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. The daily travails of the Bardoli peasants who lived for months in their fields under the open sky to honor their vow of no tax to the government are only some examples of this non-violent heroism which Gandhiji inspired. His emphasis on non-violence was also linked to his deep conviction that you could not separate the means from the end. And I want you to pay special attention to this. In fact, he believed that the means were bound to shape the end. You could not hope to build a humane, caring, inclusive and free society on the Sheikhi foundation of violence. The gun that is aimed at the enemy during the revolution can easily be turned to cow down a comrade with whom you now disagree after you've achieved your revolution. If walls were not to come up between peoples, the methods chosen for resolving differences and conflict must be such that they ensure justice without breaking down communication. I cannot overemphasize this. And Gandhiji was very well aware that in a country like India, in a society like ours where the fault lines of religion, of caste, of gender, of tribe versus non-tribe are always present just below the surface ready to come up. If we do not observe the discipline of non-violence, if violence becomes the means through which these fault lines express their contradictions, then we will never be able to, after we have resolved those contradictions, go back and then function together as a people. That is why non-violence was also very important. And I think when I look around India today, I can see how important that is. If only we had insisted on and if only now we pick up the ideas and insist that only non-violent means can be used for resolution of differences within Indian society, no matter how powerful those differences, I think we are doomed. The Lakshman Rekha of non-violence, therefore is very necessary because it is this which makes it possible to not break down communication, to still heal after we have expressed and resolved our conflicts. Certainly the answer did not lie in more violence in better weapons of mass destruction. To recall, Gandhiji's answer to the use of the atom bomb by the US against Japan in 1945, the moral to be legitimately drawn from the supreme tragedy of the bomb is that it will not be destroyed by counter-bombs even as violence cannot be by counter-violence. Mankind has to get out of violence only through non-violence. Hatred can be overcome only by love. Counter-hatred only increases the surface as well as the depth of hatred. Another important form of Satyagraha that Gandhiji evolved was that of going on a fast. He used it with great effect against the British in 1943 when he went on a 21-day fast while in jail and showed that non-violent protest was possible even within the confines of prison. The news of his fast spread like wildfire across India and the world and hundreds and thousands of people joined in public protests at a time when draconian laws had suppressed all civil liberties in the name of the Second World War. The fast succeeded in turning public opinion against the British government and even the president of the United States, Roosevelt, put pressure on the British prime minister, Churchill to relent. It's another matter that Gandhiji as usual had the last laugh by surviving the 21-day ordeal and denying the British the opportunity of executing the elaborate plans which they had made for his funeral. The weapon of the fast was, however, more commonly used by him to exert moral pressure on his own people as in 1932 at Pune on the issue of separate electorates for the scheduled castes or in Rajkot against the princely state in 1938 or in Calcutta and Delhi in 1947 and 1948 to quell the communal violence. The weapon of the fast was based on the essential principle of Satyagraha, which is to exert moral pressure on your opponent by suffering. Fasting is the extreme form of self-suffering. It is the crucifixion of the flesh voluntarily chosen. As Gandhiji said, quote, nonviolent pressure exerted through self-suffering by fasting touches and strengthens the moral fiber of those against whom it is directed. Gandhiji also believed that Satyagraha was the means to the empowerment of the poor dumb millions to use his phrase. And this objective was expressed by him through the concepts of Sarvodaya, Antodaya and Dharidranarayana. Sarvodaya or the awakening or empowerment of all was to be achieved by making sure that it was accompanied by Antodaya or the empowerment of the last man or the poorest human being. Gandhiji also bestowed dignity on the poor by the use of the concept of Dharidranarayana or the notion that God resides in the poor. And therefore, if you want to serve God, you must serve the poor. If the people in their millions, as we have said, were inspired by the Mahatma, he in turn drew his strength from them. How else can we comprehend the blazing courage which he demonstrated in the twilight of his life? There are few images more moving than that of this frail 77-year-old man who could have had all that anyone could want for the asking, walking barefoot through the blood-stained villages of Noakali, where his people had descended to the lowest depths, staying only for one night in one village, sleeping in the huts of the poor, searching for an answer, crucifying his flesh in yet another experiment with truth. We can never forget that he was martyred to the cause of secularism. The Hindu communal group led by no other than Savarkar which had planned the conspiracy of his assassination and the assassin who gunned him down believed that he was the chief obstacle to the setting up of a Hindu rastra after partition. And they were right. From October 1946, when communal violence began to spread, Gandhiji devoted all his energies to the taming of the communal monster. I have already talked about Noakali, but beyond Noakali where he spent four months, he went to Bihar, he went to Calcutta, he went to Delhi. He was on call everywhere as a one-man boundary force, which is the name that Mount Batten gave him because what whole armies could not do, Gandhiji could do. His commitment to secularism was absolute. The call for quit India in 1942 was accompanied by the unequivocal declaration. I quote, free India will be no Hindu Raj. It will be Indian Raj based not on the majority of any religious sect or community, but on the representatives of the whole people without distinction of religion. You could not get clearer than that. In November 1947, after independence, when the clamor for a Hindu rastra became very loud, he said, I quote again, the state was bound to be wholly secular. The state of our conception must be a secular democratic state. In August 1947, he had already made it clear and I quote him again, if a minority in India, minority on the score of its religious profession was made to feel small on that account, he could only say that this India was not the India of his dreams. I quote, his life and martyrdom, that is why, continue to inspire and empower all those who are striving towards the India of his dreams. His martyrdom at the hands of the Hindu communalist was the pinnacle of self-sacrifice and had a cathartic effect on the whole nation, ravaged by sectarian strife, which came to an abrupt halt. Many of those who had indulged in communal violence felt guilt and remorse and held themselves responsible for the tragedy. In his death, he gave a new lease of life to the newborn nation, which remained free of communal strife for almost a decade after his death, that which he could not achieve in life he achieved in death. I will conclude with a quote from a great intellectual who grasped the essence of the Mahatma in the following moving words. I quote, a leader of his people, unsupported by any outward authority, a politician who's success rests not upon craft, nor the mastery of technical devices, but simply on the convincing power of his personality. A victorious fighter who has always scorned the use of force, a man of wisdom and humility, armed with resolve and inflexible consistency, who has devoted all his strength to the uplifting of his people and the betterment of their lot. A man who has confronted the brutality of Europe with the dignity of the simple human being, and thus at all times risen superior. Generations to come, it may be, will scarce believe that such a one as this ever in flesh and blood walked upon this earth, that by now you must have recognized with the words of Albert Einstein. Thank you.