Hi, my name is Sanjana. I'm from India. My name is Michelle. I come from El Salvador in Latin America. I'm Rhea Fernandez and I come from India in a city called Mangalore, which has been selected as one of the 100 Smart Cities under the Smart Cities Mission in India. And that is the primary reason why I'm here to study the Smart Cities Solutions Program. As you know, it's not a very common master program that is available right now in the world. I think about three or four universities in the whole world are offering it presently. The main reason that I even diverted a bit from the field of architecture was because I felt there was a huge gap in how our cities are designed. We have architects designing the building, but we don't have architects who are informed about how the building sits in the city. I studied architecture in Taiwan and I was able to do my bachelor thesis in urban design and I learned a little bit about cities and the importance about, for example, the social infrastructure and realized that that's a big area of opportunity in Latin America, for example. So I realized that this was the right program for me to be able to help or to improve the quality of life in countries like mine. So when I was talking to people about what I could do next and I heard about the program that I was looking for and instantly it was like, it's the Smart Cities and what could we do and then I started reading about it and there's a huge bus in India about Smart Cities and what struck me the most was what we're doing for so long with urban planning and things like that is something that we've not changed in India. It was just 40, 45 years we're just doing this and urbanization and everything is all these problems and instantly I read this description on the website saying, yeah, there's something different, you're going to change everything and I was like, yes, let's be a part of it. German cities have a lot of needs. For example, here in this beautiful city Stuttgart, we see that this city is specially built for cars. So we don't have a lot of infrastructure for people that ride bikes or that walks a lot, right? Here a lot of people use the public transport, that's very good. It's very convenient but they also have delayed trains all the time. If we start thinking more about people and less about cars, we could save costs from infrastructure. So we would be having more people riding bikes and with this more healthy people and this creating more public spaces for people leads us, for example, to have more diversity. So the whole idea that I have is that today we lead lives which have stress for sure. We're doing the back and forth, we're doing the grind. What we're planning in a smart city is to have better resource efficiency. We're trying to move to automation. We're trying to have digitally and data-driven designs so data is going to help us take efficient decisions. For example, one of the needs that we see in cities, like developing countries or developed countries is for example to give back the city to the people to make it more human to make them cities to live in that actually people want to live there. The people smarter for a reason they would be more responsible towards the environment. That's one major change that we need to bring about and education, definitely education and the way we think about how our cities to be because we have ruined it enough and we shouldn't be doing the same for many more years to come. In 20 years, I imagine a city where humans don't have to struggle for the basic needs all over the world. Humans don't have to undergo so much of stress in order to make a life, make a living. Enjoy the resources that nature gives us and we work in an efficient, equal, inclusive and sustainable world.


From Gillette Stadium in Foxboro, Massachusetts, extracting the signal from the noise, it's the Cube! Covering VTUG's New England Winter Warmer 2016. Now your host, Stu Miniman. Welcome back to the Cube. I'm Stu Miniman with Wikibon, and this is the VTUG 2016 Winter Warmer 10th year of the show, third year of having the Cube here, and no better way to be at a user group than to talk to one of the users themselves. Happy to have on the program for the first time, Neil Reardon, who is the AVP of Information Systems and Technology for Central One Federal Credit Union, local company here in the New England area. Neil, thanks for joining us. No problem, thanks for having me. All right, so Neil, start us out. Tell us a little bit about your background, your role, and for those that don't know, Central One Federal Credit Union, tell us a little bit about the organization. Okay, cool. Yeah, so I've been in technology close to 20 years, I think over 20 years. I don't, you know, if I add my months up right, but basically been doing IT, soup to nuts, help desk, started help desk, and then working my way up to management now. So, you know, I'm 16 years in credit union land, so to speak, so this is my fourth credit union that I've been at, so this is what, you know, we've been around since 1952, started as a New England electric, you know, Massachusetts electric workers, and then we went federal in 1998, I believe, to be a federally chartered credit union, which means we have the Fed that governs us, so we have to make sure that we're up to snuff with most of our offerings to members. Okay, so Neil, how many locations do you guys have? Sketch out for us a little bit what your IT staff looks like. Okay, so we have four brick and mortar branches. Obviously, we're online with online services, mobile services, and we have a very small staff.  All right, and what technology domains fall under your purview? Everything, I guess. Anything that runs on a computer or electricity, I guess, falls under me. I think, you know, the phone system, the networking, the storage, the desktops, all that stuff, as well as the other half of me is data operations, so it's all the day-to-day processing, so I know right away when stuff isn't working.  No, it's more of an internal, incredible Hulk-type battle, I guess, that I get into. All right, so can you tell us a little bit about kind of your infrastructure, what do you have, you know, what kind of virtualization, compute, server, network? All right, so a couple years ago, we peer-to-veed everything, 30 physical servers, now we're at 85 virtual servers in just a couple years. We actually, we reduced our footprint by choosing SimpliVity OmniCubes, so we went from two and a half physical racks to four U. So that was actually, you know, from just a massive amount of heat generated out of that one area that we went from 60 plus power supplies to, you know, six, eight, because we needed it, we had like, you know, a physical domain control, that kind of thing, so it wasn't just the two OmniCubes, but for the most part, you know, it's our footprint significantly reduced as well as we were able to do disaster recovery, which is a huge thing for credit unions. Okay, so take us back to kind of some of that decision point.  Can you walk us through a little bit of that process, you know, what you looked at, you know, why you made that decision, and you were pretty early on, especially from a SimpliVity standpoint. Sure, yeah, I believe they went general availability January of 2013, I started at the credit union February of 2013, and by March, April timeframe, we had chosen SimpliVity as the option to help us virtualize, you know, the equipment we were going to use to virtualize. We, you know, we looked at all the different, you know, looked at three different solutions. One was SimpliVity, one was the typical EMC solution so that had hosts and switches and storage Omni and same with the, you know, what I likened more to a hybrid, which was Nimble and regular hosts. Once we, knowing that we went to an Oracle, we had an Oracle database that is our, you know, core system, when we added, when we looked at doing that, everybody else doubled their appliances to their hosts to help us get to that compute that we needed. So we went from two and a half physical racks to three and a half physical racks with the other two solutions, where SimpliVity, we doubled the memory and everything seemed to work out pretty well.  So VM density was one of the things that really helped you a bunch? Absolutely, I mean, I think, you know, just from, there was a lot of different benefiting factors. One was, you know, cost, just from a licensing standpoint, it was a lot cheaper, and I was able to do DR. That was a big thing, you know, the budget was already set when I walked in the door.  Yeah, so I'm just curious, you know, what sort of risk was involved there?  Yeah, definitely a leap of faith. We, you know, it was my, ultimately my, there were a group of people that had the ultimate choice.  And for whatever reason, they picked up what I was putting down, and they, I don't know, I felt like I'd sell ice to Eskimos when I walked out of there, because it was just one of those things that, you know, I can't believe that they, you know, this was a leap of faith for not only them, but me, like, throwing myself out there.  And as a nerd, I was like, this is fantastic. Yeah, all right, Neil, so walk us through kind of the experience. So once you've got it installed, you know, were there any issues there?  Just like anything else, it's VMware. So it's, you know, we, you know, that makes it a lot easier to digest.  Some of the staff had to learn it. It's the first time they'd seen it, but, you know, just from a virtual standpoint, it's so much easier to have everything on a single pane of glass as everybody here can attest to, I'm sure. But, you know, basically the upgrades, they're just like anything else. So they get certified in whatever version of VMware we're on, and we actually just did an upgrade to 5.5 vSphere, and, you know, that seemed to go pretty well. We had to do an upgrade with SimpliVity for that.  I think, you know, I think looking longer term, it's okay, how do we refresh this stuff? And it's a easier swap out as well. So we're getting to the, you know, we're in the three year range at this point. So, you know, equipment refresh is kind of in my mind right now at some point. I guess one of the things we look at, traditionally from a storage standpoint, migration is one of the toughest things, because when you bring in something new, you know, getting off the old, getting onto the new, when you're adding new pieces, there's that constant, you know, churn there. And therefore, you know, we look at, you know, most companies will spend at least 30% of the overall cost of a solution in those migration costs. And, you know, the kind of hyper-convergence or what we call server sand, when I've got a pool of resources and it should be able to add nodes and take nodes out. Even if you do a refresh, you add the new piece and you pull the old, it should be a lot more seamless. And therefore, it should, you know, it should work. You know, how true to reality is that? Well, so far, we haven't had to worry about that right now. We did end up adding two more OmniCubes this past year.  So it was RDS servers and we just needed more resources. Went to the board again and said, look, we, you know, we went from 30 physical servers to now we're at 65 virtual servers. I need more resources. So they basically, you know, because it was so successful, they said, yeah, I buy two more. So we use that. So right now I have two clusters. They talk to each other, but they're just separated. And just the performance level is still as good as any and they talk, we can migrate, you know, you can be motion back and forth. So it's not like, you know, I see something, you know, when we have to do updates, for example, for the OmniCubes themselves, we v-motion everything onto one, and then we update it and we v-motion everything back. So we know that everything runs on one or two OmniCubes at the most.  So it sounds like, you know, you must have done a lot of homework trying to go to the board and understand what kind of hero numbers do you have as kind of utilization and efficiency of the solutions you're using? Sure, I think when we converted, it was under six terabytes of data. And because we've added so many servers and have now are able to offer so many different services to the members, you know, we're probably right around, I think total we could, we have like 21 terabytes associated available to us. And we, you know, we're out of the whole cluster. And we are using, we probably still have about eight or nine left, which includes about 11 petabytes of data backup. And that's because I was pretty anal about every two hours backing it up and we keep those forever at scene. And we're not supposed to do that. I mean, it doesn't, it kind of defeats the purpose, but you know, I think with unlimited storage at some level, it was easy to do. So now we're trying to manage that a little bit better.  I think we're in the high 80, the 86% to one for what SimpliVity uses for their efficiencies. But our Ddupe rate is between the four in production. We're about, I believe it's 40% to 40.1 to one for Ddupe and compression is 2.1 to one. Okay, and what are kind of the main applications that you're using? That's pretty high, you know, rates of Ddupe. Yeah, we actually have, we run Oracle databases as our core application database. We have ATM databases, we have SQL databases. I mean, we have a lot of transactional information and bombarding these things over, you know, on a daily basis, on an hourly basis. I mean, we, you know, because we're open technically 24-7, we have constant communication between our online banking provider and our core system and our core support. And, you know, everything seems to have been handled efficiently enough with going with the army cubes. I mean, it was nice to see that, you know, it wasn't a bad decision even a couple years later.  You're one of the first customers of First SimpliVity, but what have you seen in the maturation of that solution over the last couple of years? I think they have got more efficient in how they de-dupe and compress. I was, you know, we were able to not have to upgrade our data line to be able to run data backups to our DR location or push across data there, which was a big thing now. The one thing that- That's the Wayne Optimization. Yeah, that's the Wayne Optimization. So that was actually, that worked. We didn't have to upgrade. We had a three meg pipe between VPN tunnel between us and our DR location. So we didn't have to really do anything there. The one things that I like to hear that they're doing and I kind of have said that it's been a downfall is the file level restore. Right now it's available if you're on their latest and greatest version, which now we're going to be upgrading relatively soon. But I think that's one of the things that I would have liked to see earlier on, more like a, you know, I think if you tied it in with Veeam, they're now bringing that in, which, you know, we didn't do. We just kind of, you know, the, it's still better than tape, restoring a backup or somebody lose a file is that kind of thing. But the file of a restore, I think we'll come into play more with exchange. So restoring that one email or something along those lines, that's where it would, that's where it'll help. And then for, from a financial institution, we, you know, data encrypt data at rest encryption is really one of the things that the feds looking at. So they're offering that sometime in one of their new releases this year, which is one of those things that just from a security standpoint, we, you know, our members expect us to be as secure as possible that no breaches are going to happen to their data. And that's what they expect. So, you know, we're trying to give that to them.  You know, what would you say to have them, you know, maybe that they wouldn't be prepared for things that they said, okay, we did this good or, you know, maybe we could have done this better. What advice would you give to, you know, your peers? Definitely pick the right person to help you install it. You know, I think that there's so many more people to choose from now that it doesn't, you know, you find the right vendor to work with and as long as you trust them. So are you talking about a channel partner or are you talking about the vendor themselves that makes the technology? No, the channel partner. Yeah, okay. So they use the right channel partner and you know, one of the things that I've done a few calls for the, for SimpliVity that I would like to see is, was all this file level restore and so it looks like that they probably just listened to everything I said and put it into play now. But, you know, that's my God complex kicking in I guess that they're listening to me at all times. But they, you know, I think that I would probably up the RAM, you know, just do it, make sure that the box that you're getting is going to, you know, it's easy, you know, well it's virtual. So everything's easier to just add stuff to it and create the servers and do all that stuff. I think you really need to make sure you scale it out appropriately. Okay, is your company using any public cloud today? You talked about kind of the web services that you have. Do you host everything yourself? Everything's in-house, yeah, minus our website. So that's hosted from our online service provider, which, you know, but everything else is, we host, you know, internally, I think. Yep, I'm just kidding. All right, so Neil, have you been to this event before? I went to the one in Maine over the summer, you know, Gritty McPubs? All right, so what do you find is kind of the value?  I think it's cool to see all the new technology. I mean, you can only read so much online and you know, it's kind of nice to see it and even then, if you're interested, there's breakout sessions for you to be able to actually listen to and possibly ask a question or at least approach some of the vendors that, well, they're here. You know, also making contacts with people, you know, you don't really see, you know, I can't go home and talk, geek talk with my wife, she's just like zones out and doesn't listen and there's not too many people that want to do that, but if it's during the day and everything, you know, everybody says it seems to be a good atmosphere to collaborate with people and get to know different people because I mean, I'm definitely the dumbest guy in the room so it helps me to figure out who I can talk to and to help me figure stuff out. All right, so Neil, I've got one really important question for you. So, you know, what do you think about Patriot's chances here for, you know, the rest of the playoffs? I know they're going to win, so they, Are they going to go all the way? I think so, yeah. Trophy number five. Trophy number five. All right, well. Well, the big parade.  Yeah, I got my style from Bill Belichick, so. Absolutely, just got to cut the sleeves off. Yeah, you got to cut the sleeves, yeah. All right, well, Neil Rudin, really appreciate you joining us. We'll be back wrapping up our coverage of the VTUG 2016 Winter Warmer. Thanks so much for watching. This is theCUBE.


Don't turn that dial. This is the right station. If you want to hear about Jonathan Thomas and his Christmas on the moon Jonathan Thomas who has just turned six got himself in a terrible fix He went to bed at half past eight, which isn't early nor is it late and he went to sleep with his teddy bear He never could sleep without guzz because well then when the chime on the clock struck nine and what it would seem He had begun to dream a beam from the moon came into his room and two funny people Named Ezra and Jeeple slid down and started to frown at Jonathan Thomas and guzz Well then guzz woke up and chased them up as any teddy bear should do and then Jonathan Thomas He woke up too because he heard the fires that was made by guzz and he joined the chase to the funniest place Since the world began and pretty soon he met a man who turned out to be as he could plainly see the man in the moon Then pretty soon when he was in his room, there was the awfulest noise Even worse than boys can make with their toys and he got more scared than he dared or cared to let on cuz guzz was gone And he sighed and nearly cried and if he had it wouldn't have been bad And you know because this we boblems had kidnapped Santa Claus Mr.. Mr.. Man in the moon. Oh for goodness sakes stop calling me mr.. Man in the moon Oh, but I thought that was your name. Oh, how very silly if it's your name How could it be mine, but it isn't cuz my name is Jonathan Thomas That's a fever because my name isn't Jonathan Thomas My name's nothing of the sort and I'll be pleased if you'll call me that from now on yes, sir Thank you, please mr.. Nothing of the sort, but good. Maybe I ask you a question. I don't know Have you ever tried it? Please mr.. Nothing of the sort Why do we have to come here to old King Coles court my goodness gracious? What an easy question? We come here to King Coles court because we don't have to go there and anybody knows that King Coles court isn't there It's here there is where the old folks stay. Oh What oh Cuz I wish we could go look for guests Well, I guess there's nothing to stop us We can look for him or five him or even sex him Now if we have enough time and if we haven't maybe we can borrow some from anybody He's got lots of time on his hands This is the court of the very best sort for it's the court of old King Cole Let the good be good and stand as they should and the bad make confession for this court is now in Oh dear Ladies and gentlemen and everybody else. This is the most serious moments of history And anybody who ever studied history knows how serious that is No, no, no, no, I mean to say you all know that Santa Claus has been kidnapped And if he isn't rescued there won't be any Christmas this year and you know what that means It means that no toys for the boys. No curls for the girls and Christmas will be very sad That day of the year will be without cheer. No presents or candy or things No come all ye faithful. No Carol that sings And the day will be bad not marry or glad And no presents that's and to Claus Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Now then I am certain that there is a traitor in our beach There is someone in this city of oh my goodness Who is a spy for the terrible scribblems who kidnapped our dear mr. Claus Therefore we are now going to hold court to find the guilty culprit and I do here by and here with elect professor I am lunay to act as prosecuting attorney and the tired lion mr. Laugley or roar To act as the defense attorney Thank you. Thank you. Thank you your majesty and ladies and gentlemen And now first of all we shall proceed Will the clerk of the court please ask mr. Humpty Dumpty to come for I think you'd better have him come first instead of fourth mr. So we can keep the numbers straight. Yes very well your majesty Will the clerk of the court please call mr. Humpty Dumpty to the stand Humpty Dumpty to the stand Sit down Now then mr.  I don't like being sworn at I said swear the witness mr. Humpty Dumpty Not swear at the witness the word act being a preposition to show the relationship between the object and the verb And one should never never end a sentence with the preposition Yeah, what about a jail sentence professor lunay? If you please if you please your majesty Now then mr. Humpty Dumpty Where were you on the evening of the second Tuesday of last week? Uh, no, please. Uh-huh, but can you prove it? Uh, nope, but I sure can recite verses. Oh, no, no, no, don't dare. Don't dare. I warn you I'll go to pieces. I'll go to pieces. In the middle of the night when the sun was shining bright on the star's Madderley twinkle and no sound was around and the still was so shrill that nobody could hear Oh Well, I'm most sorry to regret that due to the fact that professor lunay has just Gone pieces a court is now adjourned until we put him back together Yeah The time has come for everyone to take their seats again and if you fail you'll go to jail which is commonly called the pen Sit down Call the next witness Jonathan thomas to the stand Jonathan thomas to the stand. Where is Jonathan thomas? If you please sir, I'm right here That's what you say, but I say that you're wrong here and the proof of the pudding is in the eating Goody the plum pudding with mint sauce professor lunay If you please your majesty Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. At now then Jonathan thomas Do you solemnly swear that you will Bill fill the sack doodle of the bill wig startle hot nicks of the truth Of the crally lincious of the nitty apples cough. So help me Hannah say I do I do. What if you please? You see your majesty evading And all the one need is but one look at this cringing crook of crying crime criminally conspiring scamp of cut wolding in his cataclysmic catastrophes coarse stress And un-christian company would claim consider him considerably crazy a complete confession of contemptible Consentuousness of contempt of court Unquote now answer my question. Can you or can't you you you you can I thought if you please Evading again Now if you please your majesty you'll notice that he is about to cry He's trying to sue their sympathy with silly sobs of sappy suffering. So strife will cease and success Seem to strike sorrow subservient, but I say your majesty He is guilty So it seems there's something in what you say Proceed I will I achieve this prisoner of the bar of being a spy for the terrible squee-bubblem For santa claus was not kidnapped until after Jonathan thomas alias johnny the jib alias jone of the jinx arrived in our Fair fair city of oh my goodness, which proves it Your majesty I accused jonathan thomas of being responsible for santa claus being kidnapped and I Recommend that he be spanked by the royal spankers and also be given two bottles of castor oil But I do like castor oil Neither do I Your majesty, I rest my jolly old case. Oh, well, uh, thanks lune.


Hey everybody, welcome back to Magic Orthodoxy. My name is David and this is a deck review. Hey, today we're going to look at the Divine Art playing cards from Guru Playing Cards. All right, so what is the Guru Playing Cards deck? Of course, this was a Kickstarter project. You might remember I did a review for the prototype a little while back and I'll stick the link for that in the description below. Guru Playing Cards and this deck were designed by Sunise Chiba and if you would like to learn more about this, you can visit their website at guruplayingcards.com. Of course, this deck is fully custom illustrated cards based on Hindu mythology. The basis of the Indian worldview is of cosmic unity underlying the physical diversity of the world through which man transcends himself and sends almost every Indian folk art form is based on Hindu mythology. For all the court cards, Kings, Queens and Jacks and the suits, the various gods and goddesses are all the inspiration for the artwork. Millions of people worship these deities daily in India and abroad and so I think this deck certainly has a large audience. The tuck case is done in a black matte paper stock and it's all wrapped beautifully in gold foil. The gold foil tuck box is on a 300 GSM cardboard paper with matte finish and has a custom numbered stamp and seal. The front of the tuck case has the pips from the various suits and it looks like I would say these are peacocks surrounding the corners but I could be wrong. It says divine art playing cards inspired by Hindu mythology limited edition on the front. Both sides, the left and right, say divine art playing cards inspired by Hindu mythology and the bottom has some ad copy about guru playing cards. The top has the custom numbered stamp and seal and the back design of course is the back design of the cards. The tongue flap has a beautiful like mandala looking coin symbol there and that is pretty much it for the tuck case. Let's take a look at these cards. With this deck you get 54 poker sized cards made in China with a gold gilded edge.  They only have the linen finish on the faces okay. So what does that mean? That means it doesn't have a finish on the back. This is smooth so that means that because of the gold foiling on the back they didn't want to then imprint the linen finish on this to ruin the back which means they're going to glide much easier across the face than they will across the back. So think of it like if it was a bicycle deck it only has we'll say air cushion. It only has air cushion on one side and not the other. A lot of people always ask me how these cards feel and handle. Best thing I can do is measure them with a caliper just to give you an idea of how thick they are. Obviously the gold foiling on the backs and the sides is going to add to the thickness of the cards and make them feel bulky. This deck when measured 10 cards comes to 3.11. 3.11 is very thick. This is beyond casino stock okay. This is a very thick deck of cards. The back design is all done in blacks and golds and the gold of course is metallic ink. It is a hot stamped gold foil and it does have a medium-sized poker border. You'll see that the black carries all the way to the edges but of course the faces of the cards are white so that'll make reverse cards easy to spot. And the back design is really simply just those four exotic birds and some fauna there in the middle. Now because this was a Kickstarter one of the nice things about this deck is it comes with a little booklet that tells you a little bit more about the deck and you're able to go through that and read some of the interesting features. For instance with this deck you'll get two original jokers one depicting the divine messenger and one depicting the enchantress. Going through your suits and your court cards, the spade courts, the king represents Vishnu, the queen is Lakshmi and the jack is Garuda. Looking at the clubs and looking at these court cards the king is Brahma, the queen is Sarwati and the jack is the swan. With the heart court cards the king is Krishna, the queen is Radha, and the jack is Sarabi. And the diamond courts the king is Shiva, the queen is Parvati and the jack is Nandi. With this deck you're going to get four very big very beautiful aces. The ace of spades is the most prominent, thus a divine art guru playing card company down at the bottom. The aces, the four aces also have unique symbology. The ace of spades is the forehead adornment of Vishnu. The ace of diamonds is the trident weapon of Shiva. The club is a symbol of the lotus and the heart is the symbol of Krishna. The pips and indices are all completely unique and original to this deck as well and you'll notice that within suit to suit the backing is pretty much the same. It's almost like there's a shadow marking for where the pips should go and the only pips that are lit or colored in are the ones that match the numeric in the corner. Alright so that is my review for the divine art cards from guru playing cards. I'd like to thank guru playing cards for allowing me to have this deck so that I could do the review for you and if you would like to purchase this for yourself I would recommend that you head on down to guruplayingcards.com. Thanks, bye.


For this summative assessment, we're basically going to do three different runs with this model, and each one will have a different history of the emissions control rate. So when you open the model up, just reset everything first with the reset button. There's everything and returns it to original. Then we're going to run it with the default values. So for the practice version, we use the default values. We're not going to change anything. We're just going to run it. We run it and we'll see what happens. Here you can see in red the temperature rising, and it gets up to about 6.8 degrees Celsius warming. In blue is the carbon emissions that rises, and it reaches a peak of about 31 gigatons of carbon, and then it starts to decrease, and then it just sort of falls off a cliff right here. It falls off a cliff right there because we actually run out of fossil fuels at that point. And if you click ahead a few graphs, you can see there's the emissions. There, sorry, go back one. This graph shows the fossil fuels remaining. That drops to zero at this point. So we totally run out of fossil fuels at that point. So that's scenario number one. That's the do nothing scenario. And the next scenario B is called the slow and steady one. And if you look over here in this table, there are some numbers that tell us the values of this emissions control rate at different points in time. So here's what you do. You click on the emissions control right here. You click on table, and then these Y values here are the numbers that are reflected over here. So point zero zero five is already there. That's that. Now we're going to put in point one five, and then point three, and then point four five, and then finally point six. Okay. And now we see we have a nice slow steady increase in the emissions control rate. That means as time goes on, we're going to kind of slowly do more and more in terms of reducing carbon emissions. That's how we have to change. And then we run the model and see that that results in a somewhat lower global temperature change still rises to 5.45 degrees C, which is pretty serious warming by the year 2,200. Now we'll do one more scenario. This is the get serious scenario. And the values here, according to that table are point three three, point six six, and then one, and one. Now when this has a value of one, that effectively means we're going all out, we're going to do whatever it takes to eliminate all carbon emissions. And so we set that up and you can see here it pops out and stays at one there at the end. So we run that scenario and sure enough, the temperature changes quite a bit less. We have 2.8 degrees of temperature change by the end of time. And you know, if you look at the carbon emissions, let's see if we go to this one here, this is all three runs of carbon emissions. So the third one, we get serious carbon emissions, they actually drop to zero by the time we get to the year 2152. And they stay at zero at that point. So then you've done the three runs on a number of these graphs. The different curves represent run one, run two, run three. So run one would be the do nothing scenario. Run two would be the slow and steady scenario. And run three would be the get serious scenario. And so there are a whole bunch of different graphs here. Everything is plotted. Here, by the way, these are the total abatement costs. And you can see in the first run, the abatement costs are essentially zero all the way along. And then the abatement costs get very big. Once we've run out of fossil fuels, we have to make up for that with renewable energy. And so that's going to be associated with some significant costs. So the abatement costs rise up dramatically there and then level off as time goes on. So then in this worksheet, you see there are a whole bunch of questions to answer. What is the global temperature change at the year 2200 for scenario AB and C? And these are the answers that you could get off of these graphs. Graph number two, graph number 15, 17, 18, 7, 9, and so on from just doing these three scenarios and then toggling back and forth between these graphs, running your cursor along here until you get to the year 2200 and then recording the values and filling them in this table. So if you fill in this part of the table with those values, then you can use these numbers to help you answer the various questions that go along with this experiment. So hopefully that's


So we are discussing this ph diagrams discussing u as h told you come along an isotherm at a particular pressure you have this equation mu a is equal to mu beta this is phase equilibrium but we have also seen this is the same as g a is equal to g beta for pure substances the chemical potential is simply the free energy Gibbs free energy per mole so this can be written as we have said that phase equilibrium t a is equal to t beta is equal to p p a is equal to p beta is equal to p pressures are the same because you have mechanical equilibrium and thermal equilibrium and so this gives you chemical equilibrium. So thermo one dynamic equilibrium has three components thermal mechanical and chemical equilibrium so you have s a dt so you have your clashes clip around equation that tells you that dp by dt is equal to ?s by ?b in this implies that ?h is equal to t ?s so this is your clashes clip around equation you are quite familiar with but the idea is that the pressure becomes related to the temperature by this equation at some if you take a substance in lower the pressure at some temperature below the critical temperature this is t is equal to tc so below tc you take any isotherm if you keep lowering the pressure and move along the isotherm you reach a pressure at which two phases form then here if you decrease the pressure further you have the gas phase here vapor phase so we have in this region of course we have all the isentropic lines this is s is equal to constant this is v is equal to constant and so on you can read any of the values it takes two coordinates to fix the position of a state for example here any h and p will fix the position then you can do it in terms of any two variables if you fix the temperature and the pressure this point is fixed if you fix the temperature and enthalpy this point is again fixed so any two variables will specify the state of the system inside this region this is say liquid plus vapor typically I given you the chart for methane plotted from experimental data here also you need two variables because you have one variable temperature which will determine the pressure and therefore all the values at saturation similarly at the vapor end but in between how much of vapor and how much of liquid is present is specified by an extensive variable in the variable here it is usually denoted by x is equal to fraction of vapor so two variables are required to specify the state of the system any two will do now if you want to calculate work for example you want to know what is the maximum work typically for example you compress a fluid you compress it as I said adiabatically simply because compression is usually done by it can be done by a rotary device or a reciprocating device and the compression time is very small it is so small that the amount of heat transferred to the fluid is negligible if you take a rotary device for example typically it rotates at 1000 rpm or 1200 rpm for convenience that means per second you have 20 rotations so in 20 times a second it gets compressed so 120th of a second how much heat can be transferred to the fluid so effectively it is adiabatic if it is adiabatic you know that the entire work done is simply the enthalpy change so if you take an s is equal to constant line adiabatic reversible case then if you are compressing from some pressure to some other pressure from this point let us say do not need to be on the saturation line does not matter I seem to have drawn it here so this point is a I take vapor at this pressure and compress it from a to b the amount of minimum work that I have to do is the enthalpy along the isentropic line so this will represent for example the minimum work per unit mass of per mole depending on what the plot is so essentially calculating minimum work simply means on this chart identifying position a and position b the initial state and the final state if it is isothermal you will go along an isotherm and calculate ?g if it is adiabatic if it is a closed system then you will calculate ?u and if it is finally a closed isothermal system you will calculate ?a let me do an example yeah this is adiabatic case device that people carry on the back for underwater operations has a huge tank as it has a small tank and a huge tank two tanks then you have a valve here you have a expansion device this is put into this okay I have tank one and tank two this contains at t is equal to zero this contains initially compressed air at say p0 bar you know what the units on this chart are the old units are all they have made it SI units pass mega Pascal's does not matter some pressure this is initially evacuated what you do is at t is equal to 0 you allow you open a valve allow this air to expand here into this you could let it out in the open if the pressure is sufficiently low but for example for deep sea activity if you are 10 meters below sea level you are talking 10 bar already the pressure there so if this is filled to 10 bar the gas would not leave at all if you open the valve so you have to have another container secondly there are environmental considerations whether the gas that you put in if it is air it is okay if you are taking some other gas for operations you do not want to let it out into the sea so what you do is pass it through an expansion engine this engine will rotate this will give you work shaft work so as the gas expands from one tank to the other it turns a shaft which will do work for you you may do minor repairs you may simply be you may take the hull of a ship and break up the crust that are found at some places and so on whatever whatever the repair job that you are doing you need an engine to help you produce work and this is a typical device this is carried on the back so you can calculate how much you can first of all the weight of the device that a person can carry the size of the device and all that so there are some limitations in terms of how much a person can carry on his back and but the question of thermodynamic interest is if it works under sea water for example this is at temperature T which is fixed both are at temperature T it is isothermal operation effectively because the temperature of the water outside will determine the temperature of the whole process so under isothermal operation what is the total work that is done so there are two ways of calculating it and this is the trouble about thermodynamics one way turns out to be trivial the other way turns out to be somewhat complex but the answers are the same they have to be the same in any case so for example if I want to calculate the work I can calculate I can take the engine alone I can do it as an open system where I define contents of the engine that is my system so I have gas coming in gas going out and I can ask what is the work done we derived an expression for the work done if you remember this expression had ?ws was less than or equal to because in isothermal operation it was g out minus of g out tm out minus g in dm in thing minus you had this du NTds of which at steady state we said du NTds are 0 but apart from steady state if you have a system like this where the total amount of gas flowing through the system over a finite period of time of interest I mean do not make that time too short the total mass flowing through is much larger than the hold up in the system then this du represents change in internal energy of the contents of this device and this contents is not at steady state because this pressure is falling this pressure is rising so the pressure will change so the contents will change but the mass inside is negligibly small therefore the internal energy is negligibly small the change in internal energy is even smaller therefore we throw these two terms out in this case not because of steady state but under conditions of negligible hold up if you try to analyze the system for a microsecond or something you will get wrong answers because then this assumption is not valid but you are normally worried about finite periods of time during which the amount of gas passing through the system is much larger than the negligible I mean negligible compared to the mass passing through the system during the period of interest so if I have gas passing through this and under negligible hold ups then dm out is equal to dm in because the mass inside is negligible so you simply get delta ws by dm is equal to delta g if you are trying to calculate the maximum amount of work you are talking about p1 is equal to p0 initially p2 equal to 0 or near 0 p1 final this is initial final should be equal to p2 final till the pressures are different there will be work that you can extract in this case I am talking about isothermal operation which is why I got this result delta g so if I want to calculate ws simply integral of delta ws over the entire thing is equal to integral of minus delta g times dm from the initial conditions to the final condition on this diagram what is plotted are constant specific volume lines so instead of the M there mass is simply equal to volume by the specific volume in the volume of the you in this case for example the you can take the mass here you can integrate over this condition here and the mass here will be simply the total volume of cylinder 2 divided by the specific volume in cylinder 2 okay this is actually the hard way I will do this calculation little I will do this in a minute but the easier way is to take a closed system fact as a thumb rule as far as possible define a closed system which will still give you the answers that you need in this case it is tank 1 plus contents of engine plus tank 2 I take all of them together or contents of tank 1 plus engine plus tank 2 contents is outside this is a closed system no mass change in the system if it is a closed system you know that delta w is less than or equal to minus delta a under isothermal conditions so all I need to know is a final w is simply equal to a final minus a initial with a minus sign and this is also easy to write down because this is mf remember in the final state the pressure is the same in both so I can take the total mass mf into a f it is a homogeneous it will be a minus sign here because I take the minus inside plus m initial in tank 1 times a initial in tank 1 plus m initial in tank 2 a initial in tank when I derive a result for closed systems the system does not have to be homogeneous it can consist of several homogeneous parts you have to add all the thermodynamic properties so ai is actually a in this tank plus a in this tank the engine mass negligible I mean the mass the contents of the engine are negligible in this particular case I have taken initial mass as 0 here so I can strike this out negligible mass initially I vacuate this cylinder so I have simply m f a f plus in this case these two are equal m is simply mf is equal to mi in 1 tank 1 is equal to v of tank 1 by v initial in tank 1 so I must give you the size of the two cylinders capital V is the total volume of tank 1 v 1 capital V 2 will be the volume of tank 2 the calculate vi I know the temperature and I know the pressure initially p0 so we will take some numbers here for example if you take let us take some numbers from here for example I will take example I am taking methane only because I have a chart on methane nobody will be foolish enough to run this with methane I mean the best way to do run such an engine is with air so if air leaks you do not have to worry about destroying the ecology in the fish and all that stuff but I just for example let me take some reasonable temperatures so let me take 10 mpa let me say I filled up to 10 mpa I can take a temperature I do not think I have a choice here this is seawater so we will take something like 20 degrees C 20 degrees C would be about 273 let me take 300 degrees k for convenience that line is here so you can read the 300 degree k line here so 300 degrees k and 10 what I need is simply a at these conditions this is the initial condition so what is a equal to a is h you need to get several variables because it is h-pv-ts right I have h p v t and s all these are available on the chart so t is known you have to read s on the table in the so you just take the intersection of 300 degree k line which is an isotherm you can see that line there it comes down and meets the 10 mpa line at something like 550 enthalpy roughly my eyes are far worse than yours so you can read some numbers out will you tell me the numbers this is about 550 for example in whatever units this is kilo joules per kilogram the pressure of course is 10 can you tell me what v is at that point you just identify the intersection point and then read everything from the graph this is great fun somebody else draws graph for you and you just read numbers from it so the whole calculation is trivial what is your v the v lines I pointed out to you that v is the slope of the v lines you remember we got the slope of the v and s lines actually these are marked here so the s lines of a steeper slope the flatter lines on the right hand side are the v lines the line that passes through this about 10 these lines are lines of his mark density is it okay the change this is not specific volume actually density is given and this chart has changed since the last edition so this is actually 1 by that so this is about 1 by 10 meter cube per kg I am reading numbers approximately you read them more carefully normally the PV product is negligible compared to H so H minus PV H and you can be equated for most purposes and then you have TS S you can read here what is the value of s that you get here 17 is it this one 71770 sorry oh it is much higher yeah right okay then what about the entropy is it 9 15 20 it is higher I say 30 50 and 70 it is almost 70 no it is not sorry I take it back I am allowed to make mistakes you are not one of my problems is that it is about 10 yeah you are right about 10 9 okay and this is of course 300 so that is your initial value and you have to know the volume as well I mean the mass the mass is simply the total volume what do you think you can carry on your back what kind of volumes can you carry 1 meter cube will be too big let us say point this the larger one will be about point 1 meter cube this is about point 0 1 meter cube just giving you some numbers this will be strapped on your back so the m will be point 0 1 which is meter cube divided by or multiplied by the density in this case he is giving you a density actually those are constant volume lines is the same as constant density lines they have marked the density on it so 01 into the density is we just saw 1 by 70 no 70 kg per meter cube so you will multiply m into a this is a initial this is m initial so you have got this figure to get the final state you have to realize that the total volume is given it is an isothermal operation so the mass is the same so to get the mf is the same is also equal to mf is equal to mf so the final density rho f or 1 by vf final density is simply mf which is this divided by v1 plus v2 so it is point 11 its 11th of the initial density so you had already 70 by 11 so you have to find the 70 by 11 curve here and that is that is one fixed point then you are moving along the isotherm so along the 300 degree line you locate the second coordinate is simply the volume so 70 by 11 is what about 6 so you see the volume line at 6 somewhere about 6.6 it intersects the 300 degree line some enthalpy which is about 650 so you have to locate that point the enthalpy at that point again you are calculating af is equal to hf-p f vf-tsf this hf is about you can read it more carefully 650 and the reason these numbers decrease as you go to the as you move left for example as you move from vapor to liquid is because the zero point of energy is considered when two molecules are infinitely apart so as they move closer attractive forces between the molecules work is done the if you push the one molecule towards the other work is actually done by the system itself on you on the second molecule the first molecule is attracted by the second molecule is attracted by the first molecule so the energy will actually decrease so it will always go less your you take the ideal gas infinitely separated molecule as the zero of the energy so this is hf this you can read pf we have already seen what this is this is 11 by 70 you can read pf on that intersection again you know what it comes to get something like one pf is approximately one then T is known T is again 300 and finally SF SF is about 10.5 or something yeah 10.5 you go to lower pressures this higher entropy because it is greater movement of the molecules more freedom for the molecules so you calculate this af then multiply by mf which is the same you get a number which will tell you the maximum work you can get out of the system what you want is actually shaft work what you get there is w right how would you find the shaft work this will give you shaft work directly the open system analysis will give you shaft work directly but on the other hand that is so much easier to do the calculations for to get shaft work all you do is go back to the definition ws is w total work done shaft work is minus total work minus the flow work flow work done by the system is here in the outside minus I will simply say flow work I will have to do the flow work calculation because flow work calculation depends on the outlet conditions in the outlet conditions keep changing so I have to integrate from initial state to the final state normally if it was an ideal gas for example PV would be RT regardless of the state here the pressure and the volume change but PV is RT so in an isothermal operation the work here will be the same as the work in so for an ideal gas there will be no difference at all flow work will be negative will be 0 ws will be equal to w in many cases flow work is negligible so ws will be approximately w but we can calculate that exactly I will do this other calculation then it will become clear as to what we are talking about is that calculation clear while it looks a bit messy when you first see it you can see that once you have a chart you are empowered so essentially you have the chart then you can do any calculation if people somebody has done the chart for you then all you do is locate these things in a mysterious way if you are impressing a layman you can always do this you know move your fingers and locate a point in say point A point B and then calculate the differences and so on but the calculation itself is trivial and you can get out of thermodynamics only the maximum work that you can get from the system in actual practice will get less because of various fractional losses and irreversibility but then you can design your system better and better and you can say if it gets to within 99% of the thermodynamic result you say stop improving the system it does not help you now let me do the second calculation although it is quite illustrative and finally you will be able to match the two what I want to do is to calculate ?g into dm this is the integral I want to calculate this mass could be any of them because the mass leaving one is the same as the mass entering two so I can start with either one let me start with this m dm is equal to dm in tank two because in tank two mass is increasing you are looking at the flow through the system it is also equal to minus of dm one could use either one ?g is the difference in free energy between tank one and tank two so this is integral dg is equal to integral minus s tt plus V dp now this is just the thermodynamic property per mole therefore it is like the close system equations this is zero because it is isothermal operation so all I have to do is to calculate integral V dp this is from inlet to outlet so this is from p outlet is p two inlet is p one ?g is g out minus g in g out is the same as g in tank two g in is the same as g in tank one at this stage you have to do a numerical calculation because in the chart you will have to start with p one to p two at any given mass so when the mass is equal to m two which will go from zero all the way to the final total mass that was initially in the system at every mass you have to calculate that is you assume m two from zero make small increments at every point you have to know V from p one to p two that is you go along the isothermal line from p one to p two let me do this calculation for an ideal gas so that it is explicitly clear so at this stage I am going to assume ideal gas actually you can do this for an ideal gas you can do this analytically because this is simply RT ln p two by p one I am going to integrate this over m two so I have to relate the pressures to the mass this is the same as RT ln p two is row RT because it is ideal gas this is equal to RT ln the density is simply mass in tank two by volume of tank two this is volume of tank one by mass in tank one mass in tank one as m minus m two I am not doing it for methane I am doing it for the ideal gas right now for methane you have to do the same thing but you have to do it numerically by going along the isothermal or I can give you an equation of state give you something like van der Waals equation of state describe methane then you will do the integration using V from the van der Waals equation now I have to do this integral over dm dm is dm two so I will simply get ?g since I want to get ws is equal to minus integral of ?g dm two I get RT ln v one by v two which is a constant times m two not m two the total integral is m two equal to zero to total mass in the m final integral of this form m two equal to zero to m fine this is logarithm of v one by v two plus logarithm of the second term so I have split it into two parts log of v one by v two this is a geometric factor this is a constant therefore I just integrate it over the entire mass so I get the total mass flowing through the system which is equal to the total mass in tank two at the end of the process is simply mf minus RT ln this you know how to integrate just log x dx in log of a minus x dx in the same case for an ideal gas for ?a this would have been simply equal to again I have to integrate the same thing da I have got a final minus a initial that is all the same calculation I have to do which gives me mf I can pull out mf times integral da from initial condition p0 to pf and at constant temperature da is da is actually minus stt minus pdv so this is simply minus or plus integral mf times pdv from p is equal to pf to p is equal to p0 every switch the two for the minus sign switch the limits so this again is RT by v so you get mf or ?a is equal to mf into RT ln v initial at RT ln v by v final is equal to mf into RT ln because the mass is the same I can multiply by the mass any v initial into m initial would give me simply v1 and v final into m final will give me v1 plus v2 I want you to compare this which gives you actually w in this which gives you ws complete this integration and you find that the two expressions are identical because flow work in an isothermal ideal gas system is net flow work is 0 flow in is equal to flow out if you want to do a proper a professional analysis for industry or something they have to get the database many of them have access to database in these cases as far as this course is concerned you can use trapezoidal rule for all integrations if you are doing vdp numerical integration you simply is take v2 plus v1 by 2 no under the condition in those conditions and just integrate using a trapezoidal rule that will do then for accuracy you can go to any level of accuracy later you can stop there.


Tina, what's the variant of basal cell that we are concerned about? So that's not your typical nodular type. So you notice in multiple small fingers of basal cells surrounded by fabrovascular connective tissue in between. This is a morphia form. And the reason why you have to remember this is if basal cells are going to spread locally, it's usually the morphia form that does it because these send little fingers out so you can't normally see them and remove them all. The nodular type, which is most common or nodular cystic, you can see the edges. You can cut it out, you know, usually. But the morphia form type sends these little fingers out and it's often difficult to find the exact margins. So the morphia form type is the one that's more difficult to remove because you may be leaving remnants of tumor behind.  So this is a basal cell that was left alone for 10 years. This is a rancher or lady from Nevada. She had a morphia form basal cell 10 years ago. They said, we're going to have to do more surgery, remove that. She said, I'm an old lady. Leave me alone. Went home.  And it was actually CSF tripping out. So if you let basal cells grow for 10 years, they can cause really bad things. All right, what do we see in right here? A little orange kind of crackly parchment paper looked to the surface. What would you be concerned about here? That's what it's hard to say. So moving in a squamous cell. All right, so you'd be concerned about a squamous cell. Does this confirm the diagnosis? So what do we see on the path of a squamous cell? So there's keratin pearls. There's cells with higher NC ratios, promenucleol, and they're just like diving through the tissue. Okay, so you can see here these nice squamous pearls, squamous worlds in here. That's a real tip off for a squamous cell. Extra bonus points. If a squamous cell spreads from the lid back, how does it spread? Perineurals. Perineurals. That's important. You really want to watch them because they can spread perineurally. All right, what do we see in right here? What would you be concerned about? There's enough here to tell you the difference between the two. If you had a 50-50 shot here, what would you guess? Oh, 50-50 chance. Let's go melanoma. Okay, so basically when you look at that, you see loss of lashes. You see it's thickened and irregular. You see variable coloration. So whenever you see that constellation of findings, you really worry about melanoma. And so the melanoma is not common in the eye. It's becoming more common. And so as the sun worshipers of the baby boom generation get older, melanomas are sadly popping up more frequently. And here we look at the melanoma cells. They may not necessarily be heavily pigmented when you look at it, but you can see there's nucleoli. There's clumped chromatin. There's pleomorphism. There's different sizes and shapes of the cells. So that's malignant melanoma. These can not only spread locally, but can metastasize. All right, what do we see in right here, Chris? If you can see any sort of photo of the eye, there's an injection on the contactive end. The whole, like this lid martyr just seemed really small. This would make me think, indifferential-wise, maybe like a sebaceous cell carcinoma could look something like this. All right, so sebaceous cell carcinoma is the great mimicry. You got to remember that. So don't be fooled. So this was called blepharoconjunctivitis, you know, treated with antibiotics. And so what you look at, if you look at that upper lid, look at the loss of lashes, look how thick it is. You can even see the yellow from the mybomian secretions that are there. And so this can look like a chronic chelazion. If it's locally, if it's diffuse, it can look like blepharoconjunctivitis. And so this is the great mimicry. You want to be very careful not to miss these, because, again, these can metastasize. And when you look at them, these can be very aggressive looking and they behave very aggressively. They've got mitotic figures. They've got nucleoli. There's still occasionally little dots of lipid in them. But these can be a very bad actor and these can spread also. So you want to not miss a mybomian carcinoma. All right, so here we have, this is not Mo the surgeon. This is Mo the stooge. Come on. You study better when you're not so tense. So chill. All right, congenitiva. So softball here, Brad. What are the three parts of the congenitiva? So you have the non-charitonized strata. Oh, the three areas of the congenitiva. Oh, areas. Sorry. Okay, so you have the bulbar, the palpibral, and you have the fornix. Exactly. So it starts lining the, you know, from the limbus, lining the bulb, the bulbar, and then the fornix, and then lines the lid, the palpibral. And then, so what are the different layers now of the congenitiva? So we have the non-charitonized strata, squamous epithelia. We have the... Yeah, we call that the substantia propria. Substantia propria. What are all those little dots down there in the fornix? So those are probably goblet cells. Exactly. And what do they make? Mucin. Mucin. All right, very good. So mucin, the inner layer of the tear film. All right, what do we see here? Right here. You're not graduated yet, so what do we... What do we see in here? What do we see in here? The teridium. The teridium. And so what's the difference between a teridium and a pinguakila? Teridium crosses the limba margin. Exactly. So pathologically, they're exactly the same. It's just that the teridium crosses the limbas onto the cornea. What do we find pathologically? Solar elastosis. All right, so that's that. Squiggly solar elastosis of the collagen and substantia propria. What else do we find more anteriorly? It kind of stains blue, so we call it basophilic degeneration. So they're both solar elastosis, basophilic degeneration, UV induced degeneration of the tissue underneath. Solar elastosis is the breakdown of the collagen tissue. It gives it elastic characters and like a frayed elastic look. And then elastoid degeneration. Same thing. Yeah, same thing. Sometimes I feel like the pinguakila. Well, teridia can sometimes become more fibrotic with time. So as they grow more, they can become more fibrotic. And that's what you're saying, I think, is more fibrosis underneath. So when they're first starting, they are a little bit more translucent and seem a little bit more cystic. What do we see in here? Let's give you a concern. The question is why? Not because it says tumor up there. You know, that's not a hint or anything. Now, remember now, when you look at a teridium, the epithelium is actually thin rather than thicken. And the meat of the tissue is underneath it in the substantia propria. If you look at this, the epithelium is thick in gelatinous. You know, so the epithelium is the thick in part. It's really gelatinous. And so what would this be concerned for? Yeah, this would be concerned for CIN or even squamous cell carcinoma, depending. So when you see this gelatinous thickened epithelium, you have real concern about that. And we look and we see this picture. So does this help our diagnosis? So if you look right there, you can see loss of normal concentration. You see nucleoli. You can see different sizes and shapes. And so this is what we call CIN, Conjuctival Interim Thelogneoplasm. And we grade it mild, moderate, severe, depending on how much of the thickness from the base up is involved. So lower third, mild, up to two-thirds, moderate, more than two-thirds, severe. So this would be severe. It's full thickness. But by definition, the basement membrane is still intact. And so if it goes beyond the basement membrane, that's when we say squamous cell carcinoma, as long as the basement membrane is intact, we say CIN. You guys have to read whatever the latest literature says.   So you have to re-memorize it all. And I think it makes it more confusing rather than less. But in any event, you know what's in the BCSC, and that's how you do the nomenclature. That's my last question. Yes. What exactly is Bowman's disease? I know it's like squamous cell, like in situ. Yeah, Bowman's disease really is an old, old term, and I don't think you're going to have it pop up anywhere. Hopefully not in your readings. All right, so what are we seeing right here? Becca. It's organized. There's some keratin whirls in there. And these are actually in the connective tissue under the conch. So this has now become, more technically, squamous cell carcinoma. So this is actually a superficially invasive squamous cell. It looks like the squamous cell of the lid, and it's got keratin whirls, keratin pearls, and cleoline, pleomorphism, and so this is an invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the lid. What are we seeing right here, Tina? So there's localized areas of pigmentation on either side just next to the limbis and the palpiparulospes, sort of racial pigment, and the other would be PAM. What does PAM stand for? Primary acquired melanosis. And how do we break down PAM? What are the two ways we describe it? So within and without utopia. All right, so what would this be? Looking at those cells, trying to see, there's a couple of nuclei, but it's not looking like it's kind of full thickness. If you look, these melanocytes are mostly here in the basilar layer. No other squamous cells above it, but they're mostly in the basilar layer. And so when you have PAM without utopia, the melanocytes are along the basilar layer and they don't show atypical features. And even racial pigmentation will look like this. So you can often see people who are African-American or Asian who will have pigment around the limbus. And this is PAM, it looks exactly like this. PAM without atypical or even racial pigmentation. Does this give you more concern? Why? It looks like it has, like the conch vessels look like they're coming in and spreading out, like feeding the lesion. Another thing you can see, this isn't just that nice superficial brown dusting. There's some areas of younger pigmentation. There's some areas of lighter pigmentation. There's some thickening. So this would be a bit more concerning. And when we look at this now, what would we call this? Or again, this we could still technically say PAM with atypia. Exactly. So these atypical melanocytes are now spreading out through the epithelium itself and they're becoming more atypical to themselves. They're not just Medine melanocytes. And so PAM will go through a phase where you get PAM with atypia. And it's important to recognize that because PAM with atypia can go on to malignant melanoma. PAM without does not. So this is technically a pre-malignant lesion. So PAM with atypia. And is this concern? So even an intern can recognize this. What would your concern here be? Exactly. So this is melanoma. Unfortunately, another patient at the VA kind of ignores it as long as he can until he comes in. This turned out to be an actual malignant melanoma of the contractiva. So if you don't, you got to watch the PAM with atypia very carefully because if you look at malignant melanomas, about 80% of them arise from pre-existing PAM with atypia. Now it doesn't mean 80% of PAMs go on to melanoma. It means if you have melanoma, 80% of those arise from pre-existing PAM. So it's important to watch them real carefully. You could get a malignant melanoma. You know, oftentimes it can be yours. And these will often flare and then subside and flare them subside. So you'll see these people, there'll be areas, you'll remove them, you'll clean them, and then they'll come back a year or two later and they'll have another one pop up somewhere else. And so you really want to be careful. So this is the parthenon on top of the acropolis. They've been rebuilding this for a long, long time. It's nice though, every few years when I go back, they've got another, you know, part of the wall out of the ceiling. So the Greek government's trying to get the so-called Elgin marbles now. One entire face of the top of the parthenon is in the British Museum. And, you know, Elgin was the guy who rescued them, you know, because those Greeks couldn't take care of their antiquities. And so Elgin rescued them and took them to London where they're safe there. So hopefully someday they'll get them back and finish rebuilding this. All right, cornea. We're going to talk about the cornea. What are the layers of the cornea, Chris? So we have the epithelium. Okay. Tell me the difference between bonemons and decimais. So decimais is the true base of the membrane. Bonemons is not. Exactly. So what stain could you do to tell the difference? Yes. All right. So bonemons is just a condensed area of the anterior stroma. Bonemons does not regenerate. So if you have an ulcer, you have an abrasion, you have a cut there, it's a good historical marker because it doesn't regenerate decimais because it is a basement membrane. Decimais grows thicker throughout life.  Now, the epithelial basement membrane is not bonemons.  So think about this one. I think this is true. Think about it. All right. So corneal infections. What do we see in right here, Brad? What is this a classic picture of? So this is, we have some fluorescein uptake in the pattern of the denturidic lesion, which is a classic for HSV keratitis. All right. So this is HSV keratitis. You've got the dendri. You've got the little swollen projections. Now, if you were going to take a culture of that, where would you culture it? On a swab. I mean, where on the lesion? Oh, cool. Wait. I got to worry about you. You're way too left brain, so yes. Way too literal. You would do the bulbs. Exactly. So remember now, where the stain is all taken up in the center, that's where the epithelium is denuded already. So if you're going to do a little scraping for a culture, you want to do it kind of at the edge, where the thick epithelium is at the edge of the bulbs, because that's where the active viruses are going to be. And here you can see an area. There's the ulceration. And then you want to do it right next to that. And that's where the active viruses will be. And you don't have time to go into it now, but realize that there's more than just simple dendritic keratitis. You've got variations of stromal keratitis, recurrent herpes. You really need to know that for when you get to the corneas section of the boards. All right, what are we seeing right here? There's ulceration with infiltrate. What would you be concerned about here? Depending on if they're not feeling a ton of pain and considering we're in the higher section I consider like a neurotrophic keratitis, but the ulcer could be considered like a bacterial ulcer as well, like pseudomonas or something. Exactly. This is someone who actually didn't take care of their contacts. And so this is a pseudomonas ulcer. And you really worry about a pseudomonas ulcer because a pseudomonas ulcer in 48 hours can actually cause a corneal perforation. Because not only do the bacteria put out collagenases and proteases and help melt down the corneas, but the body's immune system that comes in there can help melt down the corneas. So you really got to treat these as an emergency. This is a cornea that has become completely necrotic and is perforated. So that's what you really worry about with the bacterial ulcer. What's that? Oh, it is already. Yeah, this is a pseudomonas. This is really thinning. And this actually did perf later. And so it is thinning. It did perf. What do we see in here? This is a little bit different. What would your concern here be? A little bit more indolent in history. It's been here for about 10 days. Farmer. Exactly. This is a fungal ulcer. And so you see the little kind of halo of white around it and you get kind of that halo of white around it. It's more indolent and it's slower growing. And you get that exposure to the crop when you're out there. And sure enough, we do a special stain. What stain do we use for looking at fungi? GMM. So this is Gamori methenamine silver. And so the little yeasty beasties will stain a black silver color. So this is your fungal ulcer. All right. What are we seeing right here? You don't see yeasty beasties on warlords. All right. Becca. All right. So it has kind of a ring shaped infiltrate. And you can see that epithelium is disrupted. Yeah. Big chronic epithelial defect. This has been treated for herpes for three weeks. Yeah. So I'd be worried about a neurotrophic ulcer in this case. But if it was... Let's say it's really painful. Exactly. So when you see a chronic non-healing ulcer and you see this ring of infiltrate around it and it's painful, you often think about Acanthamoeba. And sure enough, we stained it. And boy, triple bonus points if you know the stain we use for Acanthamoeba. Gridley. Gridley. The gridley stain. And so you see, here's the Acanthamoeba cysts. And these are really tough to treat because they tend to insist. And so it's tough to get the medication into the cyst. But don't forget people with Acanthamoeba. I've seen it in contaminated contact lens cases. You can get it from soil. You can get it from hot tubs. So don't put your face in a hot tub. If you're hot tubbing it and chilling out, keep your chin above it. Don't put your face in a hot tub. The gridley stain only works if you have an actual cordial specimen. Correct. You have to have a biopsy. It doesn't work on a swab. You have to have a biopsy in order to do it. So speaking of contacts, all right. Now we're going to talk about the anterior chamber angles. We can talk about glaucoma a little bit. So Tina, we're starting, we're looking in with agonium here. And we're looking at the angle, starting at the top. What's the first thing you see? Starting opposite direction. Starting anterior, I guess, rather than posterior. See, like Schwabbi's line? Schwabbi's line. And then what are the ways we describe the trabecular measure when you're looking with agonium? So basically the angle of insertion of the iris. You describe what layers you can actually see within the angle. Yeah, but what are the layers? You said the first one was Schwabbi's line. Oh, oh, yes. Okay. So Schwabbi's line is first. And then we see trabecular mesh work. So pigmented, non-pigmented. And then on the other side of that would be your sclerospora. Okay. And there's your sclerospora. And then lastly it would be ciliary body or where iris inserts. All right. Now this is just, you know, just for students if I'm ever talking to students and so, you know, we kind of describe an angle in either open angle, narrow or closed angle, and then recessed or contusion angle. All right. What do we see in here? Right. So if you really look, even though this patient's got the chronic dry eyes of every Utah, the right eye is definitely redder than the left eye. The right pupil's bigger than the left eye. And the right eye is more painful than the left eye. All right. So you'd be concerned about angle closure here. So mid-dilated pupil, red angry eye, painful eye. Sure enough we put the slip beam on it and we see. All right. So here's iris bombae. The iris is bowing forward. You put agonio in there. You'd see that the angle would be blocked off. So this is angle closure. And now you can get angle closure sometimes from just an eye that's narrow with a big lens or that's hyperopic or that's small. But sometimes you can get some abnormal blood vessels growing along the surface of the iris. What do we call that? Yes. So you can get neovascular glaucoma that can eventually lead to an angle closure. Remember what the causes of neovascular glaucoma are? Chronic ischemia. So you could have a central retinal vein occlusion. You could have a diabetic. You could have an ischemic eye in general. And then you can get abnormal blood vessels growing and then you eventually get an angle closure with that. Okay. So we want to talk a little bit about glaucoma. And this is always the hardest thing for me.  And where's the myopic crescent? This is definitely a cupped out disc. This is glaucoma cupped out disc that we've got here. And this is the ultimate end stage. You don't want it to get to this. We want to stop glaucoma before it gets to this point. So this is, it almost looks like a Boston bean pot. So this is excavated here. It's got a little disc, a little vessel going along the edge and then it will disappear. Posterior bowing of the lamina crebrosa. This is end stage glaucoma. We don't want to see this. We want to stop glaucoma before it gets to this. All right. So this is also on the top of the acropolis. This is one of the famous five maidens. Sadly, maybe the British were right. This is a remake of the statues because the original statues were so eaten up by the pollution in Athens that they degenerated so they couldn't put them back out again. So these are exact copies, but they're not the original ones. All right. We're going to talk a little bit about the crystalline lens. And this is just pathologically where the lens sits. All right. So cataracts. Mike, how do we break up cataracts? How do we describe them? So you're talking about... All right. So posterior capsular, anterior subcapsular cataracts. Remember, there can be various different areas that are affected and that can have some bearing on the prognosis. So if you have posterior subcapsular cataract, what's the etiology for that? Not usually PSC. Polar. Polar. You think of polar now. One of the mild posterior subcapsular. Diabetes, ocular inflammation, and then medications, most commonly steroids. So PSC, people can be on steroids. They can have uveitis can cause them. They can have diabetes can cause them. Nuclear cataracts are usually aging. Cortical cataracts are a mixed bag. All right. So this is the ultimate nuclear cataract. What do we call this? Brunessin cataract. Brunessin. Brown-like Brunessin cataract. So this is what you see in the third world or parts of Wyoming, depending. But it's a supernessin cat. You're allowed to say stuff about your own kind. You're allowed. Don't send a letter to the dean and say, I'm disparaging Wyoming. All right. So I always want to make sure you guys remember that we do surgery with topical anesthesia. Patients hear everything. So one of my favorites. A patient was very astute. I was doing surgery with the second year. And the patient asked me the next day, what is this position one you kept saying?  Position one. Position one. Position one. So what is position one? You want to know what that was. The other thing is I have to stop saying stab incision because the patient got really perturbed when I said stab. He said paracentesis. Remember they always hear you whenever you're doing cataract surgery. So don't be talking about the jazz game in the middle of surgery. All right. Here's the acropolis at night looking at the parthenon. You're allowed to go up there one day a year at night and take pictures. They light it up every night, but you're only allowed to go up there one night. All right. We're going to talk about the retina. So when we're talking about the retina in terms of the different parts of the retina, what are the parts of the retina that we can describe anatomically? You're not talking about the layers. No. We'll get to the layers in a minute. Okay. I mean you think about the parts that are in between the arcades. Okay. So in between the superior and inferior arcades you talk about what's temporal to the arcades. What do we call the area within the arcades? The fovea. The macula. Of course the center of the macula is the fovea and anything external to that we consider external. So now we want to talk about the layers. What is the... Let's start with the vitreous sides. We're going to describe vitreous to coreate. What's the first layer? Internal limiting membrane. Internal limiting membrane. Next layer. Nerve fiber layer. Next layer. Ganglion cell layer. Inner plexiform layer. Inner plexiform layer. Inner nuclear layer. Inner nuclear layer. Outer plexiform layer. Outer nuclear layer. And then below that we have the... We have photoreceptors. Okay. I'll pass that. Below the photoreceptors. Yeah, the RPE. RPE. Alright, very good. So know the ramification of the various layers of the retina. Know how they are all interconnected. Alright, now what are we looking at? So this is a cross-section of the fovea. The fovea. And so, what goes on in the ganglion cell layer adjacent to the fovea as opposed to the rest of the retina? It thins out and disappears right above the fovea. Alright, so it disappears. How about adjacent to it? Begins. So the ganglion cell layer, by definition, is more than one cell layer thick in the macula. And that's how the pathologists define the macula. That does happen to be, you know, within the arcades. But that's what the pathologists do.  And so, all those ganglion cells that are linking up with the cones in the fovea pile up adjacent to it. And you go ahead and you get multiple ganglion cells adjacent to the fovea there. Alright, so what do we see in this picture? Alright, exudate, and? Okay, so in addition to exudate, you've also got Doppler hemorrhages. You've also got flame hemorrhages. Boy, right here, that may even be, maybe a little cotton wool spot. Exactly so, enunciate. Project. So, cotton wool spot. So this is a diabetic. And so this has kind of all the findings of not only background retinopathy, but even getting into a little bit of pre-perliferative retinopathy at this point. Alright, so what do we see in here? So those look like some macroaneurysms. Exactly, so the first thing that you get is you get the vessels affected. The parasites drop out. You get weakness. You get macroaneurysms. And then eventually you can go ahead and you can get Doppler hemorrhages. Exudate right here. You've even got cotton wool spots. What's a cotton wool spot? Exactly, so it's the superficial nerve fiber layer. You get a little infarct there. Eventually that swelling can go down and you'll have a focal defect there, but you don't see anything different. So that's a cotton wool spot. It's on the nerve fiber layer.  Alright, what do we see in right here? The vascularization of the disc. Alright, so this is NVD, the so-called Medusa's head. Remember Medusa from mythology with all the snakes coming out of her head. So you've got NVD, the vascularization of the disc. And you worry because if you don't treat NVD, what do you get? Exactly, so this is how do we describe this hemorrhage? Well, it's specific shape to it. Come on, you're out on Galveston Bay in one of these. It's a boom.  I'm impressed. You have ships that you go out on. Okay, sailing on ships. So it's flat-topped. So you can see it's flat-topped and it's got kind of a round bottom like a boat. So this is actually hemorrhaging pre-retinal. So it hasn't quite broken through to the vitreous, but it's pre-retinal. So it's between the retina and the vitreous. And so if you don't treat neo, you can get hemorrhages like this and then you can even eventually get scarring and get gliosis. You can get retinal detachment. Alright, so this is the latest commercial, you know, for laser vision. Alright, what are we seeing right here? Chris. This looks like a lot of blood. It looks like a blood and thunder retina to me. Alright, so what does blood and thunder retina usually signify? Alright, so this is a central retinal vein occlusion. Backup of blood everywhere. It goes from the optic nerve all the way out to the auraserata and the so-called blood and thunder look. And then here's a picture of the retina that's had a vein occlusion. You can see loss of kind of the inner two-thirds of the retina from that, from the chronic ischemia. What are we seeing right here, Brad? Brad. So we see retinal whitening with what looks to be like a cherry red spot suggested above the CRAO. Alright. So if you were Dr. Yamani, you could cannulate that central artery and inject in there and make that better. I was impressed by that. Cataract surgeon cannulating the central retinal artery, that was pretty impressive, I thought. So this is a classic central retinal artery occlusion, ischemic retina, which is white. Why do you see a cherry red spot? Because of the underlying corroid. Exactly. So it's a window of the normal coroidal flow still showing through and that's why you see the cherry red spot. Alright, what am I showing here? So you see too many crown burgers and that central retinal artery, you see it's massively arterial scarotic and narrowed, but look at the sheath next to it. So remember, the most common cause of central retinal artery occlusion is arterial sclerosis, you've got a narrowed artery, it's susceptible to emboli, but the most common cause of vein occlusion is arterial sclerosis of the central retinal artery which causes stasis next to it because they share a common habitual sheath. And here's an eye that has had a central retinal artery occlusion. The outer third which receives its blood supply from where? Alright, still intact. The inner two thirds is wiped out. Alright, this is the Greek Parliament building. This is the Avzon who guards the Greek Parliament. I sat there and looked at this guy for five straight minutes. He never blinked, so I don't know, I'm totally impressed that he could do that. He never blinked, they don't flinch, they change the guards. If you're in Athens, you've got to see they change the guards silently in perfect step. It's pretty impressive. We're going to talk about some macular diseases here. What are we seeing here? Exactly. I soft drusen all over the place there. And when we look pathologically, where are drusen located? Exactly. So if you think about the base membrane of the RPE in the first layer of the Brooks, technically it's even intra Brooks. But it's certainly underneath the RPE. And then you get overlying degeneration of the RPE under the retina. What are we seeing here, Meg? So you can see the extensive edema around it looks to be sub-retinal. So you see that kind of a yellowish grayish look in the periphery there. That means it's even sub-RPE when it starts. Then as it gets more darker red, it breaks through under the retina. So this is a patient with macular degeneration, sub-retinal neovascularization. So, okay. So this is the temple at Delphi. This is where the oracle lives. And so you would go to the oracle and you would say, please give her an offering, and you'd say, tell me what's going to happen. And the oracle would say things like, I see the destruction of a great empire. You'd say, alright, we're going to kick butt.  And so the oracle was never specific so you have to be careful when you get information from the oracle that it'd be more specific. So this is where I go and I ask how the residents are going to do in surgery. So the answer is sometimes a little cloudy. A little cloudy. Alright, optic nerve. This is a normal optic nerve. What stain is this? This is a trichrome stain. Trichrome stains. You see that the connective tissue stains blue, mesecimal tissue stains red. You can see the pia, subarachnoid, the columns. This is an optic nerve seen in cross-section. What do we see? Oh, of course. Sorry, I got to wipe out. Papalodema, that's a good intern question. Papalodema. What are the signs of papalodema though? Do you see paling and you can't see the entry of the vessels to the desk as well. Now, it's not even paling. It actually is often darker staining because the blood vessels get engorged. So you see that the edges are elevated. You don't see a good sharp edge. You have a congestion of the vessels. You have little micro hemorrhages. Now, be careful with the term papalodema. Again, when I took oral boards one of the guys was trying to pit me on this because by definition papalodema is optic nerve swelling, secondary re-increasing, trochanal pressure. They show you a picture of just a single disc like this. You say, this is a swollen optic disc. And then if they say, well, what's the differential? Well, if this were bilateral and had increased pressure, we would call it papalodema. But you want to be careful because they'll always try to nab you on that on boards. Here's the swollen disc seen pathologically. Now, in the movies and TV, you always see the audience place where they can sit and watch a surgery going on. I've never seen that in an operating room I've ever been in in my life except in Russia. They had one when Fyodorov used to operate you could stand up and watch it in the peanut gallery. But on TV, they're always up there looking down on the surgery and discussing it, so never seen it happen. Now, all right, so remember the glaucomodus nerve is the opposite of a papalodema nerve. Glaucomodus nerve is actually excavated and coming down. Hi, Chris, what are we seeing here? So here we're seeing left eye. She has ptosis on the left and that left eye looks a little low as well. A little low and almost a little prominent kind of a little proptotic. And this is what we find on the specimen. So this looks like tumor found in the optic nerves like a half nerve tumor. All right, so glioma is the most common optic nerve tumor in kids. There's astrocytes in the optic nerve. And so this is grade one. It's called a juvenile astrocytic glioma. It's a grade one astrocytoma. It's intrinsic to the nerve itself. It's more common in kids. And what are these called? Little cytoplasmic eosinophilic staining inclusions. Rosenthal fibers. So named after Rosenthal. All right, and here we have this is an older lady. So this is an external photograph in the right eye you can see some injection of the lateral conch. Also a fullness in the lower eyelid looks proptotic with inferior scleral show. You do the scan. What are we seeing here? So we see enlargement of the right optic nerve. So concerned for tumor here. If it's a lady middle aged we're concerned for like an optic nerve meningioma. So if you see this is what we call the tram track sign. You can see the nerve still in the middle and then you see the thickened tumor tissue around it. So that's a sign of a meningioma. So it doesn't grow from the inside of the nerve. It grows around the nerve. And that's called the tram track. Like the two tracks on a tram going up the mountain. Meningioma and for bonus points what do we call these? Sonoma bodies. Sonoma with an M. Not sonoma the part of California. So sonoma bodies. Sonoma with an M. Sonoma bodies. So I know you guys are just about daydreaming there. So I'm going to put electrodes on you real quick here. Retinoblastoma. We just went over this a week ago. So you know just realize the two growth patterns which are endophytic and exophytic. And what do we see classically? Calcification, necrosis. Necrosis, dystrophic calcification or at the growth of the tumor cells. What's the most common pathological? The rosettes. Yeah. And whose names go on that? Flexner Wintersteiner. Flexner Wintersteiner rosettes. So. And when it spreads it spreads how? Through the nerve. Through the optic nerve. So remember when retinoblastoma spread they spread via the nerve.  You have to sleep with your hats on. So malignant melanoma real quick. What's the most common growth pattern that you see in these types of the coroid? What is the shape? What vegetable is this shaped like? Mushroom shape. So it'll start in the coroid, pop through Brooks membrane, grow into the retina mushroom shape. So what is the classic classification we use to describe these from the 1930s? It's the calendar classification. And so calendar classification this is spindle A. So technically not really a melanoma. You can get spindle B cells and then you can get really nasty epithelial cells. And that's really important prognostically. Becca how do they spread when they spread? But how do they get out of the eye? Through any emissarial channels. So they'll usually go out along the vortex veins and get out but you can go out where any artery is coming in any vein is coming out. So they go out through the emissarial channels through the sclera. Where do they spread when they go? To the liver. And so we say goodbye to Delphi again. And good luck on Ocaps.


Minnesota health officials are hoping the state's measles outbreak is nearing its end as the number of new cases plateau for the last 13 days. The Minnesota Department of Health's Daily Tally has remained steady at 68 for two weeks, but health officials are still urging caution and recommending vaccinations. The state has to go through two full incubation periods that each lasts 21 days without any positive cases before the outbreak can be declared over. Symptoms of measles include a high fever, cough, runny nose and watery eyes followed by a rash. It is highly contagious and spreads easily by coughing, sneezing or even being in the same room with someone who has measles. If you've enjoyed this segment of Lakeland News, please consider making a tax-deductible contribution to Lakeland Public Television.


It's not just a bridge that connects two places. It gives access to schools, to medical care. It's a bridge to the outside world, and it performs a social function. With the intimate knowledge of bamboo and other fibers, the Adi work according to age-old principles of design. The Adi also have a close-knit society, and working together brings the community even closer. I must say these bamboo and living-root bridges demonstrate a sensitivity and thoughtfulness that is significant. It's a good example of society addressing a problem by looking at the need and the context, and finding a solution that is in harmony with nature. The existence of the bridge allows people living in such remote and isolated areas to come to the market and trade. And like I said, it gives youngsters a chance to access education, reaches health, care to people in remote villages, and opens up the possibility of tourism and builds a connection to the world outside. Talking about bridges everywhere, they would have allowed people to travel to distant places, and that would certainly broaden their thinking and outlook. Absolutely, and new objects may be introduced into a society by travelers from distant lands. Take the printed book, the world's first printing press used porcelain type, and was invented in the 11th century in China by Bishang. Till then, books used to be copied by hand. Though printing was far more efficient, the demand for printing remained limited, perhaps because few people could read. European travelers returned home from China with stories about the printing press, but society there too was not ready for it. It was around 400 years later when the German inventor Johannes Gutenberg invented his hot metal movable type printing press that it caught on. The rise of literacy and the new middle class led to an increasing demand for books, and soon there were printing presses in all European languages, and what emerged was a thriving publishing industry. I've read that the printing press came to India when European missionaries wanted to bring out religious literature in Indian languages. That's right, this is what led to the designing of types in our languages. By the 19th century, we see many enterprising intellectuals investing in presses. They brought out newspapers, journals, novels, plays, calendars, and political pamphlets in all major Indian languages. This created a community of readers which shared aspirations for freedom from colonial rule. In this way, the existence of the printing press fueled a national movement. So the designing of printing types in Indian languages has such a huge impact on society. Yes, and that was not even the original intention.