CHAPTER 1 EARLY YEARS OF THE BLACK PRINCE On the fifteenth of June, in the year 1330, there were great rejoicings in the royal palace of Woodstock. One Thomas Pryor came hastening to the young king Edward III to tell him that his queen had just given birth to a son. The king in his joy granted the bearer of this good news an annual pension of forty marks. We can well imagine how he hurried to see his child. When he found him in the arms of his nurse, Joan of Oxford, overjoyed at the site, he gave the good woman a pension of ten pounds a year, and granted the same sum to Matilda Plumtree, the rocker of the prince's cradle. Perhaps with Edward's thoughts of joy at the birth of his son were mingled some feelings of shame. It was three years since he had been crowned, and yet he was king only in name. He was nothing but a tool in the hands of his unscrupulous mother Isabella and her ambitious favourite Mortimer. He was very young, not quite eighteen, and had not yet had sufficient knowledge or experience to know how to break the bonds within which he was held. But with the new dignity of father came to him a sense of his humiliating position. He would wish that his own son, on reviewing his youth, should have different thoughts of his father than he had. He can hardly have borne to look back upon his own youth with its shameful memories. He had seen his father, Edward II, by his dissipated life and his slavish devotion to his favourites, alienate the affection of his subjects, and provoke the barons to rise against him.  He had seen her refused to return to England at the king's demand. He had watched the growth of the disgraceful intimacy between her and Roger Mortimer, one of the rebel earls. At last a powerless instrument in their hands he had been taken by her and Mortimer to invade England, and Edward II's throne was attacked and overthrown by his own wife and son. The rebellion was entirely successful. None were found to espouse the cause of the despised king. He was obliged formally to give up the crown to his son, and on the 20th of January, 1327, Edward III, then only in his fourteenth year, was proclaimed king. All we know of the part taken by Edward III himself in these proceedings is that he refused to receive the crown without the sanction of his father, but he had no real power. All was in the hands of the queen and Mortimer. Before the end of the year, feeling insecure while Edward II was still alive, they caused him to be secretly murdered in the castle where he was imprisoned. Soon after, they married the young king to Philippa, daughter of the Count of Ano, a union destined in every way to contribute to his happiness and to the good of the kingdom. The power of Queen Isabella and Mortimer continued unchecked till the birth of Prince Edward. It was a troubled world in which the little prince first saw the light. For three years the English people had been subjected to a rule they detested, and their discontent had been gradually growing. One attempt at rebellion had been made by the king's uncle Edmund, Earl of Kent, but it had only ended in the execution of the simple, high-minded Earl. This had increased tenfold the hatred with which Mortimer was regarded. But the third felt that as a father he was no longer a mere boy, and could not continue to submit to his own degradation. It was not difficult to find people ready and eager to enter into his plans. A conspiracy was formed of which the queen and Mortimer seemed to have had dim suspicions. They tried to avert the danger by keeping Edward with them and nodding him castle, but he succeeded in gaining over the governor of the castle, and a body of armed men was introduced at midnight through a subterranean passage. They broke into the room where Mortimer was, and after a short struggle made in prisoner. The queen, who was in the next room, burst in with agonized entreaties, fair son, fair son, oh spare the gentle Mortimer. Soon afterwards Mortimer was brought to trial before a parliament summoned by Edward and was sentenced to be hanged. Queen Isabella was kept in, honorable confinement, till her death twenty-seven years after. Edward III now took the entire management of affairs into his own hands, and soon found that he had plenty to do. Whilst the little prince was still in his cradle, his father was already perplexed by the events which were to lead to those wars in which both played such a brilliant part. Edward III's grandfather, Edward I, had cherished the dream of uniting under his own rule England, Scotland, and Wales. At times he had been very near the fulfillment of this dream, but Scottish love of independence had been too strong for him. The Scots found powerful leaders, they struggled fearlessly against apparently hopeless odds, and at last secured the throne to Robert Bruce. The English, however, would not give up the hope of conquering Scotland. One of the most unpopular acts of Queen Isabella and Mortimer had been the conclusion of a peace with Scotland, called the Treaty of Northampton, in which they had recognized Robert Bruce's king. Edward III therefore was acting quite in accordance with the wishes of his people when he interfered in Scottish affairs. The moment seemed hopeful. Robert Bruce was dead, his son David was a mere child, and a new claimant to the throne had arisen in Edward Balliol whose father in former days had struggled for the crown against the Bruce's. Balliol was successful, and David Bruce had to fly to France. Then Edward demanded that Balliol should recognize him as Suzerain, that is, should acknowledge the overlordship of the English king and do him homage as one of his vassals. Balliol consented, and this in the end lost him his crown. The Scottish nobles who had fought so bravely for their independence would own no allegiance to a monarch who could tamely submit to the King of England. They revolted and chased Balliol from the throne. It was then that Edward was called upon to interfere actively. He summoned an army and marched against the revolted Scots. They were completely crushed at the Battle of Halladon Hill near Barrick. Barrick itself fell into Edward's hands and remained part of the English dominions ever afterwards. Balliol was restored to the throne and maintained thereby Edward III. The Scottish barons however still clung to the house of Bruce, and they would not recognize Balliol, the sub-king of the King of England. They turned to France for help, and France was willing enough to listen to them and seize this opportunity of striking a blow with the growing power of the English crown. Early in the reign of Edward I she had aided the Scots against the English, and it soon became clear to Edward III that he could not hope for submission from Scotland until he had put an end to the intervention of France. So we see that it is in the struggle between Scotland and England that we must look for the chief cause of the Great French War which was to drain the resources of both countries for a hundred years. We shall see as we follow the course of events how brilliantly this war opened and how eager the English were to engage in it. England since Edward III had become King in fact as well as in name seemed inspired with a new life. The King was young and ambitious, anxious to promote his people's good and eager to gain glory for himself. This was extending on every side and largely increasing the wealth of the country. National life beat vigorously as we see, amongst other things, in the increased use of the English tongue. Formerly, French had been the common language taught in the schools, but now it began gradually to fall into disuse, and before the end of Edward's reign the English language was to win its final triumph by the appearance of Chaucer, the first great English poet, and Wycliffe, the first great English prose writer. The English people were eager for some great undertaking, and from the very first the idea of the French War was extremely popular. The people wished it more than Edward himself, and the Parliament urged him to assert his claim to the French crown. It is not likely that anyone ever thought this claim to be serious or considered it to be anything but a useful pretext for the War. Such as it was, Edward's claim to the French crown came through his mother Isabella, granddaughter of Philip III the Bold, King of France. Her three brothers had reigned one after another, and all died without male issue. On the death of the last, Charles IV, the crown passed to his cousin, Philip of Valois, son of Charles of Valois, the second son of Philip the Bold. Edward III, in asserting his claim, had to maintain that though according to the Salic Law females could not inherit the crown, they could transmit it to males. He could never have seriously urged such a plea, if other causes had not led to a war with France, and in time made it useful for him to assume the title of King of France. There can be no doubt that Edward was grievously provoked by the French before he made up his mind to engage in war. The restless ambition of Philip of Valois produced a general feeling of insecurity. His pirate ships interfered with the trade of the Channel. He made constant encroachments upon the English possessions in France and frequently threatened an invasion of England whilst he thwarted in every possible way Edward's policy with regard to Scotland. Under these circumstances it was natural for the English king to go to war, though if the war had not aimed at conquest it would have been better for England in the end. Edward III, however, was full of youthful ambition. He did not care to look into the future, but rushed into the war as if it had been a great tournament in which he and his knights might distinguish themselves. So active were the fears of French invasion during the first years of Edward III's reign that we find orders for putting the Isle of Wight and the southern coast into a state of defense, and in 1335 the young prince was sent to nodding him for safety. He must have been early accustomed to hear war talked about and probably the chief part of his education was concerned with military exercises. We know little of his youth except that he was educated under the direction of Dr. Walter Burley of Merton College, Oxford, which, since its foundation by Walter de Merton, the Chancellor of Henry III, had produced most of the men distinguished in England for their learning. Dr. Burley, on account of his fame for learning and piety, had been appointed Queen's Almoner. As his reputation increased at court, he was finally appointed tutor to the prince. In accordance with the custom of the times, many other young gentlemen were educated in common with Prince Edward so that companionship might lend an increased interest to his studies. Among others Simon Burley, a young kinsman of Dr. Burley's, was admitted to share these advantages. He became a great favorite with the prince, and in time was made Knight of the Garter, and was entrusted with the education of the prince's son, Richard of Bordeaux. We can form a pretty good idea of the kind of education received by Prince Edward and his companions. Chivalry was then at its height, and it was necessary for every gentleman to be skilled in all nightly exercises. An accomplished knight must be endowed with beauty, with strength and agility of body. He must be skilled in music, be able to dance gracefully and run swiftly, to wrestle and sit well on horseback. Above all, he must be skillful in the management of arms, and must thoroughly understand hunting and hawking. In these accomplishments were young Edward and his companions trained, and we cannot doubt that he who was the very type of the chivalric spirit in its highest development early learned to excel in all nightly exercises. There exists a rhyming chronicle in French of the life of Edward the Black Prince by the herald of Sir John Chandos, who was so constantly with the prince that we may believe that his herald writes from personal knowledge of the prince's character. He says, This frank prince of whom I tell you, thought not but of loyalty, of free courage and gentleness, and in doubt was he with such prowess that he wished all the days of his life to give up all his study to the holding of justice and integrity. And in that was he nurtured, from the time of his infancy. Of his own noble and free will he learned liberality. For goodness and nobleness were in his heart perfectly. From the first commencement of his life in youth he was, it is well known, so prrrr, chivalrous, so hearty and so valiant, so courteous and so wise. He loved so well holy church with all his heart in every form, the most holy trinity, the festival and holiday. There is a tradition that Prince Edward studied at Queen's College, Oxford, in this may perhaps have been the case as Queen's College was founded by his mother Queen Philippa, but the story rests on no authentic evidence. During his early youth various honors and dignities were bestowed upon him. He was made Duke of Cornwall at the Parliament held at Westminster in 1337. This is the first time that the title Duke appears in English history. In 1338 when Edward III was about to leave England to begin his war with France he appointed his son Prince Edward to be guardian of the kingdom during his absence. As the prince was then but eight years old this was naturally only a nominal office. It was not until 1343 that he was created by Parliament, Prince of Wales. End of Section 1. Section 2 of Edward the Black Prince by Louise Creighton. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain, recording by Pamela Nagami. Chapter 2 Beginning of the French War. The years from 1336 to 1338 had been spent by Edward III in preparations for war. He had been endeavouring to gain allies amongst the princes on the continent, his idea being to unite against France the rulers of the small principalities that lay on its north such as Brabant, Gilders, Aenot and Nemours. He also succeeded in gaining the alliance of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, but his most important ally was Jacques van Artevelde, the man who then ruled Flanders with the title of Rouvert. The condition of Flanders at that time was very strange. Since 877 Flanders had been ruled by a long succession of Counts who had done homage to the kings of France for their county. The peculiar circumstances of the country, its mighty rivers, whose wide mouths afforded safe harbours for the ships, combined with the industry of the people, had early made Flanders important as a commercial and trading country. During the absence of the Counts on the Crusades the towns had won for themselves many important privileges and were really free communes, owning little more than a nominal allegiance to their duke. The kings of France eyed this wealthy and thriving province with great jealousy and eagerly watched for an opportunity of asserting their authority over it. But till 1322 the people and their Counts had been firmly united in resistance to France. Only with the accession of Count Louis de Nevere did the aspect of affairs change. This Count had been brought up in France and was imbued with French interests. He objected to the power and independence of the Flemish towns and sought to oppress them in every way. He governed by French ministers and called in French help against his own subjects. Then when the people were oppressed, their industries ruined, their commerce at a standstill by the tyranny of their Count, they found the leader in Jacques Van Artevelde, who showed them the way to liberty and prosperity. Against the firm union formed by the towns, the Count of Flanders was powerless and fled to the court of France. After Artevelde's care, commerce and manufactures flourished, peace and prosperity reigned in the land whilst there was no question of actual revolt from the authority of the Count. Artevelde only wished to show that the liberties of the people must be respected. Flanders was the great commercial center of the Middle Ages where merchants from far distant countries met and exchanged their goods. Artevelde conceived the great idea in which he was far beyond the intelligence of his time of establishing free trade and neutrality as far as commerce was concerned. He was an important ally for Edward III for many reasons. It was necessary for the interests of both peoples that Flanders and England should be friends. For in Flanders England found a sale for her wool, then the great source of her national wealth. From England alone could Flanders obtain this precious wool which he manufactured into the famous Flemish cloth and sent to all parts of the world. Edward III recognized the wisdom and greatness of Artevelde and conceived a strong alliance with him for the benefit of both parties. On all occasions the English king treated the simple burger of Ghent as an equal and a friend. It is not impossible that he gained in his intercourse with Artevelde that feeling of the importance of commerce and industry which exercised so great an influence upon his legislation and gained for him the title of the father of English commerce. It was on the 16th of July, 1338, that Edward III sailed for Flanders. His first object was to meet his allies the various princes of the Netherlands. He did not find them very eager for active cooperation in his undertaking. He determined to visit the emperor in person so as to prevail upon him to take an active part in the war. With this view he traveled up the Rhine stopping first at Køn, then a thriving commercial city enjoying active intercourse with England. Here Edward stayed some days in the house of a wealthy burger, the time passed in merriment and festivities. The king receiving visits from all the chief citizens. He visited most of the churches and made offerings at the various altars. To the building fund of the great cathedral he gave sixty-seven pounds, a sum equal to a thousand pounds of harmony. From Køn he proceeded up the Rhine, his whole way being marked by continual festivities. At Bun he stopped with one of the cannons of the cathedral, at Andenach with the Franciscans, and finally on the thirty-first of August he reached Koblenz, where the German diet was assembled. The emperor received him in state in the marketplace, seated on a throne twelve feet high, and by his side though a little lower was the seat for Edward. Around them stood a brilliant assembly, four of the electors were there, and were the insignia of their rank. One of the nobles, as representative of the Duke of Brabant, held a naked sword high over the emperor's head. Seventeen thousand knights and gentlemen are said to have been present. In the presence of this imposing gathering Edward III was created vicar of the empire for the west bank of the Rhine. In spite of this journey he obtained nothing from the emperor but this empty title. On his return to Flanders he was so short of money that he had to pawn the crown jewels to the Bardi, the great Florentine merchants at Bruges. The allies were slow in bringing their forces into the field. Van Arck de Velte refused to give Edward any active help, because of the oaths of fealty by which the Flemings were bound to Philippe of Valois. At last Edward succeeded in collecting an army of fifteen thousand men, and met the French near Cambrai. The two armies parted without a battle and Edward returned to Aenot. This fruitless campaign had exhausted his resources without gaining any result. He grew more anxious than ever for the help of Flanders, and made new proposals to the towns with magnificent offers. Arck de Velte at last consented to help him if he would assume the title of King of France. Then the fealty which the towns owed to their Sousaren could be transferred from Philippe of Valois to Edward. This then was the real cause of Edward's assuming the arms and title of the King of France. He did it, only that he might win the active help of the Flemings. As their Sousaren he confirmed all the privileges of the towns, and granted them three great charters of liberties. These charters bear the impress of Arck de Velte's mind and are an expression of his commercial views. They proclaim liberty of commerce, the abolition of tallage, that is of taxes upon merchandise, and a common currency. They guarantee also the security of merchandise as well as that of the persons of the merchants. The wool staple was fixed at Bruges. That is, Bruges was to be the place where alone wool might be imported and sold to the Flemish merchants. Edward returned to England to obtain the confirmation of these treaties by Parliament, as Arck de Velte would not be content unless the Commons of England gave their consent to them. During his absence Queen Philippa remained at Ghent, and there gave birth to her third son, John, who from the city of his birth was ever afterwards called John of Gaunt. Queen Philippa also acted as godmother to Arck de Velte's son, who was called Philip after her, and afterwards became famous like his father for defending the liberties of his country, though he did not show his father's wisdom and moderation. Edward III obtained from the Parliament at Westminster the confirmation of his treaty with the Flemish towns and also a new grant of supplies. This grant was for the most part in kind. The King was to have the Ninth Lamb, the Ninth Fleece, and the Ninth Chief. That is in reality a tenth part of the chief produce of the kingdom, for the tithe had first to be paid to the church, and so the ninth part of the remainder equaled the tithe. He was also allowed to levy attacks on the exportation of wool for two years. It shows the great popularity of the war that so large a grant was agreed upon. We also see the increasing power of Parliament, from the fact that Edward III did not venture to impose any tax without its consent. But in spite of all these grants Edward was still considerably in debt. He owed nine thousand pounds to the merchants of Bruges and eighteen thousand one hundred pounds to the Association of German Merchants in London called the Hansiotic Steelyard, which had existed certainly since the time of Henry III and had always been specially favoured by the English monarchs. But the merchants were always willing to lend him money in return for the facilities which he gave to commerce. He was still obliged to pawn the crown jewels, his own crown was pawned to the city of Trière and queen Philippus to Cologne. Orders had to be given for the alteration of the royal seal, the lilies of France had to be incorporated with the Leopard of England. Meanwhile the French had gathered a large fleet composed principally of Genoese ships and were threatening the Flemish coast. There was danger of their cutting-off intercourse between Antwerp and England. It was necessary for Edward to set off without delay. He hastily collected a fleet of some two hundred sail and started from Orwell, a port in Suffolk, on the twenty-second of June, 1340. When the English fleet neared Slouch, they saw standing before them as Foistar tells us, so many masts that they looked like a wood. This was the French fleet waiting to dispute the passage of the English. When Edward heard who they were he exclaimed, I have for a long time wished to meet with them, and now please God and St. George we will fight with them, for in truth they have done me so much mischief that I will be revenged on them if possible. The English fleet was arranged in order of battle. The strongest ships were put in the middle, between every two ships manned with archers was a ship of armed knights. The wings were mostly composed of archers. Great care was taken for the safety of a large number of noble ladies who were going to attend the Queen at Ghent, picked men being chosen to guard them. The French force was greatly superior to the English as they possessed nineteen ships of very large size, most of which had been captured from the English the year before when the French had attacked the English ports. The French formed themselves into four long lines, their ships were firmly fastened together with chains and ropes. The French admiral, considering his position impregnable, determined to remain on the defensive and refused to listen to the advice of the Genoese commander Baravavara and advance to the attack. The French were soon enveloped in a shower of English arrows. The German iron fastened the English ships to the French and the fight became fierce. The great English ship the Christopher was recaptured from the French and the English flag again hoisted upon her. The French were hemmed in on all sides. In their rear they were threatened by the inhabitants of the coast so that escape seemed impossible. Only at nightfall did the Genoese and some few French ships succeed in getting away in the darkness. The loss of the French was enormous whilst the English suffered comparatively little and captured a vast amount of booty and a large number of prisoners. Great were the rejoicings for this victory. The news of it passed rapidly from mouth to mouth. The French pirates were destroyed and once more the merchant could carry his goods across the seas without danger. In all the English churches thanksgivings were offered for the victory by royal command. Edward III had himself been slightly wounded in the battle but still his first act on landing was to go with his knights on a pilgrimage to Our Lady of Adenburg to give thanks. He then proceeded to Gent where he found his queen with her newborn baby. Edward III hoped to be able to follow up this naval victory by striking a decisive blow on land. The deputies of the Flemish towns and his other allies meant him at Gent and the Flemings agreed to aid him if he would help them to get back Achtua which had formerly belonged to Flanders but had been treacherously taken from them by Philip IV, King of France. In five days the towns had levied 140,000 foot soldiers who all agreed to fight without pay in this war. Thus reinforced Edward marched to Tournai which he completely invested. Philip advanced from Arras to relieve the town. Flemings had already broken out in the Confederate army. The Flemings were not professional soldiers but were the burgers and handicraftsmen of the towns who had turned out to defend their own hearths and homes marching under the banners of their different guilds. They were soon eager to get back to their shops and their looms. Philip's sister, Jean Avalois, a nun at Fontenelle, Hard Bay, appeared between the two armies as peacemaker and a truce was agreed upon. Rock von Artevelde succeeded in obtaining most advantageous terms for the Flemings. With the habitual selfishness of a commercial and industrial people, having brought matters to a satisfactory conclusion for themselves, they thought no more of Edward's interests. He too had to agree to a truce for nine months and to retire a second time without striking a decisive blow. He had expended vast sums of money in these two campaigns and it gained nothing. He had only learnt one lesson and that a very important one, that it was no use depending upon allies and that henceforth he must trust to himself alone. The truce between France and England had been concluded at first for only nine months till 25th September, 1341, but it was afterwards prolonged till 1342. Edward Suden found a new opening for attacking France in the contest that was going on about the succession of the Duchy of Brittany. Edward III determined to give his aid to de Montfort, whilst the other claimant, Charles of Blois, was supported by his uncle Philip. Here also, after a while a truce was agreed upon, which was to last till Michaelmas 1346, a truce had also been made with Scotland and David Bruce had returned to his kingdom. Thus there was an interval of comparative peace, but each side was only waiting for an auspicious moment to begin the war again, and the French did not cease their aggressions upon Guyenne. In spite of the large sums it cost, the English people were by no means weary of the war. The parliament that sat in 1344 began by giving its opinion in favour of peace, if fair terms could be procured, but proceeded to grant the king's supplies to enable him to continue the war. They begged him to finish it in a short time, either by battle or treaty. The nobles agreed to cross the sea and fight with him, and the clergy granted him the tenth of their benefits for three years. The king's cousin, the Earl of Darby, a brave and accomplished knight, was sent with an army into Guyenne to recover the country which had been won by the French. We must try to understand clearly what were at this time the possessions of the English in France. Under Henry II the territory which the English king ruled over in France was greater in extent than England itself. Part of this, such as Normandy and men, belonged to the English kings by virtue of their descent from William the Conqueror. Anjou and Turan had come to Henry II through his father, Geoffrey of Anjou. The great Duchy of Aquitaine, consisting of seven provinces, he obtained as the marriage portion of his wife Eleanor of Guyenne. As he ruled over the western part of France, from the channel to the Pyrenees, and held the mouths of the great rivers Seine, Loire, and Garonne. These vast dominions really made the Anjouvin kings, so called from their descent from Geoffrey of Anjou, foreign rather than English rulers. It was not therefore altogether to the disadvantage of England when Normandy and the other possessions in northern France were taken from the feeble John by the king of France. The Duchy of Aquitaine still remained in the possession of the English. Once it was rested from them, in 1294 by Philip IV, king of France, but he soon had to restore it. It is easy to imagine how anxious the French kings must have been to gain possession of this great Duchy. A succession of able, unscrupulous kings had been trying by every means to extend and consolidate their dominions. The kings of France had not at first been as powerful as many of their great barons, who ruled as hereditary and independent princes in their separate provinces, paying the king only a nominal homage. To reduce these barons to submission was the task laid upon the French kings for many generations. Little by little they got hold of the lands of their vassals and neighbors. Rivalry between France and England began from the first moment that the dukes of Normandy became kings of England. It was increased when the Duchy of Aquitaine was added to the English dominions. Philip Augustus had won Normandy from John. It remained for his successors to win Aquitaine. The Duchy of Aquitaine included Poitou, Limousin, Guyenne, and Gascony. It extended toward the north almost as far as the mouth of the Loire, and toward the south to the foot of the Pyrenees. It embraced the fertile bed of the Garonne, at the mouth of which lay the great city of Bordeaux, whence the wine grown in the Duchy was imported into England. Bayonne was another important port lying to the south of Bordeaux. It was here that the Earl of Derby landed when he was sent by Edward III to recover the places which Philip had succeeded in winning in Guyenne. His campaign was marked with brilliant success, and he soon won back all that had been lost. Edward III meanwhile determined to make another journey to Flanders to strengthen his alliance with the Flemings. This time he took with him his son Prince Edward, who had now completed his education and was to begin at what seems to us the early age of fifteen to take part in the active business of life. Van Arteveld met his royal guests at Esclouse, and the deputies of the towns also came to discuss the state of affairs. Fwasach tells us that there was a proposal made by Artevelde to set aside Louis' count of Flanders and make the Prince of Wales count in his stead. But this statement is not supported by other evidence and does not seem to be in accordance with the views of Artevelde, who never showed any desire to put aside the rightful count. Having assured himself of the friendship of Flanders, Edward returned to England with his son. Only a few days after his departure his faithful friend Van Artevelde was murdered at Ghent in a disturbance caused by a furious faction of the populace. This murder was the act of a small party not of the country. The government and administration of affairs remained as before throughout Flanders. The towns sent deputies to England to express to Edward III their freedom from complicity in this murder and their desire to maintain the English alliance. The close commercial relations between the two countries which had been established by the wisdom of Van Artevelde went on as before, and the English wool was still carried to the staple at Bruges to be sold. End of Section 2. Section 3 of Edward the Black Prince by Louise Creighton. During the years between the campaign in Flanders which was ended by a truce on September 25, 1340, and the campaign of Creighton in 1346, Edward had been principally occupied in preparations for renewing the war. Peace negotiations had been carried on before Pope Clement VI by commissioners appointed by the two kings, but as neither party wished for peace it could not be expected that these would lead to any result. The parliament that sat at Westminster in 1343 had, as we have seen, relieved Edward III from his pressing want of money by granting him new supplies, and he had been able to redeem his great crown from pawn. But he had borrowed so largely from the great Florentine merchants, the Bavdi, that his failure to pay his debt of 900,000 golden florins at the right time brought about their bankruptcy, and as they were the largest bankers in Florence the whole city suffered greatly through their failure. Once supplied with money Edward had to turn his attention to raising levies for the war. The royal armies had long ceased to consist merely a feudal militia, as this could not be used for any long campaign. According to feudal customs the levies were only obliged to serve for forty days, hence though they could be used for a sudden attack upon a neighbouring prince they were of little use to a king who wished to carry an army across the seas to invade a foreign country. The custom of commutation therefore had grown up, that is, of receiving money payments instead of personal service. With this money the king could then hire soldiers to fight for him as long as he chose to keep them. These hired soldiers were raised in the following way. The government appointed a contractor for every district, who agreed to furnish from that district a given number of men for a fixed pay. The government also encouraged the men enlisted voluntarily, but so many complaints were made by the commons during Edward's reign of forced levies that it seems as if compulsion was often used to obtain enlistments. To raise soldiers for the campaign on which he was about to engage Edward III ordered the sheriffs throughout the country to summon every man at arms in the kingdom to attend personally or else send a substitute. All landowners were to furnish men at arms, hobblers and archers in proportion to their incomes. All these men were paid for their service and the rate of pay was much higher than than it is now. From this it appears that probably even the private soldier was taken from the smaller gentry or the rich yeomanry. This helps to account for the efficiency of Edward's army. It was through the valor of the common soldiers rather than through the prowess of his knights that Edward won his victories. On this occasion pardon was promised to criminals on condition of their serving in the war. Edward, Prince of Wales, was to collect four thousand men from Wales, half lancers and half bowmen. All these levies were to meet at Portsmouth on October 9th, ready to embark. Let us try and get some idea of the nature of the troops collected at Portsmouth to form the army which was to invade France. First in rank and importance were the men at arms. These were the knights with their esquires and followers. The esquires were the attendants upon the knights and were generally young men of rank, serving their time till they should be raised to knighthood. The knights with their esquires and followers were all equipped alike in plate armor and formed the heavy cavalry. Their chargers also were protected by plates of steel and their armor was made so impervious that no weapon then known could pierce it. And its weight was so great that only to carry it exhausted the strength of the knights and crippled their power. Their arms were the lance, the sword, the battle axe, or the mace, and they bore a shield for defence. Each knight who brought his esquires and followers into the field might bear his pen in which was a long narrow ensign. Some knights who were rich enough to have other knights in their service carried square banners. We can imagine the brilliant effect of a company of these knights in their burnished steel armor, often beautifully chased and inlaid with other medals, with their gay banners streaming in the wind. Many of them might be seen bearing a falcon on their wrist so that amidst the fatigues of war they might occasionally refresh themselves with a chase. To them was reserved the place of honour in the battle. There's are the deeds of prowess which the chroniclers delight to record. There was to them only a vast tournament in which they might display their valor and strive to surpass their adversaries. Next came the hobblers, the light cavalry, who were recruited from a rank inferior to that of the knights. Their horses also were inferior and they were not so heavily armed. But the real strength of the army lay in the third body of men, the archers, who of course fought on foot. It was to their skill and courage that Edward was to owe his victories. Shooting with the longbow was a thoroughly English recreation. On holidays it had long been the custom for the yeoman to meet together to practice their skill by shooting at a mark. The kings did their utmost to encourage this pastime. In the thirteenth century every person possessing a revenue of above one hundred pence in land was obliged to have a bow and arrows in his possession. Edward the third feared at one time that the skill of the English archers was declining. He sent a letter to the sheriffs of London in which he said that the skill in shooting arrows was almost totally laid aside for the pursuit of various useless and unlawful games such as coits, cock fighting, football, etc. He commanded the sheriffs therefore to see that the leisure time on holidays was spent in recreations with bow and arrows. So highly did Edward value the archers skill. Of course as there was no standing army there could be nobody of regularly trained archers. The archers like the other soldiers were recruited from the people and if the mass of the people were not practiced in archery there could be no hope of obtaining skillful archers. The bows used by them were six feet long, their arrows three feet. In shooting they drew their arrows to the ear and could send them with good aim a distance of two hundred and forty yards. They carried their bows in canvas cases so that they might not be wedded by the rain or cracked by the sun. Edward the third had a bodyguard of archers, one hundred and twenty a number, chosen from the stoutest and most skillful men in the country. The fourth body of men consisted of the remaining foot soldiers who were mostly armed with lances. Besides these a large number of laborers of various kinds had to be engaged to follow the army. These men were pressed by the sheriffs and in most cases were obliged to go against their will, for it could hardly be to their profit to leave their homes and their business to meet all the dangers of a distant expedition. There were the blacksmiths to repair the armor and shoe the horses, the hastens to build the bridges, the rope makers, carpenters, woodcutters, miners and many others. All these men began to gather together at Portsmouth in the beginning of October. The great lords came ready to serve without pay in this war. They were a noble assembly of seven earls, thirty-five barons and many other gentlemen, all the flower of the English nobility. Thither came the king with all his personal followers. He brought with him thirty falconers on horseback, so that in the intervals of war he might indulge in his favorite pursuit of hawking for waterfowls along the courses of the streams. Besides his falcons he took with him sixty couples of stag hounds and as many hare hounds that he might hunt when worried of hawking. Many of the great lords also had their hounds and their falconers with them. Almost every day during the campaign Edward III and his lords are said to have found time for hunting or hawking. We can imagine with what feelings Edward the young Prince of Wales prepared to start on this his first enterprise. He had been brought up amidst the ideas of chivalry and regarded war and adventure as the only true vocation of a gentleman. Now at last he was to be allowed to go out into the world himself and fight the enemy and win his spurs. His father was as enthusiastic as himself. He was then, in the flower of his manhood, just thirty-four years old, while the Prince was sixteen. They were more like two brothers than father and son. The destination of the expedition was kept secret. The King's first intention is supposed to have been to sail to Guine to aid the Earl of Derby in opposing the French army which had been sent against him. But on board Edward's ship there was a Norman gentleman, Sir Gottfried A'Kur, who represented to him that Normandy was the richest and most fertile province in France, that it was quite undefended, and that the English would be able to land there without resistance, gained great booty, and subdued many towns before the French army could return from Gaskony to oppose them. Edward yielded to his persuasions, and this change of destination shows us that he undertook this expedition without any decided plan. His success was not so much owing to a skillfully arranged campaign as to the personal valor of his troops and to his own genius as a commander. The English army landed at Laogue on the 10th of July, 1346. It is supposed to have numbered thirty-two thousand men. Edward's first act on landing was to confer a knighthood on his son. He found, as Sir Gottfried A'Kur had said, that his coming was quite unexpected. There was no French army to resist him, and he marched into Normandy without opposition. He divided his troops into three battalions, so arranged they went through the country pillaging and even burning many of the towns and villages on their way. The fleet meanwhile burnt such ships as it found in the harbors. The rules of chivalry were not concerned with the treatment which a peasant or burger might receive from the hands of a knight. A knight was bound to treat his equal with courtesy, but his refinement was only one-sided. To the lowborn he acknowledged no duties. The chivalrous army of Edward III spread devastation on every side of the rich and fertile province of Normandy. At Caen they found a garrison which attempted in vain to defend the town. It was one of the richest towns in Europe, full as Foistach tells us of draperies and all sorts of merchandise of rich citizens, noble dames and damsels, and fine churches. All its wealth fell into the hands of the English. They stayed in the town for three days and the plunder they collected was sent down the river in barges to the fleet. The ships were laden with cloths, jewels, gold, and silver plate, and merchandise of all kinds. Edward sent orders for all this wealth to be convoyed to England together with a number of prisoners. The resistance of Caen had been in vain and the other cities opened their gates at once to the English. At Louvier, a rich mercantile city, they again won great wealth. Meanwhile, Philip had heard of Edward's landing in Normandy and was hastening to meet him. Edward's intention was to cross the Seine at Rouen and advance northwards to meet his Flemish allies who had crossed the frontier. But at Rouen he found the bridge broken down by the French, who having his yet collected no regular army were with to confront him, wished at least to prevent him from crossing the river. Edward continued his march up the left bank of the Seine, hoping to find some place where he could cross, but all the bridges were broken down. His situation was becoming critical. Retreat was impossible as he had devastated all the country through which he had passed and he had no supplies to fall back upon. His one desire was to draw Philip into battle. Philip, on the other hand, wished to gain time, for time reduced the power of Edward but brought new levies daily to Philip. So Edward continued his course of devastation to Poissy almost under the walls of Paris. The French peasants, driven from their burning homes and seeing all their goods carried off by the English soldiers, cried out in despair, Where is Philip our King? It was August when Edward reached Poissy. Philip was encamped with a large army at Sandinie, but Edward failed to draw him out to battle and did not venture to attack him. The English found the beams of the bridge at Poissy still floating in the river and Edward determined to wait there whilst his workmen repaired the bridge. He stayed five days in the nunnery at Poissy where he celebrated the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and sat at table in his scarlet robes trimmed with fur and ermine. When the bridge was rebuilt the English army crossed the river on the 16th August dispersing the French on the opposite side with showers of arrows and marched toward the Somme. They passed the city of Beauvais but Edward did not venture to stop and besiege it. His army was beginning to diminish. The men suffered from the heat and the rapid marches. They subsisted only on plunder as they had no supplies with them. Their boots were beginning to wear out and there was no means of replacing them. Philip was in their rear with a force greatly superior in numbers. Edward contented himself with burning the suburbs of Beauvais and passed on toward the Somme. At ermine they stopped three days whilst the Earl of Warwick and Sir Godfrey de Accours looked for a place where they might pass the river, but they found all the bridges strongly defended by French troops and returned in despair to Edward. Philip was now close at hand at Amiens and the English hemmed in between the great French army and the river were thus without way of escape. It was necessary at least to leave ermine. Edward was thoughtful and silent. He ordered mass to be said before sunrise and the trumpets sounded for marching. At 10 the English left ermine and at noon the French entered the town. They found it full of provisions left by the English. The meat was still on the spits. There was bread in the ovens, wine in barrels and even tables laid ready for dinner. Here the French took up their quarters. The English meanwhile had taken the little town of Oisemo and established themselves there for the night. Edward caused some prisoners who had been captured on the march to be brought before him and promised that if any one of them would show him a ford in the river by which the English army might pass over, he and twenty of his companions should have their liberty. A peasant, Gaubein August by name, stood forth and said he knew of a ford where, when the tide was low, the army might cross in safety, for then the water was only knee deep and the bottom was made of gravel and white stones so that the carriages might pass over without danger. This ford was called Blanc-Tac and was defended by Sir Godmar Duffet with four thousand men. On the morning of the twenty-fourth August the English waited eagerly for the tide to go out. On the opposite side the forces of Sir Godmar Duffet were drawn up to defend the ford. Edward gave the word of command in the name of God and St. George and the English knights plunged into the stream. The French met them in the water and desperate deeds of valor were done by the knights on either side as they struggled in the river. Meanwhile the archers on the banks did much havoc with their persistent showers of arrows. At last the French broke and fled. The English army crossed in safety, but the last of their troops had hardly reached the opposite bank when the light cavalry who formed the advance guard of the French army arrived and succeeded in capturing some loiterers. When Philip himself reached the river the tide had risen and the ford was impassable. He had to retire to Abbeville and cross by the bridge there. The English army marched down into Pontieu and took up their position on the hills near the little village of Crécy. Here Edward determined to halt and await in an advantageous position the coming of the French. He determined to hazard all on the result of one engagement though his forces were greatly inferior to the French. Even then Philip was awaiting at Abbeville the arrival of new troops, but this delay was really advantageous to Edward as it gave him time to recruit his weary troops and to make preparations for battle. He had chosen his position with consummate skill. The army was encamped on the rising ground on the right bank of the little river Mai in front of the town of Crécy. The left wing was protected by the river. In front of it palisades had been erected and the baggage had been piled together to cover the troops. The right wing was protected by a little wood. The front of the army commanded a ravine on a gentle slope called la vallée des clercs. This arrangement prevented the French from using their cavalry with success except against the right wing of the English army. On the evening of Friday, the 25th August, the soldiers were busy furbishing and mending their armor so as to be quite ready for the battle. The king gave a great supper to all the earls and barons of the army. They feasted with great cheer, not discouraged by the thought that on the morrow they would have to fight against terrible odds. When his guests had left him, the king retired to his oratory and kneeling down prayed to God that if he should combat his enemies on the morrow he might come off with honour. It was midnight before he lay down to sleep. Early the next morning the king and his son heard mass and communicated. The greater part of the army confessed and did the same. Then the king ordered the men to arm and assemble. He divided his army into three battalions. The first battalion was under the command of the Prince of Wales who was aided by the earls of Warwick and Northampton. Stationed in its front was a large body of archers arranged in the form of a hero. Behind it, a little to its flank, stood the second battalion, commanded by the Earl of Arendelle. The king commanded the third battalion which formed the reserve and was stationed on the summit of the hill behind. When all was arranged, the king mounted a white palfrey and carrying a white wand in his hand surrounded by his marshals rode to the ranks encouraging the men and bidding them guard his honour and defend his right. He spoke to them so sweetly and with such cheerful countenance, says Foissard, that all who had been dispirited were directly comforted by seeing and hearing him. He bade them eat and drink that they might be strong and vigorous in fighting. There was no hurry or anxiety. When they had eaten they packed up their pots and barrels in the carts and put everything in order. When each man going to his post seated himself on the ground with his helmet and bow before him that he might be fresh when the enemy arrived. All the knights had dismounted intending to fight on foot. The French had left Abaville at sunrise. The army made unwieldy by its size was weary and disorganised by the long march. The lords who had been sent forward to Reconoiter came back and advised the French king to let his men rest that night and not engage battle till the morrow. But the French knights in proud confidence of their own superiority were impatient to fight. They pressed forward in a disorderly mass, and when King Philip caught sight of the English his blood began to boil, and he ordered the Genoese archers to form. Just then a fearful thunderstorm swept over the country, the rain fell in torrents, and large flights of crows startled by the storm hovered over the French army and seemed birds of ill omen in the eyes of the soldiers. After the storm the sun shone out brightly, and shining in the eyes of the French dazzled them by its brilliancy. But the English had it at their backs. The rain also had wedded the strings of the Genoese crossbowmen, and by slackening them made it difficult to shoot. But the English kept their long bows and canvas cases, so they were not harmed by the rain. The English soldiers were seated on the ground awaiting the approach of the enemy. When the French came in view the trumpets sounded the note of alarm, and the men sprang to their feet and seized their arms. Evening was drawing on when the two armies met face to face, for it was not till five o'clock that the French army drew near to Cressy. When the Genoese had formed they advanced with a loud shout, hoping to frighten the English who stood still and neither moved nor shouted. Then the Genoese set up a second cry and again a third, and still the same immovable silence on the part of the English was maintained.  Then their answer was a shower of arrows poured with such force and quickness that it seemed as if it snowed. The Genoese threw down their arms in terror and tried to seek safety in flight. The Duke of Anonson, who was commanding the French battalion in the rear, enraged at seeing them fly, shouted to his men, Kill me, these scoundrels, for they stop up our road without any reason. The French men at arms pressed on through the flying Genoese, killing all who came in their way. But the shower of English arrows never ceased. With sure and steady aim the archers penetrated into the French ranks. And now the time was come for the English knights to meet the French. Prince Edward followed by his knights sprang forward from behind the ranks of his archers and rushed upon Anonson and his followers. Then ensued a terrible melee. Knights struggled with knight in hand-to-hand combat. But Prince's Welsh foot-soldiers made great havoc among the French with their short knives. Overall fell a ceaseless shower of arrows from the unshaken ranks of the English archers. The second battalion of the English army came to the aid of the first. The numbers of the French seemed so overwhelming that a knight was sent, in great haste, to the King of England, who was still posted with his reserve near the windmill on the hill. He begged the King to come to the Prince's assistance. Is my son dead, asked the King, unhorsed, or so badly wounded that he cannot support himself? Nay thank God answered the knight, but he is in so hot an engagement that he has great need of your help. The King only said, Let the boy win his spurs, for I am determined if it please God that all the glory and honor of this day shall be given to him, and to those into whose care I have entrusted him. Truly the young Prince won his spurs. He and his knights fought with such desperate valor that soon the French began to break in disorder, though not before many of their bravest knights had been slain on the field. It is said that sixteen hundred barons, four thousand squires, and twenty thousand common soldiers fell on the French side, while the English loss was inconsiderable. It was a ghastly scene upon which the moon shone down that night. On all sides the French were flying. Some knights and squires still wandered over the field amongst the dead and dying, seeking their masters whom they had lost. They attacked the English and small parties but were soon destroyed, for no quarter was given that day. Late in the evening Sir John Aenot led King Philip from the field by force. The King fled through the night to Amiens and then on to Paris. The English were left victors on the field. King Edward came down from his post and hastened to his son. Kissing him with enthusiasm he said, My fair son, God Almighty give you grace to persevere as you have begun. A deep mist rose and the battlefield was enveloped in the blackest darkness. The English only knew that their enemies had fled, by the silence which had succeeded the hooting and shouting of the French. Pursuit was impossible in the darkness. They kindled great fires and lit torches which shed a weird light on the battlefield. The battle had lasted from five o'clock on Saturday evening till two o'clock on Sunday morning. The night passed quietly, for all rioting had been forbidden. When morning dawned Edward gave orders that the mass of the Holy Ghost should be solemnly sung by the soldiers in thanksgiving for this great victory. The thick mist still continued. Two bodies of French soldiers who came upon the field ignorant of the battle and hoping to join the French army were entirely routed by the English and many of them were slain. Edward III remained two days upon the field of battle to superintend the numbering and burial of the dead. He granted a truce for three days that the peasantry might culminate in the task. What think you of a battle said Edward to his son as they wandered over the field? Is it a pleasant game? Orders were given to attend the wounded, some of whom were given shelter by the monks of a neighboring abbey. The bodies of the dead nobles were taken to be buried in the surrounding churches, mostly in the church at Cressy. For the burial of the common soldiers the peasant's dug long deep trenches, traces of which may be seen to this day. So was won the battle of Cressy, the first of England's great series of victories upon the continent. It showed the powerlessness of chivalry before the strength of the people. The proudest knights of France had fallen helpless before the English yeoman with his bow and arrows. It showed that the strength of a nation no longer lay in the brilliant appearance were the boasted bravery of its knights, but in the steadfastness and sturdy courage of its people. The death knell of chivalry was sounded. Its pomp and pageantry might still continue for a while and meet with encouragement from Edward III, but he was wise enough to recognize the truth and know that it was to his archers and not to his knights that he owed this victory. Cressy was not only a triumph of the English over the French, it was a triumph of the people over the nobles. To take Calais lay open to Edward III. It was of the utmost importance to him to gain possession of this town. Its port was the home of the French pirates who so fatally damaged his commerce. If he could but gain possession of it they would be destroyed and he would gain a new and convenient harbor for his trade with Flanders. To take Calais by assault was hopeless on account of its strong fortifications. He was determined to besiege it and reduce the town by starvation. He caused to be built round its walls a whole town of wooden houses in which he lodged his army. This wooden town was laid out in streets and the houses were thatched with straw. There was even a marketplace where markets were held on Wednesdays and Saturdays. English and Flemish merchants brought cloth, bread and meat, and supplies of all kinds for the comfort of the army. Communications were opened with England and money was asked for and obtained from Parliament. English ships blockaded the harbor and were stationed all along the coast so as to cut off all approach to the unfortunate city. Reinforcements came over from England. Queen Philippa joined her husband in the camp. The English waited patiently in confidence of success. The English arms were successful on all sides. The French withdrew from the Garonne and left the English in undisputed possession of Guyenne and Poitou. But in England itself a great danger had arisen. The Scots were always ready and eager to cross the border. Now that they knew that the King of England was away in France, with all his bravest soldiers, they thought there would be no one to resist them and that they would be able to march unopposed to the gates of London itself. A large army under David Bruce crossed the border and proceeded as far as Durham, burning and destroying everything in their way. But the Archbishop of York and the lords Henry Percy and Rafe Neville had gathered together all the men they could find, amongst whom were even many clergymen eager to fight in defense of their country. They came upon the Scots unaware at Neville's Cross near Durham. The English fought valiantly, wishing to emulate their victorious countrymen at Percy. Here again the English archers decided the day. The Scots were completely routed. David Bruce, the great Earl Douglas and many other nobles were taken prisoners, while still more lay lifeless on the field. David Bruce was taken to London, which he entered solemnly riding upon a horse amidst a great concourse of spectators who received him with silent respect. He was led to the tower where he was destined to remain a long while. In Brittany also the English arms had been successful. The cause of Blois, de Montfort's rival, had been taken prisoner and was sent to the tower. The King of France was determined at least to save Calais. Messages were sent to him by John Avien, the governor of Calais, saying that he could not hold out much longer. Seventeen hundred of the useless inhabitants of the town had already been turned out and had been kindly received by the English who gave them food and suffered them to pass on. The garrison had eaten all the dogs and cats in the town. Starvation was staring them in the face. They must surrender if help did not come. Philip assembled an army at Witsentide and marched to raise the siege of the suffering city. But when he drew near he found that it was impossible to approach the English army which was securely entrenched. He sent messengers to Edward asking him to come out and give him battle in the open field. But afraid to risk another battle after the defeat of Calais, he determined to leave the city to its fate and broke up his camp. The unfortunate garrison saw the army which they had hoped would save them, turn its back without striking a blow. Further resistance was hopeless and the famished garrison asked for terms. Edward would grant none. He was enraged with the city on account of its obstinacy and hated its citizens because of the many deeds of piracy by which they had injured his commerce. He sent Sir Walter Manny to the governor, saying that he would grant mercy to the garrison and the inhabitants if six of the principal burgers gave themselves unconditionally into his hands with ropes round their necks and the keys of the town in their hands. When the governor had heard the king's answer from Sir Walter Manny he went into the marketplace and caused the bell to be rung. When all the inhabitants of the town had assembled he told them what the king of England had said. Then there was great weeping and lamentation till up rose the wealthiest citizen of the town, Ustas de Sampierre, and said, It would be a very great pity to suffer so many people to die through famine. I will be the first of the six. Then the citizen seemed as though they would have worshipped him falling at his feet with tears and groans. It was not long before others were found willing to die for their fellow citizens. They were followed to the gates by lamentations and Sir Walter Manny led them to the king's pavilion. There they fell upon their knees before Edward and presenting him with the keys begged him to have mercy upon them. So pitiful was the sight that the English barons and knights who stood around wept to behold it. Edward only eyed them angrily, for he hated the citizens of Calais. Then spoke Sir Walter Manny, Ah gentle king, restrain your anger, let not the world have caused to speak ill of you for your cruelty. But Edward refused to listen. Queen Philippa threw herself on her knees before him and said with tears, Ah gentle sir, since I have crossed the seas with great danger to see you I have never asked you one favour. Now I most humbly ask as a gift for the sake of the son of the Blessed Mary and for your love to me that you will be merciful to these men. The king after looking at her in silence for some time said, Ah lady, I wish you had been elsewhere, but I cannot refuse you. I give them to you, to do as you please. Then the queen and all the knights were very joyful and Philippa took the nobles' citizens to her tent and gave them new clothing and feasted them, and giving them each six nobles of gold sent them out of the camp in safety. It was on the 4th August 1347 that Calais fell into the hands of the English. Edward caused all its inhabitants to leave it, except some few who made their peace by swearing fealty to him. To repeal the town he offered great privileges to such English merchants as would settle there. Soon it became again a bustling busy commercial city and was of great importance to the trade of England during the two hundred and eleven years that it remained in her possession. Edward stayed some little while at Calais, during which time Prince Edward led frequent foraging expeditions into France. Pope Clement VI had been unceasing in his attempts to make peace between the kings of France and England. Now once more his legates appeared upon the scene, and at last succeeded in negotiating a truce, which was agreed upon on the 28th of September and was to last till a fortnight after the next Midsummer Day. On the 12th of October the king and his son landed at Sandwich. This time he did not return without having done something decisive. Between the 10th July 1346 and the 4th August 1347 the great battles of Caissie and Neville's Cross had been won and Calais had been taken. The tower was crowded with noble prisoners, the whole country was enriched by the spoil one from the French. All this showed the power of the English people, the ability of their king and the bravery of his son. It was a proud moment for England when her king and his son came home crowned with the laurels of victory. After this Edward stayed almost constantly in England and devoted himself to domestic legislation as he had entire confidence in the ability of his son to conduct foreign campaigns. It is supposed that Prince Edward gained the name of the Black Prince from the French after the Battle of Caissie when he fought in a Black Quirasse. Sometime after the siege of Calais Edward III left England once again to indulge in an adventure which was more befitting a night errant than a king. He heard that Geoffrey de Chagny of French Knight had been trying to bribe the Genoese commander whom he had left in charge of Calais. Edward gave orders that the negotiations should be continued and arrangements made to admit a body of French soldiers under Geoffrey de Chagny at the Great Gate of Calais leading to Bologna. He then crossed the seas with his son, Sir Walter Manny, and a picked body of knights. The king and his son were to fight disguised under the banner of Sir Walter Manny. At the hour appointed the Great Gates were opened and the French were preparing to enter, when the English sprang from their embouchcade and with shouts of Manny to the rescue fell upon the French. Sir Geoffrey saw that he had been betrayed, but turning to his men he said, gentlemen, if we fly we shall lose all. Let us fight valiantly in the hope that the day may be ours. Then there were many stout passages of arms between the English and the French. The king of England singled out the bravest knight among the French, Sir Eustace de Ribonmont, who had no idea with whom he fought, and twice struck Edward down on his knees. At last he was obliged to surrender himself to the king, and the honor of the day belonged to the English. All the French were either slain or captured. Only after the fight did the French know that the king of England had been there in person. It was the evening of the new year and Edward determined to celebrate the night with a great feast to which the French prisoners were bidden. All were seated round the table with the king dressed in new robes. All, English and French alike, made good cheer. Prince Edward and the English knights served up the first course and waited on their guests, then seated themselves quietly at another table. After supper the tables were removed and the king remained in the hall talking with the knights. To Sir Eustace de Ribonmont he said, smiling, Sir Eustace, you are the most valiant knight in Christendom that I ever saw attack his enemy or defend himself. I never yet found anyone in battle who hand to hand gave me so much to do as you have done this day. I adjudged to you, as your just due, the prize of valor above all the knights of my court. The king then took off a chaplet of pearls very rich and handsome, which he wore round his head, and placed it upon the head of Sir Eustace, bidding him wear it for love of him. He also gave him his liberty without ransom, allowing him to go on the morrow wherever he would. Section 5 of Edward the Black Prince by Louise Creighton. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain, recording by Pamela Nagami. Chapter 5. Chivalry, Part 1. The victories in France had brought great wealth and prosperity into England. The booty one from France was spread throughout the land, and the matrons of England clothed themselves in the garments of the matrons of France. The result was not altogether beneficial. This increased wealth brought with it also a change in the simplicity of English manners. Wearing the more extravagant dress of the French, sleeping on their feather beds, clothing themselves in their rich furs, the people's taste grew more extravagant. They acquired a love for fine clothes, for foolish fashions and phopery of all kinds, and in this extravagance the clergy rivaled the laity. There was also an increased love of pageantry and dissipation, in which the people were encouraged by the king. Tournaments were so frequent that Edward had to pass an enactment forbidding them to be held without royal permission. But he himself caused nineteen to be held between October 1347 and May 1348, many of which lasted more than a fortnight. The life of the court and the nobles was nothing but a ceaseless round of gayities and festivities. It was at one of these tournaments that Edward III established the great Order of the Garter, which continues to this day, and may be looked upon as a heritage left to us by the chivalric spirit of the Middle Ages. Chivalry was a thing of French creation and throwed naturally on French soil. It is principally the French and Provençal troubadours who have celebrated it by their song. In England it never developed so freely. It seemed like a thing imported, foreign in its very nature to English simplicity and English bluntness. Still throughout the Middle Ages the chivalric spirit ruled supreme all over Europe, in England and France alike. When chivalry ceased to be an enthusiasm it became a fashion, and lingered on as a fashion till Cervantes heaped ridicule upon it in his Don Quixote, till its absurdities became so manifest that it faded away amid the scorn and laughter of mankind. Edward III aimed at being a type of fashionable knighthood. In his day chivalry had not yet become an absurdity. It had lost much of its early simplicity in elevation, but still in the black prints and some of his knights, such as Sir John Chandos, Sir Walter Manny, and Sir James Oddly, we find all the nobleness of early chivalry. Let us look a little closer at this chivalry and see what it meant, and what was the ideal which had held up to its followers. It had no artificial origin but sprang up as a natural outcome of feudalism and so of early Teutonic manners. A feudal vassal owed certain definite duties to his superior. Knighthood was the formal act by which the fitness of a young man to take upon him these duties was recognized, and he was declared worthy to enter the rank of warriors. It was to the crusades that chivalry owed its religious character. By taking part in the crusades the knight could best find a field in which he might give free play to all the noble sentiments which animated him. And if the knight was to fight for Christ, it was right that religion should take under her control the important act which initiated a young man into the rank of knighthood. The education of a future knight began at the age of seven. It was the custom for the sons of gentlemen to be brought up in the castles of the nobles where first they acted as pages, attending upon the lords and ladies. Afterwards they were advanced at the age of fourteen to the rank of squires and waited upon their lords, both at home and abroad. They aided in their toilet, carved before them at table, and riveted their armor as they attended them to the tournament or the battle. Attention was paid to their education and all things connected with the management of arms or of horses. They were taught above all to be courteous to ladies, to be respectful and obedient to their superiors. Thus bred up in the atmosphere of chivalry they were fit and eager when manhood came to be raised to the dignity of knighthood. This was accompanied by many solemn ceremonies. The squire who was to be knighted was first made to lay aside his clothes and enter a bath, the symbol of purification. On coming out he was clothed, with a white garment, the symbol of purity. Next in a red robe, this symbol of the blood he was bound to shed in the service of the faith, and lastly, in a close black coat, the symbol of the death which awaited him. He then spent the next twenty-four hours in fasting. At evening he entered the church or chapel and passed the night in prayers. In the morning he confessed and received ab solution and then partook of the communion. He was next present at the mass of the Holy Ghost and sometimes listened to a sermon on the duties of knighthood. Then advancing to the altar with the sword of a knight hanging from his neck, he knelt before the priest, who took the sword and blessed it, and then returned it to him. After this he went and knelt before the noble who was to arm him night, who was called his godfather. Before him he swore to maintain the right, to fight for the faith, to serve his sovereign prince, to protect the weak and oppressed, above all to be the champion of women, to obey his superiors, to honor his companions, to keep faith with all the world, to forswear all treason and avarice, to acknowledge as his only aims glory and virtue. When he had taken his oath, knights and ladies advanced to clothe him in his new armor, the spurs, the coat of mail, the cuirass, and the gauntlets, and to gird on his sword. Then his godfather struck him three blows with the flat of his sword saying, in the name of God, of St. Michael, and of St. George, I dubbed the night. The young knight then seized his helmet and sprang upon his horse, brandishing his lance, and rode out to show himself to the crowd outside the church. There was always great feasting and joy when the eldest son was knighted. His father gathered round him all his vassals who owed him a money contribution on this joyous occasion. They feasted together in the great hall of the castle. The Lord himself was seated at the high table on the dais at one end of the hall, but with his face turned toward the hall that all might see him. During the feast the guests were entertained with the performances of gestures, tumblers, and jugglers, who formed part of all the great households of that time, or they listened to the romances of the troubadours. So amidst general rejoicings the young men entered on his new career, the ideal of perfect knighthood, held before him with noble and exalted, and we cannot doubt that it fired him with enthusiasm and inspired him to do noble deeds. In an age of rough and rude manners, when the majority of men were wanting in all refinement and culture, when men for the most part were animated only by low and selfish aims, when the light shed around by religion was as yet only feeble and fitful, it was a great thing to have such an ideal as this held up before men. In the Crusades the knight found his true field. By them the use of the sword was sanctified, and the warrior could find joy in feats of arms whilst fighting for Christ. And as the Crusades sanctified the warlike feats of the night, his worship of the Virgin sanctified that devotion to the ladies which was so distinguishing a feature of chivalry. God and the ladies was the motto of every true knight. He went both to tournament and to battle with his ladies badge upon his arm, and thoughts of her nerved him to deeds of valor. His honor was the dearest thing in a knight's eyes, and from this sprang his scrupulous fidelity to his word once pledged. As a lover he must be faithful to the lady he served. As a vassal he must be faithful to his lord. A promise once given even to an enemy must never be broken. During the French Wars of Edward III we hear often of knights being released on their word to raise the money required for their ransom and returning of their own accord to captivity if they could not raise this money. Courtesy was another distinguishing feature of chivalry. By this was meant true courtesy, springing from the heart, and showing itself in modesty, consideration for others, self-denial, as well as in matters of outward gesture and punctilio. Courtesy was shown as much too foe as too friend, and did much toward softening the ferocity of war. A true knight must also be liberal. He must be inspired with an active sense of justice and a burning indignation of wrong. But whilst extending the sympathy of a knight to all his companions in knighthood, whether friend or foe, chivalry narrowed his sympathy to those of his own class. Princes did their utmost to encourage chivalry, to provide tournaments where their knights might exhibit their valor and to cover them with every possible distinction. But while caring for the knights they forgot the people. The spirit of chivalry was a class spirit and narrowing in its tendency. It recognized neither the rights nor the interests of the people, and when once the people had grown strong enough to assert their rights, and make their importance felt, the doom of chivalry was sealed. It continued to exist with all its pageantry, long after its real life and spirit was dead. Perhaps it was never so magnificent in its outward show, as it was during the reign of Edward III, when its decay had already begun. Never had there been so many and such splendid tournaments at the English court, as now after the Battle of Caixi. It is uncertain at which of these Edward founded the Order of the Garter, but it is known to have been in existence in 1348. Most probably it was founded at the Great Tournament, held at Eltham, in 1347. Ever since 1344, when Edward had made a round table at Windsor in imitation of the traditionary round table of King Arthur, he had been desirous of establishing a new Order of Nighthood. This desire was ripened into fulfillment by the prosperous condition of the country after the Battle of Caixi. A trivial incident decided the motto and badge, which he should adopt for the new Order. One of the ladies of the court, by some supposed to be Queen Philippa herself, by others the Countess of Salisbury, dropped her garter. Whilst the courtiers looked at one another and smiled, shrugging their shoulders as they pointed to the garter on the floor, Edward, with the gallantry of a true knight, picked it up, and handing it to the lady, said, only so qui m'allie pense, shame to him who thinks evil. As he did so, the thought flashed through his mind that here was the badge and the motto for his new Order. The Order was established with great pomp and ceremony. Saint George was instituted as its patron saint. A chapel to Saint George was ordered to be built at Windsor, as chapel for the Order. There each of the twenty-five knights who were to be honoured with the garter was to have his appointed stall, over which during his lifetime his helmet and sword were to hang. There all the knights were to assemble, if it were in any way possible, on the eve of Saint George's Day. Then sitting each in his stall they were to hear mass. On Saint George's Day a great tournament and banquet was to be held. On the day following a requiem was to be sung for the souls of the faithful deceased. No night of the Order was ever to pass near Windsor without coming to the chapel, and there was to put on his mantle and hear mass. Edward made a foundation at the chapel of thirteen secular canons and thirteen vickers, and also of twenty-six veteran knights who were to be maintained there and were to serve God continually in prayer. The kings of England were to be perpetual sovereigns of the Order. There were twenty-five knights-founders, amongst whom was of course the black prince with his principal knights Chandos, Sir James Oddly, and the Coptal de Buche. They were nearly all young men, four of them were even under twenty and ten under thirty. Edward III himself was only thirty-five. At the first feast we read that all these founders together with the king were clothed in gowns of russet, powdered with blue-garders, wearing like-garders also on their right legs and mantles of blue with the scutians of St. George. Bear-headed and in this apparel they heard mass which was celebrated by Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury, and afterwards went to the feast, setting themselves orderly at the table. Then followed splendid tournaments at which there were two kinds of conflicts. In the tournaments proper the knights divided themselves into parties and one party fought against another. There were also jousts or conflicts between two knights. These were generally held in honor of the ladies who presided as judges over them. The combatants used spears without heads of iron.  Though the tournaments were only looked upon as sport, they were often tended with great danger, and the knights engaged in the combat were not seldom severely wounded and even killed. But no thought of this danger incurred without good reason diminished in the least the enthusiasm for them. They were attended with every possible kind of magnificence. The lists within which the combatants were to fight were superbly decorated and were surrounded by pavilions belonging to the champions and ornamented with their arms and banners. Scaffolds were erected for the noble spectators, both lords and ladies, those upon which the royal family sat were hung with tapestry and embroideries of gold and silver. Every spectator was decked in the most sumptuous manner. Not only the knights themselves, but their horses, their pages, and the heralds, were clothed in costly and glittering apparel. The clanging of trumpets, the shouts of the beholders, the cries of the heralds increased the excitement of the fray. When the tournament was over, the combatants retired to their pavilions to refresh themselves after the fight and remove their heavy armor, the weight of which was almost unbearable. In the evening they met together with the nobles and ladies who had been spectators of the sport, and the time was passed in feasting, dancing, and singing. The heralds named those who had fought best on both sides. The ladies chose a name for each party, and the champions received the rewards of their merit from the hands of two young and noble maidens. CHILDREN WERE TOUGHT FROM THEIR EARLIEST CHILD HOOD TO RELISH THESE SPECTACLES. THEIR VERY TOYS WERE MADE IN IMMITATION OF NIGHTS JOUSTING. The number of these tournaments led to very great extravagance in dress. Each person wished to excel his neighbor in the magnificence of his attire. The great desire was to appear in something new and astounding, and this led to the most fantastic fashions. Ladies of the first rank and greatest beauty might be seen on these occasions dressed in party-colored tunics, half one color and half another, with handsomely ornamented girdles of gold and silver, in which were stuck short swords or daggers. In this masculine attire they appeared mounted on the finest horses they could procure, ornamented with the richest furniture. Party-colored garments were in great favor. Men would wear one stocking of one color, the other of another. Most noticeable among the many extravagant fashions were the trailing dresses which lay in heaps upon the ground, in front, as well as behind. The long and fantastically shaped sleeves trailed also on the ground. A contemporary writer says that tailors must soon shape their garments in the open field for want of room to cut them in their own houses, because that man is best respected, who bears upon his back at one time the greatest quantity of cloth and a fur. Edward III himself set the example in these extravagant fashions. In his wardrobe rolls we find accounts of dresses which were to be worn at tournaments. One was a tunic and a cloak with a hood, on which were to be embroidered, one hundred garters, with buckles, bars, and pendants of silver. Also a doublet of linen, having round the skirts and about the sleeves a deep border of green cloth, worked with representations of clouds with vine branches of gold, and this motto, given by the king, it is as it is. The festival of the garter was celebrated with great splendor in 1351. The king wore a robe of cloth of gold furred, another of red velvet embroidered with clouds and eagles of pearl and gold, each eagle having in his beak a garter with the motto of the order. The queen wore a similar robe, and the princess Isabelle wore a red velvet robe embroidered with one hundred and nineteen circles of silk and pearls, with trees of silk and gold embroidered on a ground of green velvet, with flowers and leaves. On another occasion we read that a grant of two hundred pounds equal to three thousand pounds of our money was made to Queen Philippa for her retire at the festival of the garter. These gorgeous robes were of course exceedingly valuable and were reckoned amongst the most important possessions of the great people. The black prince disposed by Will of the chief of his robes, describing them each separately. Another way in which the royal family and the nobility displayed their grandeur was by their magnificent bed hangings. Of these again the black prince disposed by Will. He seems to have possessed many different beds with gorgeous hangings. One set of hangings was embroidered with mermaids, another with swans, and so on. Gold and silver plate was another favorite article of luxury. The city of London made several very handsome presents of large quantities of plate, both to the king and to the prince. But amidst all this apparent luxury we must not forget the other side of the picture, the squalor and discomfort in which even the greatest people lived in those days. Most windows were only just beginning to be used. The walls of the rooms were commonly bare and only on grand occasions were covered with hangings. The black prince, we know, possessed some splendid hangings. One set was embroidered with swans having ladies' heads, and another was embroidered with eagles and griffons. These he used to carry about with him to ornament his hall on great occasions. The floors were covered with rushes and were the receptacle of all kinds of filth. Bones were thrown at dinner on the floor for the dogs who were beneath the table ready to devour them. Forks were not known and the food was mostly torn in pieces with the fingers. Wooden platters were largely in use or more often a large slice of bread on which each man would lay his portion of meat. At banquet's a lady and a knight used to eat off the same plate. There were only two meals in the course of the day, dinner which took place between ten and eleven, and supper at five o'clock. The entire household dined together in the great hall. The chief ornament of the dinner table was a massive salt cellar, and the places for the persons of the greatest dignity were always above the salt. Edward III possessed among his royal jewels a silver ship, which was used to ornament the dinner table and hold sweet meats. Gold and silver ewers were used for washing before and after meat. The great hall or dining room was also the sleeping room for the servants. There were private sleeping rooms for the chief members of the family. Each great nobleman had around him a number of officers like a royal court, chamberlains, chancellors, and others. Besides these he kept in his employ companies of minstrels, jugglers, and tumblers, and players who sang and displayed their tricks for the amusement of the company during their meals. Travelling companies of minstrels and jugglers wandered over the country giving performances in the various nobleman's houses. Tregatours or conjurers were in high favor. There were both male and female tumblers who went about together in companies called gleamons companies. They also amused their audiences with buffoonery of all kinds. Other men made it their profession to train bears, apes, and horses to perform tricks. The spectators always connected these tricks with witchcraft and supposed them to be done by means of magic. Theaters did not exist in those days but there were mysteries or miracle plays which formed a great part of the amusement of the people during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Their origin was no doubt purely religious and their object was to illustrate passages of scripture and teach moral lessons. They were performed in churches or on stages erected in the church yards and the fields and sometimes on movable stages in the streets. They were written by monks and were performed sometimes by monks themselves, sometimes by members of a trade guild. They seemed very soon to have lost most of their religious character and to have become little more than a means of amusement for the people. To secure this better they degenerated into rather coarse comedies. Three complete sets of these old mysteries still exist and in all we see the same desire for comic effect which led the authors to take liberties with the text of scripture so as to be able to introduce comic incidents. Noah's wife is a favorite character and is endowed with a very obstinate temper so that Noah has great difficulty in getting her into the ark. Devils played an important part and were represented with horns, tails, claws, and terrible masks. Everything possible was done to make them awful in the eyes of the children and women. Masks were much used in the performances. The women's parts were acted by men or boys wearing masks. The plays as a whole cannot have produced any very serious impression, though they were by no means entirely deficient in religious feeling. But the comic element predominated and gave rise to the most boisterous merriment. We cannot wonder therefore that the preachers and moralists of the day regarded the miracle plays with disfavor and spoke of them in the same way as the Puritans of later date did of the theaters. These mysteries were exhibited on festivals and holidays. Another kind of play called Ludi were exhibited at court during the Christmas holidays. These plays were really nothing more than mummeries, the appearance of a large number of persons in masks and various comic dresses personifying certain characters and performing dances. In 1348 Edward III kept his Christmas at Guildford. Orders were given to manufacture for the Christmas sports eighty tunics of buckram of different colors and a large number of masks, some with faces of women, some with beards, some like angel heads of silver. There were to be mantles embroidered with heads of dragons, tunics wrought with heads and wings of peacocks, and embroidered in many other fantastic ways. The celebration of Christmas lasted from all hollows Eve, the 31st of October, till the day after the purification, the 3rd February. At the court a lord of Miss Rule was appointed, who reigned during the whole of this period and was called the Master of Mary Disports. He ruled over and organized all the games and sports. And during the period of his rule there was nothing but a succession of masks, disguisings and dances of all kinds. All the nobles, even the mayor of London, had an officer of this kind chosen in their households. Dancing was a very favorite amusement. It was practiced by the nobility of both sexes. The damsels of London spent their evenings in dancing before their master's doors, and the country lasses danced upon the village green. The favorite occupation of the nobility was hunting. In the reign of Edward II hunting had been reduced to a science, and rules had been established for its practice. Edward III was an ardent hunter, and all the nobility followed his example. Even bishops and abbots hunted. No more valuable present could be made than a hare hound or deer hound. In hawking, ladies could also take part. The careful training of a falcon required great skill, and a well- trained bird was most highly prized. Embroidered gloves were worn on the hand upon which the falcon was to sit. When not flying at their game, the hawks used to be hoodwinked with elegant hoods. They had a bell on each leg, and there was a difference of a semitone between the two bells. The English ladies led a quiet and secluded life, and were celebrated for their skill in needlework and embroidery. They used also to amuse themselves with playing at dice and chess and with music. They were allowed, it is true, to appear as spectators at the tournaments, and at the time of the foundation of the Order of the Garter, the Queen and the Wives of the Night Founders were received as far as their sex allowed as members of the Order. End of section 6.