Hello, thank you for joining me. I'm at Alton today, Alton in Hampshire. You can see the south-western railway on that side of the fence. We're here on this side of the fence at the Midhant Railway. Today is another episode of Miniature Railway Britain, and yes, I know the Midhants isn't a Miniature Railway, but there is a Miniature Railway further up the line. So what we're going to do, we're going to use the Midhant Railway to get us to a Miniature Railway, so get two railways in one video. Nice old sign, Southern Electric. So, electric trains on this side. It's diesel at the moment, although I'm hearing the electric going out. We're expecting to find some steam further up the line. So, you may have been able to hear at the beginning of the video the sound of a diesel locomotive. That was a Class 20, so we're going to walk up here. This station used to have Shaf2 footbridges. They've put a new bridge with lifts in, so that's good it's accessible, but it kind of feels something's missing now. The old footbridge has gone, which is somewhere around here. There's a nice WH Smith selling coffees and teas, so perhaps I'll grab myself a drink before I get on the train. So our locomotive has disappeared up here somewhere. So what we'll do, we'll wait and see the locomotive come back, and that's going to take us up to Ropley, where the Midhant Railway is. We're going to go for a ride on the Ropley Miniature Railway. We are approaching the strong country as that sign with a blue bullet-positive show. So, let's wait and see how the diesel locomotive arrives and up over the Alps we're going. Behind this Class 20, I'm going up onto the bridge where I should get our first view of the Midhant Railway. My plan is to do a little tour of the station first, but from this bridge we should be able to see the steam locomotive arrive. I can just see the Midhant Railway in the field over there. So the steam locomotive is due from this way. We'll see that arrive, and there's our train. There's also the engine and everything over there, so we'll go and have a look around all of that before we go on the Midhant Railway. So, let's wait here and see the steam train. So, having watched the steam locomotive depart, it's now time to go and find the Ropley Station. It's a really, really nice place to be. It's nice and quiet as a few people about, and it's just got that atmosphere of a country railway station. A little bit in the middle of nowhere, we're quite high up. The next station, Medsted and Fourmarks, I believe, is the highest railway station in the south of England, but this one, so it's just slightly further down the hill. So what we're going to do, we'll go and find the Midhant Railway. It says Entrance, so we'll have a look at the railway, have our ride, and then we'll go up and down, because I think it's out and back. It's a 10 and a quarter inch gauge railway, so there's the station there. It's called Ropley High Level. So what we'll do, we'll have a ride to the other end and see what we can find. Having an enjoyable ride up and down the track, about a kilometre long, nice and nice straight on ride, we come back to the standard gauge line. There's a footpath here, which is quite an exciting footpath, because you've literally got a railway each side. So my plan is, by walking up here, we'll see the Class 20 come fast. There's a Class 67, 10 and a quarter inch 67, and there was our 47, so that was Ropley High Level. Also, this footpath gives us the opportunity to have a look. There's this pretend steam locomotive called Hasty. I've ever seen that. She visited Catterborough Park one day, just for a day once, and I'm going to see her there. So we are literally between two railway lines, 10 and a quarter standard gauge. So we'll have a look up here. We'll see the 20 come fast, and then by the time the Class 20 goes along, the steam train should be due, which I'm going to have around the steam train before going home. So it's quite an exciting day. Oh, another thing to show you. Track's fairly level. It goes up one in 50, just see the marker. Ironically, as that line goes up, the standard line goes down. It's a very nice scenery, as I was coming back on the miniature train, just looking across the valley. I just thought it was a really nice miniature railway, high up on the hill at this country railway station on the standard gauge line. Just, you know, perfect. Sort of place, you know, could spend hours here. Been to the Midhance Railway a few times in the past. I don't think I've ever made a video here. Probably one day. I mean, this video is for the miniature railway, but obviously the Midhance features quite a lot. One day, perhaps I'll do a branch line in Britain, and we'll explore the Midhance Railway properly, and, you know, look at everything on the Midhance. I think that's their engine ship behind there. We can't receive much from this side. So what I'm going to do, hang around up here, I think the footpath goes down a little bit, should get a view of the Class 20. Having had a very enjoyable ride on the train, seeing the Class 20 pass, I thought we'd just have a walk through the station, because this has to be one of the most attractive railway stations I've ever come across. I mean, in the spring, all the tulips out, so it makes it even more attractive. So the steam train due fairly soon. So I was going to get that up to Islesford, and then maybe have a wander around near me. I thought, because it's known as the watercress line, I should try and find some actual watercress beds, which, you know, I won't have to walk far to find, but all I'm going to do now is wander up this way again. So it's a very nice tropery here. We've got the Rockblee station. Okay, right, now that bell, I'm fairly sure that means the train's left made of lead and four marks. So I probably haven't got a huge amount of time, but I've got time to show you what I wanted to show you. So that's good. There's a very good viewing area of the yard. We've already had a bit of a look at the yard when earlier on the S15 was sat here. She was watering to see what else there is. So we've got the two MT on shed. So as I said earlier, when I first came to the Midhamps Railway, she was my local. I rode behind, travelled behind her and Bodmin. Is that? That's the train coming. That's my train arriving. So let's see this arrive, to go and jump on it. Well, do I point it out from here? Up there, the bridge. Up there over the shed. That is known as the Harry Potter Bridge. Used to be at Kings Cross. And in the first of the Harry Potter films, that's the bridge you see Harry Potter walking over. I'm now going to have to run because I have a train to catch. And we've just come here with a class 47. Which is quite nice because we had a miniature class 47. 47, 8, 3, 4. And now we've just had 7, 5, 7, 9. We did have a round trip with the Steam Loco. I'll put all the Steam Loco footage in a different video. So have a look out for that. Meanwhile, I'm going to watch the Loco. It's not really going to run round, but it's just going to go back to Rockney. So I'm going to watch that. And then, since it's the WarshQuest Live, I thought I'd go and find some WarshQuest beds before I finish the video. Here we are. This is New Owlsford Town Centre. I'd be looking for somewhere more modern. But this is New Owlsford. Old Owlsford is a village about half a mile or so in that direction. The railway station is not too far from here. You can just see the Parrish Church railway station is basically just behind it. So Owlsford grew up around the watercress industry. And a lot of the watercress, some of it would have gone by train up to London. Hence the mid-tank railway also being known as the Watercress Line. So as I said, having had the ride I just thought it would be a nice way to round off today by going to look for some watercress beds. Now, there's a river down there, at the bottom of the hill, so I think that's where I might find these watercress beds. So from Owlsford Town Centre I followed a road called Mill Lane. It's taken me down to here, the River Owl. This isn't the main river. This is just a leak. The main river is over there. Now the River Owl, you can see where Owl sort of gets its name from. Owl's Ford, a Ford on the River Owl. The River Owl joins up with the River Itchin. And the next station on the closed section of the mid-hunter railway towards Winchester was called Itchin Abbot. So you've got two railway stations, or you did have two railway stations in succession with their names off the rivers. The water sort of goes into there and there's a bit of water going off over there. So earlier on, I walked along the path out of the railway each side, the standar gauge and the miniature. Well, here I've got a river on that side and on this side I've got a pretty wild section of the River Owl. And not only that, we've got this cottage. It's called Fullers Mill Cottage. It's built right across the river. So this would have been the mill. And there's more water going off there. There's just sort of water going everywhere. So I'm sure I'm going to find some watercress beds in. There's a very, very nice garden on that side. This cottage is pretty cool. Just jutting out across the river, like I said, it was a mill. So it's fairly sort of obvious as to why it's built like this. It is there. And there's some foisteria growing there. So in a month or so's time, that's going to look really nice. So we'll have a look at this side of the mill. And there's a footpath sign. It's called the Watercress Way, this path. There's a little sign there. There's Watercress Way. There's also a footpath going that way. Well, that is a house of a difference. Nice fat cottage over the river. There's more water coming out over there. We're going to follow River Arl a bit further around the corner and hopefully we're going to find these watercress beds. I've just been for a very pleasant walk. I continued along River Arl. I walked up over the hill right round in a big circuit past Old Arlsford and I'm now heading back into New Arlsford. As you can see, that's the river. There's a swam and some ducks. And look at this. This is some watercress beds. And it's really quite fascinating. So the water sort of flows along the top. And then it kind of goes down various different galleries. Watercress would have been taken by train up to London. I suspect now it goes on a lorry of some sort. But it's really quite a fascinating landscape. At first glance, you think it just looks like a sort of overgrown pond that's meant to have some sort of walk feature, but it's a working farm, effectively. It's a crop. I like it. It's different. We can go and have a closer look here. I don't know what I'm supposed to do, but walk out into the field. So, I'm now in the middle of a watercress field. This is possibly the strangest why I've ever ended a miniature railway video just walking out into a watercress field. But, you know, it's all different. So I hope you enjoyed this video. Thank you very much for watching. Please do feel free to like, subscribe and comment. And from in the middle of a watercress field, do come and visit the Midhunter Railway. Maybe come do this walk for yourself. Goodbye.


Welcome to this course on Transition Metal Organometallics in Catalysis and Biology. We have been discussing olefin polymerization in the last few lectures and in this regard in the previous lecture we have looked at one big discovery in the field of olefin polymerization which is Ziegler-Natta catalysis and in that respect we have seen the sequence of events starting from of bow reaction the nickel effect that led to the initial discovery of Ziegler-Natta catalysis and subsequently we have also looked into these contributions made by Karl Ziegler with regard to the Ziegler-Natta catalysis which is mainly centered around polymerization of ethylene. So in today's lecture we are going to go further and look into the contributions of Julio-Natta with regard to the Ziegler-Natta catalysis which is centered around propylene. In this we had observed Ziegler's work is on ethylene to polyethylene HDP molar masses 10 to the power 4 to 10 to the power 5 Dalton and the catalyst is titanium tetra chloride diethylaluminum chloride at 25 degree centigrade and 1 bar pressure that gives rise to this polyethylene. Now the main limitation and the active species for this is surface alkylated beta TICL catalyst. Now these have been the Ziegler's contribution in the Ziegler-Natta catalysis and he is the first one to have identified this polymerization procedure of ethylene to give polyethylene of very high molecular weight and that to under ambient condition using titanium tetra chloride and diethylaluminum chloride at 1 bar pressure and the active species is supposed to be surface alkylated beta titanium 3 a catalyst which is generated from the reaction of TICL4 and diethylaluminum chloride. The one of the major limitation of this Ziegler's method is that they had very broad distribution of molecular weight and their polydispersity index are very high PDI or polydispersity index is high. So the polymers were of a broad range of distribution of chain length. And then the emphasis came on developing single side catalyst which will have uniform active species and as a result one can get narrow distribution of molecular weight and those are called low PDI polymers. So this had been the work of Ziegler. Now the Natta contribution had been in polyethylene to polypropylene using the catalyst. So usually the low density polypropylene were obtained by radical method, other than this other methods like radical polymerization gives low molecular weight oils and with respect to this Ziegler Natta polymerization provided access to this polypropylene of high molecular weight and of different properties in terms of hardness, softness and so on and so forth. Another important thing which comes into play is the orientation of this methyl group in the propylene polymer and which is absent in case of the ethylene polymerization to polyethylene. So there are different possibilities in which the methyl group can orient with respect to each other. That is one important thing and based on that the polymer properties of polypropylene varies depending on how this methyl group gets stacked up. So there are classification of polypropylene polymer based on the arrangement of the methyl group and we are going to be looking at these different classification. The next thing which comes into play is that how different classes of polymers are produced using this titanium catalyst. So how does the catalyst site work to get this different kind of polypropylene as shown over here. So now we are going to talk about the various types of polypropylene classes of polypropylene polymers that exist and this is termed as the properties of polypropylene dependent on density, hardness, ductility as well as the tacticity. So the various types of polypropylene polymers that can be present depending on the methyl branching is shown below. The first one is an arrangement like this all the methyl groups pointed towards one direction these are called isotactic polymer and all the carbon atoms have same configuration and this is called IPP. The next has arrangements of this type, this is called a syndiotactic and this has regular alternation of configuration. So if one methyl is coming up the other methyl is going down and then the other is coming up and the other is going down. So this kind of arrangement is called a syndiotactic whereas in the first one it was isotactic where all the thing was coming up. So this is called syndiotactic polypropylene or SPP. The third one has three regions where some of them are coming up together and the others are going down. So these are called stereoblock and alternation of isotactic C4 to C10 blocks C100 with different configuration and these are called STTP. The fourth one, so this is called hemiisotactic stereocenters 1, 3, 5, 7 are isotactic and 2, 4, 6, 8 are isotactic. This is called HIPP hemiisotactic and the fifth one, this is called atactic irregular statistical change in configuration and this is called APP atactic. Now all of these, so many varieties in terms of polyethylene, we had only three varieties LDP, LLDP, HDPE and in terms of polypropylene apart from the molecular rate we have another variety based on the stereolegularity of this methyl group. So we have the first one which is isotactic where all the methyl groups are in the same direction followed by the syndiotactic when all the methyl groups are in alternate arrangement. Then we have stereoblock polypropylene where there is a blocks of the same side oriented methyl groups followed by another block of different side oriented methyl group. Then we have hemiisotactic in which half of the centers are isotactic that means they occur in a regular arrangement towards one side and the other half alternating other half is atactic that means they can appear in any direction followed by the last one which is a completely irregular statistical change in configuration which is called atactic polypropylene. So this configuration characterization this has been what was capitalized by NATA in putting forth the polypropylene polymerization. The stereochemical feature of this polypropylene polymer is what is seen as NATA's contribution in this whole Ziegler NATA discovery. Hence because going to the structure stereoisomers of polypropylene differ in physical properties in their applications. For example, their structure relationships are also different. For example, isotactic and syndiotactic polypropylene usually crystalline are usually crystalline going to their helical structure whereas atactic polypropylene is an ad amorphous. Now this is a very interesting thing that how come the important question over here is why the polypropylene produced by Ziegler NATA process is isotactic. Now statistically it can form any of the five things. So the important question which arises at this junction is why the polypropylene produced by Ziegler NATA process is isotactic. The answer is lies in the mechanism and what is important is that free coordination site cis to titanium carbon bond is crucial, so there has to be a cis site which is crucial for achieving crucial to cis site to be present to titanium chlorine bond and which is crucial to the formation of this. So there is a free coordination site cis to is important for producing this isotactic polymer. So with this, let me just sort of take a look at how this polymerization proceeds. Now this has a CH2, CH3, this is the polymer chain and to this the propylene comes CH3 and binds and this is the vacant site and then it goes through this four membered transition state CH2, CH2, CH3, CH3 so it goes through four membered transition state to give the product CL, CH2, CH3, CH2, CH3P and now so first there was a vacant site over here where the ethylene added now there is a vacant site over here where another molecule of ethylene comes and sits and then again the subsequent insertion of this into the polymer chain happens. So first is insertion of this into this and then the insertion of this. So first this is first insertion and then second insertion and then this proceeds further whereas the termination this is propagation followed by termination which happens CH2, CH3 polymer this is alpha beta and this gives elimination beta hydride elimination to give titanium chloride chloride chloride and hydride along with CH3, CH2P where P is growing polymer chain and this whole mechanism is called as the Orlman Cauchy mechanism. So with this we come to end of discussion of today's class and what we have discussed today in the class is that we have focused on Nutter's contribution in polyethylene we have also looked at the different classification of polyethylene that exist based on the orientation of the methyl branches and also we have looked into the question as to why this Ziegler-Natter process gives isotactic very ordered polyethylene and the answer to that lies in the fact that there has to be a cis vacant site cis to the titanium carbon bond which will have the polymer chain where this propylene will come and insert and because of the presence of the cis site that the catalyst is able to distinguish between the two phases of the propylene that approach and selectively make isotactic polymer. So more on this stereoregular polymerization of Ziegler-Natter process for poly for propylene as we meet next with this I would like to once again thank you for being in the class and we are going to be looking at this Ziegler-Natter polymerization in bit more detail with taking some more complex and relevant examples with regard to this the development of this catalyst as we proceed with the discussion in the next class till then goodbye and thank you.


Thank you all for joining us this Friday afternoon and welcome back to the CAP LTDR seminar. As you might remember, the seminar series sort of aims to provide a space for CAP members to meet and interact more regularly and share ideas. As a reminder, everyone is encouraged to nominate speakers to share their work with the CAP community. So nominate your students, your advisors, your colleagues. Links to the nomination form are available in some of the emails that Mark sent out earlier, but I'll also drop it in the chat box. So if you think of anybody, please feel free to add them. We do have speakers lined up for the rest of the semester, but we are looking for speakers for the fall series. And so for today, I'm delighted to announce our first speaker for the semester, Dr. Inwe Geva Voni. Dr. Voni is a duly appointed professor in the schools of Earth and Space Exploration and Sustainable Engineering in the built environment, as well as the associate dean of the college, the grad college at ASU. He's a member of the Water and Fluxes IRT and his research group focuses on hydrological processes in natural and urban environments and their interactions with ecological, atmospheric and geomorphic phenomena. Today, Dr. Voni will be talking to us about water, carbon and energy fluxes in an urban park in Phoenix. Enrique, take it away. Thank you, Marina, for your kind introduction and for you all for joining us here. Hopefully you can hear me well. Yes, I apologize for any interruptions and chatting from home and someone decided to take a shower right now. And the water through the pipes is laudable. So that water feature is part of the show today. I'm really excited to speak about this topic. Looking forward to your comments and to your questions. And let's get started. This is a photo of Encanto Park and maybe you might have been there before and I'll be speaking about that today. I've arranged to talk to, I've arranged to talk to go over these four areas. We'll start with some motivation and some background in particular about what is this oasis effect that he's speaking about. Then I'll focus on some methods, then the results and finally some conclusions. I'm going to do something different with the conclusions. I'll do some summary, but I also want to describe the interactions that we've had with the public agencies in the city of Phoenix as well as some media interactions and reactions from this work to get a sense of how do we disseminate our work to the broader public and to other scientists and managers, in this case park managers. So let's get started. What is this oasis effect? The glossary of meteorology by the American Meteorological Society defines it as shown here. An evaporative cooling effect due to heat infection when a source of water exists in an otherwise arid area. Boy, that's confusing. So here's an example. We have an oasis. It's sort of an exaggerated example of an oasis palm trees and a water feature. This is part of incanto park. And so this location with lots of water undergoes evaporative cooling, but it's more than that. There's advection of heat, lateral advection of heat in the atmosphere that's being brought into the oasis. And that energy is also consumed in the evaporative cooling. And so this phenomenon has been studied in desert just before. Especially imagine you're surrounded by sands and you find this groundwater spring. Background water spring created a small town that is very common in the Middle East that depends on that semi-permanent water source, an oasis in the desert. We'll be looking at oasis in a desert but more of the impact of the city within a desert on evaporation in an urban park. And I ran across this concept of the oasis effect in the book of Tom Warner, Desert Meteorology 2004. This is an interesting book. If you're working in our region, it has lots to offer in many different topics as it relates to the climate and the hydrology and the ecosystems of desert areas globally with some examples from Southwestern North America. So Tom describes the oasis as a surface that is moist from irrigation and contains transpiring vegetation. Okay, we have plenty of that. Because of the dry air that flows across the oasis from other areas, there is a large evaporation rate with an associated rapid loss of heat from the surface. Okay, so that oasis is losing heat rapidly. This maintains a low surface temperature over the oasis. It's very helpful. And he presents some examples shown here on the left of what the surface energy budget looks like for an oasis and for a non-noasis labeled semi-arid. Now, these plots are diurnal cycles and I'll be showing several types of diurnal cycles. I'm going to be using this as a plotting space. So let me describe that. The x-axis is local time, noon is 12, evenings are right before 6 in the morning, 0 to 6 after 18. And then on the y-axis, we have the energy fluxes. The unit here is calories per square centimeter per minute. It's usually energy per time per square area or per area. And I've labeled the fluxes here according to the nomenclature I'll use in the remaining part of the seminar. Rn is net radiation. That's the net amount of incoming energy. And it's the dashed line in both of these. Lambda ET is latent heat flux. So think of that as the evaporation expressed in energy units. Sensible heat flux is the amount of heat going into the soil surface. And H, sensible heat flux is the amount of heat leaving the surface up into the atmosphere. Lambda ET and H are turbulent fluxes. G is a conduction of heat into the soil. And so you see some signatures of the oasis effect. First of all, latent heat is dominant. It's the dominant component of the three fluxes that release heat. The incoming is Rn and the three other ones release it in some way. You can see in the semi-arid case, it was dry. There's no latent heat. It disappears. And in the semi-arid case, the dominant one becomes H, the sensible heat, that amount of heat that's being transported by eddies away from the surface. Ground heat flux is about the same in both cases. So we're going to try to look for some signatures in Phoenix that have these behaviors of the oasis. First, the latent heat flux is greater than net radiation, in particular in the late afternoon. Second, sensible heat flux becomes negative, which means the air is warming the surface. So that's our goal. Do we see this in Phoenix, these signatures? Also through the Book of Warner, I ran across this study in science in 1963 done in Tempe, Arizona by researchers in the Agricultural Research Service, Van Bavle et al., 1963. They did a study where they took Sudan grass and they measured transpiration by calculating the amount of water and soil. And they did this for a fully covered vegetated area and one in which they had removed plants around a central location. And they measured transpiration as a function of time during a day. And they found that transpiration was higher when the area around the grass was drier, meaning advected energy from surrounding the grass, added energy to the grass and the grass, according to them, transpired more. The transpiration amount is phenomenal, 15 million meters in a day. That's a lot more than open water evaporation. So these folks inside the weak land of Sudan grass under the conditions of temperature, high radiation, low humidity, and sufficient soil moisture can transpire upon atmospheric demand. And so we then thought to ourselves, well, if there are OACs out there, they'll out OK. Now, the OACs for advected from surrounding the earth, that's denoted by those squiggly dash lines labeled advected energy. In the park, there's several, but I'm going to speak about two budgets, the surface energy budget and the carbon dioxide budget. I've used simplified forms of these budgets. There are limitations in the two equations shown here. So the surface energy budget is net radiation minus ground heat flux is equal to sensible heat flux plus latent heat flux. If that's equality is not true, then there must be other sources of energy that are not accounted for. The carbon dioxide budget here is the net ecosystem exchange is equal to the ecosystem respiration, which is a loss term minus the gross primary productivity, which is a gain term. And I've listed the units of the two budgets. And as I said, these are very simplified first order types of budgets for urban systems. Urban systems have the addition of CO2 from transportation from other fossil fuel emissions. Urban systems have much more heat storage that affect the energy budget. So give me the break here of treating it simply. And then we'll see what the data says about the budgets. OK, so what are the signatures of the Oasis effect that we're looking for in the data set number one, a period of negative sensible heat flux, which would imply downward movement of heat from the air to the surface. Number two, a late afternoon period where the late heat flux is greater than that radiation. Think about what that means. You have more energy going into the phase change of water than is available directly in a vertical sense from the sun because of these lateral inputs. And the final one is positive late heat flux at night. OK, Warner showed it for his example of an Oasis. So in the absence of the sun, evaporations happening. Let's see if that's true in an urban park. So these are the questions we pose to guide us. What is the impact of turf grass irrigation on the surface energy balance in an urban park under differing meteorological conditions? And number two, what evaporative processes are responsible for the increased evaporation rates when there is this lateral advection of heat? So question number one, sort of standard. Question number two, can't only be done with a surface energy budget. It's really helpful to have the CO2 fluxes to address question number two. OK, so here's the study site I mentioned in Kanto Park. Let's dive in to more details. This is a close up image. The red star and the yellow triangle are the locations of the sensors established for the study to one year study. March 2019 to March 2020. This is the 14th hole of the Kanto golf course. Those of you that are golfers, you can see the location from 19th Avenue here. There's a residential community, relatively large lots just to the west. And the park is huge. We're in the northwest corner of the park. I've outlined the fairways. These polygons are the fairways where the grass is kept really short and well maintained, well irrigated year round. And anything in between those is called the rough, where the grass is allowed to dry out. So Bermuda grass is a warm season grass. During fall period, it's allowed to go dormant and it's not replaced. Whereas the fairways go through a process called overseeding. A different species called ryegrass, a wintergrass, is established for the winter period. On the right hand side is the normalized difference vegetation index for that same area obtained from a constellation of satellites run by a company called Planet. I'll tell you a little bit more in a second. Green colors imply chlorophyll and plant biomass. And red colors imply impervious surfaces, asphalt, concretes. So you can see the difference here between the park and just outside the park. And the polygons depict the footprint of a few different sensors that I'll be describing. The blue circle is the footprint of the radiometer. It measures the different components of net radiation. And the other two diagrams are different percentage levels of the footprint that's measured by the tower. So 50% is the inner one, 80% is the outer one. And this is for the warm season, averaged over all days in the warm season. These footprints vary from day to day, within a day. So this just gives you a sense of the representative area that the turbulent fluxes see or observe. These are the instruments. We established the educovarian station inside a fenced area. This fenced area is part of an AZMET weather station in the park that's been there for about 30 years. So we were benefiting from science done by the AZMET network, which is part of the University of Arizona's Agricultural Extension Service. They use it for estimating turf grass irrigation requirements in Phoenix. And they're used by homeowners associations, park managers, golf courses, et cetera. We added the tower. And that tower contains a three-dimensional sonic enemometer, an infrared gas analyzer that measures high-frequency concentrations of water vapor in CO2, a radiometer, a rain gauge, and a few other ancillary sensors in the soil, soil thermometers, soil moisture sensors, obviously some ancillary measurements in the atmosphere, air temperature, relative humidity. So that's the station. And you're seeing sort of a view in the summertime in the warm season when the grass in the rough area is green. This particular method is by now very well-established. It's only about 20 years old as a method. The experimental part of eddy covariance happened in the 1990s up to the year 2000. From then on, it's become something that you can essentially purchase and use and their software to help you go through many, many different processing steps in arriving at the flux, in this case, of carbon dioxide or the flux of water vapor in either direction between this atmospheric layer and the surface layer below it. If you're interested in speaking more about this, I'd be happy to. What does the tower see? This is a good cartoon of a tower in a domain. And it sees this time variable footprint, which shifts according to wind direction and wind speed. And you can track this because you're measuring wind direction and speed for every time you measure a flux. So sometimes the flux footprint is really close to the tower. Sometimes it expands and includes some of the urban area, a little bit of that lake, for instance. And one can estimate the flux footprint using analytical models. In this case, it's a two-dimensional model. And shown here on the left-hand side are some examples. The flux footprint for the warm season is much larger than the flux footprint for the cool season. They have about the cool season's almost circular in shape. The 50% tells you, well, 50% of the fluxes are coming from that really small location close to the tower. The 100%, well, that extends a kilometer away. Hard to track where that's coming from. The 80% is a good compromise that gives you a sense of where those contributions are coming from. Now, there is the surface energy balance to worry about. So the eddy covariance gives you h and lambda et. The radiometer gives you rn.  Do these actually lead to an energy balance? In other words, is that equal sign equal on both sides of the equation? It turns out, you could do the analysis, that most of the times that you use eddy covariance, you're going to be unable to capture 5% to 20% of the available energy. You're not going to measure the available energy in the turbulent fluxes. In this case, we captured in the warm season about 94% of the available energy. And in the cool season, about 82%. So there's some portions where you don't close the energy balance, but it's within what we would expect for this methodology. Why is this doomed? One, there's a mismatch in what the radiometer sees as compared to the eddy covariance method. The radiometer sees a smaller area than the eddy covariance method. There's also a mismatch between a single heat flux plates that measures g and what the eddy flux measurements see. That's one. So spatial mismatch. The other aspect is there is these energy storages and energy inputs in urban areas that are not accounted for well in this particular method. So take what I say later on with this asterisk that there's uncertainty in these measurements on the order of 6% to 18%. We really wanted to know how the park changes in time during this one year study. And one way of doing that is go visit the park and take a photo. Another way of doing that is using these really cool, small satellites pictured here on the lower right that are orbiting the Earth. There's about 150 of them. Low Earth orbit producing near daily high-resolution imagery. High resolution here is like three meters near daily because we don't have much cloud cover. And so we were able to track the normalized difference vegetation index. It has this capacity because it has a near infrared band and map out the different conditions of the golf course to the human management. That's really cool. So for instance, in February of 2019, there's only grasses in the fairways. And all the rough is like the image behind me, yellow, or as shown here, red, low values of vegetation index. Now we proceed in time and water gets added to the rough. The rough bermuda grass greens up and starts to fill in. The warm season has some patches. These patches have to do with irrigation issues. You have a sprinkler that's not working appropriately. That little yellow patch develops. But we're over irrigating over here, and that bermuda grass becomes really green. That's in the warm season. In October of every year, they do the overseeding process, which basically creates like a bare soil surface as they're adding the rye grass seed. So everything is uniformly non-vegetated. And then we go into the cool season again where only the fairways have green grass. It's pretty cool stuff. OK, so we know the dynamics of what the turf grass is doing. And we've talked a little bit about the measurements. So what are the outcomes here? Well, first, here is sort of visual evidence of the warm season green state for bermuda grass, and the cool season dormant state for bermuda grass. And on the right hand side, we have the measured evapotranspiration millimeters per day over the study period. And it's compared to an estimate at the AZMET station. The estimate at the AZMET station is based on meteorological data only. So I went into it thinking, oh, that estimate must be really bad. Lo and behold, these turf grass irrigation specialists know how to estimate evapotranspiration from limited observations. The fit is surprisingly good between the two methods and gives confidence in AZMET stations. A few things to note, the warm season in white and the cool season in the shaded gray have radically different amounts of evapotranspiration. I drew these horizontal lines to guide you. Let's say there's about six millimeters per day of evapotranspiration in the warm season and only about two millimeters per day in the cool season. That's a difference, a factor of three, which leads to a very large difference in total evapotranspiration. There's about a meter difference in evapotranspiration between warm and cool season. And you have that nice seasonal pattern corresponding to radiation input.  Up to what? Up to about eight millimeters per day, down to one millimeter per day. Does this get up to van Bevel's 15 millimeters per day? No way. So I'm not sure where they got that value from. So we have evapotranspiration, daily amounts. We talked about how they vary. And then we did an analysis. What controls evapotranspiration? So we did regressions against all the other meteorological values, air temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture, soil temperature. And it turns out that the dominant ones are the ones that I've shown here, relative humidity and air temperature. And they're readily available, which is a good thing. I could get those for any park. I could get those with handheld devices. Okay. So the other good thing about these two variables is that they're proxies for what really matters. TA is a proxy for the available energy. And RH is a proxy for the vapor pressure deficit or the gradient in vapor pressure between the transpiring leaves and the atmosphere. Readily available proxies for the main controls. Then we said, how do we identify which days during this record have the oasis effect? Okay. The good thing about co-locating the tower with the AZMET is that we have a one year record of the tower that compares well with the one year of AZMET. But we have 15 years of AZMET. So we exploited the full AZMET record. And what the right hand side shows is our approach for classifying days where the oasis effect occurs. What we have here is a space, the two main controls, TA versus RH, they create the space. And the dots tell us individual days of 15 years. So there's thousands of points here. And the color is indicative of the evapotranspiration amount as obtained by AZMET. So any of those low values, one, two millimeters, they fall out here. Low air temperature, low or high relative humidity. The high values, the ones that are occurring when you have lateral input of energy, they all fall in this corner. High air temperature makes sense. It's in the summertime. Low relative humidity makes sense. Low relative humidity means high vapor pressure deficit. So then I spent like three days without sleeping to understand how to create a simple way to characterize this. So this sinusoidal function shown there is a threshold between the non-oasis days and the oasis days. That is a simple relationship that only needs air temperature and relative humidity. I'm proposing it as a way of indicating in any park in Phoenix, if you have an oasis effect or not. If you know relative humidity, RH, calculate the air temperature from that equation compared to your measured air temperature. If your measured air temperature is higher than that value, you're on the right-hand side of that threshold. It's an oasis day. If you're on the left-hand side, it's a non-oasis day. Now, this stuff is really cool because the method developed here identifies oasis days. And all of the oasis days identified during the study period, well, all of the excessive heat warnings during the study period are also oasis days. So the National Weather Service is the one that issues excessive heat warnings. In the summer of 2019, there was 26 of them. In the summer of 2020, there were 48 of them. When there's an excessive heat warning, things happen, right? Watering stations open. There's the city services for the homeless change. We are instructing not to go out for certain periods of the day. We limit our outdoor activity. Society responds to the issuing of these warnings. Well, all of these excessive heat warning days are oasis effect days. And there's other oasis effect days in addition to those. We found 65 oasis days in 2019 using this method. And we developed a nice little chart that could be used to identify oasis days. It uses the heat index as a concept and relative humidity. So why is this important? It's practical. It's related to the method that the National Weather Service uses. So these lines, the red line is the approximate solution and the full solution is the dashed line. If you are above those relationships, you are in oasis conditions, low relative humidity, high heat index. If you're below those lines, you're in non-oasis conditions. You shouldn't see the effects of the affected energy on the surface energy balance. So now that we have a method to determine oasis conditions from really available data, let's talk about what happens during those conditions and what happens at the park. Okay, here's the first take. As I mentioned, this is a one-year study. I'll walk you through some of the observations. And orange is net radiation, daily value, warm season is high, cool season is low. That looks a lot like ET, surprise, surprise. The warm season for 2019 was very dry, as in almost no rainfall, or what we are now calling a nonsoon. So there's no rainfall, in a monsoon region is a nonsoon. Contrary to that, the cool season in 2019 was really wet. These events are not actually very common. So there was a above average wet season, a cool season and a below average warm season. NDVI or the vegetation condition is basically following management. If this were a natural system, you'd see an NDVI pulse when there's rain and NDVI go down when there's not rain. We irrigate a lot. So the plants are not really responding to rain. Perhaps one could say these did here to some extent. Okay, irrigation amounts. These are city of Phoenix monthly values of water added by a sprinkler system adding contour part. Take a look at those values. In the summertime, say July, they add 300 millimeters of water per month. 300 millimeters is bigger than our annual rainfall, on average, Phoenix has 200 millimeters per year. So in one month, they give the park the equivalent of a full year's worth of water and they do that for six or seven months. So irrigation input overwhelms rainfall by a huge margin. Irrigation input is such that check out what soil moisture is doing. We have soil moisture traces at 515 and 30 centimeter depths. In the warm season, soil moisture is increasing over time. I don't think you'd find a natural system that behaves this way. So first of all, it's not very sensitive to water input from rainfall. And it's growing over time as you get hotter and hotter and enhanced in the excessive heat warning days. Somewhere around October 1st, they crack down on the sprinklers and soil moisture starts to decay. And in the wintertime, in the cool season, it does respond to those precipitation events. The values of soil moisture here are really high in terms of magnitude as well. And so wet soils down to at least 30 centimeters create conditions described by Werner as oasis conditions. And the first sign of that is the comparison of air temperature with soil temperature shown here in the bottom. Air temperature in black, soil temperature in orange. And these track each other very well. If you look at a natural system, soil temperature has wild variations as compared to air temperature. Because soils, right? They can heat up a lot, 60, 70 degrees C in the soil at the surface can be measured. And then soils cool a lot at night. And so they have much wider fluctuations. This soil is kind of like just following what the air temperature is doing, almost in equilibrium. Okay, so let's dig a little deeper here. We have three temperature comparisons or measurements we can compare. One is air temperature TA, another is soil temperature. Soil temperature here is the average of a sensor at two centimeters or the sensor at six centimeters. So we're talking, you know, the shallow soil. And then land surface temperature LST is kind of the skin temperature you see from the radiometer. It's a bigger area and it's sort of what the grass, temperature of the grass. The bars represent different periods. Okay, warm season is hotter than the cool season. That's kind of obvious. In the warm season, when you have an oasis day, it's hotter than a non-oasis day. Okay, oasis days are hotter. Fine, we've established that. I think the more interesting piece here is that there's almost no difference between air temperature, soil temperature and land surface temperature. Okay, suggesting that the amount of water being added is really buffering temperature fluctuations in the soil and in the air. You can see that on the right hand plot where if you look at the diurnal pattern of temperature, the soil and the air have essentially the same temperature between seven in the morning and five in the afternoon, which is not possible if it weren't so irrigated. Okay, we looked at soil moisture to see, is there a diurnal signature in soil moisture? There isn't. Soil moisture is higher in the warm season, lower in the cool season. We've established that before. There's no diurnal cycle. There's not much of a difference in soil moisture across seasons. Now the warm season is slightly wetter than the cool season. Oasis days and non-oasis days doesn't matter too much. So fully wet all the time. Think of this as a system that doesn't have a water limit. Water is fully available. Okay, so we have a system that's green. We have it in the warm season, we have a system that has no water limitation. So what does limit the system? Well, perhaps it's energy. Although we're in Phoenix, perhaps it's energy. So here what we're showing is the effect of these oasis conditions as air blows into the park from different directions. Okay, so let me first remind you, we have this residential area just to the west. That would be in the system used here, winds from the residential area are coming from angles from degrees 240 to 300 and that little pizza slice are winds coming from the west. Everything else in the pizza is coming from other directions. Coming from the north is zero, coming from the south is 180. Okay, so the circles are oasis days, those 65 oasis days. They, most of them all have high evapotranspiration rates that exceed what you would expect under average conditions, okay? What I mean by that is what the upper plot is showing is the evapotranspiration that year as compared to the evapotranspiration averaged over many years. And an oasis day isn't always gonna fall June 1st, right? It's gonna fall whenever it falls. And so the average over many years erases the oasis conditions. And these peaks tend to be the oasis days are much higher than the average condition for that date of the year. Those oasis days have high solar radiation and high vapor pressure deficit because those are the two controls that we mentioned. If we plot them in this space of where the winds are coming from, some oasis days fall in that pizza slice where you have this neighborhood effect, the nearby neighborhood. But there is oasis days coming from all other directions. And so it isn't that it has to blow, the wind has to blow from the nearby neighborhood for there to be an oasis effect here. Now, the oasis effect can occur if the wind's blowing from the north, south or east. And why is that? That's because Encanto Park lives in this huge urban fabric. So here's Encanto Park in this inner box and around it, commercial zones. The pavements of the Arizona State Fair are huge. I-17, I-10, residential communities. So the oasis effect can come from any direction. We call that the omnidirectional effect. As long as you have high heat conditions in the summer, high air temperature and low relative humidity and some winds have to blow from any direction, then you'll get additional energy input into the park. And so we'll see where the energy goes here in a second. Just to give you a sense of the energy balance and the plotting style I'll use a bit later, here's a comparison of the warm season and the cool season, net radiation in black. These are averages over many days. The average is the symbol or the line, the envelopes are center deviations, lane heat flux or evapotranspiration in blue, sensible heat flux in red, ground heat flux in green. In the warm season, there's clearly a dominance of evapotranspiration. As you go into the cool season, net radiation falls, evapotranspiration also falls. Sensible heat flux remains about the same in both seasons. Let's take a look at the carbon fluxes. In the warm season, we have no nighttime productivity, as expected from plants, the daytime carbon uptake of plants, positive GPPs. Respirations happening all the time, day and night. These are coming from soil, micro biological activity, from plant roots, respiration. And you could see there's very little in terms of a diurnal signal on respiration. It's high, it's positive, it happens throughout the day. The net effect is what we call net ecosystem exchange. So at night, it's positive, meaning there's a CO2 efflux toward the atmosphere. During the day, it's negative, which means CO2 is being captured. So CO2 sink in the day. And the warm season and the cool season look very similar. Of course, the warm season exaggerates things because there's more plants, right? There's more water, there's more air temperature. All of these lead to greater carbon fluxes. Okay, so what is the oasis effect doing? Here's a comparison of warm season oasis days. Now we're familiar with this space. And warm season non-oasis days. The easiest way of looking at this is comparing the solid and the dashed line in B. The solid lines are the warm season non-oasis days. There's 118 of them. And the dashed lines are the excessive heat warning days. There's 26 of them. The excessive heat warning days behave like an oasis day. So any difference noted by the arrows here is the oasis effect. What does the oasis effect do? It increases net radiation, not in the morning, from noon to late afternoon, okay? What does the oasis effect do? It greatly increases latent heat flux. It really increases latent heat flux. Throughout the day, starting at dawn, throughout the night as well, okay? So this advected energy is going somewhere. It's going into evaporation. What does it do to sensible heat flux? Oasis conditions reduce sensible heat flux, make it more negative as predicted by Warner. Now, those are averages over many days. Every day is different. The wind comes from a different direction or you irrigated more at night or the wind speed is lower. We're gonna look at two days to get a sense of the physics of the problem. August five and August 30. And I'm gonna step you through a few things here. August five, the wind direction is from 43 degrees. 43 degrees is coming from the northeast. August 30, the wind direction is 241. That's coming from the west. So August fifth, omnidirectional effect from far away urban sites. August 30, neighborhood effect from that nearby location. And we're gonna look at the diagrams here in a second. Let me point out these top lines. The solid gray line is a normalized maximum wind speed. I've done some normalization of fitting the plot. When you have high values, it's a wind gust. Low values, steady winds. The dotted light-colored gray line is soil moisture. So moisture is decreasing. Then there's an irrigation effect. This happened in midday. They irrigated in midday. So moisture goes up and it comes down and they irrigate again at night and so forth. So what's happening? The day where the winds are coming from the west, okay, from the residential area. There was a wind gust starting around noon and ending around 4 p.m. So more than a gust, you know, a consistent rise in winds. And as that was happening, we get this big pulse of evapotranspiration in the park, which is greater than the net radiation. That's a direct impact of a wind gust over the residential area, adding heat to the irrigated park. Brief, intense pulse of evaporation. During the day. Now, when we have this increase in evapotranspiration due to that pulse, we have sensible heat coming to zero, sometimes becoming negative. So here's like the effect of a gust. For the other day, we don't have a gust. We have something else that's happening and it's worth describing. We have irrigation at night. This irrigation at night led to a nighttime pulse in evaporation, which I'm highlighting here with the arrow. The system is so energetic at night. They turn the sprinklers on. The plants cannot photosynthesize at night. The sprinkler water evaporates as it travels through the air or evaporates when it's falling on top of the turf grass or maybe evaporates from the soil directly and leads to a pulse of evaporation at night. And that pulse of evaporation happens at the same time than a pulse of CO2 at night, efflux from the soil to the atmosphere. So these nighttime processes are really important as we'll see here in a second. So what's happening with these nighttime pulses? It turns out that the nighttime pulses dominate the CO2 budget to the point of converting a system that we envision as being a net carbon sink into a net carbon source. Throughout the warm season and especially for oasis days, net ecosystem exchange is positive at the daily scale. A net source of CO2 to the atmosphere. That's happening because of the nighttime irrigation leading to the soil CO2 efflux at night. During the day, plants are still trapping CO2. It's just that there's more CO2 lost at night that there is consumed during the day. That's because the plants have reached their physiological limit. They can't photosynthesize anymore. They can't do more gross primary productivity when you've added more energy to them. So they're not energy limited and well, they're not water limited. And if you add more energy, it doesn't do anything else to them. They're at their, I'll say biological maximum. So that's some food for thought related to these anthropogenic systems. Did we find evidence for the oasis effect? We have all of the features noted by Warner exist at Incanto Park. We have spikes of latent heat flux that are greater than net radiation in the late afternoons. We have nighttime evapotranspiration, mostly evaporation. We have zero or negative sensible heat flux during the day. So that part I think is shown well. What we didn't expect is to find that the CO2 would disprove van Bavle. The CO2 fluxes tell us those plants cannot adjust to the additional infected energy and transpire more. The evaporative losses are not related to transpiration. They're related to nighttime evaporation of sprinkler water, either as it's traversing the air or when it's on top of the grass or it goes into the soil and at nighttime evaporates from the soil. And that's what's responsible for the soil efflux. We have warm, wet soils at night, warm, right? Remember the soils and the air are about the same temperature. So if we have a nighttime temperature in an excessive heat warning day, that is 95 degrees, that means the soils are 95 degrees at night as well. And this was a great project to work. First, because of the great interactions with graduate students pictured here are Mercedes Kindler, who's doing her master's degree on this topic and Elieperis Ruiz, who's a PhD student. We worked for three years with the city of Phoenix to get the permission to install at the park, to get the park managers to support our efforts, to provide the irrigation data, to tell them what was going on in our measurements and get some feedback, constructive feedback. And so it was a great sort of interaction with the public agency experience. In this case, it was the Parks and Recreation Department of the city of Phoenix. City of Phoenix provided some small funding opportunities and we were able to complement that with some other sources from the Central Arizona Project and the Innovative Conservation Program. In addition to Mercedes and Elie, Xiao Cheng Wang did the remote sensing work that I showed earlier. And we bundled this together in a paper that came out in Geophysical Research Letters shown here. So this paper comes out and it gets picked up by certain news agencies. And this is a good thing, I suppose, but it also presents some challenges. And so we had some contrasting media coverage. KJZZ did a little radio piece on it and a published written piece with this title. ASU research finds surprising inefficiencies in a Phoenix Parks Irrigation Plan.  Then the Irrigators Association, there's a whole professional group of people dedicated themselves to managing turf grass. They took the same piece of information and their title is, ASU research aims to increase the irrigation efficiency at a Phoenix Park. Two contrasting views of exactly the same study. And here's Xiao Cheng and Elie and I at a little photo op that we had at the park with masks. So I'm presenting this to you all to spur some ideas. We might not have time for a full discussion today, but there are several things that could come afterwards. Well, we have an idea here that irrigation at night has some unintended consequences. Can we do an experiment where we irrigate a dawn or we irrigate only in non-excessive heat warning days or we irrigate during the day? So how do we devise an irrigation plan that keeps the infrastructure working but minimizes the CO2 losses? Another area that's fruitful for any of you interested in this topic, how do we take what was learned here and apply it to other parks? Does the oasis effect happen in all parks for excessive heat warning days or does it depend on the size of the park? Maybe it's big parks, not the small ones. Since we can identify the oasis effect based on relative humidity and air temperature, that's an easy observation to do. So that's a subject that someone could pursue. And one thing that I really think is necessary is what are the downwind benefits of the oasis effect? Who benefits? Which neighborhood is receiving the heat reduction and thanks to the irrigation that is happening in Canto Park? And of course that has consequences on human comfort, consequences on energy use in their home, consequences on property value, consequences on health. So a study that at least had three sites, an upwind site, a park site and a downwind site to understand the relative differences across this oasis. Okay, that's what I had for you today. I'm happy to take questions and thanks again for the invitation. Thanks for the great presentation. Yeah, does anyone have questions? Dan. Enrique, it's good to see you again. It's been a while. That was an awesome seminar, really, really cool stuff. I live in the neighborhood just east of in Canto Park. So I'm not sure that we're getting any oasis effect from your study area. I'm sure you are, you just haven't measured it. Right? So my question is thinking about comparative data. So you started with several, sort of more theoretical plots from past work that should have compared an arid place, an oasis place in the same climate zone. And so my question is, we've got this Maryvale Eddy Flux Tower that has been collecting data for a long time. And the footprint of that tower has very, very little, if any, vegetation in it. I mean, it is just solid impervious surface and buried around. And I guess I'm wondering if there would be any value to comparing on the same days that you have data from in Canto Park, Flux data from the tower at Maryvale. We've given some thoughts to it. And we spoke to, I remember if it was Stephen or Sally to try to get the Maryvale data for those periods, but there's, I think the radiometer has been down for a long time. Don't know that for a fact, we couldn't do it. We couldn't do the comparison. The other thing that keep in mind, it's a really tall tower that measures a huge area versus a small tower that's measuring a local area. I'm not sure we could. Having said that, Winston-Chow's paper in 2014 on the Maryvale Flux Tower shows something that looks like it could be the oasis effect. It's not definitive, but the footprint has 10 to 15% irrigated tree and grass patches. Oh, it does. Okay, that's higher than I thought. Okay. So there is a signal, it's just not very strong because as you say, it's mixed up with lots of roads, lots of residential areas, empty pools, backyards that have had their turf grass ripped out, et cetera. Mm-hmm, mm-hmm. But yeah, it would be interesting to do a cross-site comparison. Just so you know, we have pulled, after getting scolded by the city of Phoenix, I have pulled out the instrumentation. No, I'm kidding. Oh, no. No, no, no, it wasn't that way. Mercedes had finished her fieldwork, we pulled out the instrumentation. It's ready to deploy somewhere else if needed. Got it. Well, your seminar is actually really timely because in our, we have cap managers meetings every two weeks and in the one we had earlier this week, Steven brought up the point, Steven and Quincy both brought up the question about the Maryville Tower because nobody's using those data. We're collecting tons and tons of subhertz data from that tower that are occupying, you know, huge amounts of server space and data land and nobody's using any of those data. And so what we talked about was, you know, the tower was built so that it can telescope down and basically go offline if somebody doesn't need it. And so we're considering just doing that because we spend a lot of time and effort making sure that those instruments work and downloading the data and managing those data. And I guess I'd be curious to know your input. Is there any reason to be continuously sampling a tower that nobody cares about? Look, these are very, very complicated systems. The data processing is an enormous task. I would first check, are all the sensors working? That would be my first check because if you're missing the radiometer, then you can't really do this check against what we call energy balance closure. And if you can't do the energy balance closure check, you don't know how good the turbulent flux measurements are. I can't speak for the current condition of the tower, but I have asked students to interact with Steven and Quincy and others. And for these dates, we couldn't do the comparison. That's such a change. Okay. Well, that's good to know. Thank you. You're welcome. Dr. Wang, nice to see you. Hi, Ricky. First of all, I doubt whether they will really receive any benefit of Oasis by leaving downwind to the park. I mean, I doubt basically Oasis affects local cooling and by more evapotranspiration, you're actually sending more moisture down to the wind.  That's a good point. But what I'm thinking is in the absence of the park, what would the conditions have been at Dan's house? Because if you removed the heat sink, he would suffer more energy cost. That's true. Yeah. Okay. And thank you. That's a great question. Yeah. On the bright side, Dan, we are still using the tower. We are keep on using that tower. So we keep on publishing a technology cap. So I really think it's necessary to keep the tower keep on running. And it's really beneficial to, at least to my research, as our fathers can see, and probably cannot talk for others, but it's really beneficial to ours. That is exactly what I needed to hear, Ziwa. Thank you so much. We will keep the tower going just for you. Great. Great. Can we find a way to contribute to the tower somehow? Hey, there is eight years of processing that needs to be done on the raw data. You've done some of it. I've done some of it sitting down and putting that together in a consistent fashion is a good task. Enrique, can I jump in with a couple of quick methods questions? Sure, Sam. I was, from the start of your talk, you mentioned that you'd have to know CO2 concentrations to really close the heat budget. And I was just making sure that I understand I heard you correctly. And the question is, if that's strictly transpiration, is the mechanism why you need to know? And then the other is the difference in the footprint of your tower between cool season and warm season and why maybe like the dumbed down version of why that change, the footprint changes from warm to cool. Sure, I apologize. I must have misspoken. The carbon budget is separate from the energy budget. There is no common term.  If it's transpiration, then the plants need to be photosynthesizing as they're releasing the water vapor. And you would see a signal in the carbon budget. We find no signal in the carbon budget during the day, during Oasis days, which means the plants are doing whatever they did across all days. So there's no increase in transpiration when they have more energy. That was the first part of the question. The second part of the question is, evapotranspiration has multiple components, the transpiration being one of them. But imagine a sprinkler. And these are not sprinklers at your house. These sprinklers are going like 30 feet. And they go up 20 feet into the air. And so you've got this spray of water going through an air that's hot and has huge demand because of vapor pressure deficit. And so those airdrops are just instantaneously evaporating at night. So to me, this is a problem we can solve. We could probably keep the golfers happy. We could probably keep the vegetation green. And we could reduce water losses to the deep subsurface and water losses to the atmosphere by altering the timing of irrigation. If we irrigated in the day, the plants could use it. If we irrigated at night, it goes to non-biological water.  I think you could tell with this study. Why? Because we create these novel ecosystems that are so weird that they tell you so much about the fundamental problems that we deal with on a normal basis and natural systems that are not as weird and therefore not driven to such extreme and member states, if you will, right? Are there any more questions for Enrique? All right, well, we did go a little bit over, but I think it was a good conversation. So thank you again for giving a great talk. And thank you all for coming. I hope to see you next time. Great, see you all. Thank you very much.


Everybody Forrest and Jake here ripping 2023 Sorry quintuple case 2023 Bowman draft baseball choice number three find these results on your screen anytime at late sports cards Is comm go ahead and get started now one sec guys. I just saw an email. I need to look at Nineteen to go make a dual case y'all as a full case of inception and a full case of definitive breaks after So pretty soon here one sec guys. Let's go. Sorry guys actually wait Alright, let's keep going down to 18 a mega dual case 18 to go y'all Thank you. Will we are down to 18 Again 16 box of inception and a three box case of definitive link is in chat Thank you. Will appreciate you sir. Hope you get something real ass Angles are getting rocks right now All right first up Jake Cunningham first woman auto for the Orioles Other base auto to start us off here is gonna be pirates Garrett Forrester and Choice first woman autograph reds gonna be Rhett louder on Brett 86 out of 150 Nice louder good start for the Reds there Hey, thank you, Tori. Glad we could hit you some of your PC hits. Thanks for joining Tori. Oh Boy fake and jurist What is this guy Shane what up? No, this guy's problem. What's up Wayne? Goldway? Goldwave Rock ratio nice hit Yankee six of 50. I Can't say your name backwards Shane. I'm sorry first woman auto for the Dodgers Joe for Toronto Kyle's here. Kyle was just here And Green Lava first woman autograph for the Red Sox Christian Campbell 799 Red Sox Christian Campbell must have been like no traffic Yeah, there was like zero traffic today. It was pretty great Probably zero traffic unless you go to like a mall or like a target Then there's probably some trash. I'm not gonna do that Not with force right here. Not any time actually Wayne and Pupaker I Knew that would make shake that peabird peabird first woman auto Tommy Hawk for the Guardians Gold shimmer first auto Kevin Sim Diamondbacks three of 50 Kevin Sim Diamondbacks Blueway first woman auto Jay Bashir's Padres 33 of 150. Oh, I saw some red Grant Taylor first woman auto white Sox 17 do case Green Lava first woman autograph Chase Davis 70 of 99 Cardinals Sweet Hits Cardinals We got a true red Blake Two of five Kansas City KC. What a monster has got the Royals. It's Joseph s Joseph s with a big red big red Mitchell That's how we do it right there like the stream everybody like the stream Yeah, there's an orange in this one choice first auto for the Royals hero Wyatt number to 150 30 of 150 base autograph going to the Mets calling how Nice how for the New York Mets and an orange wave an orange wave first woman auto Rockies Sean Sullivan 21 of 25 Good start of this quintuple case Choice first woman auto Jackson bowmeester Orioles to 150 don't make me start one point to 150 I just cursed us for the rest of the night guys. Don't make me start man I just cursed us blue wave first woman autograph is Johnny Farmello 113 of 150 Seattle nice at Seattle Oh man Sean's here to party someone tells me they might be playing some Fort gold shimmer first on a nice Elyon Soto six of 50 Elyon Soto Elyon the alien There's a website now for anybody come on website Yeah, I'm getting I gotta hang on Hmm, that's a clear cat. Give me one sec guys. I can't access the website right now So I need to clear the cash real quick. How do you do it on? Gotta do this to where it doesn't let me out of Shopify Hey, Joe, how are you doing sir? One sec guys, what would you rather hear my dog or be honest answer? There we go finally you are appreciated sir gotta get up gotta get up My dog Of course you would of course you would There we go, sorry guys one sec It should be man His name is three letters though. Honestly, it should be yeah, correct. Okay My name is yeah, and yeah, but was his name Told you guys I curse us all First woman auto jays Barofin blue jays Barofin blue jays a Gold shimmer first woman auto Yankees rocker issue again 50 and a 52 gold rocks And a first woman auto Garrett Forester for the Pirates Forester Pirates a Class of 2023 autograph Brayden Taylor Tampa Bay. No race Bray the Ray base auto Adrian Santana rays Repeat repeat race first woman auto Paul skins choice 17 of 150 peabird peabird. Let's go peabird Grats to the Pirates Let's get these breaks filled up guys. Let's go. Let's go. Let's go one in one one football And see football in a 30 box Ultra high-end mixer first woman choice auto Paul Wilson to 150 Tigers Blue wave now first woman auto Rocky Sean Sullivan 72 of 150 That's how you really swell Sean right there Hey, he's gamer and a green lava first auto Jackson Wiggins cubs 34 of 9 to 9 Jackson Wiggins We're taking all I'm the Grinch that stole the one-on-one hits so we can pull them tonight. There's no any other breakers have them Farmello first woman base auto for the Mariners Next up green lava Jake Cunningham Orioles first woman autograph jaker Cunningham 24 of 99 And refractor and Mets first woman autograph Colin Hauke 475 at a 4.99 Colin Hauke Does anybody counting how many times Jake says this sings this Purple at a 250 Pirates Garrett Forrester first woman autograph 162 of 250 Green lava first auto Mack Horvath Orioles nice Mack return of the Mack 72 of 99 And a base auto for the White Sox Seth Keener I'm surprised Nobody's made the joke quintuple means 15 cases Choice first auto for the Giants going to be Luke Schliger to 150 My hats I don't I don't know where to head Fractor first auto Luke Kishal twins to 4.99 Luke Kishal not pass And green lava first woman autograph goes to the Braves Drew Hackenberg. That's 63 of 99 First woman autograph Mets Zach Thornton Zach Thornton Choice first woman autograph going to the Giants Joe Whitman 7 of 150 Joe Whitman and a Base first woman autograph Braves Hurston Waldrop Hurston Waldrop Michael Waldrop the best that they ever respect. Oh, these are in backwards Whoa one on top was nice Hunter Haas choice first woman auto for the rays rays having a good break Hunter Haas live Haas First woman auto Marlins camp alderman And a green lava first woman autograph Colin Hauke 93 of 99 Mets will get that magged very nice Sweet hits Mets Brats Evan nice color coming up First auto base debacks Grayson hit built the animals and a red wave First woman autograph chase Davis that is big for the Cardinals color match three of five St. Louis Peter M St. Louis Holy cow dude, congrats Peter. Peter's been hidden pretty big recently Congrats Peter and an aqua lava first auto Cole Miller for the a's 151 of 199 Green lava Jackson Wiggins. I'm not green lava. Sorry true green Cubs Wiggins number 19 of 99 base auto first woman match Shaw Cubs Match Shaw Cubs a green lava this time first woman auto Enrique Bradfield Baltimore 18 of 99 I think we're heating up as we go here Baltimore green lava Bradfield Got one in one we've got a dual case baseball. We got a monster 30 bucks. Make sure not everybody Base auto pirates Garrett Forrester Forrester pirates a Green lava Orioles again. This time is Jackson bowmeester bowmeester 82 of 99 And base first woman out of cold karig Rockies Okay, reds first bowman autograph Ethan O'Donnell Down the 16 in dual case 16 in dual case almost halfway Choice first bowman autograph Hurston Waldrop 145 of 150 for the Braves Waldrop Atlanta and a base auto first bowman Rockies Jack Mahoney Choice Johnny Farmelo now Mariners Mariners doing pretty well Farmelo Mariners After that is a base auto first bowman Ralph Ivalasquez for the Guardians Yeah, there was a true red and a red wave and the quintuple case so far This is the fourth case of the break And a green lava first bowman Hurston Waldrop brazer doing really well here actually 33 of 99 now in the Waldrop So yeah, red wave chase Davis and a true red Blake Mitchell Jake got some dog hair on the mag It's a joke everybody There's like a piece of dust on it First bowman autograph for the Orioles Jake Cunningham Yappy the epper In a gold shimmer first bowman autograph Charlie Soto twins 36 of 50 and base auto here first bowman jack Hurley diamondbacks Green lava for the Dodgers here Dillon Campbell first bowman autograph 17 of 99 all by a purple First bowman autograph Austin Trosser for the Mets Mets and a choice first bowman auto Tommy hot guardians 55 of 150 on a Saturday too on a Saturday You guys won't see me again until next Saturday So we should get the brakes filled up That's what that means Green lava first bowman autograph Royals Carson Rockle Forte Okay, I'll go fourth day 86 of 99 a base auto here brave saving sabayos and sparkle auto First bowman Grant Taylor nine of 71 white socks One sec y'all Shaking oh boy, I don't know. Uh more dual case spots came in One of the one spots came in nice 11 to go on one on one guys 19 on the one mixer 22 to go We're also going to do a promo for the mixer A break credit promo So it's 32 spots to the break. We're going to do a $1,500 break credit promo Three people each will get $500 in break credit Lord 32 spots in the mixer three will get 500 on break credit back immediately Good lord Sparkle Nolan McLean great hit mats five of 71 first bowman autograph It's right about half the value of the break and break credit back right away Plus a 30 box mixer spot on top of it choice auto ret louder a second choice louder 54 of 150 home fret And a base first bowman auto reds tie floyd. Oh, it'll be nice to not break for a week. I think It's gonna come back into it for like eight months straight work is important, but so is not working Ha ha base auto diamond backs grace and hits on the first bowman Class of 2023 green auto mariners Johnny Farmello a lot of Farmello in this 57 and 99 And a base auto for the guardians cooper engel going into the last case of the quintuple case everybody. Good luck What's everybody up to right now? Watch the football This game stinks What's your stealers fan? All right first bowman auto twins loot kashal Choice out of the 150 a's cull miller numbered 42 of 150 and a gold shimmer again This time it is a reds connor burns 33 of 50 Pat you did it We're rolling here finish this one up guys have to adjust the schedule. We are behind I'm gonna show for personals, but they're gonna get started probably I would assume like one eastern hopefully One a.m. Eastern a gold wave first bowman autograph kendall george Doiers kendall george gold wave 17 to 50 very nice very nice very nice and a True blue rockies first auto sean sullivan sean sullivan rockies 106 of 150 And a refractor first bowman auto astros cam fisher to 499. How's it going hally how he's in chat on saturday.  That's a sick card as a true green Bryce eldridge That's a big hit for the giants whoo stephen h buddy congrats San Fran There was a lot from last night's clip. That's for sure a base auto rocky seth keener not rocky's white socks Not the rocks but the socks seth keener white socks And blue wave first auto brandy winnaker twins to 150. I don't think lane said anything to anybody today t agon's long touchdown t agon's big touchdown there Not good for my fantasy Is it not good? Got a soto base auto for the twins ellion soto. Look there he is of course Is playing each other or something? Yes Choice to 150 first auto podre's homer bush jr. 46 of 150 Hi kyle Orange wave of drew hackenberg 14 to 25 the braves auto here Not good jake not good. I know it's not a good hit in mojo car Yes, he did I use a choiceblake mitchell now for the royals Royals weren't done They weren't done That is 112 of 150 Next is twins luke kashaal first woman autograph A lot of kashaal it seems like green lava Yo yo yo yo Langford Tejas 48 of 99 for paul m That is a very nice hit for the rangers Sweated it out till the second and last box It's a refractor auto soto for the nationals ellion soto next up is a j. Bashir's choice auto to 150 for the podre's And a refractor first auto for the cubs jackson wiggins the 499 I got a lot of autos recap here just a moment So where are we out on this dual case here? We are at 16 to go still So all y'all full case inception full case is definitive Definitive has been hot recently 18 total boxes Definitely good courage More numbered autos than not numbered how choice do it?


In 2008, the mummified head of an old king was found in the attic of a civilian in France. But how did this man end up with this mummified head to begin with? And are we certain that it is the mummified head of a king of France? But before we go any further, you know what to do. Please hit that subscribe button and give us a like. Also a very special thank you to all of our patrons who genuinely do help us support this channel. We wouldn't be able to keep doing what we're doing without you. So thank you so much. Welcome to SOTaric Atlanta. My name is Bryce and today we are going to be talking about the decapitated head of King Henry IV of France. The story will be divided up into two parts. This first part today, we're going to explore King Henry IV of France, who he was, and what happened to him. There was a lot of scandal around his life. Then on Monday, on Mystery Monday, we're going to look at the mummified head and look at all the different theories on if it is actually his head, why he lost his head, and how come if it is his head, his blood doesn't match the genetics of his ancestors who are still alive today? Huge story, right? Henry was born on the 13th of December in 1553 in Navarra, which is in the Pyrenees mountain by the south of France. He would go on to be the grandfather of King Louis XIV, the son king that we spoke about on Monday, and potentially the grandfather of the man in the iron mask if the man in the iron mask was Louis XIV's twin brother. In fact, King Henry IV would become the first of the House of Bourbon for the French dynasty. But again, they're all related. It's all the same family, always the same family. Henry's mother was a woman named Joan III, Queen Joan III of Navarra. At that time, Navarra was its own principality. So King Henry, when he was born, he wasn't King yet, he was heir to the principality of Navarra. Now I did say this was all the same family because you see Henry as well as the family on the throne of France at that time both descended from King Louis the Knight or Saint Louis. When Henry was born, his mother's uncle was the king of France. This was King Henry II, who was married to Catherine Merici. Now she herself will eventually get her own episode because what a scandalous and violent woman she was. Now King Henry II and Catherine Merici had four boys. They had more children. They had daughters as well, and one of the daughters will get into a little bit further on in the story. But during this time, France ruled by Salek Law. Salek Law said that the crown could only be passed down through the sons of the king. So therefore any children that a princess of France had, whether it be boys or girls, would not be eligible for the crown. Now again, Henry II and Catherine had four boys. So the likelihood of their cousin Henry down in Navarra ever inheriting the throne was highly unlikely.  During this time there was obviously a lot of uproar because of the Protestant Reformation, and the Protestants in France were called Huguenots. Now the royal family was Catholic. Catherine de Menici, who was from a very, very, very powerful banking family in Italy, had close ties to the Pope. So their loyalty to the Catholic faith wasn't one of spiritual necessity. It was political. It's always political. Well, Henry, or Henri of Navarra, was born Catholic. His father was a Catholic, and at the time of his birth his mother was too. However, his mother, Queen Joan III, became a Protestant, and she ended up becoming a leader in the Huguenot movement. Queen Joan III of Navarra ended up declaring Navarra as a Calvinist region, whereas again the rest of France was Catholic. That was the state religion, was Catholicism. All this change in faith by Henri's mother caused a lot of tension between his mother and his father. In order to calm down that tension, they decided to send Henry up to Paris to live with his cousins and be raised by Catherine de Menici and his great-uncle, King Henry II. He stayed in Paris for about five years, but by the time he was 13, the religious tensions between the Huguenots and the Catholics grew so intense that he had to go back home to Navarra. Now, Henry took his mother's side. He started to fight and trained to fight for the Huguenots of France.  It would eventually lead to his assassination many years later. Again, Catherine de Menici, she was quite a scandalous and violent woman herself. We could do like 10 episodes just on the origins of her horrible family from Italy. And yes, they were bankers. Hmm. Well, Catherine was so opposed to this new Protestant faith that she would actively take part in burning people at the stake, cutting their tongues off so they couldn't speak. I mean, this was not a woman who carried the love of Christ in her heart. Let's be honest. Intentions were high just everywhere in France. This wasn't just about some scuffles here and there between what flavor of Christianity one person picked over the other. This was like a literal battle happening all over the country. And the royal family was right in the middle of it. By 1562, France was legit in the French War of religions. In 1572, Joan III, Queen Joan III of Navarre, Henri or Henry's mother, died. She was very, very young. Many people believe that Catherine de Menici might have had something to do with her death. Perhaps she poisoned Joan. Who knows? We do know that the two women hated each other, even though they were family. Not by marriage, but family. When Queen Joan III died, two things happened. The first was that her son, Henry, became King Henry III of Navarre. So now he has his own territory.  And his cousins that he lived with are ruling France as Catholics. Another thing that happened to Henry right after his mother died is that he was arranged to marry his cousin, Margaret Valois. Now his cousin Margaret was the daughter of King Henry II and Catherine de Menici. Her brothers were the four brothers that stood in line to inherit the throne of France before Henry would become the heir presumptive. By these two cousins getting married, this was apparently some type of political movement to try to join the Catholics and the Protestants together. However, do keep in mind that it is suspected that his aunt Catherine potentially had his mother killed. So Henry makes his way back up to Paris to marry his cousin.  They came into Paris for this grand affair, this grand wedding of their King of Navarre, marrying the princess of the King of France. Well, during the nuptials or soon after the nuptials, the Catholic military invaded this wedding. This became known as the Saint Bartholomew Massacre or the Scarlet Nuptials. At least 3,000 Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris during this wedding festival. It is believed that Catherine de Menici was behind the whole thing. Now Henry was almost one of these casualties, however he just barely escaped with his life with the help of his cousin and new bride, Margaret. Now he pleaded with the court and he told them that he would convert to Catholicism. He stayed as a prisoner of Paris for a few years, but in 1576 he escaped and headed back to his principality of Navarre where he rejoined the Huguenot forces. Meanwhile, King Henry II of France ended up dying as a result of a jousting accident. He got a piece of wood in his eye and he got all septic and well, he died. The same thing kind of happened to King Henry VIII over in England except for it got into his leg and it stayed for a while and that's why a lot of people think Henry VIII went a little crazy because he had some poisoning from a jousting accident. I think it's just not not good. We should just never ever do that again. So this left France's the second as the king of France, Catherine de Menici's son, her oldest son. Now interestingly enough for the history buffs out there, especially the history buffs of the United Kingdom, Henry II was married to Mary Queen of Scots, the woman who would eventually get her head chopped off by Queen Elizabeth I. I am a descendant of Mary Queen of Scots. Well, for those who know, Francis II was always very sickly. He ended up passing away and without any heirs because they were like super young, like 17 years old. They didn't have any heirs. The crown then went to his next in line brother, whose name was Charles and he was only 10 years old. At this point, Catherine de Menici becomes his regent. She kind of helps him rule. Even though women aren't really supposed to rule in France, she kind of like works her magic and gets to kind of rule over France through her young son. Throughout all of her son's reigns, this became known as the age of Catherine de Menici because her son's work weren't ruling. They were just like a proxy. She was ruling. So as fate would have it, then Charles dies and now we got like two sons left, one whose name is Henry also who would become King Henry III for like a hot second. He's often Poland, like ruling somewhere in Poland so then her other son becomes the king but he supposedly possibly was gay and he was really young and he didn't have any heirs and then he died and once he died, it just kind of all of a sudden this Henry of Navarre now is the heir to the French throne and we have a huge problem because technically cousin Henry, Catherine de Menici's son, King Henry III who is still alive, he's ruling over him, Poland now comes back and we've got this heir presumptive with Henry III of Navarre down there and there's this other Henry and we have this war of the Henry's and the cousin Henry's end up kind of like coming together to try to get rid of this other Henry who's part of like a Catholic league. It's all very, very complicated. Basically it was just all part of the same bullshit war of religion that had been going all through all Europe during this time and of course as fate would have it, King Henry III, the son of King Henry II and Catherine de Menici ends up getting assassinated too. So literally, literally now this distant cousin down in the Pyrames who's a Huguenot who you've already tried to kill before with his marriage to the daughter is now technically the king of France. This ended as a stalemate for a few years because Henry was a Protestant. But on July 25th of 1593, Henry finally agrees to convert to Catholicism in order to be crowned the king. Now a lot of Huguenots were very upset about this. They felt like Henry had betrayed them. The way I see it though all these hundreds of years later is that he was trying to find some sort of compromise in order to eventually end this war on religion, which he would kind of do later on in his reign. In fact, in 1598 he signed the edict of knots which allowed for Protestants to have the same rights as Catholics.  Now I know a little bit about this edict because when it was revoked many years later by one of his grandsons, some of my ancestors fled Europe and came to the New World because they were Protestants. So this means a lot to my lineage as well, this particular edict. By this time Henry, now Henry IV of France, and his wife, or his cousin wife, Margaret Valois, have no children. Now their marriage was not a romantic marriage. It was definitely a political marriage, but they seemed to be pretty good friends. And so by 1599 they got their marriage annulled and he married a woman named Maria. Maria ended up being the mother of his children, including of course Louis XIII that we spoke about on Monday who was the father of Louis, or supposedly the father of Louis XIV and possibly the man in the iron mask. Now not only did King Henry IV of France try to bring back, or bring religious tolerance to the area, but he also was famous for some other things as well. There's a very famous bridge that crosses over the Seine in Paris that he is responsible for. He is also responsible for funding the French exploration of the New World, or New France, which is part of Canada. Henry is known as the Good King. He's also known as Henry of the Great. Looking back, Henry IV of France was a very strong king, a very thoughtful king. He seemed to really care about his subjects more so than other rulers of Europe at the time. However, because of the religious controversy, because he was a Huguenot that became a Catholic for namesake in order to take the crown, and because he was trying to bring tolerance to different flavors of Christianity to his home country, a lot of people had problems with him. In fact, by the time that he was successfully assassinated in 1610, there had already been 17 attempts on his life. But on May 14th, 1610, as King Henry IV was traveling through Paris to go and see a sick friend, his buggy got stuck in a traffic jam. At this point, a young man named François Ravilec jumped inside the carriage and stabbed King Henry IV assassinating him. Now François was a fanatical Catholic. In fact, in his trial, he felt like that was what he had come to Earth to do, was to get rid of King Henry IV, this Huguenot. François Ravilec's execution was quite a brutal one. They pulled his body apart and they quartered him and all sorts of gross stuff they used to do back in those days to torture people before they were dead. But nonetheless, Henry IV died. He laid in state and then was buried with his head attached to him. It wasn't until 1793, well over 100 years after his death, during the French Revolution that a bunch of the bodies of royal family members were pulled up and torn apart. It is believed at this point that is when King Henry IV had his head chopped off. But no one was super sure. In fact, it wasn't until 1817 that one of his descendants had his grave opened up just to check and see and it did appear that his body was missing his head. Now the head seemed to travel through different private collectors all throughout France, very similar to Oliver Cromwell's traveling head we covered a couple of weeks ago in which I will place that video down below as well if you haven't seen it. In 1919 it fell into the hands of a particular gentleman who felt like that this was the mummified head of King Henry IV and he even tried to give this head to the Louvre Museum, but they wouldn't take it, like weird, they wouldn't take it. So anyway, he ended up selling it to somebody else in 1953, this other man, and he just like shoved it in his attic until 2008 when it was brought back out to be examined. Now believe it or not, we still don't know if that is actually the mummified head of King Henry IV. There are two camps on this. There's a group of people that really strongly believe it is and they have their reasons and there's a group of people who really don't think it is. And they also have their reasons.  I stumbled upon this story of King Henry IV's head while I was researching the man in the iron mask, and I thought that this story would be a pretty simple one to tell, but it turns out there was a lot of backstory to it. So that is why I've had to divide it up into two separate episodes. Again, today we just needed to know who King Henry IV was and why he was missing his head to begin with, and then again Monday we will look at all the evidence and figure out for ourselves whether we believe this is the missing head of Henry the Great or not. Meanwhile, I hope you all are having an awesome Friday. I'm so happy you joined me today for this story. We're in Mercury Retrograde. It's been an exhausting Mercury Retrograde. It has just started, so I hope you guys are all taking care of yourself, holding your cards close to hand, cocooning when you need to cocoon, and know that this time period shall pass. Thank you to Josh McKay for doing our music. If you would like to purchase our opening song, the link is in the description box below. And as always, thank you so much to Todd Roderick for editing and helping me get this video out to you guys. I hope you guys have a wonderful day and a wonderful weekend. I will talk to you soon. Bye.