We have already studied about how carbocations are formed during an SN1 reaction. It's time that we talk about why and how do carbocations re-arrange during the reaction. What do I mean by that? If a carbocation formed during a particular reaction has a tendency to re-arrange itself and form a better carbocation, a more stable one, it is going to do that. Let's see how that happens. For example, we have this reaction. I know HCl is going to break and form H plus and Cl minus ions which makes me think that Cl minus is the attacking nucleophile. It should replace OH minus. But hey, OH minus is less stable than Cl minus. Why would it be replaced? So this direct replacement cannot happen. Let's think about something else. The oxygen atom has a lone pair of electrons and there is a proton. It will attack and form three bonds. But oxygen forming three bonds? Positive charge should be there, right? Hey, an electronegative atom having a positive charge? Not so stable. So the water molecule would want to leave. And that is what it does. Water leaves and we get this carbocation. This makes me think that okay, I have the carbocation, Cl minus, why don't you come and attack? And this should be my product. Yay, I am done. Not so quickly. Whenever a carbocation formed in a reaction gets a chance to rearrange itself and form a better carbocation, it does form one. So every time we form a carbocation, we have to take a moment and think, can something be done to make it a better one? So let's try and do that. Here, this carbocation is a one degree carbocation. If by any chance I am able to bring this positive charge to the middle carbon, it would be a two degree carbocation adjacent to the benzene ring. Hey, much more stable, right? Can I do that? Let's see. So if I try moving this hydrogen atom to the right most carbon, I might be able to get a carbocation. And that's exactly what happens. This hydrogen moves to the adjacent carbon in the form of a hydride ion. It takes the bond electrons and goes as H minus to the adjacent carbon. And this leads to the formation of another carbocation. This is called one-two hydride shift. And we have already studied that the rate of an SN1 reaction is directly proportional to the stability of the carbocation. The more stable the carbocation, the more are the chances of it to be formed, and the reaction is driven in that direction. So this carbocation would form the major product. What do I mean when I say major product? I mean that particular product would be in higher amount. So the major product would be Cl minus attaching to this carbocation. Hey, the previous carbocation wouldn't form any product. It would, it would, but not in a higher amount. So the reaction looks something like this. The rearranged carbocation forms the major product. Let's try another problem, shall we? We take an alcohol and we add aqueous HBr to it. The moment I see HBr, I think that it is going to break down as H plus and BL minus. Again, H minus is not such a good leaving group. But it can totally, totally attack the proton and leave as a water molecule. Let's just quickly do that and form the carbocation. Every time we form a carbocation, we have to think, is this the best possible carbocation in this mechanism? Or can it rearrange and form a better one? Let's find out. This carbocation here is a two-degree carbocation. By two-degree, I mean it's attached to a carbon on either side. If I try and move it to this cup, it would become a one-degree carbocation. I don't want that. I don't want it to become less stable. So what should I be doing? I see a carbon here, but I don't see any hydrogen attached to it. There's no possibility of hydride shift. Well, there's a possibility of alkyl shift or methyl shift to be precise. We have this methyl group that can take up its bond electrons and go to the adjacent carbon. What would it lead to? It would lead to the formation of a carbocation that is three-degree, much more stable. So my major product will be formed by the more stable carbocation. So there are two types of carbocations that can be formed. And this one is the most stable one and therefore it will form the major product. We are minus would simply attach itself to this carbocation to give the major product. And the other one would be forming the minor product. So let's go for another set of problems. Again, there is an alcohol, there is HCl that's added to it and we have to find out the major product. Why don't you try the left one yourself and then we'll do it together? OH- is not a good leaving group but oxygen has a lone pair of electrons. It's going to take up the proton and leave as a water molecule forming this carbocation. Let's just rewrite it so that we get a better image of what we are going to do. This carbocation here so formed is a one-degree carbocation. Every time I try to form a carbocation in a reaction I have to think whether I can rearrange it to get a better carbocation and here there's a possibility of a hydride shift that would give me a three-degree carbocation. So I'll do that and get this as the most stable rearranged carbocation. So what would my major product look like? Cl- would simply come and attach itself to this carbocation forming the major product that would look something like this. Why don't you try the next one and then we'll do it together? Again, the lone pair on the oxygen atom attack the proton and the water molecule leaves. We get the carbocation I just wrote it in a better way to understand what to do next. This here is a two-degree carbocation. Can I rearrange and get a better one? If I shift this hydrogen as hydride I would again get a two-degree carbocation. But but but if I then shift the methyl from the next carbon I would eventually get a three-degree carbocation. Would this happen? No. Why? Because the reaction doesn't know what's going to happen two steps later. See, if there is a two-degree carbocation that's formed the only way it's going to rearrange if it becomes better. If it does not become better right away it wouldn't do that. The reaction doesn't know what's going to happen next. It just knows the immediate next step. So this rearrangement cannot happen so the product would be this. What I'm trying to tell you folks here is that a carbocation will undergo rearrangement if and only if it has a possibility to become a better carbocation. A two-degree carbocation is not going to rearrange and form another two-degree carbocation hoping of getting something better later.


Hello everyone this is Ahmed Don of AhmedDon.com today I will have another episode of bandhavish tree video and I will be going inside a factory market where we are going to be bought all by brand new clothes in cheap prices so if this is your first time or if you visit thank you for your support on this channel I am also trying new and different ideas to take you beyond boundaries, if you are into thinking outside the box this the channel for you. If you're looking for more travel videos there will be links in the description box below. So I'm in Dhaka, Bangladesh for about a week and I have done a buying brand name clothes in cheap prices in the past which had lots of views and lots of you wanted similar videos so that's what we're doing today. So I'm going to be going to different stores and we'll buy various brand name brands and today this is called Nanu Market and here we're going to be buying some polo shirts, t-shirts and this kind of shirts. So let's get going. So here you're going to find all brand name clothes. Usually they're over item stocks. Some of them are probably a little bit you know false or something but these are very difficult to detect in your own eyes and that's what we're going to check today. So I have bought some items here in the past and I had no issues because some of them are most of them are actually brand new and you know with your naked eyes you cannot find any false or anything and they're this type of markets we have several other markets here so we're just going to go a few of them. So you're looking for some polo shirts and see what we have here. So my contact asked for some polo shirts and so this side media this is too big. I think we're looking for a smaller, this is small. This is scaring. So this is we got spring filled and the price you have here is 26 euro. It's like 26 euro here. Here we got a French connection and here we have I'm looking for a more variety. Alright thank you. So he showed us lots of clothes but you know none of this what I was looking for so we're just going to check something else and see what we have here. We are going to some other store and see what we have here. So one good thing is not too crowded today so we can take our time and not to worry about too many people. So it looks like there's another market we have here. So let's try our luck here. It looks like there are other stores here too. So here looks like we have some barberry and so we seem to find a Timberland. Looks like authentic. I can see the logo and then we have another SRC Joe. This is something I'm not familiar with this brand. It's matching with what I'm looking for. Columbia? No Columbia. Let me see the tone. Not that color. White? Not white. Like dark color. Blue, green, red. Yeah yeah, the boss's one. Boss, Nautica if you have nothing on like just plain. Plain? Yes. No. Everything is okay. You don't have any different color? Different color. Biscuit, blue, sky blue. We have another Timberland which is black and then we have a Hugo Boss. I think side by side the Timberland looks better than the Hugo Boss. So I was trying some pants but I'm looking for these two colors but it looks like they don't have that. It's here but they're different colors and different style. So I think I'm just going to stick to the polo shirt. The bargaining is not going good. They're asking for 1,000 taco for the Timberland but I think it should be 500 taco. And the boss they're asking for 2,000 taco but they're asking overpriced because we showed some interest so that's why they're in asking for too much. So we're just going to give our price and leave. So we've got, this is another store and we are checking Hugo Boss right now. So this one seems to be a good color. And not this type. And you can see that I noticed there's a caterpillar boot right here and then some branded underwear is right here and they have lots of pants in here. So we're going to check out some pants from here too. And what I noticed that they have branded bags especially the other store had lots of bags but you see there's a few here. So we came to a new store because they were asking for too much and this looks like found some nice color here. So this one's polo club and we have here, I don't know this brand but this one looks okay Brax. And then there's another one which is unit organic cotton. This one looks okay. We'll see if we can get something from here. So this is just a different section of the same store and we're looking for some pants and see what we have here. So it looks like they have lots of good pants here but you know whenever they're seeing me speaking which they're asking they're jacking up the prices a lot. So what I'm going to do I'll just buy maybe something today and then later on my contact he said he's going to come alone and just pick something without me. That way they cannot you know sky had the prices but for here let's see what they're asking for. So he's asking for, so how much he's asking for? He's asking for 2200 for all three of them and he said 1500. Okay so the contact is trying to bring the price down. So he's going to show us some underwears and socks because it looks like you know after the bargaining he's giving us good price so we're just going to come here. So you're taking this three underwear and then one pants, two pants and three pants then you got one polo shirt and another polo shirt and you got another henley shirt. So all these are $3,500 which is approximately 37 US dollars. So I think you know they took a little bit more prices seeing me speaking English but still it's not bad to go through the hassle again. So you just decided to take everything from here and yeah that's the US and Canada so probably you're just going to get one. I can't close the brand name code at cheap prices in Dhaka Bangladesh but there's going to be more video coming up from here so I'm going to put a link right here and I'll see you in the next video. Thank you for watching.


So why are millions of people still going to bed hungry, and millions of small-scale farmers still living in poverty? While the reasons are complex, one of the many critical issues to be addressed is food loss and waste. Around 14% of food is lost before it reaches consumers, while 17% is wasted at consumer level every year. This also means less income for farmers and fewer opportunities to improve livelihoods. Where is it all going wrong? One reason is the lack of effective cold chains, which in simple terms means keeping food fresh from farm to fork. Perishable foods must be kept in a cool, temperature-controlled environment throughout the journey from production, aggregation and storage, processing, marketing and distribution, all the way to our plates. This temperature-controlled supply chain of food is called the food-cold chain, but cooling technologies can consume a lot of electricity, still largely generated from fossil fuels. Some continue to use ozone-depleting substances, ODSs or hydrofluorocarbons, HFCs, which are powerful greenhouse gases. Today, cold chains contribute towards around 4% of global GHG emissions, which impact climate change and food production. Lack of access to food-cold chains impacts food security, livelihoods and limits access to markets. Without sustainable cooling solutions, our health, food and livelihoods are at risk. So what's being done to improve the food-cold chain? In 1987, nations came together to sign the Montreal Protocol to help save the ozone layer. This involved phasing out ODSs in various sectors, including cooling technologies. Under its Kigali amendment, nations committed to phasing down HFCs while also addressing energy efficiency issues. And in 2019, the Rome Declaration called on governments, organisations and private initiatives to collaborate on building sustainable food-cold chain solutions. FAO and UNEP believe this can be achieved by improving access to energy for cooling along the food value chain, developing and gathering data, improving technical capacity, updating policies, implementing efficiency improvements and financing new business models for upscaling. Sustainable food-cold chains will help us work towards the SDGs by creating a healthier planet, supporting farmers and fish's livelihoods and ensuring more nutritious food reaches everyone's plates.


Thank you very much. If you can't hear me back, I've been accused of having a low voice and I'm willing to believe it. Make it known. You can't embarrass me that way. Malta. If you read anything at all about the siege of Malta, at some point you'll come across the quote from Voltaire who says, Nothing is better known than this siege and leaves it at that. The irony being, of course, that many people have no idea what the siege of Malta is about. The first lecture I gave on this was... Oh, turn it on. You said? Wrong button. It was in New Jersey and the local folks advertised it as the great siege of Matla, so clearly we've got a groundwork cut out for us. So to start with, where is Malta? Because clearly they don't know. It, as he says, is dead center in the Mediterranean between Gibraltar and Constantinople. It's also not midway closer to Sicily than North Africa, but if you have one you're going to be interested in the other. It's essentially rocky. It's barren. There's not enough water for too many people. It's not the easiest place to scratch out a living. It is, however, a possessive world-class deep water harbor and as such it's going to be very desirable for anybody in that part of the world who's got any ambitions for empire building. You can picture a cross section of the... Well, there it is. Big time. That's the island itself. The prize, of course, is Grand Harbor. The tip of it you see is a place called Fort St. Elmo in which commands entrance to the harbor. At the time we're speaking of, the signal points are at Fort St. Elmo and also in the two peninsula there, one called Sanglia, the one on the left and Birgu on the right, which is where the knights of the time were situated. So, who were the knights? The knights were a holy order of monks who started out in 1023 as caregivers for Christian pilgrims to Moslem El Jerusalem. They were bankrolled by a bunch of Italian bankers who were trying to get points for going to heaven. And they might have remained as healers of the sick if not for the first crusade of 1099. When the Christian soldiers came in, the streets of Jerusalem were covered in blood, and the monks were there to set the wounds straight for the wounded Christians. The care was so good that several of the inspired knights decided that they would like to join the order. They didn't really have too many skills in medicine, but they were really good at fighting. So the order managed to change into a half heal the sick and half, well, go to arms. They essentially said, well, taking care of pilgrims and helping them against bandits of which there are many in the area, and beating up in Muslims whenever they could, that pretty much fulfilled their requirements. They did quite well for quite a while for about 200 years, but they were eventually kicked out. They were kicked off to the island of Rhodes, which is offshore. It's not likely that they were going to be able to take the holy land back again. And so they bided their time with little commerce on the side and little raiding, mostly Muslim shipping. In 1521, they were pushed off the island of Rhodes by the young Suleiman the Magnificent, who was just starting out. They were returned to Rome as guests of the Pope, who was their commander-in-chief, so to speak. But there's really not a whole lot for them to do there. At the time, Europe is going through its internal squabbling over Protestantism and Catholicism, and who was going to get control of Italy. And since they were a pan-European order, they really couldn't take sides. So they basically sat around for seven years. 1532, things calmed down a bit, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, I'm sorry, that's Suleiman in his younger days, love the hat. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who had, amongst all the other possessions that he inherited, the island of Malta and the city of Tripoli, North Africa, and he basically saw the knights as a cheap way of holding on to this territory. And yes, he did get an annual tribute of one Maltese falcon. And no, he never did get a jewel-encrusted one. They didn't have the money at the time, but he did get a Maltese falcon. The last one of those is actually found to be extinct about 100 years ago, because the Maltese are big on shooting birds, but that's another story. The downside was that the knights, now that they had a place to call home, they had a lot of time in their hands, and a new crusade for the Holy Land was not going to turn up any time soon. They had nothing to do, so what do they do? They essentially go out and become pirates again, and they have a religious coating for the whole thing, but technically they're pirates. More legitimately, they were able to take part in several of Charles' campaigns against North Africa, and they did quite well on that. Their presence was mostly symbolic. They were, after all, a pan-European brotherhood, but they did their part. They helped Charles seize Tunis in 1535, which was a high point of his career. They were also present when he tried to take Algiers in 1541, which was probably the most terrible, that was a low point of his career. It makes for grim reading. It's in the book. You don't want to know. But they were not able to stop the growing power of the Ottoman-backed Barbary Corsairs, mostly based out of Algiers, which is why they were trying to take it, but who seemed to be able to cross the western Mediterranean more or less at will. A side note on the Barbary Corsairs, they were the Muslim counterparts to the knights, but unlike the knights, they did not restrict their members to the aristocracy. They would take anybody who had ability and ambition, which means they had a lot more people in their ranks. Their origins date to about 1492 when Ferdinand and Isabella kicked the Moors out of Spain. And these ex-spaniards looking for something to do themselves and annoyed at having been kicked out, used their local knowledge of the area and of the shoreline and such to essentially get their own back. Pickings were so rich in that area that the other pirates came from the eastern Med and it just kept growing and growing and growing, such that the western Med was something of a mess for anybody who was living there, which gets us back to the knights.  And there was nothing that the knights could do. It was too overpowering and the Grand Master at the time was a very weak man. This same expedition then went directly to Tripoli, still technically under the knights' control, and they took that in an even more humiliating defeat. Not that they ever really wanted Tripoli. The knights thought it was too much trouble to hold on to, but you don't want to get rid of it either, since you're basically a renter and not an owner. And at this point the Pope himself was wondering if perhaps the responsibility of all this was a bit too much for them and maybe they should try to find something less challenging for them to do. Well, that shook them up a bit. And in 1558 they elected Jean de Valet as Grand Master. This is an interesting fellow. He's very strong-minded, very strong-willed. He's a tough guest. Imagine D'Artagnan and the three musketeers and you've kind of summed him up. He was also a veteran of roads and a number of sea battles, and he was damned if he was going to let his order go the way of all flesh. To prove how serious he was, in 1560 he and the new viceroy of Sicily got together and approached Philip II, now King of Spain, son and heir of Charles, and said that they wanted to take Tripoli back. And Philip agreed. The expedition did not go well. There was bad organization, there was delays, there was incompetent leadership, the usual things that go wrong. None of this is as Valet's fault, by the way. The operational commander was the viceroy while Valet stayed back in Malta. But the viceroy was not a military man. He had been a courtier back in the court of Philip, and he really wasn't up to the job. The combined Christian fleet went down to Tripoli. He took one look at the defenses and said, this isn't going to work, I can't do this. But I can go over to the small, ill-defended island of Gerba just off the coast, which he knew to be a haven of pirates, and we can probably take that. Everybody told him not to do it, but he was in charge, and what he said went, they took it, no problem. The locals sort of didn't care who was in charge. And he started rebuilding the fort on the north shore, spent the rest of the season doing that, and he felt he had done rather well. This lasted until the Ottoman fleet showed up from Constantinople to throw them out. The Ottoman fleet commanded by Turgut's old sailing comrade, the young admiral Pieli Pasha. That's Philip, that's Pieli Pasha. Remember that name. They swept down on a disorganized Christian fleet and essentially sank, captured nearly a lot of them. Those who could, including the viceroy, retreated into the fort. There is much celebration by the Muslims that night, the viceroy and a few of the VIPs managed to sneak out, commandeer a boat, and get back to Sicily, leaving the rest to endure the long summer in a grim siege that they ultimately lost. You can read about that in the book too, and it's interesting reading. So here we are in 1560. The knights have suffered a series of defeats and have been associated with failed operations. It's no surprise that the order is beginning to look like a losing proposition. At this point, if Suleiman had decided to take on Malta, he probably could have done it. And he would have been able to quash the knights once and for all, which was something he always wanted to do. But he didn't do that. He had other things going on at the time. And Valet never wanted to give up. He doubled his efforts against the infidel and basically in the form of raids, heading into the eastern Med and taking whatever he could find. The banner year was 1564. And that year they managed to snaffle not one, but two governors of Egypt. The 90-year-old favorite nanny of Suleiman's favorite daughter, who was on her way to Mecca for the Hajj, and most impressive, the Suleiman's personal flagship, the Sultana. This was a huge vessel, high walls, many guns, Janissary warriors to discourage pirates. It was interesting at this point because the residents of Suleiman's harem had pooled all their money, bought a bunch of luxury goods, and were planning to sell them all in Venice, where they had serious trading connections. But rumors fly at the ocean, and the knights heard about this, and they didn't let it happen. They surrounded it with seven galleys, and after several hours of back-and-forthing, they took it. This is, of course, one insult to many, and Suleiman would have to retaliate, and Molta was back in play. It was not, however, just to punish the knights for this one thing. He really wanted the island for all the other reasons you have it. You don't really care about Molta so much for yourself. What you want is to make sure the other guy doesn't have it. It's mostly a stepping-off-place point for taking Sicily. If you have Sicily and North Africa, as the Arabs did for about 200 years, you don't care about Molta, and during that period, nobody was living in Molta, just as a side note. But if you have Molta, you can get Sicily, or not, they'd been there before, they'd done it. They had Sicily, they had South Italy, they could do it again. Preparations went on that entire winter from across the Ottoman Empire, Suleiman gathered men and materiel to build ships, cast cannon, grind gunpowder, enlist soldiers. All of this alarming activity did not take long to reach Europe, but even with advance warning, it was a bit of a struggle to get things set up properly. The second was still chafing to the loss of his fleet in 1560, a gerba, and mindful that it had been Vallet who had been in part the one who talked him into that. Molta, however, had a champion in the person of Don García de Toledo, son of the old Naples viceroy, and now viceroy of Sicily in his own right, operating Adam Cena. He was a gifted military veteran of many years standing, had fought alongside the knights, but although he was decidedly not a well man at this point and would have liked nothing better than to retire from the call of duty, he felt the call of duty. He asked for when he got special powers to organize the defense, even though these powers were stymied by other imperial officers who were slow to help him. There are a good number of letters between de Toledo and Philip, urging haste at all costs and complaining about these people not getting up to speed. In the April of 1565, Don García brings a number of soldiers and supplies to Molta and consults with Vallet on what is best to be done. He makes the rounds, makes some recommendations and leaves behind his son Federigo to join the order in the Spanish League. His son's illegitimate, which technically means he can't join, but they make exceptions in exceptional circumstances. Meanwhile, the Ottomans are finalizing their plans. Their spies have taken the measure of the Grand Harbor and a scale model was built for the experts in Constantinople to ponder. The Ottoman army, they decided, would be commanded by Mustafa Pasha. I don't have a picture of him, unfortunately. A cousin of Suleyman, a veteran of roads and of wars in Hungary, this was going to cap his career with something really big. In charge of the fleet was going to be our friend Piyalli Pasha, now married to Suleyman's granddaughter as a reward for his work at Gerba. He had also sailed with Turgut Rais, of course, apparently amicably, and it was felt that they would make a logical good team, all having worked together. It didn't turn out that way. They set off in March, they arrived in April, weeks before they were expected. Valet had thought he had time to rid the island of so-called useless mouths, women, children, foreigners, prostitutes, and bring more soldiers than waiting in Sicily. Now the Ottomans are here and the navy was circling the island. That wasn't going to happen. There was enough room for swift boats to bring messages back and forth, but in terms of anything more significant, that just wasn't going to happen. Piyalli anchored the fleet on the south-facing shallow harbor of Marsak-Schluck and not dissimilar, in many ways, from Gerba. Mostofi led his men out, headed north towards Grand Harbor, drew first blood and a few skirmishes before settling down to the business at hand. It was now that things began to go sour between Mostofi and Piyalli. The plan in Constantinople had been for the army immediately to target Fort St. Elmo, again at the tip of the harbor. The logic was that taking that fort would allow the Ottomans access to the northern side of the harbor, which was otherwise unguarded and making it easier to supply troops. It would also deny any chance of sea access to the areas of Sungly and Birgu there on the bottom. Mostofi thought that this was nonsense. He thought that it was just a short, five-mile trek from the bay in the south, and he's a land soldier. He's used to that sort of thing. He said that, you know, let them defend St. Elmo and let it wither in the vine, let them waste their resources there. It's nothing to me. He was outvoted by the rest of the senior command and not least of all by the navy. Piyalli Pasha's mandate had been to prosecute the fight, but also to preserve the fleet. And after what he'd seen as Jirva, he was sensitive to how easily a fleet and shallow water in ill-defended water could be overcome. Mostofi caved in, though it cannot have been good for his temper or for his standing. As will happen, word of the arguments reached the enlisted personnel. We know because renegades and prisoners reported it to the Christians. Mostofi was modified somewhat when his engineers said that taking Fort St. Elmo would be the work of five days at most. You'll notice that there's no input from Turgut Rais. He hadn't arrived yet. Presumably he would get there, but who knows. Strange things happen at sea. Canons brought up. The bombardment begins. The defenders can do nothing.  They had primitive guns with long barrels. Nevertheless, their marksmanship was spectacular. It's commented upon in many sources, not just here, but also in Hungarian campaigns and elsewhere. The knights and the Spanish soldiers watch behind the walls and endure the siege cannon that is knocking away bits and pieces until nightfall. One day of this, they send one of the Spanish captains back across the bay to file a situation report. Fortunately, there's no moon, so the short trip is relatively safe. The Spaniard reports that this isn't fighting. This is a waste of time. This is not what he came for. And that they should all just give up on Fort St. Elmo and come back to... I'm sorry, could I have some water? And they put up the fight up there. This is in subordination, but the difficulty was that though the Spanish contingent was technically under his command, it was a little diplomatically difficult. So they let used humiliation to get his way. He basically said that if the people there weren't up to the job, he would find people who were. The Spaniard back down. But it was not the last time that this would be a problem. Thank you so much. Could you speak up a little? Absolutely. A week passed and the fort still held. This was supposed to be five days, now seven have passed. Finally, Turgut and his men arrive. His response on learning that the plan was to take Fort St. Elmo before anything else was despair. It turns out that he agreed with Mostafa better to let Fort St. Elmo wither in the vine rather than taking it. This is spilt milk, however, and he's a professional. He throws himself into taking Fort St. Elmo. But you can see how this turnaround would have been... would have put both Mostafa and Piali's respective noses out of joint. Worse, despite some damage to the fort and some serious assaults, they're making much headway. And the best of Mostafa's soldiers are getting killed. Christian dead and wounded are fewer than Ottoman, but they're still considerable. The wounded are ferried across the bay at night. Reinforcements are sent to replace them. But it's only a question of time before this cannot continue. Younger knights now directly send a petition to a velet. It's close to mutiny, really, but when the Spanish did it, these men have an oath of obedience to their grandmaster. They say that let us either make an offensive attack from the fort, which will be a suicidal, but let us do it, or let us return to Birgu and join everyone else, because this current strategy won't work. Velet shames them in his staying one more time and manages to convince more volunteers to join them out the fort. It buys him time, but he's correct. They're correct. It is a doomed enterprise. Draguot is fine-tuning the final attacks. On June 18th, he's overseeing a battery of calibrating angles of cannon fire. The story goes that he miscalculated and the discharge chipped off a stone nearby, which ricocheted and struck him in the temple. He was knocked unconscious and carried to his tent, coming from his ear and nose. Alternatively, the story goes that it was a shot fired from across the bay that he had a stone. Who knows? June 23rd, last day, it makes for very grim reading. The walls have all been leveled. The Ottomans have the high ground from outside the fort. They're able to fire directly into the fort. The defenders are few. Most of them are wounded. They're facing almost certain death. The final day, the surviving Christian commanders already wounded themselves, unable to stand, ordered themselves brought up to the breaches and tied it to chairs. Swords and halberds are ready at hand for them. The final assault comes. The Ottoman forces find themselves facing this unlikely sight, but they managed to take it down. It still took them four hours. The job of five days had taken four weeks. Mustafa walked into the place and said, if this is what the child cost us, what cost the father? What it cost him was a greater part of his finest shock troops. On the day the fort was finally taken, it also cost him dragout, who expired at the same time as the fort did. Suleiman got word of that, and he was more upset with the loss of dragout than the time it took to take the fort. Mustafa lost his temper. He ordered Christian heads removed and placed on pikes. He also ordered the headless bodies of three knights, bound them supine on three crosses, carved crosses on their chests, and launched them across the water to Sanglaya. Popular accounts say that Valet's response was to bring out Turkish prisoners, cut off the heads, and fire them from cannon. The head part is true. The cannon part is made up by a 17th century French historian. If you go back to the original sources, they all say yes, they threw the heads over, but cannon's not mentioned, and you think they would because that's such a good story, assuming it's a possible. At this point though, it's clear that this is any hope that this being a civilized fight is pretty much over. Meanwhile, back in Sicily, Don Garcia is still gathering troops. He's in the awkward situation. Philip II is a micromanager two weeks away in Spain, and like Suleiman, he doesn't want to risk the fleet, but he also wants to make sure that anything possible to be done for Malta is being done. The troops who arrive in Sicily have to be housed, watered, and fed. The knights among them are pressuring Don Garcia to let them go to Malta as soon as possible. Don Garcia is reluctant. The problem is Malta is being patrolled by Piala Pasha's navy. As I say, you can get these swiftboats in with the message, but trying to get in any large group of people, it's not going to be easy. He had tried it once or twice, in fact, but each time the cord was too thick. He couldn't do it. He was, however, keeping tabs on the island. He knew the Ottomans were concentrating on Fort St. Elbow, and he knew that once they took it, they would redeploy around Sanglia and Bergu, which would make relief of those two towns pretty much impossible. What he needed to do was to calculate the point at which the Ottomans were most exhausted but not yet paying attention to Sanglia and Bergu. He kind of nailed it. He gave the green light for a relief force, the so-called little relief of official knights and their allies, some 600 men, to go off to Malta with their proviso that if Fort St. Elmo had fallen, they were to come back. They went, they arrived undetected, they learned from some peasants that Fort St. Elmo had indeed fallen. They ignored the order. They pressed on against all odds. They ghosted their way across Malta, past the Ottoman lines, past the Ottoman camps, and somehow managed to get themselves into Sanglia and Bergu, which, again, you see in the bottom there. Mustafa was furious, of course. Bialapasha, for letting the ships go through, Bialapasha pointed out that they were able to cross all of Malta and get from the far side of the island to there. Again, they don't get along. Mustafa is ready to attack Sanglia now. It is to be a combined land and sea operation. He set up army bases at the base of Sanglia. You can see that on the bottom right there. And he dragged galleys from the north bay across the peninsula, you can see it marked there, and launched them, followed the arrows. They were stopped short by palisades of strings, stopped short by a palisade of chains strung across ports, posts sunk into the ground. The galleys hit these. They were stopped dead in the water. The Muslim soldiers are forced to disembark and wade across the shore on under fire from the walls of Sanglia, not high walls. They're about eight feet, maybe. And land on the beach. The Ottomans mounted scaling ladders and engaged in a mixture of hand-to-hand fighting and gunfire. They nearly break through once or twice, but fail. Some 10 ships tried to skirt to the palisade. You can see them, that one on the top of the arrows. Cannon did for them, taking perhaps 800 non-swimmers to drown. The attackers finally called the quits and discovered that the galleys that had brought them across to the peninsula were no longer waiting for them to return. They begged the Christians for mercy, but the Christians were not in a forgiving mood to try and went up St. Helmows' pay before they went and killed them. With that attempt having failed, Mustafa ordered the remaining galleys dragged back across the peninsula, and they weren't going to try that method again. Long days of cannon fire to bring down the walls at Sanglia and Birgu. There's the odd Sally, their calls for surrender, more cannon fire. Mustafa gets a boost from the arrival of Corsairs from Algiers, but that doesn't help him but so much.  He gathers all his able-bodied men, including much of Piali Pash's fleet, and lines them up against Sanglia and Birgu. He thinks that the defenders cannot withstand attacks from both fronts at once. He's probably right. He needs the assault of Sanglia. He leaves Piali Pasha to do Birgu. The defenders can't help but be impressed by what they're seeing, and soon find themselves having a hard time of it. Despite gunfire, grenades, hot oil, steel, most of the soldiers are beginning to get to the tops of the walls, and fighting takes place again hand to hand. Massive rush or two, it appears that Sanglia will fall and Mustafa will win. Right, the cavalry arrives. That's Fort St. Elmo. That's Tragu dying. That's our cavalryman. Nice pants. The portrait's in the Frick Gallery. This gentleman's name is Vincenzo Anastagi. He came to the order rather late, but he rose rather quickly. He's a cavalryman at Mdina, which is the medieval city in the middle of the island, and they were essentially ignoring because it wasn't but so important strategically or anything else. But he's also an intelligence officer, and he had gotten word on this assault and brought his men out early to anticipate it. Basically, they could look at the sidelines because there were 60 of them. They couldn't make any headway against Mustafa's army, of course. They didn't even try. What they did was what the French did at Agincourt. They attacked the Muslim camp and the hospital. They trampled the support staff, the wounded, and set fire to the place. It doesn't take long for the soldiers on both sides of the battle to see the smoke and the rumors start flying that the Spanish Great Relief Force had finally arrived. It hadn't, but rumors have a life of their own. The assault melted away, and by the time the Muslims arrived at camp they realized what had happened.  Mustafa was now flustered, caught between two targets he wished to punish. He sends Bialy to Mdina to punish the cavalry. As they approach the old walled city, they see an unsuspected mass of soldiers on the ramparts. The closer they get, they see a flash and puff of smoke. And the cannon fire, which is too far off to hit them, but clearly the people in Mdina are not going to be easily intimidated. They retire thinking it's not worth the trouble. In fact, that whole thing was a Potemkin village. The soldiers are mostly civilians dressed up to look the part. The gunfire is an attempt to keep the Muslims far away, but it's using up very scarce gunpowder at this point. It doesn't matter, the deception worked.  Don Garcia is concerned with the Ottoman fleet. Philip is still leaning over his shoulder, and Garcia does not want to go out until he knows he is sure of victory. By August he finally gets the notion that this is probably about right. The end of the fighting season, spring and summer in those days, was now in sight. The let was had only to hold out a little longer, and Mustafa had to make only one last push. But he really didn't have much in the way of men or material at this point. His last great push was on August 20th. The cream of his forces are now dead. He was reduced to inducting support personnel into the army. They were reluctant fighters at best. Certain that the battle could not be won, they refused to fight at all, unless Mustafa, who is in his 70s by the way, agrees to lead them in person. He does. Give the man credit, he was no coward. He pushes on, leading from the front. They do manage to make it up to some breaches, but are pushed back. Valet himself, likewise 70, has gone to the front and is holding it, not without difficulty, but holding it. Mustafa is yet again struck in the head, and he collapses by the wall. The Ottomans retreat. Darkness descends. We can only guess what the High Command's reaction was when Mustafa showed up a few hours later, having recovered from being knocked out. The affair now becomes a slogging match. A matter of morale, the Ottomans become despondent. The Christians begin to get hope. Corsairs, practical men, they begin to slip away. Valet's council suggests holding up in the far reaches of Fort Sandangelo, but Valet says that that would be dishonorable. The Maltese are not to be abandoned. Neither are the others who have helped them so far. If they're going to go down, they're going to go down together. Mustafa is desperately trying whatever ploys come to mind. He cannibalizes some ships to make assault machines. They don't work. He creates a siege tower, which a single cannon shot by the Christians destroys before it can make any headway. Many of the walls are now sort of non-existent, and soldiers are close enough that they can talk to each other. They can exchange food and gossip. The Ottomans are astonished that they're getting fresh bread traded for their moldy cheese. They are not aware that the Russians are actually being cut drastically, but again, impression means everything. Don Garcia has finally received an intelligent report from our friend Vincenzo Anastagi, saying that the Ottomans on their last legs and now is the time to come. The report's mostly true, though of course Anastagi, like any good knight, is anxious for the great leaf to hurry up. Don Garcia gives the green light. The armada sets out. The difficulty is that we are now in September, and the Mediterranean is not an easy place to sail on a shallow-bodied boat like a galley. Storms kick up, and it takes a few attempts before they finally arrive. Once arrived, a strong force of Muslim ships by matter of hours, Don Garcia handed command over to others. He then left in part on orders from Philip, and in part I suspect because he didn't want to avoid any conflict, whether it was he or Vallette who was in command. He told his men, listen to Vallette. The Ottomans at this point were in fact just about ready to leave. They probably would have left if Don Garcia hadn't shown up. Timing is everything. Mustafa, hearing that they had arrived, figured that this was his last chance. He figures that he would be able to fight these people on open ground and not in siege warfare. And if he could defeat them on the ground, that Vallette would lose all hope, and they would actually finally win. He would be able to overwinter on the island, and by spring they would be able to get reinforcements and win the day. So he orders his soldiers off the boats. They march inland for one last showdown. Then if this is to fail, they will rendezvous at Piala Pasha's fleet in the northern bay and consider their next moves then. The relief force have gotten word from Vallette. They're stationed in the middle of the island. They have not reached the towns of Sanglia and Birgu. And they ask him what they should do. He says, you're the best judgment. Unfortunately, senior commanders had little respect for each other, did not like each other, and tended to argue over who was actually in charge. At this point it scarcely mattered. The relief forces now at Mdina saw that Mustafa's arm was marching west, torching everything in their path. While their commanders argued whether to swoop down or to wait for Mustafa to come to them, the men themselves decided the matter on their own. These were after all men who had been waiting all summer for a fight, and now they saw one at hand. They weren't going to give up the opportunity. They swept down without orders onto the Ottoman troops and let out their frustration they had felt all summer. The day is reported as having been unseasonably hot, and for Malta in summer that's kind of saying something. Men in leather and plate steel died of heat exhaustion. Those who were still alive pressed on. They came down to the sea, forcing Mustafa to engage in that most difficult maneuver, the orderly retreat under fire, which he pulled off rather well. His men managed to meet up with Pialipas at St. Paul's Bay and make their way on board the ships. They waited that night, exhausted, keeping their relief forces at a distance with gunfire, and then they left the following warning, September 11 as it happens. Relief in the west. Don Garcia arrives. Pialipas and the Ottomans, but not very seriously. He's happy just to see them off. Pialipas are back to Mustafa, are back to bickering. One Ottoman account says that Pialipa threatened to tie Mustafa to a cannon and fire it. He restrained himself. But when they got back to Constantinople, they had to arrive in the dead of night in case the locals should take it out, their disappointment in rioting. They got that order from Suleiman. Even so, westerners and Christians in general, then in Constantinople, had to keep a low profile for the next few weeks to avoid any unpleasantness. We get that from ambassadors who were there at the time and merchant accounts. There was no joy in Constantinople. Suleiman was going to execute both men, but their family, he thought better of it. He retired Mustafa. Piali, he let sail for another few years, though thought that he would try another attack on Malta the following spring, but it didn't happen. Instead, the Ottoman army in 1566 headed north into Hungary and Suleiman, assuming that if you want something done right, do it yourself, went in person. This was a mistake. He was too old, he fell ill, he died, leaving the empire to his son Selim. In the west, Valet was offered a cardinal's cap, but he turned it down. He preferred to stay in Malta. He was grandmaster for the next few years. He finally died of a stroke while out falconing. The city he envisioned on the ruined base of Fort St. Elmo is now called the city of Valeta, capital of Malta. Don Garcia was scapegoated for being slow and unaggressive. He remained, however, as viceroy, and his opinions were eagerly sought by the young Don John of Austria prior to the battle of Lepanto. Eventually, it was evident that his suggestions were adopted for that battle if you ever read into it. So we started out this by pointing out Voltaire's quote that nothing is better known than this battle. And you see that in any quote, any account of the battle that you read, and at some point they put it in. What they don't put in is the second clause in which he says, where all Suleiman's hopes ran aground, what dreams would these be, and why should we care? This gets in the realm of the counterfactual things that didn't happen but could have, for want of a nail, that sort of thing. Academic historians don't like this sort of things, since, fair enough, they're dealing with verifiable fact. But I think counterfactuals serve a purpose. We look back in hindsight, we know how the story ends. We have only to tidy up the narrative. Those in the middle of what's going on don't have that luxury. They cannot be fatalistic. They have to act on what they know and on what they can imagine. By considering the greatest fears and hopes of the players, we can get a notion of why they acted the way they did. So what would have happened if the Ottomans had taken Malta? There are various scenarios, none of them palatable for the West. The Lett would have been dead or in chains. Fair to say that this time the Knights would not have been permitted to walk away in peace as they had been from Rhodes. The Barbary pirates might have taken some of the Knights for ransom, which would have done a number on the Order's finances. They failed to campaign in Morocco, bankrupted Portugal when they had to pay ransom to the nobles who survived that fight. Most of all, it would have ruined what was left of the Order's reputation. They'd lost the Holy Land, they'd lost Rhodes, they'd lost Tripoli, they'd lost Malta. Who needs them? What good are they? Their properties throughout Europe might have been in jeopardy. Henry VIII had already taken the English properties. If you've ever been there, St. John's Wood, that used to be theirs. Younger sons would no longer wish to join, no one would wish to host their fleet in case it bring unwelcome attention, Constantinople. The lost Malta would have been the beginning of the end for the Order and with that, the last of the genuinely pan-European military orders. For the Ottomans, it would be a new lease on the Western Med. Malta would now be an Ottoman stronghold, not a fiefdom like Algiers, but a fortress island wholly under Constantinople's control, likely populated with people chosen by Suleyman, as had been the case when his grandfather took Constantinople. The psychological effect would have been considerable. Barbary Corsairs, who had been free-booters, would recognize the Ottomans were exercising real power in heading west. Remaining Muslims in Spain would take heart from the advancing power of the Ottomans. They did rebel in 1568, but unsuccessfully had the Ottomans been there who can say what would have happened. Same thoughts would run through Christian Europe. Attitudes were highly malleable. The church was losing membership to Protestants. And as the Barbary Corsairs have shown, given the right incentives, even cradle Catholics were willing to take a better deal from the Ottoman Muslims. Suleyman would not have felt the need to take the 1566 campaign into Hungary and would likely have lived at least a few more years. Who knows with what consequences? The Holy League might well not have coalesced. The Battle of El Panto, the great Christian victory, would never have happened. Could they have taken Sicily? They had been there before. Within living memory, just barely, they had been in Spain. None of this was out of the question. In the 1550s, France had even been willing to ally themselves with Suleyman with the idea of divvying up Sicily. It didn't happen, but who's to say it couldn't have. None of this happened is frankly down to the knights and the people of Malta and the events of 1565. Which is about all I've got. I will happily take questions. I can't guarantee answers, but if I've missed something, please let me know. Any questions? Sir? Where did the Knights of Malta fit into this in history? How do you mean? There was an organization that was an organization that made some malta that originated there. When did they originate? In 1022, they originally started out as a hospital order protecting pilgrims to the Holy Land. They morphed into a fighting order, had long history. They're still out there, by the way. They have gone back to doing good works. They were kicked out of Malta by Napoleon of all people. He arrived in 1798, and that was pretty much to the end of them as a fighting order. But by then they were long since back numbers by that point. By that point they were sort of a stop on the grand tour. Young men from England or Germany going out for adventure would sign up for a cruise on their galleys. Let's see if we can take out a Muslim trade ship, or if not, it's still a great good adventure. It's their idea of Disneyland, I suppose. All rather silly, but that's one of the ways they occupied their time. Since the fort was an important part of the island, who built it? Various people. It went through different stages. There was a small fort there, not very well made at the time that the knights arrived. But it's one of those things that the position is so clearly important that whoever holds the island figure has got to build a fort here, so leave it to archaeologists. My understanding is that Malta played a significant part in World War II. Indeed it did. They dropped more bombs on Malta than they did on London. Admiral wanted it as a British base. The British took it over in 1800 and didn't leave until 1963. He essentially used it as a naval base, but it was a serious thorn in Rommel's side in North Africa. He wanted it taken out and they spent a good deal of effort making that happen. Most of the damage to the old city dates from that period. The island itself was given a communal St. George's Cross for the bravery of all the Maltese who never gave up. That's a whole story in itself, but you're quite right. There are three islands shown in your map. True. Two? No, true. Are they all considered Malta? Yeah, they're all part of the sister island. The second largest one is called Gozo. The smaller one is a place called Comino. I don't even think people live on it. Whose flag is on it now? Maltese. They got independence from Great Britain in 1963. And it's about time.  It's been one group of people after another taking over and saying, this is such a lovely island, so useful. We'll take it for ourselves now. Maltese is interesting anyway. The Maltese language is the... It's basically drawn from Arabic with a lot of Italian and few foreign words put in there. It's the only Semitic-based language which is used at the Roman alphabet. And it's not an easy language. I don't speak it. I don't even read it. But for people who are into linguistics, it's a fascinating study in its own right. What lessons can we learn from that to our present situation? That's a policy question. I'm a historian. I don't touch that kind of thing. What's the impact on the civilian population of Maltese at that time with all of the battles going on and so forth? What's your significant population? There was. The plan had been to take the greater part of the civilians off and settle them in Sicily. Don Garcia had told the Sicilians at Messina, treat these people like honored guests. And they were trying to move them off island to get them to Sicily at the times to avoid all the troubles. But the Ottomans came too soon, so they weren't able to get, but so many out there, which wasn't too bad a thing. If you read the accounts at the time, the historians who kind of looked down at the Maltese as peasants repeatedly say they fought like real men. Who would have fought? Even the women and children were doing their bit. So yeah, they definitely did their part. They're national heroes to this day. One of their cavalrymen was a fellow named Tony Vallada. There are even comic books about him in Malta. He's that much of a local hero. So there are ethnic Maltese people then who really are back from that era? Absolutely. Absolutely. Ma'am? I was just going to say that the renaissance do have a unit called the Knights of St. John. Do they? And they trace it back to Malta. I did not know that. There are various organizations which try to piggyback on the name of Knights of St. John. There's a Protestant order in fact in England, but the real true order is now headquartered in Rome. And it's a different kettle of fish. And they do worldwide good works, mostly medical relief and stuff like that. What religious component was there too, the Knights? It sounds like there were fighters, but did they actually go to school, take ecclesiastical training? No, just younger sons of nobility signed up. I don't think it took anything more than that. They're technically Augustinians, but that was a label. It gave them a certain amount of leeway that other orders might not have done. Do they have religious orders? Oh, yes. How do we put this? Were there priests and bishops and cardinals and all that type of thing? Not cardinals. Some of them did hold holy orders, but they all took vows, which didn't stop them from having families. Valet had at least three legitimate children, so they took it as seriously as they could. I don't know if that totally answers your question. Any other questions? Thank you very much.


I am Mr. Ninath Kulkarni working as an assistant professor in department of mechanical engineering at Vulture Institute of Technology, Solapur. In today's session, I will be dealing with how to solve some simple problems based on AI that is artificial intelligence. At the end of the session, students will be able to solve some simple problems using AI technique by the production system method. Now, what is problem solving? Problem solving is solving the problem. We are given a certain problem. We are given the initial description of the problem and we have to reach the solution. We have to reach the desired solution by solving some simple steps by going through some simple steps just like the proofs, mathematical proofs, the theorem proofs such as Pythagoras theorem. If we are going to prove the Pythagoras theorem, we have to solve some steps. We have to go through the some steps so that we reach the desired solution that is the hypotenuse square is equal to side 1 square plus side 2 square. This solution is the desired solution. So, we have to go through some steps. A problem can be considered to consist of a goal. So, there is a goal and we have to do some certain set of actions that can be taken so that the goal is reached. At any given time, we consider the state of search space to represent where we have reached. So, at any instance of time, we have to specify the state of the search space. What is the status of our solution? To define a problem as a search space, some preliminary concepts are there. First concept is state. State indicates the status of a solution at a given step of the problem solving procedure. So, at any given step, what is the status of your solution is there? That is called as a state. Initial state is the initial status of the solution that is the initial condition of the solution. Goal state is the desired solution whatever we require. An operator is that constituent that transforms one state to another state in order to reach closer towards your goal state that is the desired solution. So, the operator it is that part which gives the motion to the solution and what is mean by state search or state space approach is that the process of applying an operator that is a force to state and its subsequent transition from one state to next state and this process is continued until we reach a goal state. So, until the goal state is reached, this process is continued or iterated that process is called as the this approach is called as the state space search. For example, while playing chess we know that initial state is the starting position or starting position on the board. The goal state is the position in which at least one player reaches the winning position that means one player checkmates the another player that is the winning state and the algorithm continues until the goal state or winning position is reached. This is how the state space search approach is worked. In AI, for formally describing a problem we have to define first all the state space that means it contains all the possible configurations of the relevant objects that means it consists of all the status of solutions. After forming or after defining a state space we have to define some of these states as possible initial states. Also, we have to define some goal state there may be a single goal state or in multiple goal states. So, in games such as chess or tic-tac-toe there may be multiple goal states. Next we have to specify a certain set of rules as the possible actions that are allowed if this happens then this should be done. So, these rules are stored in the knowledge space. There are two types of learning as in the search based algorithms. One is the monotonic learning in which the agent may not learn any knowledge that contradicts what it already knows. That means the agent, the search agent it does not update itself, it does not update the rules and it follows what is there in the algorithm. Second one is non-monotonic learning in which the agent learns new knowledge that contradicts the existing knowledge. So, in non-monotonic the algorithm is updated the knowledge base is updated. This is the algorithm of problem solving. First step is analyze the problem to get the starting state and goal state. The first step is we have to specify the starting state that is initial state and goal state. After that find out the data about starting state and goal state. Third step is find out the production rules from initial database for proceeding the problem to goal state. So, we have to specify the production rules or control strategy. Next we have to select some of these rules, some best rules from the set of rules that can be applied to this problem. After that we have to apply these rules to initial state that means the first state and we have to proceed to get to the next state until we reach the goal state. Determine some new generated states and make them as the current state. We call them as the intermediate state. And finally we have to achieve some information and reach towards the goal state. Whenever we reach the goal state we have to exit. This is the general algorithm for problem solving and in problem solving one model or one computational model is there that is production system. So, this production system is a computational model that can be applied to implement search algorithms and model human problem solving. In this the knowledge is packed in the form of little quanta these are called as productions. So, production is a rule consisting of situation, recognition part and action part that means if a situation is given what action one should take. This if then is coded in the production if A then B. A production is a situation action pair in which left side is a list of things to watch for and right side is the action to do. So, production system consists of a set of production rules which are in the form of A tends to B if A then B. Second is database which consists of all the appropriate information of the particular task or problem. Next a control strategy how the rules are prioritized and if several rules are active simultaneously which rule should come first that conflicts are resolved. Next a rule applyer means it is a software which checks whether this rule should be applied to this situation or not. So, these are the four components of production system. These are advantages or features of production system first is simplicity because if if then rules are there that is why it is simple. Second modularity because there are discrete modules of rules and they can be easily separated. The modifiability is the capacity to modify the rules existing rules and this production system is knowledge intensive, the knowledge base it only stores all the information about the problem. But there are certain limitations first is the opacity if the prioritization of rules it is not proper then it may lead to the algorithm being opaque. During execution of the program several rules may be active which makes this algorithm inefficient. This algorithm does not store the result for future use that means if there is an extension of one problem that can be applied to another then it starts from the first and when a new rule is added to a database it should ensure that it does not conflict with the existing rules that conflict resolution should be there. Now I will take you through the water jug problem. Suppose you are given three jugs A, B and C, A has capacity of 8 liters, B has 5 liters and C has 3 liters, but they are not calibrated. Jug A initially it is filled with 8 liters and B and C are empty and by series of pouring back and forth among three jugs we have divide the 8 liters into two equal parts that is 4 liters in jug A and 4 liters in jug B. So this is the problem and we have to solve this. The initial condition is that A is filled with 8 liters and B and C are empty that means initial state are A 8 0 0 and your goal state is 4 4 and 0 this is the goal state. Now we are going to proceed with this problem. The initial state is 8 0 0 and from this initial state we have three options. First option is we have going to put 3 liters in jug C that is 3 liter capacity. So the state will come as 5 0 3. Second option is 3 5 0 that means we are going to pour 5 liters in jug B and third option is we are going to make the jug A empty and 5 and 3 liters are poured in jug B and C. These are the three options and from these three options we will follow this hierarchy and these are the solutions that we will get. So this algorithm will search each and every state of the solution and until we reach this end state. So this is the end state. So whenever this algorithm reaches end state it stops and exits. So this is the strategy we follow in the production systems algorithm until we reach the end state. So these are the references that are referred and thank you.


Hey, this is Brett and this 2019 Chevy Silverado 2500 Crew Cab Short Box LTZ is stock number 14151Z. I am here at Summit Automotive in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, you're new and used heavy duty truck headquarters this 2019 Chevy Silverado has the 6.6 liter Duramax diesel engine. It's the L5P engine which puts out 445 horsepower. It's paired up with the Allison heavy duty six speed automatic transmission. This truck has been fully safety then inspected by our service shop has a fresh oil and filter change all the fluids have been checked and topped off per the state of Wisconsin inspection process and this truck is 100% ready to go. I'm going to go all the way around in this video inside underneath started up and take a look under the hood to give you the most accurate representation of the vehicle possible black clear coat is the color I shoot all my videos in 4k. If you like video consider subscribing to the YouTube channel which is youtube.com slash some auto click the bell notifications get updates on the videos I do each and every day as well as having access to one of the largest catalogs vehicle and heavy duty truck walk arounds on YouTube almost 9,000 videos this one comes with the 20 inch polished aluminum wheels really nice wheels on this truck. It has Goodyear Wrangler SRA tires these are LT 265 60R 20s. I would say that they have probably about half the tread left maybe even a little bit more 50 to 60% right around there frame and underbody is exceptionally clean on this truck this is a clean title history clean car facts always owned in Missouri you get the projector lamp headlamps you get the painted front and rear bumpers front bumpers and fans has to condition I didn't see any dents or dings or rock chips or anything like that has the front bumper parking sensors the chrome trimmed grill on there as well and the hood is in fantastic condition I didn't see any dents or dings on there that is a true coal induction I'll show you how that works in just a little bit get the cab lights up top and the passenger side front fender is absolutely perfect no dents or dings on there and the back wheel is in excellent condition as well no scuffs or scrapes as you go down this side of this 2019 Chevy Silverado 2500 take note of how clean that body is how reflective and glass like that paint is very nice and clean down this side I take these HD videos so if you're far away or even if you're close by and you just cannot make the trip down but you're still interested in purchasing the vehicle you can see the truck hear the truck and of confidence in the vehicle that you're looking at before you even get here so when you do get here there's absolutely no surprises and you can make a smart and informed buying decision from wherever you're at now if this video helps you make a smart buying decision let your salesman know that you saw the video that it was helpful and that Brett sent you back wheels in excellent shape as well and the back tires have a considerable amount of more tread than the front tires I would say these are probably about 80 80 90 percent of the tread on those tires frame and underbody is exceptionally clean on this truck and by clean I mean there's very little to no corrosion it's a little dusty but uh other than dust really nice and clean lower rockers cab corners look great as well I always say better dusty than rusty so um really nice under their passenger side bed no dents or dings in there the rear bumper is in great shape has the rear bumper steps the backup parking sensors full towing package which includes a receiver hitch four pin and seven pin wiring the tailgate is in really nice condition I didn't see any dents or dings on there looks like it's been debudged I didn't see an LTZ or a Chevy logo on there spray and bed liner you get LED bed lights up there and on the other side beds in really nice shape and that spray and bed liner goes on to the tailgate which is nice as well coming around to the driver's side just as clean as that passenger's side no major dents or dings on the box and for full disclosure this back wheel is in excellent condition as well down the rest of this side of the truck doors and cab all look fantastic once again no dents no dings very nice and clean this one does have the telescopic tow mirrors built in directional signals LED side lights they do telescope out like so I would show you but I sprained my wrist yesterday and that's just not going to happen back seats are in excellent condition no rips or tears back here does have the latch child safety system for any child car seats you may have power sliding rear window with the built-in rear defrost there are those latch systems seats are in great shape the carpeting is in excellent condition back here factory all-weather floor mats as well this one does have side curtain airbags and the inside and bottoms of the doors all look really good on this truck no corrosion or anything let's take a look inside the LTZ package gives you the black leather bucket seats in the front no rips no tears on those seats they're in very nice condition very little very minimal wear on the seats both of these front seats are heated and cooled and power factory all-weather floor mats in the front auto headlamps turned out four-wheel drive factory brake controller tilt telescopic steering wheel power windows locks and mirrors memory driver seat and Bose premium sound system you get the cool wood grain trim there and these mirrors do power fold in I always like showing both sides so that you know that both sides are working properly hop inside check out the miles the radio and everything that this truck has to offer on the interior you can see this one has 19,861 miles on you get a digital speedometer and compass display instrument cluster is very nice and clean comes with the heated leather wrap steering wheel bluetooth and information center controls on the right cruise controls and heated steering wheel controls on the left and you do get audio controls in the back of that steering wheel there's your shifter for the allison six-speed automatic transmission with the optional tap shift and it does come with the Chevy my link radio this has have the factory navigation system there's highway 41 so you know that is working nicely you also get am fm and serious xm radio capabilities does have a projection manager you can project your cell phone to the screen via android auto or apple carplay also has a cd player and then here are all the other apps that come with this radio this also where your backup camera shows up and i'm not sure if it'll go with the truck off truck's got beyond for that to work anyways down here you're more tactile volume tune and climate controls including the dual climate controls heated and cooled seat buttons power paddle stability control that's for your cargo lamps that also turns on your led side lights and the lights in the bed of the truck parking sensors you can turn those off and on and your factory exhaust break down here you get two usb's two 12 volt power points and 110 volt 150 watt plug-in cupholders right there you also get the wireless cell phone charge pad there which is a nice feature passenger side gloveboxes are right there and the floor mat and seat are in excellent condition no rips or tears on there headliners in really nice condition this one does have the power sunroof up here you get map lights home link buttons for your garage door security systems and lighting systems sunroof and power sign rear window controls on star ns west buttons in the rear view mirror we're going to start it up and take a look under the hood i turned the cargo lights on so you can check out those led side lights starts right up no check engine lights or anything like that except that my hood's open i would personally like to show uh to thank you for checking out the video today there are those led side lights they are super bright and hopefully from this hd video you've been able to verify the quality condition options and of course cleanliness of this truck all the way around inside out lights are working nicely hopefully i can get this hood open there we go under the hood we have the 6.6 liter duramax diesel engine engine bay is very clean runs very smooth once again l5p engine 445 horsepower uh truck has been fully safety and inspected by a service shop has a fresh oil and filter change all the fluids have been checked and topped off and this 100% one ready to go there is the emissions sticker and that coal induction hood air comes in there goes down the tube over to here right into the air cleaner and i would highly recommend this truck from a quality and condition standpoint i'd ship this one to texas new york florida california arizona wyoming um back to missouri whoever's going to get this truck's gonna be very happy with the quality and condition audit and to see more pictures of this truck or one of our other 550 new and used cars trucks scvs minivans wranglers halftones 300 tons one tons you name it we got to go to the website right there summitauto.com full pictures and descriptions of every single vehicle all at summitauto.com if you'd like to check out more hd videos you can go to youtube.com slash summitauto click the bell notifications get updates and videos they do each and every day as well as having access to one of the largest catalogs of vehicle and heavy duty truck walk-arounds on youtube fact in a second you'll see a link to subscribe to my youtube channel the upper left a link to more Chevy 2500 truck videos i've done in the upper right a link to this vehicle on our website more left and a link to one of our latest youtube videos in the lower right click those check us out we're super excited to help you with this ultra clean 2019 Chevy Silverado 2500 crew cab short box LTZ in black clear coat thanks again for checking out the video remember to like subscribe and share on the youtube channel i really appreciate it thanks again


Welcome to the weather forecast for the week beginning Wednesday, October 5th 2023 This is Chief Meteorologist John Insworth for Longmont Public Media, and yes, it's throwback Thursday at school I'm throwing back to the 1480s Friday October 6th is our third quarter moon Gotta get up early to see that and the pretty good amount of activity on the Sun right now This is gonna be a short video because there's not much to forecast For drought conditions, they've gotten a little worse in the Southwest and Western slopes Nationally, it's a little better on the plains from Texas up, but in Arizona and like that kind of dry smoke we're all clear for now and precipitation was pretty light in most places the Southeast and some of the Southwest part of the state got some good water we have Severe chances in North Texas and Oklahoma and then Thursday it just moves off and down and away Surface map shows a cold front responsible for that with a low right there Cold front pushes down and close us on Thursday in Friday Normal temperatures go from 77 to 66 now for highs So we are really taking the dive into fall. It doesn't feel like it necessarily, but yeah, it is cooler 41 to 37 around the 30s now So won't be too long before we have normal temperatures below freezing for precipitation It is dry there's hints of something out here on the 12th 11th, but it's dry Water vapor or satellite image showing lots of dry air coming into the Southwest But basically over the next five days or so. We've got this ridge sitting around for should say Thursday Wednesday night, sorry got typo there on Wednesday night on the 12th is kind of the next ripple So there is a chance of precipitation coming in we Do did want to mention that Snowstorm which would have been tomorrow Totally and absolutely vanished the next day from the models and we are in complete Dryness instead. So yeah, I can't trust a model that far away So it really won't need to spend much time on this these animations today But we'll we'll spend it here on the 500 millibar map You can see the ridge just getting established in the West and the deep trough parking in the east It's Ridge Ridge Ridge And It's Tuesday here's Next Wednesday here comes that trough. So for the end of next week There's a possibility of something do a little hurricane Forecasted to form and affect the Baja, but that's a long ways out for that For temperatures for cool right now with that cold front double cold front that came down You can see there's another pool of cold air up here, and that's going to slide over on the weekend I'll be camping, but hot on the western slopes It's a big blob of cool air for the south and the east amazing and see the warmth coming off of the lakes So I'll warm the water is there warming up the air pretty cool And then after that we're kind of above normal for a long period of time water vapor satellite image It's not Water vapor satellite. This is precipitable water and yeah, it's hard to do forecasting with chain mail on That's just kind of dry. We have at or Below normal amounts of precipitable water in the atmosphere for the most part Do points are also very low I'm just gonna show a few days of this because it really doesn't change much. We're in the low 30s mountains are in the 20s and teens more super dry air slipping by with that big cold front and Really is anything to show here. I mean Maybe yeah, I think on the GFS going out to Wednesday through the next week. It does not paint anything Here's the next five days completely dry precipitation wise next 10 days a little bit down here or the New Mexico But it's just random here's snow over the next 10 days. Nothing even the highest mountains so we have 60s and 70s and then being of next week we sneak up above normal to 80s But we're just mostly clear and dry Check out Longmont leader for frequent weather and news updates I won't need to update the weather much for a little while, but we'll get into some fun weather again This is chief neodra stone. It's worth urging you to keep looking up