Thank you everyone so much for coming to our second ever hybrid brain club where we are here on the Vermont Statehouse lawn and with you on zoom and Today, I am thrilled to introduce our guest presenter Matt Mulligan who is officially now on our board of directors here at all Brains belong Vermont and Do you do you like want me to talk about your background? Do you want to talk about your own background? What do you want to do? Okay, I can say what I know Matt is one of the coolest people I've ever met and And Great, I also forgot to introduce myself because there actually are some people on our Call who I've not met yet. I'm Mel Hauser I use she they pronouns and I am the executive director here at all Brains belong Vermont Anyway, Matt is one of the coolest people I've ever met and hi and Is a mental health therapist and a Has a really important set of life experiences that has informed his perspective on the environments that contribute to self-actualization and What we are going to have the opportunity to hear from Matt about today is a book that he wrote about About this theme and then I'm sure we will have or what will be a really important conversation With some panelists and and discussion from participants. So Matt, I'm gonna pass this to you And you're gonna move to the picnic table. Okay, cool. All right. I'm gonna read the book I would like to read my book and then I want to entertain questions How are we going to? Will you see the questions? Okay, come in or kind of once you're done reading. Yeah It's a it's a very short book So I won't be reading this book This this book is called tomatoes and peppers Inspired by an idea that popped into my head while I was driving to my internship about Who seven years ago? this book would not exist in any way without My best friend of many years Sonya Spalding she was the project manager and Basically made this book happen so You know a good Example of partnerships where people have different skill sets and work together to make things happen And I also wanted to give a shout out to Chen Fei Was is the illustrator of this book? originally from Beijing she lives here in central Vermont with her family and Her art added just the right Touch to the book. So I'm grateful for her contribution as well And now I'm gonna read the book So tomatoes and peppers a metaphorical tale for anyone who cares about kids The dedication I'll read that to to my mom and to Sonya who both played a huge part in the growth of this tomato Spring has arrived and it's time to plant your garden You go to the nursery and you pick out two seedlings a tomato plant and a pepper plant You plant them in good soil in a spot that will get lots of sun You keep a watering can nearby in case they need extra water You find a trowel to dig up any weeds that may pop up along the way Then your work is done Then you remember that you need a cage for the tomato plant Even though it's a seedling you can place the cage now to give it extra support. It needs as it grows Pepper plants don't need the extra support their limbs are stronger and their fruit is lighter You might need to stake it and then it will do fine Tomato plants, however, have skinnier limbs and heavier fruit And so without the right support the tomatoes will bend or even break the plant. They might grow in the dirt and spoil We provide different supports for each plant without a second thought Do we blame the tomato because it needs extra support to produce good fruit? Nope Do we question the character of the tomato plant because it needs more support as it grows? Nope, do we believe that there's something wrong with the tomato plant because it struggles to carry its heavier load? Nope, do we believe that there's something wrong with the tomato because it weighs the plant down? Nope We don't criticize the tomato plant for not being able to carry the load And we don't criticize the tomato for being too heavy We simply anticipate the need based on what we know about the tomato and the plant and Understand that if they end up in the dirt we are to blame We do not label it as different in some way and we do not blame the seed it grew from We don't blame the seed. We don't For the motorcycle. We don't blame the ground in which the seed grew We simply give it the supported needs On the counter in the kitchen you see a pepper and a tomato. You don't think twice about how they got there fully grown Their seedlings have the same potential with differing outcomes and different needs for support Our communities are filled with seedlings that become tomatoes and peppers Why can't we care for our children the way we care for these plants? Why can't we see our children in the same way? We see the tomato and pepper as they sit side by side. We need to Their potential growth are our work and with the right supports an abundant harvest our promise to keep and There is the book It's a it's a short book that's taken a lifetime and a master's degree to write It's a simple story. I think it tells an important story That will help It really it's not a book from four kids. It's a book on behalf of kids who who struggle in any way and the adults who are around them in helping roles and really What I hope this book can do is seamlessly and gently redefine all helping relationships From a strength-based point of view where Where we can all become strong Because equity allows us to succeed based on our merits and I you know, it's my hope that it makes the world a better place So thank you for listening Matt, thank you. Thank you so much. I'm wondering are there questions in the in the chat. Yeah. Oh Yeah Well before I have lots of questions for you But I also want to just first just thank you. I mean, I think that when we have conversations about Um Environments that like the goodness of fit between the environment and someone's needs like determining like how they do Sometimes no one has thought about that for humans, but like thinks about it all the time for gardening plants like Anyway, so I think it's genius. I think the analogy is genius and I I really really really appreciate that this I know that You maybe did you did you have you had questions? I was interested actually in hearing from you the science around The well-being of people who are neurodivergent I was interested in hearing from you Mel about You know the impacts on people You know my story is about creating a foundation for success but You know equity as I've learned across my life is not an easy request and I think it's because Equity doesn't necessarily counter what's illegal or blatantly wrong a request for equity challenges simply what is and And and when somebody seeks equity very often the systems around them Where there would be family schools employers the gamut a request for equity Becomes almost the fault of the person that's requesting it and Because it it Our brain is a is a simple Machine on some levels and one of the simplest things our brain struggles with is change and so any perceived change that That threatens what is Sends everybody on some level into that fight or flight and And it and it makes moving through the world more difficult and I think I said to you the other day that I wish You know, I've come to a point in my life where I understand that The strength I have has been realized because of the struggle I've moved through and I said wouldn't it be a nice world? If we could all develop that strength Because of equity based on our merits. I think there'd be a lot fewer, you know scars along the way and But the reality is that's not the world we live in and You know, I was hoping, you know, some of that science some of those statistics behind What people do experience as they move through a neurodivergent life in a normative world And I would you know, I was thinking that would be a nice way to support The notion that the book describes I can totally do that I'm gonna take the laptop and I'm gonna come back to the floor. I feel more grounded on the floor That's where I go. Okay. Here we go. All right Now I can see kind of okay so I Think what you're really referring to is when we think about how one and I guess I should sit here, so I'm like I'm trying to not turn my back to anyone in like three different directions, which is hard I can turn my back to the tree. Anyway, you know one in five people Thanks learns or communicates differently than the so-called typical brain even though like that's not really a thing And it's really just that there's like the assumption that there's a one-size-fits-all life even though there's not one type of brain like there's This infinite number of ways in which our brains do things but for these one in five people who like Whose brain significantly depart from this like the type of brain that society has deemed most desirable and that most things cater to like like The difficulty accessing everyday life is substantial and the the poor like let's even think about the the experience of a young child Who's play looks different than The so-called typical play and so play is the pursuit of joy Like only a person can decide what brings them joy and yet Many kids are given the message that their interests and that the things that give them joy is fundamentally flawed and broken and needs to be fixed and Then the messages that come from healthcare providers or mental, you know and and and including doctors mental health therapists all other kind of teachers like sometimes there are the Expected defaults of like What kids do?  So neurodivergent kids from very Early ages are getting the message that and and You know that that that we're effective over time that really takes a toll and when people are either Forced to hide their true selves to fit in or to not be found out Or any anything like that that takes its toll on mental health. So neurodivergent kids experience more bullying experience more anxiety and depression experience more Just everything More and here's just a trigger warning even in neurodivergent kids higher rates of suicidal thinking and Special when we think about the intersectionality of all of the different ways in which people are Marginalized and othered, you know, and we think about the you know, known relationship between neurodiversity and gender diversity and sexual orientation diversity like all of these Stack the deck of Invalidation and other ring it's trauma toxic trauma of Being made to feel like there's something broken about you and Then we make it to adulthood and let's see even when we're when we're even we're talking about when you think about autistic adults and the average life expectancy being aged 36 to 54 years and Not dying from autism, but dying from premature cardiovascular disease and suicide so Toxic chronic stress from growing up in a world that's not designed for you These are the consequences so The other thing I'll say is that risk of suicide and autistic adults is also This risk so it's nine times four four to nine times increased risk of suicide and autistic adults as compared to non-autistic adults and We're also thinking about the fact that those rates are higher in those with lower support needs which and and and separately research showing that Suicidal thinking and completed suicide highest in those with who've felt Pressure to mask and camouflage and hide their true selves. So really I think This is a really long-winded answer to your question, which is that The brain science is that there's no right way to be a person But yet there are messages from society that there is a right way to be a person and that this has an enormous toll on physical and mental health Oh, no, well, and I just have some observations from my own life That that, you know match up, but yes, what's the question? We have one question definitely lots of people saying what a wonderful book I love the analogy and how you build on it great message. Thank you Matt. The one question we have is Would Mike please share more about his metaphor regarding if we leave them in the dirt it is our fault Sure because Children depend on adults They you know the adult in the child's world is their beginning and their end it's their it's their their literal survival and Life I'm not I'm not here to blame Parents or schools I'm not here to say That it's somebody's fault What I am here to say is that So often when kids are challenged in some way The world around them tells them that something needs to be fixed And I'd like the question to To change and shift from what do we need to fix to what help can we give you? And And that's basically it, you know, I I understand I was born in 1971. I think Letted gas was still legal lawn darts were still a good idea Smoking might still have been healthy There was so much that people didn't know And and I was born with a long set of challenges. I was born at 28 weeks I caught bacterial meningitis I had a shunt put in when I was four months old. I've had a total of 30 surgeries in my life 19 of those neurosurgeries Five of those were two summers ago You know, I've been neuro divergent my whole life, but only was diagnosed with a learning disability at 40 And I got accommodations for that learning disability and I got a master's degree So, you know Potential is tied to support And but very often our brains operating the way they do You know, we see something that's not in the norm we see something that's different And part of our brain goes to that place of, you know, fight, flight, freeze or flock And it's easier in the world we live in to modify the child than it is the environment And so, you know, so much comes down to cost But when I you know when I talk about cost and I'm going to do something that I don't do very often I'm going to take off my glasses. These glasses, by the way, they don't help me see They they help balance my perception of of everything I experience and So I wanted to give a shout out to the Mind Eye Institute because they Do work that changes Neurodiverse people's lives every single day But I don't take my glasses off a lot because I I see them or I came to see them as a mask Something that would shield me From a world that's been commenting on what I look like or how my face is shaped for my entire life And, you know, that's when when we're talking about impacts on kids Things that are different draw our attention. It is it is absolutely natural and okay And it's part of the way we survived for millennia What I've come to understand that the the impulse to notice Is completely healthy and innocent What our brains then do with With what we notice Can be less than kind, you know, I've been I've been teaching people about Who I am in relation to my experience since I was very very small four or five years old getting asked by an adult In a grocery store, you know, what's wrong with your face? And I had to come up with an answer One of the most I guess Yeah, I learned a lot about myself in the moment.  Well, too bad for them. I don't live here So I rolled down my window and I said can I help you and the kid said, yeah, tell me what's tell me what's wrong with your head And I said and I said to them Um, well, I was born this way. What's wrong with yours? and And then I then I drove To a side street and I parked my car and I cried Um, I was a grown man, but these messages have been coming to me and at me for my entire life And it's because I simply look different. Um, the thinking different. Um Was added on top of it, you know, I was 40 years old before I found out that I was Um that I could be a hard worker that I could achieve that I wasn't lazy that I wasn't Not smart. Um You know, those are the messages that the world sends to neurodivergent kids and We're focused on neurodivergence kids who are different in any way and you know, my my nickname in in first grade was egghead Um But I forgive kids because kids don't have any perspective in terms of their experience. Um Everything is new Everything is foreign. So when in a child's environment when something is out of the ordinary, man, they focus on it like a laser and um You know, this this is the life I've lived and and I've gotten to a point and I've done the work where I'm absolutely grateful for the experience because everything I've gone through has made me the person that I am And I like that guy. So these days I take off my glasses with a little more ease And uh, you know, I just like people to know that really just lead lead with what you value lead with kindness And when a kid comes to you And they can't explain what's happening in their experience and you can't understand it Don't think automatically that it's a problem with them Find somebody to give you another point of view on what what's happening for them and that way they can move through life Based on what they're good at and what they love and um, that's where all the Good parts of human development come from so um That's that's the bigger picture about this book And uh, you know, I just hope people get something from reading it seven-year-old who's listening who um said paraphrase this book is being about balancing a balancing act for brains because the tomatoes need something to climb like kids Have needs like they need to drink water That's amazing I love how kids think about things They think without rules they think without the boundaries that eventually get installed and um You know, it's why they're you know, some of my favorite people because um They're not yet aware of what people think isn't possible And uh, that's amazing My five-year-old Um, is whenever we watch a movie where there's a you know, a villain um Recently she shared Mama, I don't think that villain is a bad guy. I think they're just angsty Amazing right like um Or and and so, you know, we'll watch Cart you know cartoon characters like common everyday kids movies and comment like huh, um This is how this is and The the other characters are kind of judging in this way like kind of neutrally observing that this this is what goes on And luna will be like They shouldn't do that I know um So so it's it's it's really the younger That we can teach young kids that we all have different brains that Learn think and communicate differently You know even typically developing kids in my practice like I They'll say something and I I don't want them to think the way they do something is the default either So i'll say like, you know, they'll they'll make some comment like oh look what I did with this thing and i'll say Oh, isn't that interesting that your brain did this My brain thought about this and there was a kid this morning who thought about this other thing isn't that interesting we all have different brains because That that message like I didn't learn that until I was like 35 years old um And and and and really what what happens a lot When you don't so sometimes it comes up um where the family of a nerdy virgin child will say well, you know like I'm not I'm not gonna tell my kid about their brain.  I'm defective. Um, and so The earlier that you know that that that anyone can learn about, you know, this This is how I'm wired and these are my access needs. This is what I need to participate in my world Um, I'm wondering um, and I can I can I can start with the folks here. Um like How how how is this message playing out in in your lives? What have you seen or thought about um um So you both kind of talked about the standards that we create to classify people as normal or abnormal um, which made me think about some of the tools that we have To screen people and you know identify kids who need more support um, so how do you balance identifying Kids and creating systems which which can put more supports in place for those kids without othering them That's a great question. I mean we are especially when we think about young kids and school for example, um in 2022 you Can't readily receive accommodations for your to achieve your access needs Without having some kind of diagnostic label like that is that yeah, because because really um universal design offering things in flexible multimodal ways like That would be preferable that that is supposed to be the gold standard But we don't have that and so right it is it is absolutely a balance um as far as um screening tools I think that The the screening tools that are out there for example, um, like if I just think about autism for example um, you know screening tools diagnostic criteria, they are based on stereotypes. They're based on um Autistic stress behaviors and so the more dysregulated someone is the more likely They are to receive an autism diagnosis. Um as opposed to recognizing like Modern-day brain science like knows so much more about autistic nervous systems know about monotropic attention systems of fewer things capping even in our interest at a time and doing some more intensely than other brains We know about sensory processing Asynchrony we we know about these things, but they're not even part of the criteria, but the stuff that's in there. They're stress behaviors um and that and and and Sorry, I have the kind of brain that when I hear motorcycles, even though they are nowhere near me They are they may as well be like the you know right in front of me. Anyway, by the way that language I have the kind of brain that x I use that all day long um and at first You know when I first started talking like that before I even knew I was autistic. Um like it it It felt funny to me but Very soon thereafter. I realized that It had no adverse consequences to me Like it was really just Oh, okay Um, and it's just like normalizing these conversations.   In our culture of interdependence. See here is my external working memory Oh Yeah, right, right. Yeah.  Um, anyway, um, I think what I was talking about access needs anybody Oh, oh the stress beat. Oh, oh, yep. Thank you. That was super helpful. Thank you Um culture of interdependence and I would actually about that. Um, I think that for young kids Kids get the narrative that like independence Is so glorified as like the thing that you're striving for um, like like like as though it's bad to rely on other people right like that's Oh, like it just when you think about like the subtle yet profound messages that are sent like that is that's that's That's a big one.  Like I'm a I'm a grown adult I really prefer to sleep with my husband. Like I don't like it's like at what point is it like That that you like get over wanting to sleep side by side with someone, you know, like So just just kind of normalizing that stuff too. Like we we all co-regulate with other humans um, but About the about about diagnostic criteria and stuff like in my practice um, most of the late identified neurodivergent adults, you know autistic gdhd dyspraxic like all the various neurodivergencies people present in chaos and crisis That is often the impetus to first do the like the start the process of coming to understand and learn about your brain So like wouldn't it be better that people could learn about their brains with Outreaching chaos and crisis like that would be I think we'd have Like a way better way more comfortable world Um, but but but but often late identified um, or late diagnosed autistic adults, for example, um present in something called autistic burnout, which is a Profoundly dopamine deficient state with an implosion of executive functioning It's like the consequences of being profoundly dysregulated and losing the ability to mask which is a a significant cognitive load um, that really takes its toll on a nervous system And that's often how how how people Get their autism diagnosis and it's certainly how I got mine There's a question. There's a comment in the chat. I've started using that terminology regularly too I have the kind of brain etc. It's empowering although. I think I'm speaking Klingon to everyone around me even well informed and caring Um, and that just don't get it no matter the explanation. Yeah, I think it's just practice I think it's just yeah, so you know, thanks for thanks thanks for naming that um, but but I I think it is just just practice and um And a lot of it, you know, I I I definitely can say that um, I I have it's a privilege that I live in a world where I I I have all social capital I have autonomy. I did have to quit my job to achieve that. Um, but like that that is Something that when you don't have that it ends up not always being safe to show up as your true self and like just to To name that and honor that like your limbic system decides when it's safe to do something um, but what I what I what I would also say is that um, uh neurodivergent kids Um often um not not always because we you know, it's it's certainly not a homogenous group But but many times those with um, sensitive Neuroception systems so threat detection systems um often kids who don't feel safe in certain situations and name that to their grown-ups Are often invalidated are met with oh, you know, be a big boy. You can go do the thing or what are you talking about? It's fine. Go do the thing. Um, so and then why are we surprised when kids lose The ability to trust their intuition So we have adults that feel unsafe and end up in relationships or situations that are unsafe um, you know Objectively subjectively what are there is it's not safe and don't trust themselves to leave um because got messages that like you know your interpretation of reality is not valid I wonder if anyone in zoom world has any questions. Oh, there is a question Yeah, sure. Go ahead. Um, we have another question Given that most educators would completely agree with the message of mike's book What's to explain the gap between them and students getting what they need in school and other social services? Here's one example of which I am most familiar Half of students read below grade level, but only a small percentage I'm scrolling Sorry about that. Um, only a small percentage receives specialized services and oftentimes these services do not actually lead to learning gains What are the disconnects? And we also have a question. Where's the best place to buy a copy of your book mat? A link is going in the chat Um, it's book, baby Um So school is a is an incredibly complex environment. I worked as a pair educator at berry city elementary for Five years while I was in my master's program, which took me six years, which is twice the normal length Um, but it makes sense because most accommodations that are given involve increased time and um You know I um Teaching is one of the hardest jobs. There is um the convergence of of you know, social pressures and and everything else and and every child Comes from a different experience and then they walk into this environment that is supposed to teach them and um Um, you know that so the question about kids and their their different reading levels you know, um The thing that I saw um Working most effectively and I think all the best science around education Talks about this right now. It's sort of the I won't say sort of it is the hot topic, but that the um The best indicator of um positive outcomes in educational settings is the relationship between the helper And the child being helped whether it's a teacher whether it's a pair educator um Um or any school staff and so you know because through education um, we learn um about You know with the relationship we learn about each other and and in that learning Um, you know, maybe maybe the gaps are uh more exposed But at the same time I also admit if you've got 25 children in your classroom You know, how are you supposed to do that? So, you know, I think this is just part of an ongoing conversation um, and it's interesting to me that the um the science around psychology and education You know, that is the place they agree the the um largest indicator of any positive outcome Is the relationship between the therapist and the client or the um the helper and the child being helped In school. So, you know, I would just go toward doing Everybody doing their best to deepen those relationships. Um, because that's where that's where struggle can be identified And um, and the strength that comes along with it. Um can be seen too I would also say um, because I don't think I could make it through a brain club without saying this um But there's also a lot of brain rules in all systems so like um Uh for those who've not not heard me um talk about that term before um, so like Brain rule a thing that we think is a universal life truth But we really made it up or someone else made it up And then we were like someone who trained us made it up or the someone who trained The person who trained the person who trained us made it up. Anyway, it's still not a world rule like a law of physics or something um, so Sorry, it was the motorcycle thing again.  Yep All right, hang on. Oh, that's great. Then I'll just talk. I don't need my zoom. Great. Um, okay. Um, thank you. Um, so One uh, uh, maybe that's four months ago. I went to one of my patients IEP meetings and um The the the topic came up that you know, so and so is unable to um, you know It's not motivated because they like can't they think they just can't do the work um, and I found myself wondering like what was the work was it being delivered in a way that worked for the kid's brain? Did they understand how are the directions of the assignment given? um Where was that in a way that worked for the kid's brain? Like it's just the the there's the brain rules of like well well kids You should just tell them what to do and they should do the thing as opposed to recognizing that You know, if you have the kind of brain that is taking in so much extra information um, you you It's it can it can be very hard to auditorily process information um sequence the steps retained in working memory and then like anyway and and oh and by the way like something some some other competing stimuli, you know just came into my awareness and and so just As though there was one way to do a thing and that there's anyway these there's a lot of a lot of brain rules um or um, you know, uh, you know So and so should be able to shoot anytime that we hear like so and so should be able to do something that is almost always a brain rule um Because that's again the assumption that there's one right type of brain A cool example from my own life and again, uh, not anybody's fault, but um, I just recently discovered that i'm cross dominant Um, I always knew that I was but I never knew the name for it and it means that I write with my left hand and I um like play tennis, uh, right-handed sports different things like that and um, I can't write with my right hand When I was a kid kindergarten, I remember this is my first encounter with with the world that, you know, didn't understand me and I I wrote with my left hand. So in kindergarten, they gave me left-handed scissors, which I couldn't use to save my life And I remember going to the meeting with my parents With my mother, I think and we sat there and we talked with the teacher and it was a real concern that I couldn't cut a straight line um Nobody nobody thought to give me right-handed scissors, but when I had the scissors, um I don't cut a great straight line But I did way better uh with my right hand than I did with my left And so, you know, again, you know a problem is identified The brain, uh goes to that fight or flight, you know, oh, we've got to figure this out and um You know if I'd gotten the right handed the right hand scissors, um, there wouldn't have been a problem to begin with Any questions from anyone here at the state house? I think mel already answered but just to verbalize it. Um The question is do you see this metaphor applying any differently to adults? I teach college age students and this feels just as relevant to that age group as in childhood It feels like the same message across the lifespan and mel said Oh abs absolutely. Um, I I would say that, you know, like as a as a I teach medical students and when I think about just the The ableism like I you know, this is this is something that no one Talked about in in my training and that like I am super guilty of Of all of the things that were like attributed to lack of motivation self-direction Sloppiness like all the stuff that was is really just about needing supports for executive functioning or um, uh, you know Step steps for motor planning like all these things that are are just really not not talked about um, and in the chat, um Thank you, shana Um, so so so helpful and new to me to think about the fight or flight reaction in the teacher provider caregiver Oh that yes Um, so, you know, it co regulation or co dys regulation is it happens all the all the time You know, it's happening in our in our homes It's happening in the classroom between, you know teacher and student and student and student and like all the ways in which nervous systems interact and And especially if you know when I think about brain rules like brain rules and if if if if um if you want to go back and Find the when did I do that march brain rules world rules?  That's a brain rule, but like It's trying to resolve chaos and it's still a brain rule. What do you want to say? No, no, I was just I was smiling at the um, and I don't remember what I was just saying Well, well to tooth maybe like I don't know how many thoughts happened in between But if you want to say something about applying to older learners like young adult and adult learners I think that's you started talking and then I interrupted. No, I mean, you know, those those stories I've got those stories too. I in um in undergrad I failed I don't know before I failed like three different foreign languages five different times and because it was it was small pieces being added onto um, uh Larger pieces which were the other part of the words and my brain just couldn't do it And I remember latin was my a special my special nemesis and I remember sitting there and and I was You know 20 and my latin professor just looked at me and just was like, why can't you learn this? And because latin Um, I think from a from a normative standpoint is is a learner's dream because it's all on a grid and um, so but my brain just doesn't do that and that was 1993ish So, you know, um, there's still more work to do to um to help people feel comfortable in their efforts um to learn about their world and and I like to think about um lev vagotsky. Um, I can't remember He was alive maybe in the 1800s, but uh, um a russian uh psychologist and he developed a Scaffolding theory on education where where the adults in the in the learning environment Their job was to help children move From what they know to what they're about to know And um, and I think that overall that connection that that scaffold that ladder that assistance Um Is is a a good place. Um And this I think applies to any system where well Every system uh has moments where learning occurs And if we can broaden the notion of what learning looks like Um, maybe it will feel differently for those people who need it most um It also makes me think about how um as a as a parent I've had a had to unlearn like a lot of brain rules about what it means to be a parent also and like what it's gonna look like and I Like I thought I would have A five and a half year old who would like Be going to a school And that's not what's happening because that is not what her limbic system Has decided is safe for her right now And oops, hold on Laura got bumped back on um, and so like Matt what you said about like Like recognizing all of the places in which learning takes place is really Really important Um, oh Um, it looks like I'm I've I'm frozen, but am I like I don't expect it um, so My five year old I thought that I would have Um, you know, I'd be the parent of a kindergartner who attended kindergarten in a in a school But that's not the child that I have the child I have um Needs autonomy at all times and when You tell her what to do She has a limbic response. It's automatic. It's involuntary It it just is um, and so What she needs is different and so earlier um pre pre tech situation matt made the comment about um How learning can take place in all different settings and like is happening in every day to day life um, and like that's That's What unschooling is for us, um Like today we um, we we we went out. We had a snack. We had um, we had we were we were discussing like We were doing like content analysis of disney movies and like talking about keys to the universe and then like We ended up having this like really interesting historical conversation about Marsha p Johnson and like all of this stuff that like I never thought I would teach my Five-year-old even like it was it was way cooler than anything. I think she would have learned at a school so anyway brain rules and get all Comes down to like deciding which ones are helpful And replacing the ones that are not Anyway, thank you matt. Thank you so much um, and and um when I send out the recording I'll also send a link out to your book because I think that you know we Speaking of brain rules like people don't like to have their brain rules challenged So when you share a a disarming metaphor about something so Like irrefutable like it it I think really makes a The point I don't know if if in zoomland, um, if you could hear matt's comment Did you hear did you hear the comment about the tomatoes matt said that some people tell him that he grows That they grow their tomatoes without cages And I'm not a gardener so I don't even know that is that like a sacrilege to do. Yeah, I don't know either anyway I grow I like I I just kill all my vegetables because I don't take care of their environments. Anyway, thank you all so much for coming and um next week at brain club Neuro diversity and employment Um, we are going to have a variety of panelists next week Because because on past brain clubs, we've had a lot of Neurodivergent folks talking about their experiences with employment. What's work? What's not work? We're going to hear from employers next week of Of what the process of um learning about neurodiversity and access has has has been for them. So Uh, thank you all and I hope to see you next week


Hi everyone, in this tutorial I'm gonna be showing you how to filter out negative numbers from a list in Python language. Suppose that we have a list with these five elements. What we wanna do is to filter out all negative numbers so that we can get a new filtered list with all numbers that are not negative. So let's see how we can do that. First I'm gonna create a list that is gonna contain these five elements. Three of them are gonna be negative numbers and then I want a list. All non-negative elements from this list. So I'm gonna use the filter function and I wanna keep all elements that are not negative. That means they're gonna be positive or equal to zero.  So I'm gonna say lambda x where x is not negative number and then we're gonna save this list to a new list. Let's call it filtered list. Now what we want to do is to print this filtered list. So I'm gonna type the filtered list is and I'm gonna provide all elements from our filtered list and press enter. As you can see with this code we filtered out negative numbers from this list. That's all in this tutorial. Don't forget to subscribe to our channel. See you in the next tutorial. Happy coding!


Would you hand me that, please? Thank you. Now, let's see. Survey, survive, Susanna, suspect. Ah, here we are. Suspense, meaning held in doubt, expressing doubt, the state of being uncertain, undecided, or insecure, state of anxious expectation, or waiting for information, such as to keep one in suspense, therefore delay acquainting him with what he is eager to know. Suspense, an hour of suspense now, a full 60 minutes at this time, and with the distinguished actor-director, Robert Montgomery, as your host. Tonight, our star is Howard Duff, famous wherever radio is heard as Sam Spade Detective, and as Spade, he will appear in The Candy Tooth, a suspense play produced, edited, and directed by William Spear. This is Robert Montgomery. My pleasure and privilege it is to be here during this hour each week as a sort of guide, philosopher, and fiend, an accessory before and after the facts of crime and punishment, which calculatedly fill our minutes with suspense. This evening, before we chat a little about the private life of America's favorite, Private Eye, let me, on behalf of Mr. Spear and all of us, thank you sincerely for your wonderful letters and telegrams expressing appreciation and interest in this new full-hour presentation. It's wonderful fun to have 60 minutes to play with in radio drama. In our new double-strength, king-size format, we plan to bring you radio plays based on complete novels and on theatrical productions and pictures. Many of the best writers of this literature, James M. Kane, Dashel Hammett, Raymond Chandler, Graham Greene, Eric Ambler, and Agatha Christie, have been happiest with a more spacious canvas upon which to display their characters of passion and purpose. With a full hour for our theater of thrills, we can give these authors a full stage on which to have their people play out their lusts and desires, their temptations and frustrations, their frantic fears and villainous triumphs, their descent into black and terror-laden bewilderment. Sometimes we find ourselves locked in the tortured brain of the scheming criminal. At other times, we know the dread of the hunted and hapless victim. But always the basic ingredient of suspense is not mechanical gadgetry, not the detectable piecing out of fingerprints and convenient clues, but always the basic ingredient is people. For people give us emotion, and emotion marks the high drama that cold logic can never achieve. Nowhere will you find stranger people, motives, and situations than those that pass through the door of a little office in San Francisco's Post Street. The lettering on the door reads, Samuel Spade, Private Investigations. Once it read Spade and Archer, but that was before Miles Archer stopped a bullet and plunged Sam Spade into the greatest detective adventure of modern times, the search for the Maltese Falcon. It was literally a shot heard round the world, for it brought into prominence the name of Dashiell Hammett and the so-called Hardboil School of Crime Detection. Since then, the fictional Private Eye has become a national institution, but Sam Spade still rules the roost. In book sales, in motion pictures, Maltese Falcon has been filmed four times now. And now on the air, every Sunday night, in the adventures of Sam Spade, starring Howard Duff and produced by our very own Bill Speer. It's a great pleasure for me to introduce to our suspense audience now, a young star from my home lot, Universal International, in the role with which he has become so closely identified that most of his fan mail is addressed to Sam Spade. Howard Duff. Thanks, Bob. I'd like to go on record right now saying that any checks I may sign with the name Sam Spade will be accepted at your own risk. The detective business has been pretty good lately, I hear. How much did Sam make during 1947? Uh, if he would know. But no matter how much it was, it won't change Sam. He's, you know, he'll still do business at the same old stand in a rickety office building on Post Street where the elevator seldom ever works and the janitor never ever works. As a matter of fact, I got into my Philip Marlowe pants this morning and did little Spade work on Spade myself. Don't stop me if I'm wrong, but here are some of the facts, FAX facts, the way I dug them up. Age, nobody talked. History, mysterious, but was probably a Pinkerton man to start with. Height, six feet in a small chunk. Weight, enough muscle to go with his height. Hair, dimmed out blonde. Eyes, yellow gray, unmarried. Lives alone in a small furnished apartment within walking distance of his office. Is economical to the point of, well, never takes a cab where street cars can get and has been known to walk where they can't get. Secretary Effie Perine, the only person who really knows what makes Sam tick when he wants her to. Otherwise, he's a lonely man who trusts no one, lives alone and loves alone and expects others to like it. Have I left anything out? Well, nothing you left out, Bob, something you've put in. It's not true that I don't trust anybody. I trust everybody. All my clients are honest until I've proven otherwise. Maybe that's what's kept you from the private eye business all these years. That and the strong hatred that I have. Hatred? Yeah, for time clocks and the hours between nine and five. That's why I went out of business for myself and that's what keeps me there. Then you regard it as a business, Sam, and not as an adventure. Well, when you break an arm in an adventure, the cost of setting it is not tax deductible. In a business, it is. Yes, I see. How many cases have you had? And do you think all private dicks are clever? Well, I've had so many cases, I can't remember them all. About being clever, I once knew an operative who, looking for pickpockets at San Anita Raystrak had his wallet stolen. He later became a lieutenant of detectives in Glendale. Sam, tell me, what was the most surprising thing that ever happened to you? The most surprising thing that ever happened to me was in 1936 in Washington, D.C. I met a young lady on a bus who did not remark that my work must be very interesting. Well, that's very interesting. Thanks a lot. But I guess my most exciting caper since the Maltese Falcon was the hugger mugger over the candy tooth. Usually when I wind a caper, I call Effie just to let her know I'm okay before I hustle down to the office to dictate my report to the client. But this time, it was 4.30 in the morning before I could get to a phone. The reason was that I was in jail. Wake up, Angel. You're home in bed, not at the office. Huh? Hey. What time is it? 4.30 in the morning. Are you up already? Effie, pull yourself together. Get dressed. Hustle down to the city jail. Oh, same. Well, that's what I got to get on the record. Now, while I'm still alive to do it, grab a taxi and hustle on down. Bring a book, pencils, the encyclopedia that has the letter K in it and any old $20,000 you got laying around. Same work. My apartment's being redecorated. Bring your book. Well, of course I did. And pencils, too.  Whatever could have happened to you. Take it down, Effie. But, Sam, what did you do? The San Francisco Homicide Bureau. Attention, Detective Lieutenant Dundee. Date, fill it in. I will. Drum Samuel Spade, license number 137596. Subject, the Candy Toothcaper. Dear Dundee, I don't know all the answers, not yet. What I do know is going down on paper while I'm still alive to get it there. Oh, same. The scenario runs something like this. This morning, a telegram came to my office. It was addressed to Samuel Spade Esquire. And it was signed Casper Gutman. Gutman, the fat man. Far as I knew, Dundee, when you closed your books on the Maltese Falcon Capers seven years ago, Gutman was entered as dead. First, I fought the telegram with somebody's idea of a joke. And when I read it through the second time, I knew it was no joke. There's nobody else who thinks or talks or writes like Casper Gutman. My dear Mr. Spade, you will no doubt receive with mixed emotions the news of my imminent reappearance in the city of the Golden Gate. Hence, the companion dispatch of a telegraphic draft and the amount of $1,000, which you are free to convert into coin at the realm. This trifling sum, sir, is merely a token of my esteem for a man of many resources and nice judgments. And for it, I do not require any specific service. However, if you feel so disposed, sir, you are free to accept my considered advice in the matter of an invidious pair of rogues. To wit, one Lawrence Laverne, DDS, and or Hope Laverne, whose charms and aliases are far too myriad to enumerate in this necessarily abbreviated communication. Should either or both of these persons approach you, beware the hidden truth. Believe me, sir, they are untruthful and reliable and totally devoid of all moral sensibilities. I count upon you to make no commitments to them or anyone else until you've heard my proposition. This I hope to lay before you when I arrive in San Francisco this very evening. Dear Joel, since regards, I remain your a billion-servant Casper Gutman. Casper Gutman. I know, Dundee, you figured I didn't get hurt much the last time I tangled with Gutman over the Maltese Falcon, but that's because you didn't know Bridgette O'Shaughnessy as well as I did, as well or as warmly. Well, I figured if Gutman was still in the land of the living, let him come. This time, I wasn't gonna get hurt in any way. There couldn't be two Bridgetts. Nevertheless, I ate a can of spinach, which I found on Effie's desk, then I sat down again facing the door. Nothing much happened for almost 10 minutes. I was still trying to dig the meaning out of Gutman's double-talk and I'd gotten about as far as his warning about a hidden tooth when Effie ushered a man into my office. Mr. Spade. Well, I must say that you are indeed a pleasant surprise, but pleasant. You said it. What can I do for you? My name is Laverne. Larry Lawrence Laverne. How do you do? I shall spare you the tasks and details and plunge right into the problem. Oh, dear. At the Hotel Royal George, there is a mildewed creed doing, but mildewed, registered as Mr. Herman Julius. Oh, a really frightful person. Very frightful, huh?  The only thing about this creature that has any charm is a foretoot lower bridge in his right jaw. Now, Mr. Spade, I want you to get that bridge for me. I'm sorry, it sounds as though you're saying I want you to get that bridge for me. Precisely. Why? Because he refuses to pay me for it.  I prefer to regard myself as a dentist sculpturer. I created this bridge for Mr. Julius with infinite pains, and now, now he refuses to pay me. I ask payment and he accuses me of acting without charm. Mr. Julius wouldn't happen to be a very large, fat man. Oh, contraire, skin and bones. Well, Mr. Spade? I'm afraid you come to the wrong man, Mr. Laverne, which you want as a lawyer to sue him. Sue him? Months of legal wrangling? Oh, no, oh, no, no, no, no. I intend to be vindictive about this. I am by nature a very gracious and charming person, but now, now let him beware. I shall have that bridge from Herman Julius, even if you must knock him down and wrench it from his jaw. You tried knocking him down yourself? Oh, I, I could never even bring myself to perform extractions. I always send those patients to less sensitive dentists. Yeah, well, I'm afraid you'll have to find yourself a less sensitive private detective. Oh, oh, dear. Well, Mr. Spade, what would you advise me to do? I, I... Mr. Laverne, I would advise you to get out of California before Walt Disney sees you. Well, well, good day, sir. I would like very much to have you in my care some day. I might teach you some manners. Well, the hidden truth. Please sit down, Mr.... Thank you. Laverne, hope Laverne. Mr. Laverne? Yes. What can I do for you? Well, I'm, uh, I'm looking for my brother. Missing? Well, yes, yes, and no. I mean, he's been gone since yesterday, and I'm terribly afraid he'll get into trouble. Oh, what kind of trouble? Well, you see, it, it, but it just isn't easy for me to talk about this, Mr. Spade.  Yes, thank you. Yes, it's easier like this. I thought you'd like... My brother's name is Lawrence. He's a man of 52. He's, uh, he's not well.  He suffered a nervous breakdown some years ago, and he spent most of his life in sanitariums. Where are you from, Miss Laverne? Kansas City. During the past year, Larry was in a rest home in Palo Alto, and I arrived two days ago to take him home. Yesterday morning, he... Well, I don't know how it happened, but he's gone. These, uh, spells you mentioned, what do they like? Oh, well, he assumes different personalities. His favorite seems to be that of a dentist. He becomes obsessed with the thought that he's done some work, a bridge or something, or someone who refuses to pay him. He'll walk up to a perfect stranger and create a scene. He's been arrested a few times, nothing serious, public nuisance. Mr. Spade, I'm afraid that he'll be... He'll be put away if he's arrested once more. I say, and you want me to look for him. Then he hasn't been here. Why'd you think he'd come here? Oh, that, that's another one of his tactics. He goes to a private detective, hires him to either follow a man or get back the work he thinks he's done. Dental work, you know. But what made you think he'd come to me? Oh, not you, particularly. Since yesterday, I've tried almost every private detective in San Francisco. No one has seen him. Who'd you talk to? I beg your pardon? These are private detectives. Who'd you see? Oh. Well, um, um, there was a man named Graham and, uh, one named Marlowe, Philip Marlowe. Excuse me.  No. That's Spade, Phil. Hiya, Sam. Phil, uh, you got a rumble on a missing brother named, uh, Larry Laverne? Yeah, yeah. Cal was in early this morning. Brother, some kind of a screwball. You meet him? No, no, hasn't been around yet. Ah, thanks, Phil. See you. Why did you do that, Mr. Spade? It's doing things like that that have kept me alive and in business all these years. That was Marlowe. Your brother hasn't been to him. I told you that. But your brother has been here. When? A few minutes before you came in. Can't see how you missed him. What did he tell you, Mr. Spade? Pretty much as you outlined it. About the dental work and some man owing him money. Yeah, some man named Julius, uh, Herman Julius, he said. You know him? I never heard of him. He's probably just another figment of Larry's imagination. Mr. Spade, I'm terribly worried about Larry. I got that impression. Will you try to find him for me? Can you give me any idea where I might start looking? Well, I, I, I think I know how Larry's mind works when he's in the midst of one of these spells. And if you find this Mr. Julius, you'll probably find Larry close by. So you want me to find Mr. Julius first? Oh, well, I only thought it would be simpler checking on this Mr. Julius movements than on Larry's unpredictable whims, you see. I, don't you think that makes good sense, Mr. Spade? Miss Laverne told me she was staying at the Pickwick Arms. And I said I would call her if I found her brother. And she said, thank you, thank you very much. And I said it's nothing, just part of the day's routine. And then she kissed me and left. After lunch, I strolled over to the Royal George Hotel. Duke, the housekeeper, gave me a rundown on Mr. Julius, a quiet, nervous little man who'd sealed himself up in his room for two days, eating out a room service. I didn't have any trouble finding the hacky who had driven him away when he checked out. He gave me the address.  I twisted the rusty bell in the door and a long, sharp nose that could only belong to a landlady stabbed out at me. What do you want? I'm looking for a man named Herman Julius. Don't have no Julius here. Well, maybe he gave some other name, a little skinny guy with a foreign accent. You, the Lord. Take me to his room. No, wait a minute, no, no. Well, step it, Dad. He's home. I've never seen him go out. He came for one door. Watch that step, second from the top. This is busted. Don't want no lawsuit. It's the third. Said he was a refuge. The Nazis were there for him. Ugh, another fight. There's been a tangle with the Lord. I've got a rule of sneaking electric plates, they do. Run up the bills, buzzards, there's his room. Then the dope cook in the room to drink. Get DT's, some of them. I'll go on any. I didn't see who it was right away. His face was the color and consistency of crushed strawberries. I helped him up and over to the wash basin in the corner of the room. With his face washed, he looked a little better, but he still looked like Larry Laverne. Oh, oh, am I ever glad to see you. I thought it was them coming back to kill me. Did you find Julius? No, no, got away with the wretch down the fire escape as I came in.  To tell the honest truth, Mr. Spade, I never even got a good look at him. He was all over me before I even had him. Oh, it's Julius. What's in his bridge work? I'll tell you everything, everything. But please, first, let's get out of this ordered room. Oh, it smells like cabbie. Larry Laverne was tougher than he looked. After the going over he'd gotten, you or I would have been hospital bound, Dundee. But he did a late take. We were on the way back to his hotel walking toward market when he crumpled in the middle like a sack of flour. I grabbed him and held him upright, looked wirely around for somewhere to park him.  I bought two tickets and piloted him inside. We sat down. I undid his clutch in my arm and concentrated on the screen, the subject that followed the football game was some big Oriental celebration somewhere in India or someplace, a very fancy parade with white elephants. Candy, Ceylon, the famed white elephants of the Orient get their annual airing as crowds of devout Buddhists gather to do homage to some of the strangest relics in the modern world. Here in Candy, the mecca of the Buddhist religion, pilgrims gather from near and far. Indian Rajas, Burmese officials, and Chinese dignitaries in ceremonial dress cross straight themselves before the Jewer casket containing the most sacred object of the Buddhist world, legendary relic of Buddha himself. As the Orient goes wild in turbulent celebration, temple dancers of Candy perform for the ground heads of the Orient. Take me out of here. I can't stand it. I'll go mad.  I think it's easier unknowing the customers. You brought me in here on purpose. You're trying to drive me crazy, but crazy. Listen to me. Two men holding up the sacred relics are high priests. If that man says that one word, Candy, just once more, I won't be responsible. I tell you, I won't be responsible. All right, glad you're here. Take me out of here.  Oh, you got me doing it. Come on. Let's get out of here. An impressive ceremony indeed. Just one night's sleep and I'll be a new man. I haven't even dared to take 40 winks since I arrived in this town for fear those monsters might murder me in my bed. Yeah, yeah, I know. It's tough. Sit down. So this is your apartment? That's what I laughingly call it, living room, bedroom, ice box. Here, have a drink. Me, too. Oh, thanks. Oh. Oh, did I ever need that? Got yourself to the bottle. I don't touch alcohol as a rule, but after what I've been through. Well, now, drink all you like. You deserve it. Oh, thank you. When I hardly know where to begin, it's also strange. And there I was in Lisbon, Mr. Spade, the only English-speaking dentist worthy of the name of the entire diplomatic colony. Well, you must have read in the papers about Dom Constantino's tomb being violated. It was the scandal of the season. Oh, it's all so horrible, Mr. Spade. I just can't talk about it. Hey, hey, hey, try to keep it. I mean more of this, settles the nerves. Oh, I just don't know how I can ever thank you. Ever since I hit this burg, I've been feeling like the forgotten, pardon, man. Yeah, you were saying something about a tomb being broken into. In Portugal, this was? Yes. Well, you know, the draft board just took one look at me. I know what you mean. So I just stayed on in Lisbon. Well, you know how people gossip, having patience of all nationalities and all that. Yeah, yeah, I get it.  Oh, wait a minute. Don't get the idea I was a spy. Well, no, but sometimes people had things that could be hidden in a hollowed tooth and like that bridgework, you know? I think I told you I'm not so much a dentist as a dental artist.  Gutman? Yes, yes, Mr. G and that Joe Cairo person that was with him.  They wanted to put it in Mr. Julius' bridge. Made me a thousand pounds, can you imagine? Then when I learned what they had done, well, it made me positively ill. This practically sacred old tomb in the cathedral, they'd broken in and literally torn out a piece of his jawbone. Whose? Why, Dom Constantino's. And who's Dom Constantino? The Portuguese viceroy. It didn't hurt him any. He's been dead 500 years at least every day. Oh, dear. I'm as tight as a tick. This liquor is getting to me. And it was. I thought he'd open up some more, but I overplayed the bourbon. Half a bottle later, he passed out. I flopped on the sofa and tried to get some sleep for myself. My dreams kept getting in the way. I had newsreel dreams in technicolor. I dreamed that a white elephant with a face like Casper Gutman was leading a parade down Market Street. The how-da that was strapped to his back looked like a dentist's chair. Herman Julius was sitting in it, but this face seemed to be blanked out. Joel Cairo, wearing a surgeon's gown and a turban, was drilling Julius' tooth. The crowds were throwing diamonds and rubies when the peanut bags they were carrying, and Gutman vacuumed them up with his trunk. That was when the bells started ringing in the Buddhist temple that had been built on top of the Mark Hopkins. Mr. Spade, I need your help. Who's this? Hope Laverne, please, Mr. Spade, I'm terrified. Where are you? I'm in a drugstore at 5th and Mission. You're the busty fool? Yes, please, come at once, Mr. Spade. Can't you come here? I can't. I don't dare go into the streets. All right, wait there. I'm on my way. I took a quick gander at Laverne, saw he was still out cold, slipped into my topcoat, and left the apartment. I figured it would take me 11 minutes to hustle over to 5th and Mission. I never got any further than 50 yards from the front of my building. I sensed him behind me, wheeled suddenly, bumped him into a doorway, held the thumbs of his hands, gripped tightly in my fist, and stand still or I'll tear him off. Let go.  Don't move, and it won't hurt.  The boy twisted suddenly and violently, and I heard the crack of his left thumb breaking. He swallowed a scream, dashed on him to the deserted street.  I don't know how long I was out, but I do know I came to at least three hours too soon. I needed much more rest. I opened my eyes, steadied a swaying ceiling, and then I heard his voice. Well, sir. This is indeed a jolly reunion. Be, but it was. Casper Gutman, the fat man of the Maltese falcon caper. Looking at the unholy trio there in the room, Joel Cairo, the little leventine, still as oily and smiling as ever and still fragrant. Marvin, a sullen, white-faced, hollow-eyed youth as near Wilmer's double as anyone will ever see.  You'd have thought nothing had happened since then, not even the war. The grayness at Cairo's temples only made his baby face look more babyish. And about Gutman, nothing was different except his watch chain. The curious, jewel-encrusted ornament dangled from it, shaped like a claw. You seem surprised to see me, sir. And no wonder.  Ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha. A lot of water has gone under the bridge since last we met, eh? Under the bridge? Yes, which brings us to the subject at hand, the bridge. My headaches. What about the bridge? First, we'll talk a bit. After all, this is quite an occasion, sir. Reunion of old friends, eh, Mr. Spade? Yeah. Tell me, has you ever find the falcon if you'll excuse the expression? Oh.  Yes, that trinket on his watch chain, all the remains of the Maltese falcon. Well, Mark, you, sir, what part of it survived, the claw. You believe in omen? Right now, I'm ready to believe almost anything. Indeed, sir. Well, no need for dissembling. We're old and wiser, I trust, than in the days of the falcon. Suffice it to say, the unsavory and bloated object which the police dredged up from San Francisco Bay and identified as myself was some other poor soul. Wilma, I am happy to say remembered the debt of gratitude he owed me, and at the last moment agreed to be a part of the very necessary little deception. That is, since they had him cold, as you detected, say for the other killings, he might as well confess to murdering me. He did so in exchange for my agreement to take care of his family in a financial way. An investment, by the way, which has paid rich dividend. How's that? Oh, indeed. Well, thanks to it, I now have Marvin, Wilma's younger brother. I thought I noticed a family resemblance.  Oh, yes, yes, poor Wilma. He was like a son to me, like a son. It didn't stop me from making him a patsy.  I cautioned Wilma time and again. He was so headstrong. Oh, my boy. You'd better caution this punk, or he won't last to take any raps for you. Ah, Marvin, Marvin. Dirty shammers lays not a hand on me. I'll kill him. No, no, no, Marvin, Marvin. You take Marvin into the other room. Explain to him that Mr. Spade and I are very old friends. Casper knows best, Marvin. Come with me. And now, no nonsense you two now. Well, somehow I'll kill him. I'll kill him. Casper would be happy. Hot headed, runs in that family. Yeah. Well, let's have it, Guttland. What are you after this time? Oh, my dear boy, you must judge me. It's true I had Marvin check up on you, but only because of your association with Miss Laverne. Oh, no matter now. I'm weary of the chase. All the way from Candy, I... Ahem. What did the girl tell you? She asked me to find her brother at Dennis named Laverne. You believed her story? No. Most unscrupulous woman. No veracity, no regard for truth whatsoever. A true motive? Merely to make trouble for me and my friends because of her association with Kimidoff. Ah, the Russian's hand again, Mr. Spade. Kimidoff? Did I ever meet Kimidoff? You'd hardly forget if you had. In short, here is my proposition. Another $1,000 coin to the realm, sir, for which you will refund whatever money Miss Laverne gave you and send her packing. The bidding starts at $10,000. Ooh, ooh, ooh. You drive a hard bargain, Mr. Spade. Very well. I'll meet your turn. I told you the bidding starts there. And where does it stop? Half or whatever the caper nets you. I deliver Julius. You do the rest. Between you and me, Mr. Spade, I'm not as air fluent as I once was. The Falcon pretty well wiped me out financially. Considering the time and money I've already invested in trying to track down the weasel of Julius. What's in Julius's bridge work? And if I don't choose to tell you? Then it's no dice. Think it over, Gutman. Either I'm in all the way for half or I deliver Julius to the other outfit. And that is your final dictum, sir? Take it or leave it. Either you're in or you're out. Good night, Mr. Spade. I trust you will call me on the telephone when you reach your dickens and tell me that you've changed your mind. No hard feelings. The fog was clearing and only a few white wisps of it were clinging to twin pigs when I walked home that morning. It was too late to worry about hope. Or did chief phone for Gutman to decoy me out so that I started walking faster? As I climbed the stairs to my apartment, I heard a door open on the landing and the slot of light that stabbed out from it showed me it was my door. The light came from behind, whoever had opened it, and I couldn't see who it was at first, only that it was not Larry Laverne. I took the last flight four steps at a time. Dundee, what's happened? You may not see for yourself. When I saw for myself, I wish somebody else had seen for me. Hysterical Larry was lying on his back in my bedroom floor. His eyes were wide open and he had a crooked grin on his face, a very crooked grin. Whoever had killed him had wrenched his jaw out of place. I'm not saying you killed him, Sam. I'm only asking you who did.  Why was he killed? No statement. What was he doing here? Who is he? The name he gave was Laverne. I let him flop here because he was afraid to go home. Afraid of who? A man named Casper Gutman. What? Yeah, Gutman. Quite stalling, Sam. Gutman's dead and you know it. You bury him, Dundee? Well, I believe you mean it. For Gutman's concern, it doesn't pay to kid around. What's the afterno? The bridge work out of a man's mouth. The man's name is Julius. What's in this Julius bridge work? Maltese falcon? Something like that. I'm sorry, Sam. It's not good enough. I'll have to take you in. So you took me and you booked me. Vail was set at $20,000. You saw to that. You figured there's only one operator who'd put up that kind of money to spring me and that's Casper Gutman. I hope you're right. Period. And the first part, at least, of sob story. But, Sam, what is in Herman Julius' bridge work? Laverne told me it was the tooth Gutman stole out of a skeleton in an old Portuguese catacomb. What's so valuable about that? I don't know. Could be a jewel inside of it? It's not Gutman's kind of game. Besides the thing that made poor Laverne blow his top in that newsreel theater was something more like an elephant tusk. Where's that encyclopedia? Did you bring it? Oh, yes, I did, Sam. Yes, I did. What's nice, Mark? Look it up. Look what up. Candy with a K. Oh. K, car, can. Oh, here it is. Candy. K, not funny. City, capital of central province of Ceylon, located near the center of the island north. Spare me the geography. Well, the railroad from Colombo. And noted for its waterfalls and stuff and stuff and stuff. The city surrounds an artificial lake and is sacred to Buddhists for a temple of Maligawa, which enshrines the tooth of Buddha brought according to legend. What? Let me see that. Grail? Let me see. It's sacred to the Buddhist for its temple of Maligawa, which enshrines it. Effie. What's the matter, Sam? The tooth of the Buddha. Sam, you don't think that's what's in Herman Julius' bridge work? If it was, Gutman would be after him. But how did he get to Portugal? If it did, Gutman's a man that could track it down. Sam, you sure there? No, Angel. No. The only thing I am sure of is this. When the Maltese falcon laid an egg, it hatched a flock of vultures. And they're all circling right around my head. Well, cheer up, Sam. You won't be in jail long. I'll bring you a cake with a file in it. Angel. No, devil food. In tonight's full hour of suspense, Howard Duff, our star, appears as Sam Spade, with Joseph Kearns as Casper Gutman, in William Spears' production of The Candy Tooth. Tonight's study in suspense. In just a moment, we will return with the second half of The Candy Tooth. This is CBS, the Columbia Broadcasting System. And now, back to our Hollywood soundstage and Robert Montgomery. At the point at which we interrupted Sam Spade's narrative, just now, things were at a pretty pass. A pretty pass, indeed. A pretty pass. Sam wound up with the body of the dentist, Larry Laverne, in his apartment. The girl, Hope, waiting for him in the bus station. Casper Gutman, the fat man, waiting for him to answer, and waiting for an answer to his ultimatum that Spade produced the tooth, or else. Me and City Prison under $20,000 bail and the fabulous Candy Tooth, still chomping on two-bit hamburgers and the bridgework of a very elusive man named Herman Julius. Yes, and? Well, after I dictated my report to Effie on what had happened until then, she left and I laid down to think. Lieutenant Dundee and I had agreed that I should spend the night in the pokey. He figured that the 20G bail would draw only one man to put up that much mule out of Springmeat, Casper Gutman. Along about nine in the AM, the turnkey unlocked the door of myself. I followed him out to the desk. The $20,000 bucks were there, but no sign of benefactor, benefactress, or Samaritan of any type. The bond was in my name. I signed my release and walked out. Across the street was parked a long black limousine with a curtains drawer. I started for it when a force at my elbow checked me. Your sin, your spade. See? I'm Dom Constantino de Braganza, his eye who have put up the $20,000. Is that so? Well, thank you. Now, why? I desire a service, my cards in her. Dom Constantino, wait a minute. She'll seem to know the name. Yeah, yeah. For a guy who's been dead 500 years, you don't look too bad. Thank you very much. You're referring, of course, to my illustrious ancestor, Dom Constantino, the first Portuguese vice-drive Indian who indeed had been dead since the 16th century. Is on his behalf, I speak to you now. What can I do for him? Restore the tooth, which was wrenched from his skull by a pack of unspeakable ghouls who violated his tomb in Lisboa. You think they're in San Francisco? Let us not be naïves in here.  Therefore, you must know the whereabouts of the other ghouls. I know so many ghouls, senor. You'll have to be more specific.  You want them or the tooth? Both, not one without the other. Then it'll take a little time. They haven't got the tooth. You know who it is? In the bridge work of a man named Julius. That then explains the dentist and the diabolical manner which they employed in smuggling the tooth out of Lisboa.  Senor, I respect your judgment. Thank you. You will find me at the Hotel San Rafael, and for your retainer, you may consider the $20,000 bond as yours. Wow. Adios, senor. Adios. Be careful crossing streets. Adios. Adios. Adios. Adios. Now I'm Constantino. Adios. Yeah, adios. Adios. Adios, senor. You, uh, got a hack license, Miss Laverne? Oh, please don't, Sam. I know this car is ridiculous, but I don't dare use taxis or be seen on the street. What did that man tell you? What happened last night when you called me from the bus station in such a panic? Why didn't you call? I went to see the fat man. You saw Guttman? Did he mention me? He didn't make that call last night to get me out of the apartment so that somebody could get in and kill Laverne. Oh, Sam. Then why did you call? Because I found Herman Julius, and I'm driving you there now. We didn't do any talking after that. She sat very close to me. There was plenty to talk about, but we didn't do any talking after that. I was vaguely aware that we were driving across the Oakland. And a few minutes later we pulled up in front of an apartment building. We took the elevator up to the ninth floor. This is it, Sam. 9B. No, he's in there, Sam. I know he is. Knock, knock, knock. Mr. Julius. Julius. Go away. There's no Julius here. That's his voice. Mr. Julius, I've got to talk to you. It's very important. If you don't open the door, I'll have to. I've killed myself. I've killed myself. He will, Sam. He will. You've got to stop him. It was the ninth floor he started from.  By the time we made it downstairs, the street was cluttered with cops. I grabbed hope by the arm, hustled her around the corner to a rented limousine, and told her I'd call her later. My next stop was the fat man himself. Reconsidered. You found Julius. I know where he is. And your term, sir. What are your terms? 100,000 cash on the line. Out of the question, Mr. Spade. No cash, no tooth. You've found another buyer? Yeah. A man named Konstantina de Burganzis says the tooth belongs in the head of his ancestor by a previous marriage. A quenconcy, sir, very true. And what else did he say to you? That he'd double any bid that you made on the tooth. My dear fellow, have you any inkling and any remote idea of the value of that tooth? No, well, I'll tell you, sir. But let me warn you.  Yeah, yeah, let's get on with it, Godwin. Yes. Let's sit down, sir. How much do you know the 16th century history of the orange? Well, enough to fill that tooth, will it? Capital joke, sir. I shall give you a little more, and now say to fill an elephant tusk. I'm listening. Well, sir, when the Portuguese invaded India in the 16th century and established the city of Goa, there were three main empires in the audience, namely China, India, and Burma. And the rulers of all three empires sought to rule the world. No, legend had it that in order to become lord of the world, a monarch had first to be the possessor of seven gems. That's gems spelled with a J, sir. Yes, gems. This is no fantasy, I'm telling you, Mr. Spade. This is actual history, seven gems. And what were those seven gems? You tell me. The first six do not concern us, Mr. Spade. A golden wheel of white elephant all easy to come by for an oriental monarch. But the seven, ah, Mr. Spade, the seven. Oh, is that a tooth? The tooth, Mr. Spade, the tooth. The sacred tooth of the great lord Buddha himself. That remained in the temple of Maligawa at Canday on the island of Silang. Now, many kings sent armies to capture it, but all were defeated by the fierce Brahmins who stood guard at the temple gates. And so we come to the year 1552. It's about time. Now, in that year, the Portuguese viceroy, Dom Constantino de Braganza, landed near Jaffna with a force of 1,220 men and defeated the king's legions in a savage battle. He returned to Goa with his victorious army and the tooth, which he retained as his personal pride. It was not long before the Burmese king, by now, by name, sent an emissary to Dom Constantino, offering the modern equivalent of a million pound sterling as ransom for the tooth. I'd get the Portugal. Hear me out, sir. Hear me out. Hear me out. All right. Well, before the transaction could be consummated, the Portuguese archbishop, called on Dom Constantino and in the name of the inquisition, demanded the tooth. After some delay, Dom Constantino, under threat of torture, delivered a tooth into the archbishop's hand, and that tooth was publicly destroyed. The archbishop grinding it into powder with morphine pestle and scattering the residue open of fire that the tooth might be utterly consumed. Shortly after this, Dom Constantino's personal physician, after drawing a tooth, now mind you, a tooth, from the viceroy's head, died under very mysterious circumstances. We may safely infer that the substitute tooth, which he drove into the viceroy's jawbone after the primitive fashions of dentistry in those days, was the candy tooth, put there for safekeeping until Dom Constantino could resume negotiations with by now emissary. Yeah. But, but, but, before that could be accomplished, Dom Constantino was stricken with the plague, carried aboard ship, and home to Portugal, where he died. He was entombed with the candy tooth still in his head. Now, the manuscript which fell into the possession of the Russian Kemidoff, and later into mine, but I shall not go into unnecessary detail, Of course not. was Dom Constantino's deathbed confession, proving beyond the shadow of a doubt that the real candy tooth had reposed for more than four centuries, not in the great temple at Candy in Salon, but in a Portuguese tooth. Yeah, well, I think I can take it from there. You still haven't told me what my percentage is. Well, my dear boy, if your percentage were one tenth of one percent of what Candy realized on that tooth, you could retire to a life of sloth and luxury for the rest of your days. For the restoration of the true relic, there is no limit to what the Buddhist world could and would pay. Gifts and tribute paid to one temple alone exceed 11 million dollars a year. Now my boy, you begin to comprehend something of its value. I'll still settle the cash. Very well then. Ten thousand dollars. It's a deal. If you understand, Mr. Spade, now that you have my secret, the affair must be gotten over quickly for good and all. If it is not, believe me, this time I shall not bargain with you for my life. You shall bargain with me for yours. After I left Gutton when I called you, Dundee, and found out by a clever ruse where Herman Julius' body had been sent, you told me. Then I hustled on over to the mortuary. As I walked in, a hushed young man wearing a hushed cutaway and a hushed expression greeted me. Good evening, sir. I'm Converse Ettridge. Can I be of service? Thank you. I've come to pay my last respects to an old friend. I... Can I be alone with him for a few minutes? His name? Julius. Herman Julius. Oh yes, yes, his widow is here, sir. Mrs. Julius. His widow, huh? Yes, she's inconsolable. Perhaps, as a dear friend of the departed, you might give her words of comfort. Please go in. Thank you. A little woman in black was sobbing quietly to herself. She turned around when she heard me come in. Her eyes lit up with hate, but then suddenly she grabbed something from her pocketbook and held it at me. It was a 45 and her hand was shaking. Yeah, this time I will do it. Always before I didn't have the heart. Always hating bloodshed. Yes, he-he, groin. I'm a detective, I... I want to punish the people responsible for your husband's death. Yeah, yeah, I believe you. This gun, I was going to follow poor Herman. There didn't seem to be any reason for going on. Now tell me something about yourself and your husband, Mrs. Julius. Ah, that's an old story now. Years of separation in different concentration camps, bribery and bribery, then my children and I, we were finally released. Came to this country. After two years, Herman brought us from Lisbon. He knew soon he would be with us. But even though the war was finished, they had lost. Still they went after Herman Julius. He knew the Nazis were behind him all the time.  They weren't even after him. They were after something he was carrying. In Lisbon, didn't he go to a dentist named Laverne? Yeah. And didn't Laverne put an odd-shaped tooth, kind of yellow, into his bridge work? Yeah. So he smuggled the candy tooth out of Portugal and he never even knew it. Oh, well, it does not matter now. Oh, Herman is dead. Surely you, they will leave his poor broken body in peace. I doubted very much, Mrs. Julius. No, no, surely they will. That's why I want to make a request of you.   Oh, to stop terror, any terror, I will do anything, Mr. Spade, anything you say. I told her what I wanted done and she agreed to do it. Then I started on my part of it. I called Gutman on the St. Mark and told him 11 at my apartment. Then I called Dom Constantino at the San Rafael. Hope and I got there around 1030. Go on in, Angel. This is where you live, Sam? Where I sleep. Must be lonely for you. Sorry, no vacancy. Sam, listen, there's so much I want to tell you about myself. I'm listening. Well, listen, just before the war started, I was engaged to marry a man named Chemidoff in London. The Russian? Yeah, Gutman mentioned him something about an old manuscript. Yeah, Chemidoff had stolen it. In India, it was very old and Chemidoff said that the information in it made it worth more than the Maltese Falcon. It was in Latin.  So you double-crossed Chemidoff and took the manuscript to Gutman. Sam, before they get here, I've got to tell you something.  Sure, sure, I know. Say it, Angel. Don't torture me, Sam. I'd like to hear it, Angel. I... Sam, I love you so much. It feels like hate. It feels like a...  Hate me, Angel. No, don't answer it, Sam. Relax, Angel. You'll be OK. Sam? Yeah? Only you, Sam. All I want are... Only you. Just stay on third, Angel. I'll bat you home safe. You see, sir, I have a punctual man. Come on in, Gutman. Look, the same apartment, the same colors, everything the same. Yeah, the same rat race, Carol. Hello, Marvin. Killed anybody since lunch? You want me to give it to you, Sam? Oh, please, please, Marvin, no unpleasant talk. Mr. Gutman, please tell Marvin... In here, gentlemen. Yes, yes, yes, Marvin. Mr. Spade, I'm sure, regrets the unfortunate... Well, in what have we here? You all know the lady? You see, Mr. Gutman, you see, I told you. Now he's dealing with her. Oh, this is...   Don't talk just like that. I'm jumpy. I don't feel good. I don't know why I'm...  Don't always fight in violence and prisoners. I'm getting too old for this. And now, Mr. Spade, to the business at hand. You have the tooth. I want some answers first. Did you have our dentist friend Laverne killed? No. Did Marvin kill Laverne? No. Cairo? No. Nobody killed Laverne. He died of old age. Have you asked the little lady there? Sam. I gotta ask you, baby. Oh, Sam, how could... Answer me. No, Sam. You know I didn't. Well, it doesn't matter. I got my pigeon pick to take the fall. Oh, I don't feel so good. Now, Marvin, retain yourself. No violence. Well, Sam, I... That's it. Sit still. I have a package from the Avalon Mortuary for Mr. Spade. Oh, hello, sir. Yeah, what's happening? Mrs. Julia said to tell you... Yeah, yeah, thanks. Well, Gutman, this is it. This little package. The candy tooth. The tooth! At last! Give it to me, sir. Give it to me. Oh, Mr. Gutman, it's all over. We've got it. We've got it. We have. Come, sir, no more TV. Uh-uh-uh-uh.  I rather thought it wasn't all. What now, sir? I told you there was another bidder. Why should not you reach for your gun, Mr. Spade? You're pointing that gun at the wrong belly. The fat man's inside. Mr.  Portugal, indeed. It's the Russian. Do not be so formal, hope my darling. You may call Mr. Gevanovich. Oh, let's get off the co-pack. We're all here. You see? You see? Mr.  You are along. This man was an imposter. That was a namey-gaming. Well, what matter? There's enough for all. What you're so murgic, Mr. Spade, you'll please give me that package. Now, Marvin! Now! They both had their guns into each other at once, practically. Kamadov fired first, but Marvin didn't fall. He spit out his chewing gum... Then he squeezed the trigger of his .45. They both looked more surprised than anything else. But they were both very dead before they fell down. Marvin! Marvin, as dead as Kamadov. Oh, and it was worth it.  I told you I had my pigeon picked for the fall. My good man, you are a winner. Poor Marvin. He looks so dead. You can have the package now. Oh, yes, yes, yes. The tooth, the tooth.  They were trembling so he could hardly undo the strings. He tore the outer wrappings, exposed a small metal jar. He looked at me and wrenched the lid off of it. He dumped the contents onto the table. The tooth, what is it? There's nothing here. Ashes. Ashes are ashes. That's it, Guttman. Ashes. The tooth is there, along with the rest of Herman Julius. He was cremated this afternoon. He was cremated. The tooth, it was cremated. No, this cannot be. No. But it is, it is the tooth.   Why do I stay with him? Why, why? Well, well, come, come, come, Joe. Shall we stand here weeping and bemoaning a curious quirk of fate? Or shall we defy all fates? Were we not well underway to finding the Romanov scepter when this charming lady detoured us with her romantic notions? Come, come. What say you, Joel, eh? You mean we go to... Yes, yes, Joel, to Samarkand. Mr. Guttman, do not say it. He is listening. Ah, yes. A wise precaution. Then we go, eh? Yes, Mr. Guttman. Yes, we go. At you, Mr. Spade. Oh, sound. It's like the stage of the Old Vic at the final curtain of Hamlet. Alas, poor Marvin. I knew him well. Oh, well, many slip-picks the cup and the tooth. Now, let him go, Mr. Montgomery. I knew there was nothing on him that Dundee's boys could make stick. I thought twice before I let Dundee take Hope Laverne, but we both agreed it was the smart thing to do, and what do you suppose Effie said when I said? Period. And a report. Once you came out of hand, twenty thousand dollars. Oh, just think of the things we can do. Pay all the bills, the years went on the office. Had that awful old leather chair we upholstered and a new ribbon for my typewriter. Effie, uh, bought that typewriter ribbon. Well, maybe I can get along on this one for a while, but Sam, I do think we should get my mother's earrings out of Moise's pawn shop.  Sam, what did you do with the twenty thousand dollars? I, uh, put it up for bail. Bail? Yeah. But that was the twenty thousand dollars, and your release so you get the money. It's very simple, Sam. You just go down and ask him for it. Effie, you see, you don't understand these things. Now bail is a very complex legal technicality. You see, you put up a bond and then you... Sam, how much was the bail for Hope Laverne? Yeah, that's what I mean, Angel.  You'll never see her again. She was just, just using you. I'll take it, Effie. Hello. Angel. Hello, kitten. Sam, I'm free. I'll always be waiting for you, kitten. Me too. Kitten indeed. The A.T. kitten. What's that, Angel? Oh, forget it, Sam. I just get carried away. Can't figure me out, Angel. Well, I'll tell you. I've lived without faith, and I've lived without charity, but I've just got to have... About here's what I say. Oh, good night, Sam. Good night, sweetheart. This is Robert Montgomery. I'm sure our suspense audience agrees with me when I say that whenever it is, it can't be too soon to have Sam spade back with us again in a full-hour adventure on radio's Outstanding Theatre of Thrills. Incidentally, our producer, editor, director on these weekly full-hours of suspense, Bill Spear, joins hands with Dashiell Hammett to bring you the adventures of Sam Spade each Sunday night on this network. Thanks for the plug, Bob. I have a basket full of thanks to my friend Howard Sam Duff, the kind of actor a director lights candles for, and the wonderful Lorraine Tuttle who plays Effie each week, and the Joseph Kearns, who is the Casper Guttman of them all, an ornament to your profession, Kathy Lewis, Wally Mayer, J. Novello, Janet Nolan, Jack Edwards Jr., Sidney Miller, Hans Conrad, and Bill Johnson. And of course, as always, to our musical director and conductor, Led Gluskin, and to the composer of our original scores, Lucian Morrowake. And our special thanks to Bob Tolman and Jason James, who wrote The Candy Tooth, and who were voted by their fellow mystery writers of America, the Edgar Allan Poe Award for Sam Spade, the best detective show on the air. And to the Wild Root Company, a gracious sponsor of Sam for this courtesy of the cooperation and making tonight's Spadery available. Now tell about next week, Bob. Next week we will bring you another great American master of suspense. The author of The Postman Always Rings Twice and Double Indemnity, James M. Cain. It's a full hour of Mr. Cain's very wonderful novel, Love's Lovely Counterfeit. This is Robert Montgomery, who will welcome you once again next week to Radio's Outstanding Theatre of Thrills. Suspense. Don't forget, next week at the same time, a full hour of Suspense. This is CBS, The Columbia Broadcasting System.


When I was about four, we traveled across the mighty Pacific to New York and there I was introduced to dinosaurs. They impressed me, but what impressed me more is the fact that the world changes sometimes radically. Fast forward about half a century and here I am now at Berkeley in my dream job, custodian of some six million fossils including T-Rex. The missions of the Berkeley Natural History Museum is to understand life and the forces that have shaped it. I'm going to give you a sense of the way that operates. Here is a piece of Middle California taken in 2013. What did it look like 70 years ago? More trees just the same? With the historical record we know what the answer actually is. So the museums and our communities have been mapping the world. This next slide shows you one of those maps. This is now vegetation cover in Central California centered around Lake Tahoe. The dark green is Juniper and Douglas Fir. Again if we go back 70 years what did it look like? It turns out that forest was predominantly pinion pine in the light green changed from the dark green. Change is hard to comprehend in part because it's the spatial scale that's much more than our individual senses can pick up and also because change is slow. But there are two other reasons that make change difficult to comprehend. The first is the way we grow up. We grow up well with a platform of stability. We are not well suited to dealing with instability. That's the first reason. The second one is that we are highly adaptable. We get used to change particularly if it's slow. I want to give you an example. I grew up in the land of fire. That land is large about the size of the lower 48 states. It also has a predominance of fire. But we get used to it in Australia and so here are some cricket players barely paying attention to the blaze that's raging in the background. We get used to the way the world is. Now the historical record has shown us that we have changed the world irreversibly in the past. Here is a picture of California about 13,000 years ago and at about that time a species arrived. Us driving all of those species to extinction as we simply looked after our family, our children. The same thing happened in Australia about 50,000 years ago where the natives wiped out 10-foot kangaroos and wombats the size of small elephants. Now what's interesting in Australia is this occurred over about 5,000 years. Without museums, without historical records, they could not have known that they were driving these species to extinction. So what I want to do now is turn to the historical record of the two primary drivers of global change, population increase and carbon emissions. The data on population increase are really interesting. The upswing occurred quite recently in the 1950s and we see the impact of it again with historical record, for example, with the deforestation of the massive island of Borneo starting again in about the 1950s. CO2 emissions is also very interesting. This is the CO2 emissions of the world at about the time of the American Revolutionary War, just the UK. This is the time of the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. This is during the American Civil War. This is at the end of World War I, World War II and about a decade ago. So it turns out that the emissions and the population growth and the resource extraction has really been basically within my lifetime. Now, I experience the world as being fundamentally stable and yet viewed globally, it's been fundamentally unstable in my lifetime. And so rather than being stable, it's very much like the globe is like this poor whale from Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy that was blinked in probably into existence high in the atmosphere. We are in freefall. What is exciting for me being at Berkeley, apart from my six million fossils, is the incredibly rich community of scholars, postdoc students with rich partnerships with industry, government organizations, NGOs, making a difference in the world, retarding that fall. And we've seen some very nice examples of that. For example, the Berkeley-innovated cook stoves in Africa or at larger-scale technologies that lead to solar farms that can supply energy for whole communities. At present, the world is giving us lemons. But here at Berkeley, we're really good at making lemonade. Thank you.