What's going on, everyone? Sam here with late sports cards, ribbon 22, 23, Panini, Don Russ Optic, basketball hobby, six box, half case break, number 37, pick your team style. Read off a list of our names and our teams. You've got Anthony M with the Bulls, Bos S with the Nuggets, Ben C Thunder, Celtics, Mavericks Bucks, Brad M with the Pacers, Timberwolves and Pelicans, Christopher J with the Rockets, Daniel L. Pistons, Danny C Warriors, Evan R. Kings, Zekiel M with the Hornets and the Sixers, and Felix M with the Cavaliers and Clippers, Jeffrey C Wizards, Henrik J. Lakers, Hunter B Grizzlies, Jared H. Blazers, J. J. with the Raptors, that's John W. Nix, Latita with the Hawks, Louis H. Nets, Nick B with the Sun, Sean H. Jazz, Thomas C Spurs, Tony T with the Magic and Z Peng with the Heat. So good luck here, everybody. Let me drop you a link to number 38. Last basketball break we have on the day. There are one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10 teams available, all on sale. I'll be sweet in Facebook that if you don't mind. Let's get going. Here we go, guys. Let's see something big. See a gold vinyl. Gold vinyl palo, gold vinyl chat, gold vinyl Jabari Smith, gold vinyl Keegan Murray. Oh, I love dice rolls on these, by the way. Gin and Ivy, Raided Rookie, Pink Velocity, Kauai to 79 for the Clips. Last team taken, Mojo right there, some Kauai. Kauai. Red Stargazing LeBron to 99. Here we go, Lakers. Hello, the Dorcher Chamber, baby. God, what a great nickname. Chris Middleton Hollow for the Bucks.  There we go. Black Velocity, Ant-Man. Nice one there, two, 39 for the Timberwolves. You get to throw Black Velozen under in the recap. It is All Sports, All Sports Act. Raining three, Steve Kerr-Holloth. Come on, say more. Yeah, All Sports tonight on the Almanac. Gin Hardy Rookie. All right, we're gonna do a dice roll here. One, two, three, left, four, five, six, right, unless it is a gold or lower. In that case, it'll have its own random.  Gonna be A-two. So it's going to left with Giannis. Whatever team is on the left of the card, we'll receive each of those All-Star cards as well. Keegan Murray Rookie. Raining three is Dane. Yeah, so it'll be a little bit of everything over on the Almanac. Damian Lillard-Holloth. I know for sure on the preview, we had definitely basketball, definitely football, Benedict Matheran, definitely baseball. Like the biggest card I think in the run is the baseball card. It's the Volpe. Sohan Rookie, there's an Orange, Monta Morris to 199. Hello, Osemane Jane Rookie, for the Thunder, Thunder. Red, Norman Powell to 99. Jaden Ivey, nice one there. Hollow, rated rookie autograph, going to the Pistons. There we go, Detroit.  That's awesome. Very nice. Oh, and the old Jaden Ivey. Tye-tye Washington, Nicola Jokic, basketballs. Zion Hollow, and the Chandler base. Oh, Keldon Johnson. All right guys, on to box number two here. E.J. Liddell to 199. Quiet. Marjanbo Champs, 7 of 99. Great first two boxes here. Nice rookie optics autographs for the Bucks. Like I said, Bucks were a great price to 39. That's stuff from Marjanbo Champ auto now. That like a color or something, or Yanis number card. Doing well. Wendelmore Jr., more base. Gerson Brown, there's a, Grant Williams to 49, the C's. Rashon Holmes Hollow for the Kings. Trevor Keele's Hollow, rated rookie for the Knicks. Lyme Green, season of column two, 149. Pelicans. Rijae, probably, just in case, did you look it up on Eda? Yeah, it's definitely gonna be close. Orange, Bruce Brown to 199. For the Nuggets, Bb6. No longer Bb6, but still Bb, just not six. Hollow, reigning threes, Chris Mullin. Yanis, elite dominators, Hollow. Yeah, yeah, yeah, definitely them. Basketball's Justin Holliday.  There he is. Send this card to your friends, totally jingled them as well. Hey, what's up, Zach? Heh heh heh. Cattle in the winemakes. Good God. Hornet's gone, Nuggets, Rockets, and Raptor's gone, thinking they're Brian. We're down to one, two, three, four, five, six. To go, everybody, on our last optic break. Six to go. If that's filled up, we'll pretty much be able to just get right into it, which would be good. We just need to sell one more division and inception as well. Deontay Murray Hollow, Deontray, Russell Westbrook Hollow, the Lakers still. There's Red going to the left, Darius Garland, all stars to 99. Ochaic Bajie Rookie, Baskervilles, Kyle Kuzma, Anthony Simons Hollow, Jalen Howeadurin, Black Velo, Rated Rookie, Jake LaRavia, nice one there for the Grizz, to 39, that's dope. That's Memphis, one of the last teams taken as well. Go Grizzlies. Going to the left with Steph, Lee Domineers Hollow, Jason Tatum, Jason Fringe of Elimination Tatum, Michael Arroyo, Dillon Fruits, Shade On Sharp, another Black Velo, Eric Gordon, nice one there too, at 39 for the Clippers. Swakledo and Krupp's cards coming up. That's all man, that is going to be your boy. EJ Liddell? He's actually going to be a huge pick. Well, he's going to be the number one pick I think, so I'm going to be the top Chase and Bowman draft for sure. I'm going to be interested to see who the big Chase is in Bowman Chrome this year. Marjombo Champ, Isaiah Mobley, because it was huge last year, huge, because they didn't put Brady House in the 22 Bowman last year. Malachi Branham, so that was like an extra guy that was huge as well, and all your international guys for the most part. Wasn't it only his autos though, Brady House? Steve Kerr to 99 for the Bulls, Optograph's auto. There's Jabari Smith, I think in 21 Bowman draft, he had his first base, and then in 22 Bowman Chrome he had his autos, yeah. Yeah, he didn't have, like if he had a card in there, he'd just be able to base the nine first. Red, Kyle Kuzma to 99 for the Wizards, Gallantary and base. Again guys, just six to go, Nets at 24, Cavs at 34, Clippers at 19, Nix at 24, Sixers at 34, and Suns at 24. So no team above $40, that's pretty awesome. Nope, that's recon. I'll have you Facebook that when you get the chance, if you don't mind. Six to go, yes, yes, six to go. Again guys, just six teams left in the second optic. That'll be breaking next. Thank you again for selling this one out, do appreciate that very much. We went upside down, okay? That means there's gonna be a gold hollow, a gold mine on. Tia Graven's gonna green in a minute too. Trevor Kiehl's base will be down for a green, wait for optics, we'll go all. Lime, green, Bones, Highland for Clippers to $140. Sadiq, the free fed. We'll sit, we did, ooh, Shade-On, Sharp Rookie Auto, nice one there, Blazers, congrats. Very nice, Shade-On, Sharp Rookie Auto. We did 2020 iMac, and we pulled a Sadiq BA, RPI, for I think 10 bucks to use that, I wanna say, yes. Pretty sweet. Sadiq's free. Sadiq the free, yep, Hock Legend. Hock Legend now too. Hello, Alfred Shengun, second year. LaRavia, Orange, Isaac Acoro to $199. Vince Williams, Orange, Dilo, $299. Hello, Evan Fornia, PJ Washington, Holland. Christian Brown, Orange, or not Orange. Red, Star Gazing is Yanis to $99. All right, upside down pack, Gold Vinyl, calling it. Right there, boom, easy. And Hala, Kobe White Hala, basically the same thing. Jeremy Sohan, there's an Orange, Cole Anthony to $199 for the magic. Hello, Lamello, Raining Threes. Ex-Benedict Cumberbatch, Matheryn. Jaden Hardy, hello, Jason Tatum, Star Gazing. Hello, Jalen Williams, Rated Rookie. Palo Bancaro, there's D'Angelo Russell to $79. That's a Gary Payton, the second, the Mitten on the Photon, there you go, Warriors. Photon's a little bit less shorter printed this year. There's a J-Dubb Rookie, calling about two or three a case as opposed to the one last year. Hello, KCP. Still six to go, everybody, on Optic, breaking next. Gotta get that filled up, DeMar DeRos and Hala. Got to get that filled on up. Just six teams left. THT, red lights out, Cade to $99. Chet Rookie, Pink Velocity, J. Griffin for the Hawks, nice. To $79, still a draft, AJ Griffin.  Kevin Durant lights out, Hala. Payton Watson, Hala, Rated Rookie. There's Blue Gary Harris to $49 for the magic. Rollins, Rated Rookie Autograph for the Warriors. Nice one there. Face, Cam Reddish on the basketballs for the Blazes. Jabari Smith, Rookie. Hala, Stargazing Luka for the Mavs. DeAndre Aiton, Hala. Thanks and Daniels. Hala, Buddy Heald, Reigning Threes, Denny of Deans. Reddy Jackson, Hala for the Nuggets. Got it, went there, geez. Walker Kessler, Orange to $149, Miles Turner. Nice one there for the Pacers. All right, guys, again, just six teams remaining in our last basketball break of the morning, six to go in Optic. Let's get those filled on Optica. No team over $40, six to go.  Last box of number 37. And that one will be in the books. We still have one more division and our only baseball break still remaining too. That is Bowman Inception. Bowman Inception. Luka, Fred Van Blee, Reigning Threes. That was funny yesterday too. There's a lot of funny things that happen on the golf course because it's wild. But guys, we gotta get some sort of tournament together. Yeah, I'm done. Orange, Davis Bertons too at $199.  That's what I started playing in the morning. Hala, Lee Dominator's D-Book. Used to play a lot or no? I mean, not really. Here and there. They should have less. Yeah, that's true. Once you get your swing right, like then you're pretty much good. Then it's just all making sure you stay together mentally. Yeah, I feel it. Pink Velocity, McCall Bridges for the Nets, 279. He's not our free agent. That's gonna be a huge target. Chet Holmgren? Bridges? Yeah. I think he's a free agent. He might not be. I think he is, but I don't know. Might have a player option or something. John Wall, Hala for the Clippers. Nikola Jovic, that is. Evan Fornieye for the Knicks. Black Velocity to 39. Hala, Ryan Rollins. Caleb Houston, Tramon Green. Basketballs for the Warriors. Woeyahs. Gaelan Williams. Otto, nice. Jeremy Sohan. That was a good half case, man. Crats to the Spurs with the Sohan. Rated rookie Otto, very nice, very nice, very nice. Very, very nice. Hala, Stargaze and Kate. Photon, Julius Randall. Nice one there for the Knicks. Super short print. I see they follow a few a case now. Hello, Harrison Barnes. Let's do a quick recap here, guys. Oh, got you. Thank you, Timmy. It's gonna be, okay, perfect. Photons, Julius Randall, Gary Payton, and Justin Holliday. Black Velocity, Anthony Edwards. Jake LaRavia, Eric Gordon. Evan Fornieye, Otto to 39. Otto to Jeremy Sohan. Ryan Rollins, Shadon Sharp. Steve Kerr, Marjon Boe Champ, and Jaden Ivey. That'll do it for the break, guys. Thanks again for the fill. Up next, we have number 38. Let's fill it up.


So thank you all for coming. I'm going to talk to you today about some work that really got me first interested in the neurobiology of learning and memory back in graduate school, then continued through my postdoctoral years and into my UVM years. And I hope to convince you by the end of this talk that simple is good or at least can be good and that you actually can learn about learning and memory in the blink of an eye or by studying the blink of an eye. So just to quote Jim Henson, simple is good and as I like to say sometimes it's not easy being John Green, I decided to throw that in there. So the physical basis of memories, which is really what this is all about and it's root. It's both about what the physical basis of memories are and how you actually go about studying the physical basis of memories. So one place to start is going back over a century ago and Richard Seaman, who's actually a fairly obscure figure but coined a term that we still use in the literature and that's the term n-gram. So what he wrote about back in 1904, I'll just read you the quote here, when an organism has been temporarily stimulated and has passed after the cessation of the stimulus into the condition of secondary indifference, it can be shown that such organism has been permanently affected. This I call the engraphic action of a stimulus because a permanent record has been written or engraved on the irritable substance. I use the word n-gram to denote this permanent change wrought by a stimulus. So that's a definition of n-gram as a physical memory trace. But where are those physical memory traces? Can they be localized? And if they can be, what does it mean to say there are physical changes in the substance in the brain? It means enormously complex, of course. There are well over 100 billion cells. There are trillions of connections in the human brain. So the question is, can n-grams be localized to particular brain areas? And if so, where do you even begin to look in this massive tissue? And then once you find, or if you can find them, then you can actually study the types of changes that occur in that tissue that may be the actual physical basis of a memory. So it's actually, as I said in my kind of abstract for this, it's sort of a daunting task when you step back and think about it. It's not trivial to try and figure out where to even start, where to look. So Carl Lashley was a figure in the early 20th century, a psychologist who devoted a good part of his career to looking for the physical basis of memories, to looking for the n-gram, to trying to find one or more n-grams in the brain. And he wrote in 1950 towards the end of his career about this search for the n-gram. And I have a couple of quotes up here. He said in 1950 towards the end of his career in experiments extending over the past 30 years, I've been trying to trace condition reflex paths through the brain and or to find the locus of specific memory traces. The results for different types of learning have been inconsistent and often mutually contradictory. This series of experiments has yielded a good bit of information about what and where the memory is not, has discovered nothing directly of the real nature of the n-gram. I sometimes feel in reviewing the evidence on the localization of the memory trace that the necessary conclusion is that learning just is not possible. It's difficult to conceive of a mechanism which can satisfy the condition set for it. Nevertheless, in spite of such evidence against it, learning does sometimes occur. One of my favorite quotes. So this state of affairs actually continued for quite some time beyond Lashley. I mean, you could argue it really continued into the 1970s at least. So an important figure at this point is Richard Thompson. So Richard Thompson, who just actually just passed away a couple of years ago, was very interested, devoted basically his entire career as well to the search for the n-gram. And he wrote a paper in 1976 in American Psychologist where he talked about the search for the n-gram. Remember this is now over 25 years after Lashley wrote. And Thompson wrote at that time, analysis of the neural bases of associative learning has not progressed very far. Simpler invertebrates do not, for the most part, exhibit very robust classical or instrumental conditioning. N-gram invertebrate models may have promised, and in fact, that promise was realized to some extent in later years after this paper. He also wrote, is to be hoped that analysis of such simplified neuronal models of learning will provide information about the nature of basics and apoptic processes involved. However, the ultimate goal of studies in the neurology of learning is of course an understanding of the neural mechanisms of human learning and memory. To achieve this is necessary to undertake directly the difficult task of analyzing the neurology of learning in the mammalian central nervous system. The optimal requirements have to do with control of the experimental situation, control of non-associative variables, and the feasibility of neuronal analysis. And as he wrote in 1976, we have recently adopted classical conditioning of the eye-blink response of the intact learning rabbit as a model system for analysis of brain substrates of associative learning. So to digress for just a minute, because I want to talk more about Richard Thompson's Dick Thompson's work, that then kind of sets the stage for some of the things I've done. Dick Thompson had an absolutely extraordinary career, one of the giants in the field of learning and memory and neurobiology and learning and memory. You can go online and do these academic family trees. And I pulled up here Dick Thompson's Neuro Tree, I'll find my laser pointer here, which expands out beyond what I can even fit on the screen here. And for those of you like Bill, who have been in this area for a while, you'll recognize many names, many well-known scientists that Dick Thompson had a hand in training. Steve Marenge and Scott Kim goes on and on. New scientists that he trained were also my mentors, if I can get my pointer working here. Joe Steinmetz was a postdoc with Dick Thompson back in the late 1980s, and Joe, as Bill mentioned, was my postdoctoral mentor at Indiana University. And Diana Woodruff-Pack, that Bill also mentioned my graduate mentor, was a visiting scientist in the mid-1980s in Dick Thompson's lab. So I am essentially Dick Thompson's academic grandchild. And just to prove it, you can go down one level, and there I am, and there's the University of Vermont, and someday you'll be able to expand this, and hopefully I'll have a little Neuro Tree there. So there's Diana's Neuro Tree, and there is Joe's, and there I am. So eye-blink conditioning is a model system. So eye-blink conditioning, what is it? Well, it's a type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning. And in its simplest form, which a lot of this research uses, each trial, you have trials that consist of a neutral stimulus, such as a pure tone, followed half a second later by stimulation of the eye. But surprisingly, the eye stimulation causes an eye blink. That's not really what we're interested in. And after several dozen trials of pairing tone eye stimulation, blinks begin to be made to the tone as well, in anticipation of the eye stimulation. And these tone-illicited anticipatory eye blinks are the learned response that we're interested in, or in the lingo, the conditioned response, or the CR. So a very quick little history of eye-blink conditioning, it's kind of interesting to take the slight digression. Eye-blink conditioning was originally used in humans to study associative learning long before it was adapted to non-human animals to study the neurobiology of learning and memory. And the first known publication using eye-blink conditioning actually dates from 1899. My two mentors actually co-edited a pair of books actually that came out in 2000, contained all chapters on different aspects of eye-blink conditioning. And in the introduction to one of those books, they wrote, the history of the study of classical conditioning is relatively long, beginning late in the 19th century. First in Germany and later in the United States, investigators moved from studying the slower autonomic nervous system responses, such as salivation to assessment of conditioning and the somatic nervous system using the eye-blink response. They go on to write, in the United States, Ernest Hilgarb was among the first researchers to conduct studies on human eye-blink conditioning using techniques that might not be approved by contemporary human subject institutional boards. Instead of an airpuff, Hilgarb used a paddle to smack the subject in the face. Of course, this large wooden device was effective in producing a reflexive eye-blink that could then serve as the basis for conditioning to atone. So in the early 1960s, usually a character named Isidore Gormanzano is given credit, although Alan Wagner, who many of you know may or may not share this credit, for developing a system of eye-blink conditioning in rabbits. So rabbits became the initial kind of animal model system for a variety of reasons, which I won't get into all of them. And then more recently, rats and mice have become more common non-human animal subjects. So Gormanzano in 1983 wrote a long chapter about eye-blink conditioning and he was looking back over 20 years of research. And he wrote a few things about the very earliest days in the early 1960s. Incidentally, he developed this at Indiana University as well, where I did my postdoc, so I'm really steeped in eye-blink conditioning. He wrote, in both humans and animals, the other major conditioning preparations suffered from substantial intrusions by responding not attributable to associative processes in human eye-blink conditioning. Extensive methodological work had removed many of the measurement difficulties, but the data still displayed considerable variability in the human preparation was clearly unusable for physiological interventions. Consequently, to focus attention on the objective determinants of conditioning and to provide the robust data necessary to address both physiological and theoretical questions, we sought a more suitable animal preparation. And Dick Thompson, looking back at his early history with using this preparation and adopting it in the early 1970s, wrote, Michael Patterson was a postdoctoral fellow in my laboratory, having obtained his PhD with Gormanzano. Patterson strongly proselytized Gormanzano's preparation, classical conditioning of the eye-blink response in the rabbit, as a suitable preparation for analysis of the brain substrates of associative learning and memory. So what's so great about eye-blink conditioning for studying the mammalian neurobiology of learning and memory? Well, there are a lot of aspects of eye-blink conditioning in non-human animals that make it really ideal for this sort of study. I'll outline a few here. First of all, just the fact it can be done, as I mentioned, in humans and non-human animals means that what you learn in a non-human animal can easily be applied to what's going on in the human brain. As well, the experimenter has maximum control over the training situation in terms of when stimuli are delivered and when the learned response should occur. So you know exactly where and when to look for the learned response. There's minimal or no eye-blink response to the neutral stimulus prior to conditioning. So anything that begins, any eye-blinks that begin to be expressed to most commonly atone, you can pretty much attribute to a learned response, that it really is a learned response. Furthermore, if the reflexive eye-blink is normal, the eye-blink to an air puff or some kind of eye stimulation, then the absence of a learned eye-blink is less likely to be caused by purely movement issues. In other words, if you're trying to localize the source of the learned response and you, let's say, make a tiny lesion in a particular brain area and there's no learned response, if there's still a reflexive response, you know that the animal in this case can still make an eye-blink. So you're on firmer ground thinking that you've affected a learned eye-blink rather than just the ability to blink. And then finally, because this is probably the best one, because the learned response is simple and discreet, predictive relations between neural activity and learned behavior can be established. It's very easy to map changes in neural firing, for example, on to this simple learned response in terms of the timing, amplitude, and all those sorts of things. So eye-blink conditions had made many contributions to our understanding of several things over the years. I'll just briefly kind of give you the global view here. That's the statue of Pavlov, by the way. One thing it's contributed a lot to, which I won't really talk any more about, is a much better understanding of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in general, which, as many of you know, is a very important form of associative learning. Pavlovian conditioning plays a role in the development of and treatments for many psychological disorders. This is just one example, and a good example is panic disorder. So a lot of what I've focused on and maybe made some small contributions to is eye-blink conditioning has contributed substantially to research on the neural processes underlying learning and memory, not only on the neural processes, but also what are the fruitful approaches to take, what kind of data are most convincing to the field? And, of course, alleviating disorders of learning and memory, which would be one goal of understanding mechanisms of learning and memory better, requires first understanding those mechanisms. So that's another way that eye-blink conditioning has contributed, that understanding, that basic understanding of mechanism. And then finally, eye-blink conditioning has contributed substantially to knowledge of the processing that goes on in this structure called the cerebellum, which I'll talk a little more about, which is the main brain structure supporting eye-blink conditioning. The cerebellum is really interesting for a lot of reasons, despite what Bill said. It's been known for many years to play a very important role in movements of various kinds, which in and of itself is extraordinarily important. But even beyond that, there's increasing support for the involvement of the cerebellum beyond just motor function in terms of more cognitive or non-motor function. Some examples of this from the literature of disorders is cerebellar abnormalities have been linked most recently to autism, to schizophrenia, to ADHD. Disorders that you would not normally consider motor disorders. So the cerebellum is actually quite an interesting brain structure, and I'll come back to it.  So he and his colleagues, his students and postdocs and colleagues, published a short paper in 1981 in a fairly obscure journal called The Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. And this was essentially sort of a three page abstract. They're not really any hard data in here, but he wanted to get the word out about what he and his colleagues were observing in the lab. These really interesting and I think surprising results that they were uncovering about the essential role of the cerebellum in this simple learn response. And they were so excited about this, they wanted to just get something published quickly before even, you know, prior to doing full-fledged publications. So they published this short little paper in 1981 that provided the first evidence, perhaps, that there was an engram that could be found. Although around the same time Bruce Cap was working here at UVM and providing some evidence that the amygdala was also the site of a different type of engram. So it was sort of in the air at the time. But Thompson and colleagues were really excited about this idea that the cerebellum might house an engram. So a little bit about the cerebellum, also known as the little brain. Here it is in red here in the human brain. Here it is in a rat brain, the brainstem and spinal cord of the rat. Here's a drawing from Ramona Kahal, one of very famous early anatomists in neuroscience who did these beautiful drawings of cerebellar cortex back in the early 1900s. Cerebellum is present in all true vertebrates. Cellular structure is virtually identical across mammals and birds. And an interesting little factoid is it's roughly half the neurons in the entire brain, although it's only about 10% of the volume of the entire brain. So two regions of the cerebellum form and store the memory of idling conditioning. So I'm summarizing a whole bunch of research here. The interpositus nucleus, which is one of the three deep cerebellar nuclei buried in the middle of the cerebellum. And the lower part of the primary fissure in the cerebellar cortex. And these are shown here in the rat. The deep cerebellar nuclei, so one of the three deep cerebellar nuclei buried.  One of them holds the stores the memory of idling conditioning, along with a region around here. So I want to talk about one of Dick Thompson's studies in particular. And this will be one of the only graphs I actually show. This is one of my favorite studies that came out the year I started graduate school in 1993 from Thompson and colleagues. And was very influential. This is I think one of the most convincing demonstrations that the cerebellum is important for storing the learning that goes on in idling conditioning. So, and this type of approach has been adopted was very influential. It's been adopted since by many different types of researchers in this field. So in any particular learning circuit in the brain, some brain areas are involved only in expressing the learned response. And we might say that they're downstream of learning related structures. We're learning related brain areas actually store the memory. So how do you actually demonstrate that? Well, Thompson and colleagues and there are fancier ways to do this now. But they did a really nice convincing demonstration back in 93 of this. And what I want you to look at in this graph here, we have a measure of learning on the y-axis here. This is the percentage of trials in which in this case a rabbit blinked to a tone. So if there are 100 trials in a session, if you have a 20 here, it means on 20 of those 100 trials, the rabbit gave a learned response. So of course, as you go up here, it means there's more and more idling conditioning going on. You can see there's a control group here that learns really well. Over days of training, tone, eye stimulation, they show more and more anticipatory learned eye blinks to the tone. So that's kind of your comparison group. The two groups of interest here are what I call the brainstem and cerebellum group. So let's take the, well, we'll take them in order here. So cerebellum, what they did here is they used a pharmacological substance to temporarily silence the activity of neurons in a particular brain region. We don't have to get into details about how they did that. But they had two separate groups here. In one of those groups, they silenced an area of the cerebellum. And in the other group, they silenced an area of the brainstem, which is sort of kind of near the cerebellum but outside it. And basically what you can see here from these data is that silencing either this cerebellum region or the brainstem region, there's no learned responses or in essence, essentially no learned responses given by these rabbits. Control group learns really well. These guys look like they're not learning at all. But what's, that's not the most interesting part. What's really interesting is what happens then when the brain region is back online because these are temporary inactivations. What happens is the brainstem guys, the guys who had a little area of their brainstem inactivated immediately start showing learned responses. It's as if they were just, they were learning but they were just prevented from showing that they were learning. In contrast, the guys with a small region of cerebellum inactivated look as if they had not learned anything. In fact, they look completely naive. They look like the control guys when they first started. It's as if that inactivation prevented them from learning at all. And now they're learning for the first time that the tone predicts the eye stimulation. So this is a very convincing demonstration at the time that you have a brainstem region in this case that is important for expressing the learned response but is not the site of storage. And you have a region in the cerebellum that is the site of storage and is important for forming and storing the memory. So cerebellar memory site, number one, the interposest nucleus, as I mentioned. There's a lot of research supporting this region as one of the two regions in the cerebellum that's important for storing the learned response. I won't get into all of that. I'll mention one contribution my lab has made. This is part of a larger paper. We're not the only ones to show this, but recording studies have shown that many neurons in the interposest nucleus fire in a pattern that resembles a neural model of the learned eye blink response. It's as if in the firing of those neurons you can actually see the brain exhibiting a learned eye blink response. One way of showing this is here where on the y-axis, you basically have this is collapsed across a bunch of trials. And on the y-axis here, let me get this to work. What this is simply is a measure of the firing of neurons above a baseline. And what you can see here is this is time here and this is an example of events that are going on in a trial where you have the tone come on, you have a learned eye blink here. And you can see neurons start ramping up their activity in this brain region before and during the expression of the learned eye blink response. Notice that they don't do that on trials where there's no learned eye blink exhibited. So it's only on trials where there's the learned eye blink occurring. There's a second region, as I mentioned, in cerebellar cortex. There's a particular cell type, a neuron type in cerebellar cortex called a Purkinje cell or Purkinje neuron that is the sole output neuron of the cerebellar cortex. So everything the cerebellar cortex does flows through the Purkinje cells and out of the cerebellum to the deep nuclei. Purkinje neurons near this one region of cerebellar cortex, the primary fissure, show this interesting pattern of activity during eye blink conditioning or develops during eye blink conditioning in concert with the learned response. And what this is is a pause in their activity immediately prior to the expression of a learned eye blink response. And this was something else that we showed again, we're not unique in showing this. This is basically, this shows one trial where you have this. These are action potentials from a single Purkinje cell that we've isolated. And it's firing away merrily here. And then the tone comes on, these are well conditioned animals. The tone comes on, Purkinje cell shuts off for a short amount of time. Meanwhile, we're also measuring eye blinks. This is a conditioned eye blink to the tone. Here's where the tone's occurring. And you can see the shut off in Purkinje neurons proceeds and somewhat overlaps with the learned response. That's probably slightly confusing why a neuron would shut off and you get the expression of a learned response. Unless you know just a little bit more about the cerebellum. And that's the Purkinje neurons normally inhibit the deep cerebellar nuclei, including the interpositis. So this pause would effectively, and the basic idea in the literature is this would disinhibit the interpositis, free it from inhibition and allow a learned eye blink to be expressed. So the idea is that the cortex and the deep nuclei work together to store and control the timing and the amplitude of the learned response. So, eye blink conditioning reveals cerebellar function more generally. I mentioned that in the beginning. And folks like Mike Mock have written about this, what he wrote some years ago. Although initially viewed as a model of associative learning, it is increasingly clear that Pavlovian eyelid conditioning is an especially useful means of studying cerebellar computation and its underlying mechanisms. And Goodlitz-Stanton and my postdoc mentor, Joe Steinmetz wrote, back in 2000, eyeballing conditioning has also been used to characterize functional consequences of clinical neuropathology of the cerebellum and brainstem. So we've contributed some to this literature as well, in my lab. One of the things I did as a postdoc and I did during my early years at UVM is work with a rat model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. And these are rats that receive developmental ethanol exposure. And then we test them in eyeballing conditioning to try and get a sense of how functional their cerebellum is or not. And then with the idea of being able to then treat those dysfunctions, either prevent them or treat them after they occur. So this was one study we published now over 10 years ago. This was kind of a dose response study. We had different doses of ethanol. These rats showed impaired eyeballing conditioning at the highest doses, really, but not at lower doses of ethanol exposure. The dose, actually, a little more precisely, it was the blood alcohol concentration produced. And interestingly, there was also a dose response effect in the number of inter-positive nucleus neurons these guys had. I should say this was measured when they were adults, both eyeballing conditioning and neuron counts. So these are long-term effects on the cerebellum of developmental ethanol exposure, and eyeballing conditioning allows you to test the functionality of their cerebellum. We've also done work on rat models of ADHD or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Two different strains here, the spontaneously hypertensive rat, the WKHA strain. Both these strains interestingly show, they show good eyeballing conditioning, but the learn-eye blinks themselves are a little bit abnormal. They occur very quickly after the tone onset. In normal rats, they tend to be a little more well timed with about when the eye stimulation would occur. These occur in these strains, they occur abnormally early. This is shown for the WKHA here, which is just showing the latency of the condition eye blink after the tone starts. You can see it's short, even across training compared to a control strain, or really two control strains here. And interestingly, at least, and I should mention also, at least in the WKHA, we only saw this in males and not females. And then also interestingly in the WKHA strain at least, we also saw that they had more prokinji neurons in the cerebellar cortex. So we think that this might be possibly the cause of the abnormal learned eye blink because there's data in the literature suggesting that the form of the learned eye blink is controlled by prokinji neurons. So what about coming back to Thompson again? What about learning related cellular changes? One of the ideas, one of the reasons to develop eye blink condition is not only to be able to trace a learning circuit in the brain, but then to zero in on the areas where the learning occurs and look at the actual physical changes. The physical cellular changes that are the basis of the engram. And I haven't really told you anything about that yet. Well, there's been a variety of folks looking at this from different angles. And my lab has looked at this in collaboration with Tony Morielli for the last five or six years focused in on a voltage gated potassium channel known as KV 1.2. Now kind of very broadly and generally voltage gated ion channels contribute to neuronal activity, to neuron communication. And interestingly KV 1.2 is expressed very highly in two neuron types in the cerebellar cortex. One of these is our friend the prokinji cell or the prokinji neuron, which I mentioned provides the sole output of cerebellar cortex. The other is a little inner neuron just localized within cerebellar cortex called the basket cell. These are really interesting because they can strongly inhibit prokinji cells. So they can control the entire output of the cerebellar cortex via controlling prokinji cells. Here's a little cartoon of how these guys connect to each other as well as other cell types. So here is, I think I have my little, there we go. There's a prokinji cell or prokinji neuron. Here's it's axon going out of cerebellar cortex to the deep nuclei. And there's a little basket cell forming a connection with the prokinji cell right here. Here's from a paper we just published. This is Katabashabi's work and this just shows some KV 1.2, very densely expressed at this synapse right here. Okay, this is where basket cells would come in and synapse with and this is a prokinji cell body here and here you can kind of see outlined there. So this KV 1.2 is very densely expressed at these synapses. It's also the second place as I mentioned it's expressed is prokinji cells and specifically their dendrites up here, this big tree at the top of the prokinji cell. So my lab's contributed to this work through a variety of studies. I'm going to more or less summarize on one slide here where we've infused various things into the cerebellar cortex, very substances. We've infused them near the base of the primary fissure and then looked at the effect on eyeballing conditioning. But we haven't picked just random things to infuse. What we've looked at are things that kind of very broadly and generally have effects on KV 1.2. And the pattern we've seen overall, again to summarize a variety of studies and agents that we've infused is that infusing things in this area that tend to down-regulate KV 1.2 or decrease its function or expression have this facilitatory effect, they improve eyeballing conditioning. That's what seems to be in common. And on the flip side, things that increase KV 1.2 expression in cerebellar cortex or at least maintain it at a high level seem to impair eyeballing conditioning. So we think KV 1.2 has an important role and is one of the cellular mechanisms in cerebellar cortex controlling eyeballing conditioning. We looked at this another way as well. So those studies suggest that messing around with KV 1.2 can modulate eyeballing conditioning. We looked at this in an opposite way. Jason Fuchs, a former grad student, looked at this in his dissertation and showed that eyeballing conditioning can modulate KV 1.2. So you can modulate KV 1.2 and affect eyeballing conditioning or eyeballing conditioning itself can modulate KV 1.2. I'll show you the one other figure here, data from one of those experiments where we had rats that undergo eyeballing conditioning and we measured KV 1.2 expression in their cerebellar cortex. And we found that it was increased in cerebellar cortex. Unless those rats were actually expressing the learned eye blink response. It's as if this increase in KV 1.2 occurs right before they're about to show that they've learned. We also had rats another group that received unpaired tones and eye stimulation. They never show the learned eye blink to the tone because they're learning an anticipatory eye blink to the eye stimulation. And interestingly, they also show an increase in KV 1.2 in cerebellar cortex. And here's the figure of the actual data. These are all compared to no stimulus control groups. These are guys that are just in the conditioning environment. So rats that undergo eyeballing conditioning but are not expressing the learned response and rats that undergo unpaired stimuli, stimulus presentations both show an increase in KV 1.2. Which is what the y-axis is here. But not rats that at the point we measured it or expressing the learned response. Their KV 1.2 is at seemingly baseline levels. So to summarize what I think my lab's contributions are to understanding cerebellum, understanding the physical basis of memories, and our use of eyeballing conditioning, which continues. So I think we've contributed some data on learning related activation of different neuron types in the cerebellum in different key regions that are important for eyeballing conditioning. We've used eyeballing conditioning to examine cerebellar function in a couple different disorders. And most recently, the last five or six years, we've really been focusing on the cellular mechanisms of cerebellar dependent learning. And that's an area we continue to collaborate with Tony Morialli's lab. And that's really become the major focus of my lab's use of eyeballing conditioning. So I'll give you a moment to think about that. So I'm just going to very briefly touch on other labs recent work using eyeballing conditioning. We're not the only ones. It's not as large as the fear conditioning community, but there are a number of other labs that are using eyeballing conditioning to answer interesting questions about the neurobiology of learning and memory and cerebellar function. There are labs using, in this case, this lab uses mice to look at how cerebellar activity is connected to eyeballing conditioning. What eyeballing conditioning does to cerebellar activity to try and understand cerebellar function better. John Freeman, who's been using eyeballing conditioning for many years, is now expanding into how the amygdala talks to the cerebellum. We know, of course, many of you know the amygdala is a key region for learned fear, and he's looking at the interaction of the amygdala and the cerebellum using eyeballing conditioning. Those are non-human animal studies, but folks are also using eyeballing conditioning in humans. This is a group looking at how participants diagnosed with autism undergo eyeballing conditioning and what that might reveal about cerebellar abnormalities associated with autism. And then a colleague, Bill Hattrick, who's at Indiana University, uses eyeballing conditioning to understand cerebellar contributions to schizophrenia, and he's done a lot of work with patients with schizophrenia. So final thoughts. So eyeballing conditioning's been very, very good to me. It's been great. We've learned a lot using eyeballing conditioning. But is it the be all and end all? No, of course not. So I want to leave you with a couple final thoughts on what's missing out of this account. What else do we need to understand about learning and memory? So William James said way back in 1890, now the slightest reflection will convince anyone that there's no conceivable ground for supposing that with the mere re-excitation of a group of neurons, there should arise the conscious addition that it's a re-excitation. This could not end out with any reference to the past. The gutter is worn deeper by each successive shower, but not for that reason brought into contact with previous showers. So we're not capturing anything about the sense of the past necessarily about memory. Going even further, one of my favorite books about memory from way back in 1932, Frederick Bartlett wrote, remembering is not the re-excitation of innumerable fixed lifeless and fragmentary traces. It's an imaginative reconstruction or construction built out of the relation of our attitude towards a whole active mass of organized past reactions or experience. Memory and all the life images, all the life of images and words which goes with it is one with the age old acquisition of distant senses and with that development of constructive imagination and constructive thought. We're in at length, we find the most complete release from the narrowness of presented time and place. So Iblen Conditioning is a useful model to get at some of the basic core aspects of learning and memory but it also does not get us very far in figuring out the physical basis of the reconstructive nature of memory, for example. So there's a lot to learn still. So I'm gonna just finish with a number of acknowledgments because I have a lot of people to thank. I've worked with many, many great folks at UVM since I arrived in 2003. I'd especially like to acknowledge my second family over in the Department of Psychological Science, been great colleagues and friends over the years. And I wanna especially acknowledge my four other faculty colleagues in the Biobehavioral Cluster in Psychological Science who I've learned so much from over the years and been so inspired by Professor Mark Bouton, my good friend here, Professor Bill Falls, Professor John Hammack who's back here and Professor Donna Tefexes. And I wanna also acknowledge my other UVM faculty collaborators who have just been really great to work with and other folks I've learned quite a bit from Professor Tony Morielli, Professor Betsy Hoza and Professor Jean Delay who I haven't collaborated in a research way with but as Bill mentioned we collaborated on the creating the neuroscience major which was really one of the kind of the thrills of my time here seeing that just grow incredibly. And then finally the biggest thank you probably is to all the students who have worked in my lab over the years. I've had just amazing luck with really hardworking, creative, smart, fun to work with students. There's a list there, it's incomplete. If you're out in the audience and I didn't mention you, it's just because my own memory is so poor but I just a big thank you because I never would get anything done without my terrific students. So thanks for your attention. Thank you.


The President's budget proposal eliminates public media funding. Learn how you can help at lptv.org slash action. It may still be chilly outside, but it's time to slip on your golfing shoes and hit some balls to get ready for the upcoming golf season. Madden's driving range in Brainerd is the first driving range in the area to open its doors to those who are itching to get back out on the course. The driving range is part of Madden's resort and is located near Gull Lake. Now, while the cool weather doesn't always mean golf, the people at Madden say it's never too early to get ready and start practicing. Well, we normally try to get going right when the snow's gone out here.  We just said, enough, enough, let's just get open and hit some balls. So now the course will stay open through the summer months until the end of October. And if you've enjoyed this segment of Lakeland news, please consider making a tax-deductible contribution to Lakeland Public Television.


Hi, I'm Zor. Welcome to a new Zor education. We continue solving different problems which are not really part of the standard course of school mathematics. These problems require certain creativity, both thinking basically, finding some new way which never was presented to you as part of the theoretical course. Now, obviously this is all based on the theory which was presented in another course. So this is called mass plus problems, but the prerequisite course on the same website, Unisor.com, is called mass for teens. This is more theoretical course, although there are many problems presented over there as well, but more to kind of enforce the theory. Now, the problems in this course are more of creative kind. Let's put it this way. And today we will talk about certain geometrical problems. The lecture is called Geometry 02. Now, this course is presented on Unisor.com website, but you might find it somewhere else like on YouTube, for example, or some kind of a search engine or whatever. I do recommend you to go to Unisor.com to watch the lecture. There are few reasons for this. Well, reason number one, don't worry, everything is absolutely free. There are no advertisements, no strings attached. Assigning on is optional if you don't want, don't do it. If you are basically studying by yourself for a supervised study, we do need this kind of a sign-on because we have to establish the relationship between supervisor or parent and the student. But for a self-study, you don't need it. Now, another reason is that every lecture which I'm presenting as a video also has a textual part, which is basically like a piece of a textbook dedicated to this particular lecture. So altogether, all this written material combined into one book might be a very good textbook for you as well. And there are exams on the website which you can take as many times as you want until you get the perfect score. And I do recommend you actually to solve it many times until you will get the perfect score from each exam. So there are reasons to use Unisor.com as your main source of information. And obviously there is a menu which drives every course in a logical sequence, so menus, submenus, etc. Okay, so let's solve these problems. Now, these problems are related to triangles. As far as triangles, I prefer to have certain standard of naming elements of the triangle. The standard which I'm just using, you can use this one or any other, but it just makes sense to have a standard. So the standard which I'm using is I will use uppercase, lesion letters A, B, and C as the vertices of a triangle. Now, opposite sides to the letters to vertices will be called the same letter but lower case like A, B, and C. Then there are certain elements like for instance medians. Now medians which are dividing the opposite side into equal parts. I'm usually using the letter M with subscript which corresponds to the side it goes to. The altitude would be H with the same subscript in this case A. And there is an angle bisector which I will use letter L with the same subscript. So, oh yes, there is a circumscribed circle which has radius R and inscribed circle which has radius lowercase R. So this is a standard which I will try to adhere to. I think it's important for clarity and also it's shorter if you are trying to explain for instance the problems. I will use these letters as the short description of the problem. Now, all these problems today, there are four of them, they are about construction. Construct triangle if you know something about this triangle. Now, in the regular course of geometry you have learned that there are three main theorems about congruency of triangles. You have three sides of one equal to three sides of another, they are congruent. If two sides and angle between them equal correspondingly to two sides and angle between them, then it's congruent. And the third one is the side and two angles which share this side as part of the angles are equal. So it's side-side-side, side-angle-side and angle-side-angle. Now, these three main theorems about congruency lead to three main problems. Construct triangles by knowing these elements. And these problems were considered in the main theoretical course which is a prerequisite for this one on this same website unizord.com which is called mass for teens. Now, in this case I will go a little bit further. So these are again construction problems but not these main typical ones. Some other elements are given but you still have to recreate the triangle. In this case the solution might not be the unique one so maybe you can knowing like certain sides maybe there are more than one triangle which you can create but we will not stop on this. We will just try to come up with some kind of a procedure to create some triangle which has the properties specified in the condition of the problem. So my first problem is you have side, side and median to the third side. So these are three elements of a triangle which are given two sides and a median to the third side. Well, you have to construct triangle knowing these three elements. How can we do it? Well, let's first draw the triangle. Okay, let's go A, B and C. Now you have A and B given sides and we have a median to the third side. So this is side C and this is MC. The question is how can we build a triangle knowing these elements? Now at this point I suggest you to pause the video and think about this yourself. Now as a hint I can just tell you that what's important in construction problems is to reduce the given problem to another one which has already been considered. For example, we know just as an example that we can build triangle knowing it's three sides but we don't know three sides of this triangle. But we do know something which can lead us to that. So here is additional construction which I will do right now which will lead us to reduce this problem to already known ones. Okay, so again try to think about this yourself, pause the video, whatever. Now here is the solution which I am suggesting. So let's draw a parallel line to this one and parallel line to this one. This is parallelogram. Now if I will continue this line it will go into this vertex of the parallelogram. So parallelogram as we know has diagonals which are crossed intersect in the middle. So this is divided in the middle and this is divided in the middle which means this is actually part of the median, right? Because median divides in between two equal parts, the opposite side. Now why is it better? Because this piece, let's call this letter P. So PD is actually congruent to CP because again the diagonal is divided by another diagonal into equal parts. So this is also MC. So what do we know about this triangle? We actually know all its three sides because this is also A because it's opposite side of parallelogram and CD is equal to 2MC. So if we know median we can double it. Well you know how to double it. You just have the same using the compass and put another one. So that will be double. Now I didn't mention it but all the construction problems in standard course of geometry are supposed to use the tools which are straight ruler to draw the line and compass to draw a circle. So using the compass you can just take this and put it here and using the ruler you can draw parallel lines. By the way how to draw parallel lines using compass and the ruler? That's actually part of the standard course and I can just basically relate you to the mass for teens course or any other course where it is explained how to construct parallel lines using the straight ruler and the compass. So I consider these to be as techniques which you know basically. So we can build triangle CAD using three sides. Well if you know that now everything else is busy.  So what we did is we did analysis and the solution. Analysis was basically drawing this, analyzing the whole thing and realizing that you can draw this particular triangle. Okay now the solution is draw this triangle using three sides A, B and double MC and then draw a parallel line here and line here through the middle point of CD. So that's the solution. Now analysis and solution. So let's move on. Next problem. Next problem is also similar kind of thing but slightly different. So what do we have? We have A, we have MA and we have MB which means analysis again. First analysis. This is A, B, C, this is A and we have median to the A so this is the middle point, this is the median. Okay so let's call it R and we have median to B. So this is B so median is this. So this is MA and this is MB. Now that's what we know. Let's call it Q. So again, this is analysis and what this analysis tells us. Well obviously it's kind of difficult to build this triangle if you know only this side and to median. You don't know this point obviously. So notice, however, we do know certain properties of medians. Again, by the way, addressed in the main course, Mass for Jeans when we were talking about triangles. Now the medians are crossing at a point which divides each median into two to one ratio. Again, if you don't remember it, go back to the previous course. But this is a known fact. It was proven in the regular course which I have Mass for Jeans and there are a few theorems about this but it was rigorously proven. And now I'm going to use it because QR is only one-third of MA. Now QB is two-thirds of MB and BR is one-half of A because this is a median, right? Which means we do know these three segments from which this particular triangle QBR is built. So we can construct it using three sides. By the way, if you know MA, how can I get one-third of MA? Again, that was explained in the main course how to divide a segment into any number of parts. But basically, in a very simple case, if you would like to divide this particular segment into three parts, you have any other segment repeated three times here? Connect the end and draw the parallel lines. So if these are equal, these will be equal. It's a theorem and it was proven, rigorously proven, in the main course, Mass for Jeans and then just using it. So I assume that we know how to take one-third of a segment or two-thirds of a segment. Now knowing this, I can actually basically finish my analysis. I know what to do. I know what I do as a solution. I take one-third of this, two-thirds of this, one-half of this and build this particular triangle. Having built this particular triangle, everything else is easy because you just continue this line and have the same segment here. So now I have my point C. You continue this line and have another two segments and that's how you get point A. And the problem is solved. That's two points of a triangle. Okay, next. Again, my purpose is to present the problems but also to kind of encourage you to think about these problems yourself. So if I'm explaining the solution, it really means that I would suggest you to post the lecture right before I'm starting presenting the solution and try to do it yourself. Thinking is the most important purpose of the whole course. You have to think about certain things yourself. Don't just take information which I'm giving it to you. Try to do it yourself first. And then, whether you succeeded or not, maybe you will come up with a different solution. Fine, great. And by the way, if you can send me another solution to any of these problems, I'll be more than happy to publish it on the website with reference to you. Okay, the third problem. The third problem is really a little more interesting. M A, M B and M C. How to construct triangle knowing only its three medians. See, it's a very non-typical problem. And again, it has a solution. I suggest you to pause again right now and think about this. And here is what I suggest. So let's try again to analyze the situation. Here is my triangle, A, B, C. And let's put three medians. One, two and three. Medians are intercepted in one point. All three medians, again, that was proven. So what we will do is, we will do the same thing as before. The parallel here, parallel here. So we have basically two congruent triangles. And I will continue this. And I will have two medians here and here. So it's two basically congruent triangles divided by A, B. They are basically, you can turn one into another. And you will have this picture. Lines parallel. I mean everything in this particular case, in this triangle is similar to whatever is here. Okay. Let's call this point P and this point Q. And what I suggest is to consider triangle Q, P, B. What do we know about this? Okay. This QP is one and two and each one is a third of a median MC. So QP is equal to two thirds of MC. This is MC. This is two thirds. This is one third. And this is another one third. So it's two thirds. Similarly, P, P, B is two thirds. P, B is two thirds of this median, which is the same as this one, which is MA of MA. And finally QB is two thirds. QB is two thirds of this median, which is MB. So I'm using the fact that medians are intersecting in one point, that they are cutting the median in a ratio of one to two. So it's one third here and two thirds there. And then everything else is just obviously parallel. You can definitely prove this to a very, very tiny detail. I'm not doing it because I'm assuming that certain things are obvious. So if you draw these parallel lines and you have this median and this median, then the lines will be parallel and stuff like this. These are all details which are kind of obvious, easy to prove, but I'm just skipping them because what I am actually interested in to analyze the whole solution first by doing this additional construction. Now when I know this, I can build triangle QPB using three sides. Knowing this, well, we just continue. So how can I continue this? Well, easy. Let's continue this PB for instance by half of it to another point so that's how we can get this point. Let's continue this line for another half of it so it will be this point. Let's continue this to the same two thirds and we will get this point and then to another point of this then we draw these lines and we will have point A. So that's basically a solution. What's interesting is really to follow this particular solution to prove any point. So whatever I have just glanced through as an obvious thing, like for example, this will be a triangle fully congruent to this one. I mean, obviously it's two parallel lines, parallelogram, etc. But it all goes to certain, maybe small, maybe simple, but proofs which basically you can follow through. And if you can, that will be very, very educational. Okay. Now the next problem is it's related to altitudes. So what we have is we have a side and two altitudes to other sides. So this is triangle ABC. You have this side and you have two altitudes to other sides. This is HB and this is HC. This is B, this is C, right? So what's given is this and two altitudes. Altitudes. Okay. How can I construct the triangle using these three elements? Okay. Here it is. Look, this is perpendicular, right? This is altitude, so this is the right angle and this is the right angle. So if I will use C as a center in this case HC as a radius and draw a circle obviously this line would be tangential at this point because it's perpendicular to a radius and the line which is perpendicular to a radius at the end would be tangential. Again, something which has been considered in the regular course called mass proteins and proven so you can just use it. Now, what does it mean? It means that if I will have C as a center so I do have the segment A as a given, right? So we can just take a line and put this segment on the line and that's how we have points BC. Our unknown is point A. Okay, so I draw a circle using the HC as a radius. Now I do have the point B and all I have to do actually is to draw a tangential line to a circle. How to do this? Well, again, that's considered as a basic construction problem in the regular course but I can actually tell you since this is the right angle this would be three points on a semicircle. This is a diameter so I have to basically draw another circle using half of this BC, half of A and in the middle have a center and draw a circle and then where these two circles are crossing each other that would be this point. Now, absolutely similarly, this line would be tangential to this circle with the center B and radius HB and from this point I can draw a tangential line to this one. How? Well, by having this again as a circle well, it's actually the same circle and it's just another point of intersection. It's a circle which has a center in the middle of BC and the radius is equal to half of A. So it's the same circle as in the first case and it will cross this circle in some other point and that would be my this point. What to do next? Well, from C you go through these two points and get one line, from B you get through this point another line and their crossing would be A. So that's a solution to this third problem when you have side and two altitudes. These are four not very difficult problems but what's very important is to do certain things yourself or at least to spend some time thinking about this. So what I suggest you to do is all these problems are explained in the textual part of the course so you go to Unisor.com you choose math plus and problems course you go to geometry this is geometry 01 and in the textual description I actually give only the problem I do not put solution as I do in many other cases. So since there is no solution try to whatever you remember from the lecture or come up with your own solution but try to solve all these four problems again. It will be very very beneficial for you. If you have some time just thinking about this if you remember what I was talking about great if you don't come up with yourself but again you have to analyze the problem first and reduce this problem to constructing something which like in this particular case constructing one circle, another circle, a third circle and these are the steps you have to take to come up with the final solution. Do it yourself, very very important. Ok, that's it for today, thank you very much and good luck.


What if I told you that fans have figured out the entire starting area of Tears of the Kingdom and they've figured out a lot of what's going to happen or at least have made some pretty safe assumptions. We have a map, we have some other details to share with you guys and I'm really excited about this. I don't consider this to be massive spoilers or anything. This is mostly just stuff that people put together based on the official listings and mini maps and everything put out there by Nintendo themselves. That being said, I wanna remind you that we are on our road to 100,000 subscribers and if we somehow get there before Tears of the Kingdom comes out, we'll give away a collector's edition of Tears of the Kingdom. We'll also give away a special Zelda OLED. Oh, and why not give away one of those special pins from PAX East and maybe we'll have some other special 100K celebration giveaways as well of other items. So thank you guys so much for subscribing. Let's get into this video. So before I show you the map here because I will warn obviously if you're trying to avoid absolutely all potential spoilers for Tears of the Kingdom you should avoid what I'm about to show you. I wanna make sure that we give proper accreditation. So the base map template was made by a user over on Reddit called MrJCBA. We'll link to his user account if you guys are interested in checking him out because I couldn't find the original post. I didn't look too long to be fair but we'll at least link back to him and then we're gonna link to a thread over on the Tears of the Kingdom Reddit where somebody went ahead and went through this base map and put together what they feel is the most likely scenarios for what we're gonna have to do to obtain our four abilities. Now what I want to point out here is this entire map is put together in the sky. It is of a massive Sky Island or Sky Island template and it is put together from many maps in the actual well trailer, right? The gameplay, right? We have that little mini map section down the corner. You're able to piece together a big chunk of sky based on stuff that appears in that mini map. Also we have a falling down graphic that we have showing off some of this land as well. So without further ado, here's the map and there's some interesting stuff here. You see a presumption on where things gonna start. You know, we start our new game at that temple like structure and then we have to swim and climb the stairs and then we do a shrine, a zonai shrine there and that's where we end up with the ultra hand ability. Then we'll have to grind down or rail down, you know, put on some grapple ability or some crazy stuff. Maybe we can end up flying down, et cetera and we deal with some puzzles and some mechanics down there and then we'll have to eventually build a simple raft. That's where we use that ultra hand ability to cross a kind of lake looking structure like we saw in the actual gameplay footage. Then we get to another shrine where we learn the ascend ability. We end up having to use that ascend ability to escape some sort of cage that happens to be near a cliff and we end up being able to build another powered raft and this powered raft I believe is the one that they talked about in the gameplay footage not that prior like, but this current one because it's a bit smaller and then we'll work our way to shrine number eight at the bottom of the south of the map there and that's where we learn the fuse ability and then we go along and do some other things until we eventually get to the last shrine where we learn the last ability that we have in the beginning and it's, as it says, I can't go higher yet because the rest of those islands obviously deal with other various levels of height. So we don't really know how that works yet. This is just what we're able to piece together of what we know of what appears to be the starting area. Again, we don't know 100% that it's the starting area but we're sort of basing this off the gameplay, the fact that he had those abilities up there, that there was a shrine already on the mini map when he was up there, that shrine symbol was obviously a shrine that was completed. So we just kind of assume that we get our abilities up on this sky island. Now, we have a couple of looks at this, you know, like we seem to hollow like a gate tall enough to stand under. Again, this is just using the ascend ability to progress. Also, we can see a bit of a sky shot of what potentially is that starting area with only swimming needed to get here, can get back here from anywhere on the island. Again, full credit goes to the Tears of the Kingdom Reddit not only for creating this map but also to user Snarky, Mick Snarky, the second for putting this together. And you know what? I'm gonna read a little bit of his speculation on this because he did put this together. So he said, so I've been speculating that we'll get the ability to grapple objects or traverse on rails on the tutorial island. Until now, I've been assuming this would be a separatability that I've been calling Power Glove. This is because of a very unique rails that show up in this particular part of the tutorial so far that are too high and flat for someone minutes into the game to start shield surfing on. But I'm no longer positive. This actually needs to be a separatability. I still think we'll be able to do these actions but I think it's possible that it'll just be part of the ultra hand instead. No need for a separatability. Just like fuse lets you toggle between fusing to your hand or shield slot with a different button. I think ultra hand could also give the option to grapple if you highlight something that can be grapple too such as the mono rail. Now again, this is making a pretty big leap of assumption because ultra hand hasn't appeared to work in a grapple like function before, but who knows. In this case, I assume our first try will be the one with the rails since it appears to be reachable from anywhere. Now it is again possible we could just shield surf on that rail but that's neither here nor there because we haven't seen a single rail shield surf yet. And it says there might be some sort of issue because the concept art and official game picture, the rail should be going to the set of islands to the north by the gameplay from Aonuma clearly seems to have one is going somewhere else. So there's a lot of things to take into consideration when we're figuring out how the beginning of this game is going to work. I do think we're gonna get a greater look at the tutorial area overall. You look been previews dropped for this game at the media play. I bet you the media gets to play this full tutorial area.  So we're gonna have this fully fleshed out and we'll fully grasp this in a few weeks. But it is interesting just seeing what fans were able to piece together from one gameplay session plus a few screenshots. Like it's really crazy how far Zelda fans can go to do this. Now I actually noticed them starting to piece this together last week but I haven't really seen it fully fleshed out with this way and maybe a potential half that we were gonna go on to conquer different shrines. So look, it's obvious at this point that there are shrines in this game. I don't want to go too much into the art book but the art book itself sort of confirmed that we would have shrines a while ago. Now we had the symbol on the map and the mini map that confirmed that shrines were back. And yeah, I assume the shrines are just going to be Zonai shrines instead of Sheikah. And we have no idea what the reward is at the end of the shrines. If this is again how we extend our stamina and health or if they're putting different rewards at the end there's gonna be less shrines. Again, very clearly they're taking inspiration from Breath of the Wild. It is a direct sequel to Breath of the Wild. Some people might be disappointed that the starting area is again a sky island but then also it's four shrines before we can leave probably. And that might feel very, very similar to Breath of the Wild. So I'm gonna be very curious how they've changed up this tutorial area just to make it feel super, super fresh. But again, here's one more look at the map. And there's, as I said, you see a shrine to the north, a shrine to the south, a shrine to the east and a shrine to the west which is pretty safe to assume that's exactly where those shrines are going to be. You see a lot of water. And I find this to be really curious how much water is present in these sky islands. The water appears to dissipate and or evaporate when it's falling off the cliffs. But it's very curious how much water made it up here and why all of the trees seem to be yellow. They noted in the gameplay session that you're not really gonna find these yellow trees on the surface. And I'm not really sure what that's supposed to mean. Does it mean we're in the golden land? Or does it just because of the elevation, the trees don't get enough oxygen so then they don't turn green? I'm curious if there's an explanation since Aonuma specifically pointed out that the yellow trees are basically only in the sky. Anyways, guys, let me know what you think about all this down in the comments below. I am Nathan Neuroflagiance and I'll catch you hopefully on our live stream tonight where we'll be playing Breath of the Wild Master Mode.


Representatives from government, law enforcement, industry, academia, and European experts on the Schengen system have taken part in an Interpol workshop assessing visa procedures for both ASEAN and non-ASEAN nationals. Organised by Interpol's EU-ASEAN Migration and Border Management Programme, 25 participants took part in the two-day workshop that focused on facilitating the mobility of people throughout the region. The workshop is very useful to gain a better understanding about the aspiration of ASEAN to try to come up with a common visa using or learning from the experience of the Schengen common visa. It's fascinating to see that some of the issues that are currently relevant in the context of ASEAN were very much relevant at the time when Schengen first started out. Schengen, the borderless area in the European Union, where there's also a common visa policy. With a population of more than 600 million, economic growth across the ASEAN region has placed an increased demand on existing border management security requirements and procedures. This is a place where we want to interact more, we want to bring more students, we want to bring more business people, we want to increase tourism, and for all of that we need a high level of interaction between the different ASEAN countries. We need a high level of trust and interoperability between different ASEAN countries and the European Union, and Interpol can play a very important role in that perspective. Through a series of such workshops, ASEAN member states are contributing to a research document with a view to developing and reinforcing its practical recommendations on mobility and border management across each of the 10 ASEAN member states. It has built a very good platform for all those concerns to come together. We have everybody that is, that could give good input into the agenda that we have at hand. We have those from security background, we have the scholars, we have those reverse in economics of ASEAN, so this is all very comprehensive and this I'm sure is going to help us to move forward. I hope that it will encourage our member to agree on a common visa scheme as soon as possible because now we are moving fast to integrated economically, politically, but culturally and other societal aspects still need some time. The final report on ASEAN common visa feasibility will be delivered in January 2018.


We reported earlier on this afternoon that it looked overcast and weather was threatening it saved itself until the super stage and here with Tony Sones, if you weren't having enough time with the heavens it opened, there's pools of water everywhere and you had to tackle the super stage with a car that was not happy. Yeah 100% it was, well I think we were the first car through, it was like driving on a greasy pork chop, it was so wet and so slippery and then, yeah, the car just stops and then went another 100 metres and then stopped again and then I'm going to, I'm going to lost as to what the cause of it is. Last stage we got a rock jam between the wheel and the caliper, it almost came to a stop so I had to pull off, pull it out, get going in a couple k's later, drive shaft, front left drive shaft, let go, so we had to pull about 15k out and then do the transport back here into the super special so I lost like 12, 13 minutes and just, yeah, gut wrenching but that's rallying. Yeah, holding two pieces mate, that should look like one, shouldn't it? Yeah, as you know Dean I'm a pretty good mechanic and I'm not that clever to know that doesn't shift along in there. Even I know that and I'm not a good mechanic but yeah, I mean Adrian talked us through the fact that a rock come through, you had to dislodge that but you think that's damaged the seaving and ultimately broke this off? Oh absolutely, the rock was pretty huge, about the size of grapefruit I reckon and once it got in there it actually locked the wheel up and stopped the car. I think there was enough chock-low for that actually to twist and turn and break away, probably just hung off while we took off and took the rock out of the wheel but it broke a couple kilometres down the road. I think if something could go wrong it has today, we've had a few issues but the boys have sold you on and that's all you could expect, it's an endurance round so you're always, you'd like to think you'd have a nice clean run but these things are sent to test us and we'll see how we go again tomorrow. And sometimes it's moments like this where the teams, can and the drivers, co-drivers, the mechanics can be tested bigger and if they can come through stuff like this it can be a major success in some ways. For sure, I mean it is a team effort, there's a lot of guys here trying to put in a lot of hard hours on the car and you never know you know it's like Adrian yesterday in the power stage, car was good, five, four, three, two, one and boom, problem. So it's like that in the sport and I think you've really got to dig deep sometimes and just keep on chiseling away and chiseling away and a three day event, you never know what's going to happen tomorrow. These are the events we enjoy, events that are long, you know, Mick's not a guy that goes out and takes a lot of risks, it's much more for him about being smooth and tidy and setting times the right way and these are the events that reward that so. Tough way to finish, it's super special, that's why we're dancing around on mud here at the moment and when you've got a result in the bag, particularly from a leg point of view today, you just want to get through it so hard, isn't it? Absolutely, look it's one of those tough things. Do we go out and push and turn it on for the crowd? Nobody likes driving these cars, anything but flat out. But at the same time, you know, we've got a position to protect. We've got plenty of space behind us, plenty of space in front. Look, we went out, had a good time, but certainly didn't take any unnecessary risks. I can hear the car running, that's good news. Yeah, it's great news, Dino, on the first stage, it felt good, you know, we knew we had things still to improve on. Our second stage balance in halfway through in the downhill section, just near the jumps, where you just, the car shut down and made a bit of a pop and look, I worked on it for half an hour, couldn't find the issue, brought it back here to Rally School Boys and here's the evidence we actually broke this camshaft, so it's quite severe. This is meant to be twice as long, it's on the exhaust side and I've never really heard of it happening, breaking. It was a massive effort, had to take the engine out of the car, put a whole new head on. It's different camshafts, they usually drive on, so tomorrow I'll have to get used to the different power range, but look, we're going to be in it. It's a great day for us, the car's been a big focus, it does a good job and I'm driving it all right too. Driving it all right, I think you're driving a sensation, mate. You've really got to grips with this as the season, you're coming good at the right end, you'd have to say, and obviously with Brenda's dramas, you now have to play a game of strategy, don't you? Yeah, look, it's funny, Eli said to me, when I started with the Renault, he said, it'll be 18 months before you come to grips with it, nah, yeah, whatever, sort of thing, I'll be faster than that and I think he was right, like middle of this year, it just all started to click for me and hopefully we can continue on. I'm fortunate for Brenda to have an engine drama and hear me back tomorrow and fighting for sure on two of the best stages of the championship, I think. Let's talk about tomorrow then, so you lock away points now, but of course there's an overall rally to absorb here as well, and you've got nearly 50 Ks, the classic stages are very hard on the cars and all you want to do is just keep that lead and keep momentum and it's hard to do, you've got 50 Ks, you don't know how everyone's going and how you're actually going and cancelling. Yeah, look, it's a strange one, I actually, it's actually good that it's raining because 50 Ks on these tyres with these cars would have been tough from last year as we proved that. So hopefully we can get some good temperature out there and we can push on. And as you said, those stages are just absolutely brilliant, that long 50 K stage probably in my mind is the best in the championship.