Hi, good morning. My name is Bala Ambari. I work at Marin Eye Center. And I'd like to chat with you today about eye infections and the red eye. So I'm going to start with covering things that can cause iridiness from the front of the eye and work our way backward. So we're going to start first with the conjunctiva, which is the skin, then the cornea.  So this is a classic example of a very common cause of red eye. This is a subconjunctival hemorrhage. If you had to have something wrong with your eye, you would pick this. This is benign. It will not affect your vision. It will not hurt the eye. But it does look ugly. And the patient should be reassured that it will go away on its own, usually within 10 to 14 days. And it might change colors before it goes away. It might spread like water on a table before it goes away. But it will go away. Things to think about if somebody is having subconjunctival hemorrhage frequently include hypertension, constipation, anticoagulants, trauma, altitude sickness. And so if somebody is having these episodes frequently, it's best to ask about these things, check of blood pressure, and so on. Next, let's talk about viral conjunctivitis. This occurs due to the same viruses that cause colds, adenoviruses, enteroviruses, and so on. They can get into the eye and cause inflammation of the conjunctiva, the skin of the eye. This is frequently associated with having a preceding cold or upper respiratory infection or being around someone who did. There's usually a course of one to two weeks of itching, pain, tenderness, tearing, and redness. There can be redness throughout the eye, discharge, some small patechia or small little hemorrhages on the conjunctiva, and also lymph nodes on the neck. If the cornea is involved, this is not as benign. This becomes what's called epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, EKC, so that's much more severe. So let's show you some pictures of how these things can look like. So on this initial picture, we have flipped the eyelid. And what you'll notice is that there's small little pinpoint patechia on the tarsal conjunctiva. There's also a good number of follicles or bumps or lymphatic collections on the conjunctiva. With this picture, if you look closely, you'll see those follicles are substantially bigger. This is on the inferior conjunctiva. And then on the bulbar conjunctiva on the eye itself, you can see some small areas of subconch hemorrhage as well as diffuse injection. And that's important. If there's sexual injection, it's less likely to be this viral disease tends to be diffuse. As the disease progresses, you can see seromucous discharge, either on the upper lid or in the lower lid. And then this is what I was referring to as EKC, where there are white spots on the cornea. Any time there are new white spots on the cornea, that's not a good sign. And here, these white spots are what are called subepithelial infiltrates. They're due to an autoimmune reaction to the virus or immunologic reaction to the virus. I should say immunologic, not autoimmune. And they will go away, but they can have a prolonged course. Typical viral conjunctivitis goes away in a couple of weeks. But if you have EKC, it can take months for it to completely resolve. And in this particular patient, you'll notice that the infiltrates are within the pupil, so they can easily cause glare and affect the vision. Patients with viral conjunctivitis are contagious, as long as they're clinically symptomatic. You should advise them to wash their hands frequently and not to shake other people's hands. Treatment for it is fairly benign. Cold compresses and artificial tears, as it is self-limited. Very important, tell them to not touch the other eye if it's not infected. No reason to give the other eye the infection. And very important, tell your primary care colleagues and your optometry colleagues not to give topical steroids. Topical steroids will make a patient feel better, but they will extend the course dramatically and really prolong the course of resolution. Further, topical steroids can open the door to other and more serious infections, such as virus or bacteria. One of the most common conditions that can imitate viral conjunctivitis is allergy. Allergy is distinguished by both symptoms and signs. Allergy usually has more itch than pain and more chemosis or swelling of the conjunctiva rather than injection. Generally, allergy is more symmetric than viral. Viral is often asymmetric. Allergy typically affects both eyes symmetrically, with the only exception being if there's a splash to one eye, which is usually pretty evident, self-evident on history. Treatment is pretty much the same. Cold compresses and artificial tears, the only difference is you can actually treat the allergy with patinol, olopatidine or zadotaur or any of the other topical antihistamines. Again, avoid steroids and also avoid the vasoconstrictors, the epinephrens, the phenolephrens, the vasocon, the naphcon that cause the eye to constricted splabdustles but can have rebound redness. So here's an example of allergic conjunctivitis. So this example of allergic conjunctivitis shows that patient has chemosis. You can see the swelling of the conjunctiva, much more so than redness. There's also the classic allergic shiners or dark spots or dark circles around the eyes due to the itching. And if you flip the eyelid on somebody with severe allergy, you can see large papillae. This is an example of severe allergy called giant papillary conjunctivitis due to contact lens overwear. And so contact lenses can be a cause of allergy due to the proteins that are building up on the contact lens surface. And in anyone who has contact lenses, it's important to flip their eyelids open at least once a year. Just as in the hospital, if you don't check a temperature, you won't find a fever. If you won't flip the eyelid, you won't see what's going on underneath the eyelid. Very important, contact lens patients get their undersurface of the eyelid examined at least yearly. Next up in the conjunctival inflammation category is bacterial disease. Usually this isn't children. It's less common in adults. But it can occur still in adults. The main flora that cause bacterial conjunctivitis are staphylococcus and streptococcus, either pyogenes or strep pneumonia. In patients where there's not H influenza vaccine, H influenza can cause bacterial conjunctivitis as well. This is very easy to diagnose because there's an obvious pus coming out of the eye, an obvious purulent discharge. Treatment is with antibiotic ointment for usually a week or two. So here's an example of a purulent discharge in both eyes. One particular kind of bacterial conjunctivitis that is very bad is gonorrheal conjunctivitis. Because gonorrhea can eat the cornea for lunch and the retina for dinner. It's very progressive, very rapidly perforating. This generally occurs either in newborns or in sexually active persons. And what are the giveaways for this are there are lymph nodes just behind the ear, pre-auricular adenopathy. The course is very severe. The patient might wake up feeling fine, but by noon have very severe redness and pain. And there's a lot of pus. On Gramstein, you would see gram negative cocci. And on treatment, you should give both topical treatment, antibiotic drops, anointment, as well as a systemic treatment, intramuscular seftrioxone. In general, anytime there's a question of gonorrhea, there's often a question of chlamydia. So it's advisable to do both seftrioxone and doxycycline, as well as refer the patient to the appropriate health authorities so that their partners can get evaluated. Now what happens if somebody has conjunctivitis for a long time or more than a month, then that falls into the chronic conjunctivitis category. This can be due to problems with the eyelid margin, blufferitis, it can be due to problems with the lacrimal system if the lacrimal sac is blocked. So if you press on the lacrimal sac and it's painful, that can cause a dachryocystitis, which can spill over into the conjunctiva. And it can be due to chlamydia. Chlamydial serotypes vary depending on the region. In the US, adult inclusion conjunctivitis is due to serotypes D through K. There can be contact of the eye with infected secretions, such as swimming pool or genital urinary secretions. It can also cause pre-uricular adenopathy or nodes behind the ear. But it's not as severe and it's less acute than adenoviral or gonadial disease. Treatment is with dr. cyclin. These are examples of adult inclusion conjunctivitis, where you have small little inclusion cysts on the conjunctiva. Now in Africa, in much of the third world, the chlamydial serotypes are much more serious, much more severe. And those are usually A, B, and C. And they can cause trochoma. Trochoma can lead to conjunctival scarring underneath the eyelid. You can see these bumps or fibrous nodules on the tarsal conjunctiva, as well as eventually the formation of arlt slides, which are a reticular or lacy ridges of fibrous tissues. And you can imagine when you have these scar tissue bumps on the under surface of the eye, what happens to this person's cornea every time they blink? That can be very damaging to the cornea and that can cause trochoma. And again, that's generally serotypes A, B, and C. It's very common in Africa in much of the third world. And it's transmitted just by fomites, just by contact. And the corneal scarring can be blinding. It's one of the leading causes of corneal blindness around the world. If it's diagnosed early, dr. cyclin for two weeks, erythromycin, if the patient is a child or a pregnant or a nursing woman, are alternatives. And then it might be a surgical treatment to fix the eyelid and also perhaps the cornea. If there's cornea transplant tissue available, a cornea transplant can be done after the eyelid is fixed. The eyelid is not fixed. Doing a cornea transplant in this type of situation will almost certainly fail because the new cornea will also get rubbed and damaged by the scar tissue underneath the eyelid. Last part of conjunctivitis is what happens in babies. Neonatal conjunctivitis has a differential diagnosis of four pathogens or four conditions, I should say. Chlamydia, herpes, gonorrhea, and silver nitrate. And in babies, the important thing to bear in mind is that, sorry, let me go back here. The important thing to bear in mind when you're examining a baby with conjunctivitis is timing. If it occurs on the day of birth or the day after birth, you think about silver nitrate. If it occurs on day two or three, you think about gonorrhea. If it's happening in a week or two after birth, that most likely causes chlamydia. Herpes can occur at any time, but generally the mother will have a history of general herpes and the doctor will be aware of that. Okay, so that's it for the conjunctiva. Let's look at the periorbital and preceptile tissues. Those can get infected. You can get superficial skin infection of the eyelid and surrounding area. And this is generally due to upper respiratory flora, so same culprits, staph, pneumococcus, strep pyogenes. There can also be contributions from an infected lacrimal sac or chalazion or a sty where there's a blocked mybomian gland in the lid that can bleed to a cellulitis as well. Here's an example of a cellulitis surrounding a chalazion. So the technical term would be a hordiolum, H-O-R-D-E-O-L-U-M, which is the area of redness surrounding that central chalazion. Treatment is the following. If you have a chalazion, obviously, drain it. Warm compresses are good for both necrosis status and chalazions or chalazia. Oral antibiotics can include sefton, augmentin, cufflex, anything that covers those upper respiratory flora. Look very carefully for orbital cellulitis signs, and we're gonna talk a bit about what are giveaways for orbital cellulitis. If there's any question of orbital disease, admit the patient to the hospital and give them IV antibiotics. If there's any problems with lacrimal drainage, have the plastics team evaluate the patient. Orbital cellulitis is more severe and more threatening because it can damage the optic nerve, can damage the muscles surrounding the eye. The clinical signs of orbital compartment syndrome, and remember that the orbit is a fixed volume of space, so if there's a mass of infection behind the eye that will press on the eye and press on the optic nerve, the clinical signs of those include proptosis where the eye is being pushed forward, loss of vision, loss of color vision, an afferent pupillary defect or an APD in the affected eye, and pain on eye motion or inability to move the eye in certain directions. So let's look at this picture. When you examine this picture, your eye is drawn to the young lady's left upper eyelid, and you see this large mass of redness. But what's more important, take a step back. Look at this as a forest for the trees. What's more important is that that left eye is lower than the right eye. So if you look at the position of the two eyes, you should be able to see that the left eye is physically lower than the right eye. That means that something is pushing that left eye down, and that's the more serious finding on this picture. That's what you should look for in any patient, not just being drawn to the obvious area of problem of the redness, but looking at the picture as a whole at the forest for the trees. A CAT scan or MRI is essential. IV antibiotics and surgical evaluation should be conducted and surgery could be by the oculoplastics team or by the ENT team. Make sure that whoever is checking out the patient looks inside the sinuses. And if somebody is diabetic or immunocompromised or an acidosis, there's a high risk that orbital cellulitis is being caused by mucor. Mucor mycosis is a very serious fungus that will eat the eye for lunch and the brain for dinner. It's very bad. And so if somebody does have mucor, they need aggressive surgery, IV amphotericin, and treatment of the underlying condition, the immunocompromised or the acidosis or the diabetes or all of those. All right, let's take a look at another patient with orbital cellulitis. Now, somebody walks in. You might get a call from the emergency room saying that there's this patient who can't see. Now you might go down and see that their vision, they can actually read. The reason that the ER doc told you that they can't see is that they forgot to lift the eyelid. So first thing is educate your colleagues about lifting the eyelid to look at the eye. Now, let's look at this picture more carefully. What you'll notice is a few things. One is that the eye position on the left eye is pushed down and out. The pupil is slightly larger and that it's very red and kemotic. On this picture, you see the evidence that the eye motion is restricted, that the eye is not moving when the other eye is being asked to move. On CT scan, you can easily see that nasal orbital abscess with air cells as well as a nasal sinusitis. And very important, look at the structure of the eye globe, of the globe. It's being pushed. The sclera is being indented by that abscess. This person needs drainage. On the coronal cut, you'll see a lot of maxillary sinusitis as well, a lot of maxillary liquid and abscess. So this person should definitely go to surgery as soon as possible, but sometimes your ENT colleague might be out playing golf or not available or something like that. To buy time, what you can do, this is not the same patient, but a different patient with a similar condition is to drain the pus in the maxillary sinus by sticking a needle. So if you have a clear area of abscess that is accessible with needle drainage, this can buy you 12 hours, 24 hours, enough time for the surgical team to come. All right, so we've talked about conjunctiva, we've talked about the eyelids. Let's start going into the actual structures of the eye. Oh, sorry. Can I get some more? Should I keep going? Go for it. So now let's start talking about the cornea. Corneal infections can occur from a variety of pathogens as far as bacteria that can penetrate the intact epithelium that are forked. Gonorrhea, pseudomonas, diphtheria and listeria. One of the biggest risk factors for corneal infection is contact lenses. And so contact lenses can be bad because they block oxygen from the air to get into the cornea. And remember, the cornea normally doesn't have blood vessels. It relies on the air for oxygen. Contact lenses can cause mechanical rubbing against the cornea and provide a base for bacteria to grow. And so all of those things, blocking of oxygen, mechanical rubbing and providing a base for bacteria, all of those are bad for the cornea because the cornea is naturally, as you recall, a vascular and therefore more vulnerable to infections. Here's an example of a white infiltrate in the midprophal cornea, which is a corneal ulcer. And on the gram stain, what you see is not just the mucus, but also gram positive cocci in clusters. This is a staphylococcal infection. This is a more severe infection where you have not just a large corneal ulcer in the central cornea, there's also a hypopion or pus in the anterior chamber. And it looks like the center of that ulcer is close to perforation. Gram stain shows gram negative rods. This was a pseudomonas infection. The definition of a corneal ulcer is epithelial defect plus infiltrate. Contact lenses can cause just an epithelial defect or abrasion. They can cause superficial punctate carotopathy or diffuse epithelial damage or a corneal ulcer. If there's just epithelial disease after a contact lens, but no infiltrate, three or four times a day of antibiotics is sufficient. But if there's an actual infiltrate, if there's a bacterial infection, then the patient needs hourly antibiotics. This can be o-floxacin or moxifloxacin, four times a day, polysporin, erythromycin, tobromycin, whatever your antibiotic ointment of choice is. If the patient is not getting better within 48 hours or so, or if you're really concerned that this is a bad infection, then you can start or switch to fortified antibiotics. That can include various combinations such as cephazolin and tobromycin, or the strongest fortifieds would include vancomycin and amicazin. When do you culture? You don't have to culture every corny ulcer. You should culture if there's an unusual history, if the patient is not getting better, if there's only one eye, if the ulcer is large, if it's central, or if there's lots of anterior chambers cell or a hypopia. But most ulcers don't fall into these categories. So most of the time you can treat empirically. If there's a history of MRSA on the patient, start with vancomycin drops. If there's an animal scratch, like a cat or a dog, those creatures often have pastorella and so it's advisable to give the patient some oral augmentin as well. Fungal infection of the cornea, fungal disease is very common in Africa due to agricultural nature of the population. And if plant matter gets into the eye, that can easily trigger an infection by fungi. Very common fungi include candida, aspergillus, and fusarium. But this really varies depending on the region of the world that you're in. Even within a country, different regions can have different fungi. So really take some time to learn about what the local fungal elements are in your particular hospital or region. The main elements of clinical diagnosis of fungal keratitis is feathery borders or irregular borders. Most bacterial ulcers are sharply demarcated. Fungal lesions tend to have satellite lesions as well as endothelial plaques. Treatment is topical amphotericin, topical voriconazole, topical nadomycin, those are your three main antifungal treatments that can be given topically. Amphotericin, nadomycin, or voriconazole. There's an example of a very bad fungal infection with the feathery borders. I should also note oral agents that can be given include itraconazole and fluconazole. Those can be used supplementally as an oral antifungal as well. That patient who you just saw needed their cornea removed and on the pathology you see all of these diffuse large hyphae on the cornea. Now one thing to, one thing to note is that if you have access to a corneal confocal microscope you can actually see these hyphae on the confocal and so you can actually visualize that without taking out corneal tissue. We've done bacteria, we've done fungi in the cornea. Let's talk about herpes. This is a virus that can affect any part of the eye, blepharitis, conjunctivitis, keratitis. It can present either at the same time as other areas of herpes or reactivate in the cornea by itself. And risk factors for reactivation are many. Sun exposure, stress, menstrual periods, cold wind, immunosuppression, and even minor trauma. Here's an example of herpes affecting both the eyelid and the temporal conjunctiva. So this is a blepharoconjunctivitis where you have vesicles and sectoral injection. And this is an example of a herpetic dendrite which is on the cornea. You see a branching pattern with terminal bulbs. This is stained by rosebengal. It can be stained by fluorescein just as well. This is a more aggressive dendrite and here we're using fluorescein staining. And if the patient is not treated or if the patient is treated with steroids inappropriately, these dendrites can get confluent and cause geographic ulcers which are very difficult to manage. Here's an example of a horrible geographic ulcer which is challenging to treat and to save the patient's vision. So things to be aware of. On the skin, herpes disease has vesicles on an arithematous base. On the cornea, we talked about the dendrites that are associated with epithelial defect and infiltrate. Chronic herpes on the cornea destroys the nerves and that causes decreased corneal sensation. So very often these patients are not in that much pain. It can cause melting or thinning of the stroma and if it affects the inside of the eye, it can affect the aureus and trabecular mesh work leading to high pressure and photophobia. Sometimes you can have a pure stromal keratitis due to an immune reaction against the herpes. There there will be no epithelial defect. It'll just be a stromal infiltrate. And usually that stromal infiltrate is coin shaped in configuration and in the mid-stroma. Treatment. Now this has evolved a bit. The classical treatment was viroptic ointment plus oral acyclovir. Viroptic is getting increasingly hard to find. Zirgan gel, which is gansychlovir gel, came out a few years ago and that can be done five times a day. If there's epithelian involvement in addition to the viroptic drops or the acyclovir ointment whether there's zirgan gel or the vidarabine, then in addition to the antiviral treatment, one should also give some topical acuflox or ophloxacin to prevent a bacterial super infection. If there's melting, if there's thinning of the corneal stroma, we wanna first prevent additional thinning. So the patient might need glue. They might need madroxyprogesterone drops to prevent collagenes. Oral vitamin C, one gram four times a day. Doxocycline is also an anti-collagenes. They may need a bandage contact lens or a torsorophy and you really wanna keep that melting from getting worse. You wanna follow that patient very carefully and closely. If they have stromal disease, then not only do they need antiviral coverage, but they should get some topical steroid drops, spread four times a day or something like that. But if there's any epithelial defect at all, don't give steroids until the epithelial defect is closed. If there's increased pressure or arthritis, they definitely need some steroids to control the intraocular inflammation. Now, when do we need to give oral acyclovir? In my practice, I pretty much give it routinely because there's not any major downside. The head study, the herpetic eye disease study, showed that acyclovir is useful if there's recurrent herpetic disease, because this will prevent future recurrences, or if there's stromal disease or intraocular disease. But for first-time epithelial keratitis, if you don't feel like giving oral acyclovir, you don't have to. Vericella zoster is also herpes virus. It can cause chickenpox in childhood or shingles or zoster in adulthood. Chickenpox rarely affects the eye. If it does, you can give diarrhea ointment. Shingles often affects the V1 distribution, the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve. Generally, the eye itself is spared with zoster, but it can sometimes be affected either in the cornea or in the intraocular structures. One of the key signs that point towards risk for ocular involvement in zoster is Hutchinson sign, where if the tip of the nose is involved, that means the nasociliary nerve is involved. And the nasociliary nerve supplies both the tip of the nose and the cornea. So if you have shingle vesicles in the tip of the nose, really pay attention to that cornea very carefully. The classic finding of shingles or zoster ophthalmicus is respect for the dermatomal distribution, so the midline is respected. And on the eye, you can see pseudodendrites where you have elevated lesions without terminal bulbs. Also, you can get decreased corneal sensation. So here's an example of a pretty severe shingles episode, respecting the midline, causing edema of the eyelid. If there's no ocular involvement, oral antivirals are sufficient, encyclovir, famcyclovir, or valacyclovir. If you treat the patient within three days of onset, then you're helping them in terms of reducing not just the time of duration of the disease, but also reducing the risk of future post-heropatic neuralgia. Also remember that these shingles lesions on the skin can get infected, so give the patient some antibiotic appointment as well. If there is ocular involvement, give the patient some antibiotic eye drops, remove the pseudodendrites, and really consider if there's any herpes simplex at all. If you think there might be, then start bioptic. If the patient is immunocompromised, they have HIV or leukemia or something else that's causing immunocompromise, give the patient IVA cyclovir. Now after shingles episodes, patients can often have pain in the area that's called, that chronic pain is called post-heropatic neuralgia, can cause very severe problems by disrupting sleep, by causing chronic pain and even depression. So you wanna get on this, don't just blow this off, just because the skin looks normal doesn't mean that the patient isn't in pain. So we do give the patient low doses of oral antidepressants. My favorite is nortryptoline or disipramine, just a low dose, 20 milligrams at night that will help take the edge off the pain and help them sleep. Capsacean cream to the affected area of the skin can be very helpful. And then if you need more than that, then you're getting into chronic pain management with Tegretal or Gabapentin, which is Neurontin or other Lyrica or other chronic pain conditions, which are best managed by a pain specialist. Chronic shingles can cause dryness of the cornea. So take care of that with lubrication, bench contact lens, punctal plug if necessary. Okay, so we've done the cornea, we've done congenitiva, we've done eyelids, can have an infection inside the eye that can cause severe redness, that's endophthalmitis. The most common cause is after cataract surgery, but it's very unusual after cataract surgery. There's probably one in 3,000, one in 5,000 risk after cataract surgery, but there's so many cataracts done that cataracts are the most common cause in endophthalmitis. Other causes include glaucoma surgery, trauma, endogenous, and here you have severe redness and severe pain that does not respond to properocaine. Most of everything else I've told you about gets better with topical anesthetic. In addition, they have cells, hypopia, loss of the red reflex, and clouding of the cornea. These patients might need IV antibiotics, intravitral antibiotics, or vitrectomy. The flora of endophthalmitis depends on whether it's early after surgery, late after surgery, whether it's following trauma where bacillus can be a cause, following glaucoma surgery where pneumococcus or H-influenza can be a cause, or if it's endogenous. Endogenous endophthalmitis is often due to fungus in the context of immunocompromise, or if they have a chronic indwelling catheter. And I think I'll stop there. So we'll just forget that last picture. Okay, I'll just stop after endophthalmitis. Is there anything that you want to say to close out? Sure, so to close out, red eye can be due to non-infectious conditions like allergy, like blepharitis, daeparyocystitis, can be due to severe infections of the conjunctiva, or of the cornea, or of the surrounding tissues, or infection inside the eye. We'll do a separate lecture on non-infectious inflammations of the eye, UVitis, that's a whole other topic, that'll be a separate lecture. But anytime you see a red eye, the most common causes are allergy, sinusitis, blepharitis, daeparyocystitis, or infections of the cornea, or infections inside the eye. And I hope I've given you a framework and strategy for diagnosing and managing these. Thank you.


One of the main things that people forget when they have a trust is they forget that their trust has a secret password I mean, how can you differentiate one Smith one Chang one Lopez one Johnson from another? That's where your trust secret password comes in You see your trust is like a safe that safe holds many of your most important assets That safe protects you and your loved ones Now I can't tell you what your trust password is But I can give you some examples of passwords so that you know if you've been adding assets correctly to your trust Here goes if you're a single woman for example named Sarah Chang and you have a living trust that you started on March 3rd 2015 the password to your trust should be something like this Sarah Chang comma as trustee of the Sarah Chang revocable trust comma dated March 3rd 2015 and the tax identification number would likely be Sarah Chang's social security number What if you're a married couple? We'll use Lawrence and Janet McKesson and they started a trust on June 23rd 2010 their password would be something like Lawrence R. McKesson and Janet S. McKesson as trustees the McKesson family trust dated June 23rd 2010 and the tax identification number is usually the husband or wife's social security number The password to your living trust is not only the name of your trust, but the name and date Plus you've got to make sure to put who the current trustees are That's why it's Robert S. Smith and Janet S. Smith comma as trustees of the Smith family trust dated March 12th 2018 That's because you have to put trustees and Have them associated with the trust name Don't forget the trustees name the trust and the trust date. That's the secret password for most everyone's living trust


Consider the rotor of a turbo machine which is shown here like this. This rotates with an angular velocity omega in the clockwise direction.  The absolute velocity has components in three directions namely radial, axial and tangential also known as world component. As the name suggests the component of velocity in the radial direction moving outwards radially from the shaft is actually referred to as the radial velocity in this case as you can see this is the radial component of velocity in the radial direction and the axial component of velocity is along the axis of the shaft from inlet to exit. So as you can see this is the axial velocity of the fluid like this and the tangential component or world component is in the direction also confidential direction along the direction of rotation and as you can see this is the tangential component of velocity at this location. See that at this point this location entering location the tangential component of velocity looks like this and at the exit the tangential component of velocity because of the direction of the absolute velocity the tangential component looks like this. The tangential component is also usually referred to as the world velocity and if we actually look at the torque that is exerted on the fluid as a result of the passage of the fluid it is nothing but the change in angular momentum rate of change of angular momentum of the fluid. So m dot is the mass flow rate through the rotor and the rate of change of angular momentum of the fluid negative of that is the torque that is exerted on the rotor and that is what we have given here. So the rate of change of angular momentum is actually v theta 2 or 2 minus v theta 1 or 1 but since we are trying to evaluate the torque exerted on the rotor we change the sign so this is written as m dot times v theta 1 or 1 minus v theta 2 or 2. It should be noted that the tangential component of velocity at the inlet v theta 1 is in the same direction as the blade speed in the velocity triangle that is shown in the illustration. Also note that v theta 2 is actually in the direction opposite to the blade speed at least the black colored velocity triangle shows it that way. Now the red colored velocity triangle shows v theta 2 to be in the same direction as the blade speed. So the sign convention is that if v theta 2 is in the same direction as v theta 1 with respect to the blade speed then it is taken to be a positive number. If v theta 2 is in an opposite direction to the blade speed 2 v theta 1 with respect to the blade speed then it is taken to be a negative number. So this is something that we need to take into account when we actually do calculations of real applications. Now if we multiply both sides of this equation by omega t times omega is nothing but the rate at which work is done.  What is that omega r 1 is nothing but the blade velocity at 0.1 and omega r 2 is the blade velocity at 0.2 or blade speed at 0.2.  This equation is called the Euler turbine equation and it is of fundamental importance in the theory of turbo machinery. So the product v theta u or the difference between the product v theta u at inlet and outlet determines whether the machine is work producing or work absorbing. Now the sign convention for the for the power or w dot here is the same as in thermodynamics which means if the right hand side comes out to be positive then the machine is a turbine right hand side is negative then it is the compressor or pump blower etc power work absorbing. So it is consistent with the sign convention for thermodynamic work. Now one point that we notice here in passing but we will take this up in detail later is that the Euler turbine equation involves only fluid mechanical quantities that namely velocities of a fluid and mass flow rate. No thermodynamic properties are seen in the Euler turbine equation as it is written here. So this is something that we will develop on at a later point. Now the next question that naturally arises is the following in case of an actual device let us say we take a device like this in case of an actual device if I look at let us say this set of blades the fluid enters the blade along the entire height of the blade and exits along the entire height of the blade. So how do we evaluate v theta one and v theta two or u one and u two what is that u one will vary along the height of the blade v theta one v x one and v r one all will vary along the height of the blade. So how do we evaluate v theta one v theta two u one and u two in this case or in the case of a centrifugal machine like this v theta one u one and the other components vary along the length of the impeller as the fluid flows through the impeller these components vary along the length of the impeller so how do we evaluate v theta one u one v theta two u two. Now for this purpose we introduce a concept known as blade element. Now in the case of an axial rotor like this we draw a circle at radius r typically the mid height of the blade and we take out an element of radial thickness dr at this location. So at the mid radius we take out an element of thickness dr which would be along the entire circumference so we take it out then we cut it open and then lay the elements flat. If you do that this is what it will look like in the case of a turbine. So we take out an element of radial thickness dr and remove the element and cut it open then lay it down flat this is what it would look like. If we do this for a compressor blade for instance then this is what the layout would look like basically the blades are all laid out along this so this is the circumference of the blade but laid out in a flat manner on this surface. Now in the case of a radial machine like the centrifugal pump what we do is we actually take an axial section of thickness dx at any axial location of the impeller. So we take an axial section along the vertical line like this for thickness dx and then we lay it out like this and this would be the blade element in this case so this would be the blade element in this case so the pump rotates like this so we have laid out a blade element of axial thickness dx so the axial thickness dx in this case would be perpendicular to the plane of the paper similarly here the radial thickness dr will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper in both these cases. So we can evaluate v theta 1 and u 1 at the entry to this blade passage and at exit to the blade passage in order to evaluate the power from the Euler-Termin equation. Note that one of the advantages of using the notion of blade element is that only two components of velocity are taken to be non-zero notice that only the axial component of velocity which in this case is perpendicular to the tangential direction and the angular component of velocity which is in this direction only these two components appear in this flow field. So the radial component of velocity which is perpendicular to the plane of the paper is taken to be zero similarly here the axial direction or axial component of velocity which is perpendicular to the blade speed and the tangential component of velocity alone appear in this and the other component of velocity namely the radial component which is perpendicular to this which is along the height of the blade is taken to be zero. In this case also notice that only two components of velocity namely the radial component of velocity and the tangential component of velocity or non-zero in a blade element the axial component of velocity which is along the width of the blade in this case is taken to be zero. For developing the basic theory this assumption is perfectly acceptable but in real life the flow will be three-dimensional so many such blade elements have to be taken and calculations may have to be done using many such blade elements. What is done in the basic theory is to take a blade element and assume that all blade elements develop the same power so that the analysis can be used in real life application with a great degree of accuracy. Small improvements on or any other improvement to this theory can always be made by doing three-dimensional calculations or measurements. So this is what we will do when we try to evaluate the right hand side of the Euler-Tangou missionary equation so v theta 1 u 1 v theta 2 u 2 or measure for the reference to this blade element. Now another important concept in the in the context of blade element is the notion of the relative velocity denoted here by c so we have talked about absolute velocity of the fluid what is the capital V denotes the absolute velocity of fluid by absolute velocity what we mean is a frame of reference where the rotor rotates and the fluid enters. Now relative velocity which is denoted by c is the velocity of the fluid measured in a frame of reference where the blade is stationary in other words the blade appears to be stationary and the relative velocity is the velocity measured in this frame of reference. This is important because it is used for designing the shape of the blade under design operating conditions. So under design operating condition the relative velocity of the fluid approaching the blade is such that it glides on and off the blade surface smoothly which means that the relative velocity vector is tangential to the blade profile at inlet and exit which is why the relative velocity is very important for designing the shape of the blade. Let us take a look at this what is that the relative velocity is tangential to the blade profile at inlet and exit in these situations and also in this situation so the relative velocity of the fluid is defined like this it is the absolute velocity of the fluid minus the blade velocity at that location what is that everything is done at a particular location so an observer sitting on the rotor at this radius or on this blade element would see the fluid approaching the rotor with the velocity c and they should actually be on this blade element would see the fluid approaching the rotor or leaving the rotor with velocity c. So if you draw the velocity triangle which is a graphical illustration of these three velocities you can see that velocity vector is the sum of the relative velocity vector plus the blade speed so v is equal to u plus c so you can see that the relative velocity vector I am sorry the absolute velocity vector v is the sum vector sum of the relative velocity vector c and the blade velocity vector u. In this case also the absolute velocity vector v is the sum of the relative velocity vector c at the blade velocity vector u. However, notice that the geometry of the velocity triangle is different in this case and different in this case.


Hi everyone, today I'm going to be reviewing the Plant Spectrum 32 Girl Light. As you may know, I don't usually do review videos on my channel, but when mother contacted me and this is the name of the company that created the Plant Spectrum 32, I was really excited to learn more about them. This is because this company actually has the mission to create sustainable products for sustainable living at home, which is really great. And they offered to send this Girl Light to me just to test it out and see what my experience would be. And guys, I can tell you, this has become my favorite Girl Light. I really love it for many different reasons, so I really wanted to share my experience with you so you can learn a little bit more about it. And if you would like to try it out, of course you can do so. As I said, this is the Plant Spectrum 32 Girl Light. The price is €189, which you may say that it's on the higher end of the spectrum. But I can tell you, in my opinion, I think it is totally worth it for many different reasons that I'm going to talk about in the video. This Girl Light is an LED Girl Light, so it has an LED board here, and it simulates the sunlight, which is the first difference that I found when I tried it from my other Girl Lights. The light really looks like natural light. It's not only nice to see for us, but it's also really great for our plants. And I will tell you about that in a moment. But yes, when I compared the light that is produced by this one with my other Girl Lights, I could see the difference. This one looks really natural, whereas the other ones, even though they're LED, they still look a little bit more like electric light. So that was really nice. Another very cool thing about this Girl Light is the aluminum housing. And I want to tell you two things that I love about it. First, this is 100% recycled material, which is really great for the planet. Second, this works as a cooling material. So the way that it works is that the aluminum absorbs the heat from the LED lights. And this prevents overheating of your LED board. Which is really great because if you think about it, when you have a Girl Light with a plastic housing, the heat is going to stay within the lamp. And this will result in your LED board worrying out more quickly. Which then will change the results on your plants. So this is really great because it will make your LED board last longer. In their website, they say that this LED board actually can last up to eight years. And after some years, when your LED board does wear out, you can replace it. So you don't have to replace the whole lamp, you can just replace this one. Which is very cost effective and very good for the planet. I gotta say, the setup was really easy and this is another reason why I love this Girl Light. It is very accessible to beginners. And there are two ways that you can set it up. First, you can just put it vertically like this and just put it on a stand with this disk. Or you can invest in an attachable piece so you can hang it over your plants like this. But anyways, I decided to have it vertical, so let me show you how to set it up. And as I said, it's really easy, all we have to do is attach this disk to the bottom of the lamp. You plug it in and you're ready. Anyways, if you have any questions, the box comes with a QR code. So you can just take a picture with your phone and you will see the instructions online. To use it as I said, it's really easy, you just plug it in and turn it on. And leave it on for the time that your plant needs. Of course, different plants have different requirements for light. So as I always say, it's always good to know the requirements for your plant. But another very cool thing about this lamp is that you can actually go online and they have a list of different plants with their requirements. So then they teach you how to use this lamp with your specific plant. So I decided to use this Girl Light with my Strelitzia Nikolai. And I decided this plant because this plant was struggling and it was because of light. So here in Berlin in the winter, we don't have so much light. And for some reason, I thought that just having her close to the window would be enough for her. But she was just not getting enough light. And I know this because I saw a new leaf coming out maybe in the beginning of the fall. But this leaf was just not unfurled. So I got this light in March and the leaf was still trying to come out, but it just wouldn't. So I thought, okay, maybe this would be a good plan to try this one out. And guys, I can tell you after one week, the leaf was unfurling. The color was really amazing. It's a very green, vibrant color. And she seems to have three more leaves coming out. So this light was a miracle. So I used the app to know exactly when to turn this one on for my Strelitzia. And it said between six to 12 hours. So I turned it on about eight hours a day. And that seemed to work. For me, it has been a very good experience because as I said, the light really looks like natural light. So it was not only beneficial for my plant, but it was also beneficial for me. It did make it really nice for me as well, because sometimes the leaves were really dark outside. But having this light on felt like the sun was out. So it was great for my plants, but also for me. Okay, I'll admit that one thing that could make this grow light better would be a timer. You can always buy an extra timer and connect it to your lamp. But it would be nice if it included its own timer, so it would be easier to use. I can tell you that as someone that is very forgetful, so I usually forget to turn my grow lights on or off. But of course, you can always get an extra timer and connect it to the plug or your lamp. So to conclude, I will strongly recommend the Plant Spectrum 32 for three reasons. First, it is great for our plants, given that it provides an LED grow light that simulates the sunlight. I can tell you from my Strelitzia, it was really great. It promoted new growth as well as really beautiful colors. Second, this grow light was made with plant beginners like us in mind. It was really easy to set up and really easy to use, given that they provide a list of plants so you can find your plant and just see exactly how to use this grow light with them. And the third thing that I really love about this grow light is the mission behind it and how it really portrays in the final product. This is a very sustainable grow light. First, as I said, the housing is made of 100% recycled aluminum, which is really great. Second, as the aluminum prevents overheating, the LED board will last longer. So this is great for durability. And when our LED board wears out after some years, we can just replace it. We don't have to replace the whole lamp. So yeah, it's pretty amazing. If you would like to learn more about the Plant Spectrum 32 grow light or any other products by Mother, I'm going to make sure to add their website in the description down below so you can read more about them. And as always, I will see you in the next one. Okay, tchau!


See it? My finger? Look at my finger, buddy. I'll follow it over here to the side. Follow my finger, Jer. You might want to just go to hospital billing. Follow my finger, honey. I had a boy. Okay. Follow my finger. Follow my finger. Follow my finger. Look at my finger, Jer. Do that. Follow it where I move it. Now follow it over here. Follow my finger, Jer. Here it is again. Follow my finger, Jeremy. Here's my finger. Look right at it, buddy. Follow my finger. Good job. Follow my finger, honey. See it? Follow my finger, Jer. Do my finger. Follow it. Follow my finger. Do my finger. Now follow it. Follow my finger.


This study investigated the effect of water and chemical extraction methods on the properties of alpherophysinalis L, marshmallow, fibres, revealing that alkali boiling in 5% NaOH solution improved crystallinity index by 14%, while chemically extracted fibres showed 37% higher tensile strength and higher density compared to water extracted fibres, with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis indicating changes in chemical composition due to chemical extraction. This article was authored by Ahmet Sarkaylin, Sir Hon Cocters, Mita Han Attiga, and others.


Well, it says we're live, so hopefully it'll stay that way Anybody can see our video before I get too excited We will see Sweet Second ago. I told me two vats of sat You're not like tried 100 team times We're good. So hi. Hello. How are you guys? Sorry? I've been absent life and Fedora, but we're here. We're good. Thank you so Today we're using the amazing Clear a luma light if you would like to get it from a luma lights website I have a link down in the description for an awesome discount. What's up? At Jeanette in Florida. How is Florida? I hope you didn't have any of those issues with bad weather The H word So I am using the amazing quick coat. This is a quick coat that has UV resistance So it's got about a 20 minute working time, but only Roughly Like a two to four hour cure time depending on your ambient temperatures and everything but it has super short working time So I have to move fast. I hope you've all had an awesome day today What's up at Mac? How are you doing vamp? Your video today was awesome. Thanks for the update on your life If you guys missed it, you should check it out All right, let's start mixing colors. So it have in my little tea tiny Medicine size cup Some clear I'm gonna mix in some white to this titanium from just resin I am out of that right now, but a Very very close color to that. They just don't have open right now is the angel white from Lurez, which I do have in stock for the first time in a long time So if you want to get your hands on some lures, it is in stock right now And we want it to be opaque right so you cannot see it through it opaque one So now I'm gonna mix up some blue lagoon. I'm out of Bondi. So I wasn't gonna show it off to you guys And I'm currently out of this color as well Let me This is called Jackie shimmer and it is a beautiful It's like Thornton shimmer, but it's got a little bit more blue to it It's a little more on the green side in real life This is a base cell and I'm gonna use that to my advantage in this poor Jackie shimmer Does that have it has like some sparkle in it, huh? It does it does have sparkle Well, it's it's kind of like sparkle, but it's more like and a Shimmer I know that's like a hard distinction, but Hopefully you can see it, but it's beautiful color And then for my other color that I'm gonna use it's going to be Aqua see also by color passion if you guys have never seen me use color passion This is what I used to get my really really big cells Because it is a base paste and if you don't know what a base cell paste is it is a paste that has to be under Other kinds of paste in order to create cells. So for example, I'm using titanium white. I'm gonna put that over these base pastes and That is going to be what gives me my cells. So to start out. I'm going to pour out. Make sure you guys can see what I'm doing So I'm clear where my ocean Waves are gonna be Perfect beautiful sweet amazing Then I'm gonna start with my aqua see and usually I use translucent and transparent pastes But today we are doing something a little bit different because I want to do a swipe And when I do swipes, I got to have my base paste in there This is a piece that I did forever ago I've actually poured on this canvas a few times and Haven't been happy with it yet. So that's kind of my process if I do a piece and I don't like it Then we pour over it if I have it for an extended period of time Typically I use trans parents and translucent over those Like paintings like like this to have under paintings pre pours under pours. And so that's why I'm using this translucent aqua color in between my base cell pastes Don't pay attention how it looks right now. Just believe in the process Does not look cute in this moment, but it will Just Trust me Okay, I'm moving really fast on this piece because it is a quick coat. So if you are commenting Specifically to me and not to the mods Then just give me a moment to get this piece rolling and then I will be able to answer your questions I'm trying to move you guys because the recorded areas in the flash them Sorry, sorry about that y'all But while I'm down here I'll give you a little lower look. I got this great PR box from a luma light to the other day And we're going to be opening it and reviewing it with you guys Soon so I always put a clear Down and separate it with Nope, I always put a clear in between my blues and my whites to separate it a bit Swipes over here Let's add some heat just to pop the bubbles and make sure I don't have any floaters in there Ultimately, this could be a finish all on its own like all these swirly's Look pretty good. Can they not hear her? I saw vamp say it's the phones microphone I have my I'm the mic on I don't know. Well, I'm maybe upside down y'all today. I've had the worst luck with Can you guys hear me now? I've had the worst luck with technology this week mercury and retrograde deal is being serious Okay, okay, as long as you can hear me now. We're good to go. All right So now I'm going to take my super amazing expensive swiping papers look like this They're actually the labels for my shipping and you can get them on my website. They're not expensive and the first thing I'm gonna do Is make sure I lay my Swiping paper of flats don't want to do it vertical. I'll lay it right in my white Then I'm gonna drag through the rest of my color But not all the way so they don't want to mess up too much Do you use the same paper twice I do not thank you for asking I use a new paper every time because whatever color you lay your Swiping paper in is gonna be what color your waves are And so I kind of speed up at the end so that I can get this kind of break Right there. You can use a whole piece. I'm not putting any pressure down. I'm just Well, it decided it was gonna put pressure right there So it's going to roll with that and I'm gonna speed it up at the end We'll have to fix that and then it's not too thrilled with that area But because we're using the amazing quick coat, we only have so much time I'm adding just a little bit of wave designs That corner was bent so it kind of dragged Funky, I'm adding just a little bit of heat to Disperse I think is the word I'm looking for and thinning out the resin that's on the top Just lightly with this torch But since I'm going so fast. I'm not really doing anything to the resin underneath and so it's dispersing over the top and that is a reaction Because of the the paste that I'm using I'm using a regular top-cell white over All base cells So I had a little dribble here. So let me fix that and I think I want to do something to this This you know what I mean? I'm not sure what put another wave Put one coming like this and you like like it's like A bigger wave coming in and it's gonna give it a little Okay, no, no, no, I like it. So I'm gonna just come up though. I'm just gonna not do Alright, so because I'm adding another wave I'm putting a base cell down because I just want to make sure that I'm going over a base cell With my swipe. I haven't added a second wave with swipes Like this So I have no idea how this is gonna go or look or be Do I have some more of this? It hasn't gotten hot yet, so we got some time to make it a little bit more Jackie I always leave a little bit of resin in my mixing cup for just such occasion. Hey Jackie That's something that in and around something starting to get warm Okay, what why put the dark down? I Need a base paste to go To be under my this right it's starting to get warm already, so I'm not gonna take the time to do To heat it to pop the bubbles Do I like that? I feel like I like that looks good. All right So I'm gonna come up above the wave a little bit because I like how this looks this little And so since I want to pull some other color in oh, no, I went too far actually that looks fun Okay, I'm actually really liking that Zero percent what I intended But I like it So as you can see whatever color I lay my paper in is what color the top is I'm gonna like this I think I like this stuff So you like this yeah, I kind of do to me Because it just turns into the wave like it just when it's settling and yeah Because you think it's heating up more it's getting thicker as you can see there's a dip here from where I just pulled up So it is on the thicker side at this point So somebody just walked in why is it getting so hot so fast because I'm using the aluminum light amazing quick coat So this is gonna be quick coat that has UV Resistance it's not gonna yellow like the regular quick coat So ooh, we're starting to get what the big cells already Anytime you wait a little bit before You do any design work.  However, that is a very dangerous game because your resin goes from thick and workable to a Fireball to an amazing paperweight in not much time at all So just be advised if you know it sounds like she has a whole roll of like something she shouldn't and she's tearing it And she's supposed to tear that up, but not that much Babe here. I'll get it. She's She loves to tear up her look at this Yo, she loves to tear up her chew toys Should I edge up or just leave it to live? Sorry y'all No, ma'am. Thanks Emma love the hair by the way Send me one for my birthday So should I edge this or let it live? Then leave them to the edge of thing. I think so maybe it just looks a little like So I'm gonna follow I'm gonna follow that Follow the yeah Yeah, it's gonna be just an abstract wave here on the back side Pay it no mind. I'm just waiting on this to break so I can pull my stick back These cells are getting ridiculous. Yeah, that's like like those are eraser sized If I had a bigger piece, I could get them nickel sized Cells are like fish they grow to the size of their environment It's true. Oh You remember we used to do these cells all the time these like What are we calling Oreo cells because they were like cells and cells and cells for here?  Blower on it. So Jenna I'm not gonna use a blower because it is further in the setting process because it is a quick-setting resin and It just it would make the waves kind of it just wouldn't look right if I'd have blow blown it sooner it could have worked but This far along I don't know about it So I'm super pumped with how it turned out. I'm gonna try to transfer real quick I'm sure the desk free zone is wonky. I can see about You can show you on this what it would look like with a blower Yeah, I have some white left so even though it's thicker I'll heat it up Locate my blower So I have to heat this up a lot Because it's thicker it's still not gonna go. It's just too far set. It's too far set Tell you what though. How fun does that look? Super fun So if you're interested in getting cells like these Go to my shop artist till that calm and get you some color passion paste this one It's aqua see the other one is Jackie which you can't read it anymore because I'm a messy and you can get some angel white and You can create your own oceans Yeah So I have sale on my website ATDs for 5% off You can grab you some of these awesome colors Now you're designing the table leftovers Well, I would love to be able to do something with these drips, but I Don't do necklaces and jewelry, but a lot of people do that with their runoff I've often offered people if they send me like Return label then I'll send them This bill over the drip is But anyways That is the piece for today. I hope you enjoyed it Hope you learned something love something How fun it are those this looks like that that rock I wanted to do for a long time. What? Loose site that's probably not right Yes, it is a great way of doing oceans that are not transparent because I usually do transparent oceans. Thank you Vampus All right, you guys get to my website and get you some base cell paste any color passion paste the CP Will act as a base cell paste except for the one that says top cell paste Everything else can be used just like this just swipe another paste Over the base cell paste and it'll give you those cells magic science Thank you Paula for reminding people to leave me your thumbs. I hope you guys have an awesome evening. I'm gonna go paint and Yeah, we'll see you guys say Friday Today is Friday. My goodness. We'll see you guys on Monday, but I will be editing down this video to post for you guys I feel like there needs to be something But we'll see Jeff wants to talk to you guys about something so don't leave. Don't leave me yet. Oh Jeff wants your thoughts on something keep your pieces sell by the pound Well, I want to sell all the pieces so this is Like the little Side table thing And I want to do something with it to where it looks like this when you open it obviously put some resin Yes, TG. It is Laraz. So we could do something completely different this side You can do like an elegant white marble on one side and then open it and it's just craziness We found this in the hall of our building I think it would be fun But it's one of those little couch tray things But leave us a comment down in the description But nope in the comment box of what designs you think we should do on the inside and the outside BAMP I knew you would love it as soon as I saw it. I was like BAMP would revamp this so hard anyways, we'll probably end up doing that this weekend and I got commissioned to do a Maryland Monroe painting. So that's fun. Anyways, I hope you guys have an awesome day Have a safe weekend, and we'll see you guys back here in class at 6 p.m. On Monday 6 p.m. Central but till then be kind to one another because you never know what someone's going through They don't remember we do the tests so you don't have to I'll see you guys in the next video. Bye


The Foundation for Advancement in Conservation administers the National Heritage Responders Program to support disaster recovery for museums, libraries, and archives. We have a team of around 100 volunteers around the United States who staff a 24-7 hotline to provide guidance to institutions in need. Sometimes advice can be provided remotely. For other events, we deploy individuals, small teams, or large waves of volunteers. For example, when flooding brought seven feet of river water into the African-American Museum of Iowa, an NHR team member was able to work with colleagues to save 90% of the collection. To help institutions prepare for emergencies, FAIC has also produced publications that have become indispensable resources for collecting institutions. To learn more about cultural heritage response, visit culturalheritage.org slash emergencies.