In my house there are two kinds of switches, ones used for low power devices like your TVs or mobile chargers or your laptops and everything. And the other one for the high power devices like your air conditioners or your refrigerators, your geysers and things like that. I'm pretty sure the same thing exists in your house as well. So the question is, the question that I always had is why do we have two different kinds of plugs? Why can't we attach high power devices over here? It's advice not to do that, but why? Well, to answer this we need to see the complete picture of how all these sockets are connected together, what is the kind of circuit that we have in our house, which looks somewhat like this. Whoa, that looks very complicated. So you know what we'll do? We'll start from what we already know and then build up from there. Okay, so we've seen that for each plug point there will be three wires coming in. So two wires come directly from the mains. One is the live wire, another one is called the neutral wire. I'm not going to write that because it's going to get crowded as you've seen. And the voltage difference between them is about 220 volts in India. And of course we have one more wire, which is a safety wire, which is called the ground or the earth wire. This wire carries any current that is leaking off from devices due to any faults, ensuring that we don't get any shock. So ideally it's not supposed to carry any current. And we've talked about this in previous videos, so if you need more details, feel free to check that out. But the thing is in our houses, we don't have just one plug point. We have many plug points and many devices and all of them will have these wires coming out of them. And somehow all these must be connected together in some kind of a circuit. So the first question we want to try and answer is what kind of connection do you think we'll be having? And again to answer this, we can start thinking from what we have already seen. We've already seen two kinds of circuit connections that we can have. We can have a series connection and we can have a parallel connection. So what do you think is the kind of connection in our houses? Do you think it's a series or parallel? Or do you think it's a mix? Some are connected in series and some would be in parallel. Why don't you pause the video and just give this a thought. Alright, if you've given it some thought, let's see. Let's start by exploring the series connection. The series is when you connect them end to end, right? Now one immediate problem you can see over here when two plugs are, let's say, connected in series is that if you were to close one of the switch, let's say I put my mobile to charge over here and I close one of that switch, no current will flow over here. Why? Because this switch is open. See, this is one single wire. If you want the current to flow in this wire, then both the switches need to be closed. That means you need to switch on both these plug points in order for the current to flow. So either both will run or none of them will run. That's how series works, which means that's very inconvenient, right? I mean, I don't know about you, but I don't think I want my devices to work that way. I want them to be independent of each other. Does that make sense? And so if you could consider that in mind, series is completely out of the option so we cannot have any devices coming in series. So what does that leave us with? That leaves us with parallel connection. So the way we can connect plug points to make them independent of each other is we connect them parallel across each other so that each of the plug point are connected across the same points, the live wire and the neutral wire. So if you do it this way, notice now I can close the switch and the current will run through that because this is one independent circuit. It's independent of these plug points and those switches. So parallel is how all the circuits are connected in our houses. And of course they would have their own grounds as well. It's also super important. And by the way, if you're looking at this, you're wondering what this curve means. It basically denotes that the ground and the live are not connected to each other. It's just a way of showing that they're independent wires. It shows that one wire is going above the other. That's it. So this now might make you wonder, does that mean every single plug point in your house and all the fans and all the devices get exactly the same voltage? Yes, that's right. Every single plug point will get the same voltage. That's the defining feature. And how much is that voltage? As we said, it's about 220 volt which is pretty high and that's what makes these things dangerous. And this might make you ask another question. Well, does every single device require 220 volt? What about your phone charges? Do they really need 220 volt? Well, no. In such cases, you know what you'll see inside those plug, inside those adapters, you will see small devices called transformers that can reduce the voltage if needed. You'll learn about them in higher grades and everything. Don't worry about them. The point is every single device, every single plug point gives you 220 volts. But not always. That's right. You don't always get 220 volts because there can be fluctuations. You might know about this. There can be say lightning strikes or short circuits or overloading, things that we'll learn about in future videos, of course. But because of all of these things, voltages need not stay the same. Sometimes you'll end up getting low voltage, in which case your light bulbs and your tube lights will glow a little bit less. Maybe your fans will be working a little slower, which is a minor inconvenience, not a big deal. But what if sometimes you get a high voltage? That's also possible due to fluctuations. You might get say, I don't know, maybe a thousand volt, which is totally possible. What happens then? Well, then your devices will start drawing more currents if they are connected.  That's one thing that can happen. But there are more dangerous things that can happen. You might know that if, as the amount of current starts running through the wire, as that amount increases, the wire starts getting more and more heated up. And if this wire is not designed to handle that current, then that heating effect can actually melt the insulation, exposing the live wires, exposing these wires. And they can go and touch other wires and cause all sorts of problems. Another thing that can happen is if the heat is too much, it can even catch fire. That's just the worst. Which means to safeguard ourselves, let me just get back to normal, to safeguard ourselves from these dangerous high voltage fluctuations, we need to somehow make sure that if the current exceeds a particular value, then the circuit disconnects somehow. How do we do that? Well, you might already know about that. That's where a fuse comes in. So this is what we call a fuse. So what exactly is a fuse? So what exactly is this fuse? Well, a basic fuse is just a wire which has the ability to get heated up much quicker than the rest of the wires. So as the current starts increasing in value, the fuse wire starts getting heated up very quickly. And after a point, it's the fuse wire that immediately melts. And as a result, the contact breaks, and this ensures that the entire, you know, the domestic circuit, the circuit in your house is disconnected from the mains. And that's how it ensures safety. And how do we build a wire like that? Well, what are the properties of this wire if you're wondering? Well, a couple of properties, important properties would be, one, it needs to have a very high resistance compared to the rest of the wires. Why? Because a high resistance ensures more heating effect. We have seen that before, right? As the current flows through any object, if it has more resistance, it will have more heating. So that ensures more heating. And to ensure that it melts quickly, it will have low melting point. So it also needs to have low melting point. So with these two features, a fuse wire can be built to protect our circuits. And so now you may be wondering, what's the maximum current this fuse wire can handle? Well, that depends upon different kinds of fuse. You can manufacture different kinds of fuses. But the ones that, you know, the low power circuits that we have in our houses, those fuses can usually handle up to five amps of current. If the current exceeds five amperes, that fuse will melt. So the idea is in this normal circuit, like where your fans and tube lights are connected, the current drawn is very low. That means if the total current exceeds five amperes, that means something unusual is happening. And that's why this is designed that way. So this is what we would call a five amp circuit. And of course, you may be wondering, hey, I don't see these fuses in my house today. Where are they? Well, today they have been replaced by these new devices called circuit breakers. They work on a very similar principle, but over here they don't melt. You don't have to change the wire every time a fuse blows up. They just disconnect automatically. A little bit more advanced, but the idea is the same. So let's not get into that. So perfect, right? We have the fuse to protect us from high voltages. We have the ground wires to protect us from some faults. Everything is fine, but there's one problem. What if I want to run my air conditioner and geysers and refrigerators and other high power devices? What will happen if I connect all of them and switch on all of them? Then together they will definitely try to draw more than five amps of current and the fuse will blow up for no reason. This was not unusual. It's just that high power devices can't run on this particular circuit which only limits to five amperes. So what do we do? What do you think we should do? Well, for that reason we will have a separate circuit for those high power devices. So that's why those plug points which are responsible for, which provide power to high power devices will have a separate circuit. So it will also have its own live wire. It will also have its own neutral wire. It will have its own fuse. And we can now guess that this fuse can handle higher amount of current, right? So it turns out that this high power circuits usually handle about 15 amps of current. So anything above 15 amperes then that fuse will melt. So in our houses we will have two independent circuits. One is five amps and another one is 15 amps. And of course they should also have their own ground. Ground is definitely required. So all these grounds will be connected together. So will there be only two circuits or can there be more such circuits? The answer is you can have many more circuits, each one with their own fuse. It all depends upon where you are staying, how big the house is or whether it's a factory or things like that. But usually they will be having one five ampere circuit and one 15 ampere circuit. So how do we put this all together? I mean there are only two wires, one live and one neutral coming to the house. So how do we distribute it into different circuits? So the basic idea is we connect them all together. So let me show you. So we connect all the neutral wires together. And we connect all the live wires together after the fuse. And we put this in a box which is called the distribution box. Because it's distributing the incoming wires into different different circuits. Let me just write that. This is called the distribution box. Distribution box.  But your electric company needs to bill you, right? They need to know how much electricity you're using. It's for that reason, it doesn't directly go. It goes through an electric meter. Again, something you may have seen. And the basic idea behind this meter is at least the old ones is that, you know, there would be a disk. And depending upon how much current you take, how much current you're drawing, the disk will keep on rotating and then they'll just calculate the total number of rotations the disk has turned. And that's how they calculate how much electricity you've used. And so from there, the wires will get connected to the mains through another fuse. You might be asking why another fuse? Why not? Fuse is a safety device, right? So it doesn't hurt to have two levels of safety. This will again be a higher level fuse, higher amperage fuse. So definitely more fuses at more levels means more safety. And there we have it. This is how our domestic circuit looks like. Hopefully this looks a little less complicated now. All right. So let's put it all together and see if we can recall some important things. So my first question to you is, can you recall what kind of circuits that we do we have usually in our house? Series or parallel or mixed circuits? Second question is, why do we even use a fuse? Can you explain that to a friend? And what are the two important properties that the fuse wire must have? Can you recall that? And also why? And lastly, using these two, can you now explain why we need to maintain two separate circuits? One for low power devices and one for high power devices. If you have difficulty answering any of these questions, feel free to go back and check the video out again. And I'll leave you with one bonus question. Why is the fuse always connected to live wires? Why can't we have a fuse with a neutral wire? Even there, when the fuse melts, the circuit breaks, right? Why is it always connected to live wires? Think about this.


Since we have been talking about the multi-stage machines where each stage consists of a stator followed by a rotor, the degree of reaction of a stage may be defined more or less in the same manner as for a rotor. So the degree of reaction of a stage is defined as the enthalpy change, static enthalpy change across the rotor divided by the stagnation enthalpy change across the entire stage consisting of a stator and a rotor. Since there is no work interaction in a stator, H02 equal to H01, so this expression may be written as H2 minus H3, the static enthalpy change across the rotor divided by the stagnation enthalpy change across the stage or equivalently at the rotor itself. So it's almost identical to the expression that we wrote down. The degree of reaction for a rotor as we mentioned earlier usually varies between 0 and 1. In the case of a stage, the degree of reaction can actually be negative in some cases if the design is very poor or it can actually be again more than 1 in the case of a stage. So we will not go into these two extreme situations. So we will look at this degree of reaction of a stage almost in the same manner as that of a rotor itself. The only difference is that 1 refers to the inlet of the stator, 2 refers to the exit of the stator or rotor inlet and 3 refers to rotor exit, which would also be the inlet to the following stator that is the notation that we will use. Let us look at a couple of examples to illustrate how we calculate the degree of reaction for a stage. The first example reads like this. In an axial turbine, the rotor and stator blades of the same shape that are reversed in direction show that the degree of reaction of the stage is 40%. So let us just quickly go back and take a look at the blade shape here using the notation that we have just given. So let us look at the turbine stage here. So here is 1, 2 and 3. So the blade shapes are the same, but they are reversed in direction is the information that is given, which means that alpha 2, which is the flow angle at the exit of the stator should be equal to the blade angle at the exit of the rotor. So alpha 2 is equal to beta 3 and alpha 1, which is the flow angle at entry to the rotor is also equal to alpha 3 because that is the same angle at which the flow enters the stator in the following stage, so alpha 1 equal to alpha 3 and which in turn is equal to the blade angle at entry to the rotor, so that means alpha 1 equal to alpha 3 equal to beta 2. So to summarize alpha 2 equal to beta 3 and alpha 1 equal to alpha 3 equal to beta 2 is what we will have if the blades are symmetric for just reversed in direction. So that is what we have written here, alpha 2 equal to beta 3 and alpha 1 equal to alpha 3 equal to beta 2. Now if you construct a velocity triangle with this information for an axial rotor it should be very easy to show that C2 is equal to V3 and C3 equal to V2 in this case, I urge the student to actually go through this construction and convince themselves of this fact. Therefore the enthalpy change across the rotor H2 minus H3 is C3 square minus C2 square over 2 since H plus C square over 2 is constant for an axial machine and if we substitute for the relative velocity from here we get this to be equal to V2 square minus V3 square over 2. Now the change in stagnation enthalpy across the rotor H02 minus H03 is nothing but the specific work and we may write it like this using Euler turbine equation and after setting U2 equal to U3 because it is an axial machine. If we substitute again for the relative velocities from here we get the change in specific stagnation enthalpy to be equal to V2 square minus V3 square. So the degree of reaction which is defined as H2 minus H3 divided by H02 minus H03 then comes out to be identically equal to 1 half.


In India, coronary artery disease has become a common finding and in rural area, 3% people are affected by coronary artery disease and in rural India, around 6-7% people are having coronary artery disease. If we consider the death, this heart attack causes the 25% of all the deaths in our country. It's so common. And Indians, another thing is that the Indians are having coronary artery disease at younger age, 10 years earlier as compared to our western part. And the heart attack also is a severe in India. So we should know about the symptoms of heart attack. So commonest symptoms of the heart attack is a chest pain and sometimes this pain happens in the shoulders also, sometimes in right shoulder and right part of the chest, not always in the left part of the chest. Interestingly, around 20% patients are having pain in the stomach. So this is causing a lot of confusion about the gastritis. So if you are having this chest pain or epigastric pain associated with the shortness of breath or giddiness, you should consult your doctor as early as possible. And please do not neglect the chest pain. So if your doctor are suggesting for some investigations like ECG equal and treadmill test or even engeography, you should go for that because heart attack, the time is a muscle and time is alive. So if the treatment starts within six hours of your chest pain, the results are good. After six hours as the time passes on, the results are not so good but it causes because of the damage in the heart. So if you want to be pure, you should go for the treatment as early as possible. This is the image of the coronary artery disease. These are the blood vessels of the heart and cholesterol and other things are accumulated in this part of the coronary artery which causes the choking of these arteries, these blood vessels. And once this becomes 100% close, you will get the heart attack. What we are doing in our engeography and engeoplasty, we are just opening this block as in putting an extent here so that there should not be a recurrence of the blockage in this part of the disease. If we get it done within six hours or preferably within two hours, the results are very good. After 12 by 24 hours, the results are not good because in 24 hours, the majority of the heart muscles gets damaged like this. There is a blockage and this part is getting damaged. So after damage has happened, the engeoplasty is not going to help you much and you may have a permanent damage in the heart and you will have a permanent symptoms like breathlessness and all. So we have to take care of our heart and we have to take care of ourselves by getting us examined on the regular basis. And if you have a family history, definitely yes, you have to get yourself checked up. Otherwise also, after the age of 40 years, we should go for the excretive health checkup. That includes sugar, cholesterol, ECG, ECO, and substance treatment test also. Thank you.


Hi and welcome to Nursing School Explained. Today's topic is cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that is autosomal recessive. And it is a disorder of the exocrine glands. So exocrine glands are glands that secrete something to help the body perform some sort of function. And in this particular case, these exocrine glands of the bronchioles, small intestine, pancreas and bile ducts are affected. And what cystic fibrosis does, there's an abnormal secretion of abnormally thick mucus in all of these organs. So now when we think about mucus production, we always have to think that something is getting clogged. So when we have abnormal secretions, abnormally thick mucus in the lungs, then we have to think about shortness of breath and then consequences that kind of continue because this is a chronic genetic disorder that we that there's no cure for currently. And so because it affects the bronchioles and then most of the digestive tract, let's look at the signs and symptoms that we will be seeing in these body systems. So in the respiratory system, there will be wheezing because we have that mucus production. And initially, there will be a dry and nonproductive cough. And the patient is prone to frequent respiratory infections because it's a chronic condition. And there's all this mucus that's trapping the bacteria, the viruses that the patient might be encountering. And then it is difficult for the patient to get rid of that mucus. So they're at higher risk for infections and complications from those. In later stages, the cough will turn wet with thick sputum production because we know this these exocrine glands produce this abnormally thick mucus. There might be crackles or Ronchi and Ronchi are typically there when there's a lot of sputum or mucus in the lungs. That's something that we can hear. The patient will have dysmia or tachypnea. And over time, because again, this is a chronic condition, it can lead to emphysema and adelektosis, as well as corpominal. And corpominal is an expression or another term for right sided heart failure. So this is basically over years when the lungs have been chronically congested, all this mucus is accumulating. And the heart is trying to pump blood to the lungs. So because of all this resistance in the lungs, it's congested. So the right heart has to pump harder to get the fluids pumped into the lungs that are congested. And eventually, it'll lead to right ventricular hypertrophy enlargement of that right ventricle because it's just pumping so hard trying to get the blood to flow to these congested lungs. And over time, it'll lead to that right sided heart failure. And then as with any chronic lung conditions over time, signs and symptoms will also include clubbing of the fingers and the barrel chest. And this is basically something that we also see in patients with emphysema, where typically emphysema is caused by smoking, but in this case, cystic fibrosis is the culprit. So for digestive system, because there is all this thick mucus that's blocking the bile ducts and the pancreatic enzymes from being secreted as well as the small intestine to be sluggish, the patient will not be able to break down fats. So there's all this congestion in the bile ducts, they can't really get the enzymes out. And that's therefore the patient will have statoria or fatty stools. Now the patient, because the digestive system is just not functioning appropriately, will also be at risk for malnutrition and delayed growth. There will be deficient in fat soluble vitamins because we just cannot absorb the fat. And those are vitamins A, D, E and K. And the most significant ones here are A, which leads to eye tissue thickening, and then vitamin K, which can lead to problems with clotting or bleeding disorders. Now the patient will also have a protuberant abdomen and thin extremities. That's a pretty typical sign of a chronically ill cystic fibrosis patient. They will have this kind of protuberant abdomen with very thin extremities and that has to do with all this malnutrition over years that has accumulated. And they'll also be thin and underweight because they just cannot absorb the nutrients that a normal child would be able to absorb. And then for exocrine glands, because exocrine glands are also in the sweat, so there will be increased sodium and chloride in the sweat because they're just overproducing that, increasing the sweat and therefore the patient is at risk for electrolyte imbalances. And if the patient has not been diagnosed through a routine newborn screening, which we'll get to in a moment, then mothers in infants with cystic fibrosis, they will still, they'll kiss their infant and they'll have this abnormally salty taste. And that is because of this increased sweat production that these children have. Now for diagnostic tests, again, this is a routine newborn screening that is done for all children nowadays. And then there is a special test called the pylocarpine ionotrophoresis tests. I know it's a mouthful, but it basically measures the sodium and chloride content of the sweat.  We also want to look at liver function because we have all these digestive organs affected, so small intestine, pancreas and bile ducts. And whenever we think about those three, we can think of something, some damage happening to the liver because the bile ducts are not secreting, they're not functioning appropriately. Now certainly if the patient has complications or even just symptoms of respiratory, any kind of respiratory symptoms, then they will need a chest x-ray and a sputum culture to see if there is a bacterial or viral pathogen that's right now residing in the patient's lungs, as well as pulmonary function tests to measure the ability of the lungs to expand the lung volumes, all those things. Now for treatment, because it is a genetic disorder and there's currently no treatment to fix these endocrine glands, the treatment goal is to prevent and treat respiratory infections because certainly that's the most concerning goal if there is a lot of respiratory infections or congestion that the patient eventually will get a bad respiratory infection that they might die from. So we want to prevent and treat those. We want to promote optimal nutrition and we'll get into that here in a moment. And then certainly the psychological adjustment, not only to the patient but also the family because this is a lifelong disease and the life expectancy of children with cystic fibrosis is much shorter than for anybody who doesn't have cystic fibrosis. It used to be that life expectancy was about in their 20s and now with the different treatment options this has extended to maybe the 40s but again cases are different depending on the severity and their ability to manage symptoms. Now how do we manage these patients? So we want to manage their respiratory signs and symptoms because we have all the stick mucus production we want to get rid of it and the way we do that to mobilize the secretions we do chest physiotherapy, postural drainage and percussion and if you're not familiar with chest physiotherapy I would look that up. There's a variety of different options on how that can be accomplished. Percussion is just as simple as cupping the hand and kind of drumming on the patient's chest to mobilize these secretions. Postural drainage means maybe having the patient lay on their stomach, maybe with the head angled down because we want to percuss and mobilize these secretions and get them up into the upper airway so hopefully the patients can spit them out. And then regular arrow because regular aerobic exercise is important for any child but particularly for patients with cystic fibrosis because it's going to help expand the lungs, prevent the the atelectasis, help on delaying the onset of the emphysema and all those good things. Now they will certainly need antibiotics and steroids as needed if they suffer from a complication or even just a very mild upper respiratory infection. They might need supplemental oxygen as the disease progresses and then genetic counseling will be important not only for the patient as they might come to reproductive age but also to the parents of this child because we know it's a genetic disorder so we might want to screen them to see what's the risk of them having another child with this chronic cystic fibrosis disease. Now for the digestive system because we know that they are at risk for malnutrition delayed growth and they have the deficiency of these fat soluble vitamins so treatment will be high calorie, high protein diet to promote their growth and promote their nutritional status. They will need pancreatic enzymes because it's affecting the pancreas and the pancreas and bile ducts are not going to be able to secrete those digestive enzymes that we need to break down proteins carbohydrates and fat so patients will need supplements of those as well as fat soluble vitamin supplements because we know that they're deficient in these vitamins because they have these fatty stools so their body is not really able to absorb fats which will put them at risk for these fat soluble vitamin deficiencies. Thank you for watching this video on cystic fibrosis. Please also watch the other videos in the pediatric playlist that discuss more of the more acute pediatric respiratory disorders and I will see you next time. Thanks for watching.


The technologies NASA develops in exploring the universe impact our lives in ways we don't even realize, which means if you change one moment in space history, you change the world. We're going to do a little bit of a fun thought experiment today on Vintage Space. If you guys are total history nerds like me and love thinking about how one change in the past has massive implications for the future, check out NBC's new show Timeless. So there are plenty of amazing what-if moments in the course of space history, but we're going to look at one of my personal favorites today, and that is the launch of the RS-27 Redstone rocket in 1956. So here's what happened. In September of 1956, Werner von Braun and his team from the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville were down at Cape Canaveral in Florida. They stacked the RS-27 Redstone rocket on a launch pad and readied it for a test. The rocket was also called a Jupiter-C because it was a launch designed to test new materials for nose cones to put on warheads so they wouldn't explode re-entering the atmosphere. This Redstone was a four-stage rocket, however the fourth stage was a dummy stage.  But had it been live, it would have had the ability to put a small, three-pound satellite into orbit, something along the lines of Explorer 1. Werner von Braun was dying to use this rocket to put a satellite into orbit. The problem for von Braun was that President Eisenhower said that only the US Navy's Vanguard program, which was derived from peaceful sounding rockets for exploration, would be the first to put an American satellite into orbit within the confines of the International Geophysical Year. Von Braun, on the other hand, was using an Army rocket, was a former Nazi scientist, and also this was before the International Geophysical Year started. So a satellite now could be an international disaster, whereas a satellite on a peaceful rocket during the IGY would have just been all about science and exploration. But what if von Braun had launched a satellite in 1956? I'm not saying he would have ignored authority. I'm saying what if the US government had actually sanctioned this satellite launch? Had Explorer 1 gone into orbit in 1956, it's possible the Soviets would have responded with the same fear that the Americans did after the launch of Sputnik in 1957. The Soviets might have fast-tracked their own satellite program to try to get something into orbit to match the Americans as quickly as possible. And because it might not have been ready to fly, this might have ended in a massive disaster. Sputnik might have crashed and burned on the launch pad, much like the American Vanguard 1 TV3 launch did in December of 1957. This failure on the Soviet Union's end would probably have delayed the satellite program because the Soviet system wasn't set up with multiple offices developing similar technologies the way the United States had different military branches also developing different rockets. So it's unlikely the Soviets would have then almost immediately tried launching a biological payload like Leica. So the Americans would have been developing technologies and satellites and launches while the Soviets were unable to keep up. With the Americans leading in space, not only would there not have been that moment of we need to do something drastic to match the Soviet accomplishment, we probably wouldn't have a space agency. Because NASA came out of this need to unify all the space programs in America to match the Soviet accomplishment. So if Explorer 1 had gone into orbit in 1956, we might not have a space agency. And without a space agency, we wouldn't have any of the space race programs like Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. It's likely that space would have stayed with the military. Spaceflight might have continued along the lines of the X-15 and the dinosaur, piloted aircraft inspired vehicles that would orbit the earth and eventually land on a runway. But it would also mean that there wouldn't be a push to develop new technologies in the 1960s. And this comes back to satellites in an interesting way. Even before the space age, people were starting to think about using satellites for communication. And it was AT&T that pioneered the idea in the United States in 1960. It approached the Federal Communications Commission with permission to launch, and that permission ultimately ended up with NASA launching the Telstar Satellites. At the time, the Department of Defense didn't really have an interest in a commercial use of satellites. The Department of Defense was interested in developing its own technology for its own use. That's why all the early communication satellites ended up with NASA, the civilian space agency. But without a NASA, we might not have had any interest in communication satellites for the general public. It might have been left purely with the military. So we would not have had satellite communications as early as we did. The Department of Defense in the U.S. military would probably have continued developing its own satellite communication system, and they would have been left purely from military usage for at least a couple of decades. But say satellite communications was purely a military endeavor in the 1960s. It probably still would have developed some of the same technologies, things like giant satellite dishes to receive the signal, and also technologies that clean up the signals removing noise for very clean video and audio transferred around the world. The military might have come up with these technologies, but we, the public, might not have had access to them, because what ultimately drove the need for really strong global communications and near real-time live television was landing on the moon. It was NASA who drove the innovation behind clear satellite signals, and the high-frequency communications that allowed the agency to speak to astronauts on the moon is also the same technology that allowed the world to watch Neil Armstrong walk on the moon live in 1969. And this isn't just about landing on the moon, this is the same technology that allowed global communications. This planted the seed for this global village of international communications where we know what's going on around the world all the time because we have access to technologies that allow that signals to be broadcast everywhere. Had satellite communications stayed a military endeavor throughout the 60s, possibly into the 70s, we wouldn't have this global communication that we do now, which probably would have changed socially the way we interact with our world. The global communication network that allowed us to watch the moon landing live ultimately led to domestic communications network that allowed broadcast television to function without cable. This was the dawn of the satellite TV era, which is still something many people enjoy today. So without the innovation of having to get a very clear signal from the moon to the world in the 1960s, we might not have our favorite TV programs now. We might have a completely different experience of the world we live in because we wouldn't have this strong connection. So America launching the first satellite in 1956 could have changed the early space age enough that America wouldn't have responded so strongly by creating a civilian space agency that works with commercial partners that took on something as big as going to the moon, which drove the innovation to create satellite technology and communications technology as early as it did in the mid-century that has ultimately spun off into giving us a world that is so hyper-connected today. And of course there are tons of other things we wouldn't have had America not gone to the moon. We wouldn't have dustbusters or memory foam mattresses created without Apollo ending and the shuttle era beginning. We wouldn't have things like Lasik. All of these technologies might not come directly from NASA, but NASA provides the need that drives the innovation from commercial partners and because it's a government civilian agency, it can do that. The military just doesn't have the same relationship with commercial partners. So without a civilian agency, because of the fear of Sputnik, if America had gotten the first satellite into orbit, our world would be completely different. But on the other hand, maybe with America taking the lead in space super early, we would have had some kind of fun brownie and wonderful space exploration. Maybe we would have developed dinosaurs to the point of being the shuttle that builds his giant toroidal space station orbit and we'd be on Pluto right now. It's really hard to tell, but it's fun to think about. Check out NBC's new show Timeless. It's all about going back to poignant moments in history, making one change and then trying to figure out just how much the world has changed and ultimately asking the questions, would you want to change history? Shout out to NBC and Timeless for sponsoring and helping make this episode possible.  Let me know in the comments what your favorite what-if moments from history, moments where something could have changed a little bit and had a massive, massive effect on the future and the world we live in today because these things are super fun to think about. And of course, leave me any of your questions about space history or alternate space histories in the comments below as well. Be sure to follow me on Twitter and Instagram for daily vintage space content and with new videos going up every single week. Subscribe right here so you never miss an episode.


with you about how to enforce open standards and as you probably know it, that is one of the issues, especially the accessibility to documents in the future or to be exact, accessibility to documents that were written in the past. Sometimes this issue is actually a feature and there are cases you probably don't want your documents to be readable in the future. This might be one of the cases. But this case is usually a bug and wants a feature. And for most documents we actually want them to be readable. This is an article from a scientific American where the author does follow up to another article he wrote. And here he talks about the world situation is especially bizarre. Microsoft is a curator of the world's common world processing format, which for our scientists is true. You take their field with some obligation to maintain its ability to open its own documents no matter how old. This is especially true for relatively very long formats, even if you talked about something 20 years ago, 15 years ago, which is very problematic, but to a certain degree it's also true for relatively recent formats. This is a page from Microsoft's support website for Office where he talks about what doesn't work when you try to open world 2010 documents in Office 2007. So some features doesn't work. It's okay to have numbers converted between different numbering systems, like alphabets in different languages to numbers and stuff like that. It's not pleasant, but you don't use content. But in some features they are generally right removed, which means what? You lose the content. If you save it, you save it with other content. What happens when you reopen it in a later version? There are some very weird effects about it. And I'm still not talking about interoperability with other programs. These are only programs by Microsoft. So one of the common problems in both cases about this is that, at least for Microsoft, there is almost one-to-one ratio between Microsoft's version and the document format. For a lot of time we had each version created new format for the binaries. It added new features and you must use that version in order to open the binaries, obviously creating backward compatibility issues and forward compatibility issues or security issues. And our obvious goal is to have one-to-standard rule involved or actually to separate with the idea of the software from the standard. And this is just a short list of available office suits or work-processing options. We have two from Microsoft, one from Google and one from Apple. Only office work-processed, which used to be very active two decades ago, but it's alive. I found out office suits and calibrations. What about standards? There is an issue of adaptation and the level of adaptation. Some countries say that ODF is allowed, which means they actually recognize the standard that exists. Some of the office suits are already improved by ISO and other standardization organizations. But allowed means we know it exists, you can use it, we wouldn't say you can't, but that's it. You're not required to do that. In some cases it doesn't even mean you must have the ability to read it. So some governments, if you send them ODF, they say, well, I don't have to support it, it's not a requirement for me. So send it to me in a different format. So allowed is usually nice to have. Then we're talking about some government which says must be able to read. So if a civilian or a company sends them a document in ODF format, the list must be able to read. They don't have to send a reply back in that format, but that's a good case. In some other governments it's a recommended standard or a recommended solution. But for a lot of people when you think of day-to-day when someone says to you, this is a recommended response, you think, OK, I should do that. With a lot of government's recommend is just another way to say nice to have, but it's a little bit more than must be able to read. In some cases governments have some levels recommended, like just recommended, highly recommended, and some different phrasing I encountered, which is sometimes weird because you might have only two solutions, both of them are recommended. So what's the point of adding the adjective? In other countries there's an issue, is it the only standard or there's more than one option? Like some countries must be able to read ODF and OOXML, but there's no guidance about what is the default when they send information on grades, and this is also an important issue. Is there a default to stuff like one government might say, well, our default is all here, if you have a specific use, we might allow OXML, or when we go to a procurement process it must support both of them, but we don't care what's the default. It's very delicate issues of policy, but their effect in real life is important because you define the guidelines, but some IT guide will actually use that for his own benefit to do what is easier or much more preferable in his opinion, and sometimes the language is very important because it narrows his options or forcing to apply the policy. In some countries there's a talk about PDF, in most cases PDFA, is it possible? Is it possible in general? Can the government say, well, I'm sending online documents in PDF and you shouldn't care with which program they created it? Does it mean there is no editable version of the documents? What happens when you want to exchange document and actually have comments from someone else in the document, not just in email as well? This is my opinion about the subject. Some government says, well, you must use the whole PDF and you can or allow to use PDF or non-editable documents. For example, if you want a press release that's usually non-editable, so OX edited PDF that's fine. If you want a working document or something to be shared with some others, you must use the whole PDF. And of course, usually the highest level, unless somebody added some interesting tricks into the language, required or must is the best level. Notice that in some cases there are more than one issue for required must and then there's another way to look. So in some cases you see there's must in a few options, which actually means it's, let's say, allow or recommend it and it's taking out of context. A quick survey of what countries have ODF as a mandatory standard it's standard for four countries, which is very weird. I don't know if this is as well the computer, so you might correct me during the presentation. But from what I've found there's only four countries which only have ODF as mandatory. There's no mentioning about OXML and they might use PDF, but only for non-editable. So we were talking about Denmark, Malaysia, Portugal and Venezuela. For Venezuela, I didn't find the year it was announced. And there is some other countries. I mean, it's mentioned as mandatory, but no one in those countries respects the law. Okay, so that is... I probably have to amend that slide. Actually... All of which is enforced and not only written. Actually, it's also Italy in 2013 mentioned ODF as a preferred format but everyone is ignoring it at all, completely. So preferred is one of the languages I found recommended. But there's a... It's very political. Yes, exactly. Between preferred and must, a wonderful way of whatever phrasing. So here you see, just a second, here you see the phrasing sounds completely different to our ears, like we said. Yes, it's preferred, it's perfect. No, it's a tragedy preferred. I know. To our ears it might sound great, just a second. And when the policy, the guidance actually has to fulfill the policy to him it sounds completely different. You had a question? Yeah, just a comment on that. Dana, you should be back then. But you ended up with it all. Due to all of the other external recommendations, so many means nothing. Okay, I didn't know. And in addition, what is a pity in all of this is that there's no rationale behind the decision. So it's no one... And this is very bad because there's no education about what a standard format is and the value of a standard format. So it's a kind of... You should use that but for no reason. So this of course to people says... It's hard to replicate that. Yeah, I can use the one that I prefer because if there's no reason for using that one then I can use whatever I want. Great question. 2015. We requested it only as the technical office format. Nevertheless, they choose myself as a presentation. This was a lot. But while I agree with the satellites, I believe the governments are not... I'm not sure that they will follow the rules. Great question. So to my knowledge there was a discussion, but there isn't... No, no, UK that is a low. There's no... Yeah, absolutely. It's July 22, 2014. Okay. I was at the Oscon opening session. It was announced during that session. No one cared about it. Absolutely. But the fact that you don't find evidence is... I think it's a... It's directly to the... It's a confirmation of the fact that there's no real interest behind standards. So I go into the next slide and that's how to increase adaptation. And obviously that's the $1 million question. At least that's the term in the U.S. maybe Europe has a different phrasing of that sentence. But one of the questions is who is actually responsible for that policy? Is it the government or ICT authority? Is it another agency inside the government? It's like the government. Some government has different agencies or different ways to share their responsibility. Such a policy might come, let's say, from the Ministry of Education because they have to deal with a lot of students or a lot of documents created for the educational process. It might be coming from the Ministry of Health because they have some of these issues, especially with medical records. They might be coming from, I don't know, commerce because the fact of the standard might really affect how commerce is being done or would rather it's a regulation in some places it might come from antitrust agencies because they want to talk about competition. The other question sometimes it's not a policy that comes from the government itself. It might come from the parliament. And in some cases it might be a committee regarding ICT, a committee regarding science. Each country has its own terms. And another question from our side. Do we use lobbies? Do we use volunteers? Yesterday we had a talk over dinner about the use of lobbies. Commercial companies use them all the time. Open source associations use them rarely. Sometimes because of how things are done in the open source world. Sometimes because of budgeting issues. And sometimes because our perspective to a lot of these issues is more technical than political. And it's a completely different point of view. There's a difference between proving to someone this is a better solution than actually making it to adulthood. And another thing about that is sometimes in a lot of times we see stuff which are not the best technical solution get adopted because of political reasons. And there is probably a need for us also to have that angle and not only the technical level. Because as we see in various lectures we're very technical and we refer to that and try to beat the competition on that level but not on other levels. In some cases there are other institutions that might be relevant like National Archives especially as they're the organizations which actually encountered a problem today and for them it's a burning issue or very urgent because if you ask them to for a document from 30 years ago the probability they can actually give you the content of the file is today I think almost zero unless they have a printed version they can scan, they can do OCR or they can save the computers with all versions of the software and they hate to see whatever governmental institution wins award six on Windows 95 and it might be able to open files that sounds a little bit weird but it might be the only option. Another thing which is mentioned when you search about ODF is multinational organizations one of the most famous search results about it it's NATO that requires ODF as standard for all its countries and then you see the list of about around 20 countries and you think well it's 7, it's perfect half of Europe, some places in the Balkans or Eastern Europe and then you understand there's no way to enforce this standard on the government so yes there might be a few computers that has whatever software just for in general communication in NATO or as Italian said it might be not a policy which is enforced but do these bodies anyway have the ability to enforce any policy or just a written letter which is actually a dead letter we're about two thirds of the presentation and while writing the presentation I have more questions than answers because it's a different process in each country in countries which are more technical, less technical some countries have a better political figure behind the ICQ authority which might move things faster but in the end I was left with more questions than answers and for that I would be happy to have to give your comments or your experience or how is it done in your countries because from next week I'm actually going to be in Israel after writing an article for the newspaper about LibreOffice and open standards trying to take advantage of the reconciliation of the deal between the government and Microsoft about Microsoft Office and I'm trying to put let's say it is a wage or a foot in the door in that wall and there's a lot of knowledge to be shared between the countries if anyone has any experience or knowledge of what has been done in this country I would like to use the rest of the time which is about 10 minutes for that your ideas and experience please yes first point could you just say your name and where you're from because the camera is on me not on you oh yeah sure Daniel from Sweden work for the Swedish government my experience doing this for quite many years is that most people that isn't from immune strategies or healthcare or healthcare government they have no idea what a normal is they have no idea what a standard is and they don't care they conflict an application and a file they have no idea it's like just a piece I start work and it stays a work thingy sort of so going into having some of the discussion before we have the different promises there's no one there there's no one to talk to the National Archives I would say there's no one there no one home to talk to because they're not taking care of people because they have no knowledge okay and they just see data it's just a document and if you come along with something else here's your documents you can open the document and if there's something wrong with it then it's your fault it's not the format or the application you created it it's always the receiver's format or important so what I'm sort of discussing right now my view of it is trying to you have to go the route of like technical like technically I see the office of mine as a really major deep breaker of getting in because if you're used to Microsoft Office installed on a train it works in a certain way if you can come and say hey, you're working this way and you don't print stuff and you can do coloration and by the way at OVF and they say well, I'm okay I like this nice feature that I can do coloration the condition there is of course Office 365 but for a lot of governments it's unlawful to use they would realize at least over time they would realize that a lot of laws get broken in your European country of using Office 365 or Google or whatever cloud services but that's another issue the question is when they download the document from it doesn't matter if it's LibreOffice Online or Office 365 and they want to edit it locally which happens the person who would complain that it doesn't produce a Microsoft Word binary or there are other issues the other thing the other thing is that there's some kind of bias towards a lot of times sometimes open source sometimes just new software that I found out that when someone have a feature or something doesn't work for him in Microsoft Office it's like just it's an act of God like okay it doesn't work it's okay I understand that but if it's a different program or open source it's your fault it's the problem for you there's a tolerance for problems goes almost to zero and that's one of the other issues we need to deal with and that's regardless of the talk about open standards someone else thank you very much so from my experience it's very hard to combine between similar to what you said there's nobody home regardless of the technical level and on the other side of the scale it's the politics of it like if there is a way to get a deal from a company they don't care what they actually get so they don't check the details they just okay we'll pay money we'll get their solution we don't check we don't care and sometimes the problem is the don't care part if they check and decide this is better and let's say they do it every few years it's reasonable we might not agree with the result but it's reasonable because they need to check but in most cases they don't consider any alternative I think in Europe the situation is better because the language support is more native in other countries language support let's say it's RTL, CGK it's another issue or a barrier to live over this is one of the things I know I need to to deal with is that when I offer a new office they say well, doesn't support you? that the actual responses obviously does and it's actually very good it's not perfect but very good but then we we have other issues some issues might be how the program looks which is totally different than ODIF but for that we might have other solutions if we I don't know find a way to work with Google on standardization maybe we'll have a better chance because that's the levels the playing field for us and for them maybe governments we're we're willing to buy solutions which combine edit editing services on the cloud we're living along other privacy issues and then offline solutions from the office and then trying to enjoy both roles okay whenever an office online is ready and good enough let's do that on the other thing in some cases we need strong enough companies first to promote the standards then on the other hand promote the products because in a lot of cases although we see some companies in the conference their their solution of governments is not necessarily very well known or it's not a solution that everyone promotes there's a difference between branded by company branded solutions which is fine we can talk with each of our sponsors conference for that and having said that Libra is online as a community option is great and then you can buy support from them there's a big difference and I think at least from my experience with other things regarding open source we need a big commercial company to do some of the heavy lifting at least for Israel we had a few issues with standards regarding websites and web development there used to be two standards to display Hebrew in websites I'm talking about mid 90s to early 2000s and whenever enough companies changed or some big company came that was the big change a new browser brought a change Google forced standardization that Firefox already had but didn't have enough power to create and that's included both Firefox and Opera in other cases a lot of things change into adaptation to mobile websites and alignment of standards when people had iPhone in a different browser on the phone than they had on their PC because they use internet explorer and it's crooked standards and then suddenly they have a different web browser and then companies understood they need to act differently I think we might find a different solution towards that with cooperation with commercial companies Israel you had a call? No, it's cool so your time is over, sorry So thank you very much if you have other corrections or questions I didn't want to kill you but That's okay If you have any comments or corrections to my slides please contact me afterwards I'll be happy to amend them before I come Thank you very much Thank you What are you doing to set up our answer question? The slides which is just on my Q&A already Could you also provide links to the standard delivery and maybe include them in the PDF So most of the here is actually the base is the the wiki page and when the comment on that the wiki page gets updated I had also some research related to this wiki page pretty much on the German situation and it had a project to edit words so this is not necessary at all Okay, so you set up the German version of the page? Well the German version of the page, especially I made a page to the Soviet adoption in Germany and there's not much left Okay, but just to make sure I understand the section of German in the English page or you just edited the German article of the page? I edited the English and the German one Okay Warriors on the other side were also required Thank you very much I wouldn't say this more this time