Okay, so we have a quiz on Friday, as you know. And it's just going to be exactly the way it was last Friday. The scantrons are going to be up there at the front. Grab one when you come in. Don't sit next to anybody. We had plenty of room last week, right? For some reason, they gave us this giant lecture hall, which is really nice. Well, I'm going to write the, I haven't written it yet, but I'll write it this afternoon. When I do that, I'm going to look at what I've been telling you for the last three lectures. I'm going to look at the discussion guide, too, which is posted now on the lectures page of our website. I'm going to look at the assigned homework, and then I'm going to brew up something with five questions on it. The first two questions are going to be pretty easy. The last three will be a little bit harder, okay? Just like it was last week, it's open book, open notes, open anything except we're not going to allow tablet computers and regular computers this time, okay? You can still bring your tablet computer and your laptop if you want, but, and you can use it after the quiz is over, but you can't use it during the quiz. Use any kind of calculator that you want, okay? And please do not use this as a reason to print out the lecture notes because that's very destructive, all right? Write anything down you want. Any formulas, put posted notes in your textbook, okay? Any questions on quiz two? Even though I try to include all this other stuff, I tend to mainly look at what's in the lectures. I try to make sure that I haven't asked you any questions on the quiz that I haven't answered in the lecture. That's what I tend to do. You might also want to look at quiz two from last year, which I posted on the announcements page because I'm lazy and I'm likely to steal problems off quiz two. It's just the way I am, okay? Today we're going to talk about a subject that's hardly discussed at all in your book, but I think it's really cool and it really helps us obtain an intuitive understanding of how the statistical mechanic stuff works, all right? In real molecules, the picture is considerably more complicated than this. This is where we started with the statistical mechanics and evenly spaced ladder of states such as that, which we would obtain if we had a harmonic oscillator, but real molecules don't even vibrate this way, even though we use the harmonic oscillator to approximate vibrations in real molecules, all right? There's anharmonicity in real molecules, all right? Translation comes pretty close to the harmonic oscillator picture, but even in this case, the states are not evenly spaced, even though I've drawn them evenly spaced here, in reality they're not. I'll show you that later on. And then these translational states are really close together. There's many of them between each rotational state of the molecule. Here's the rotational states, okay? And there's many of these translational states that are sandwiched in between each one of these rotational states, thousands in most cases. Hundreds of thousands. And then these rotational states, there are many of them in between each one of these vibrational states, aren't there? All right? So there's a lot of complexity in real molecules. Now we really haven't started to talk about it. It's been discussed in your book and you've been doing some homework problems that relate to this issue, but we really haven't talked about it in class. We're going to be lucky in that we can pick this problem apart. We can treat each of these energetic manifolds, all right? Each one of these things is what I'm calling a manifold. We can treat them separately and at the end of the day we can just take the partition function for translation and multiply it by the partition function for rotation and we can calculate each one of these partition functions separately multiplying together to get the total partition function for the whole molecule. And the reason this works is because these degrees of freedom are so-called weakly coupled. They don't talk to each other, okay? So we multiply them together. We can calculate them separately. We're going to get the total partition function that we're looking for for every different kind of molecule that we care about. Now we're going to start talking about that later on today, but in this lecture we're going to talk about a shortcut to calculating not this guy but something related to him, the heat capacity and the internal energy, a shortcut and it's called the equi-partition theorem. I think this is discussed right at the end of Chapter 13 but it's discussed very briefly, not in enough detail to really understand. And then at the end of this lecture we'll start to talk about the translational partition function. Okay, so when your book talks about the equi-partition theorem it concentrates on the internal energy of a particular molecule or the internal energy of a mole of molecules. These two variables are difficult to measure directly in the laboratory. In other words, if you're an experimental physical chemist and you go into the laboratory to actually measure the absolute value of the internal energy of a single molecule or a mole of molecules or any number of molecules, that turns out to be a hard thing to do. But it's a lot easier to measure the capacity of some volume of molecules to absorb heat, the heat capacity. That's an easier quantity to measure. You may recall the constant volume heat capacity is just the amount of energy a material compound can store per unit temperature so the constant volume heat capacity is just the partial derivative of the total energy of the system with temperature at constant volume. We can equally well define it in terms of the average internal energy of a particular molecule. Okay, so hypothetically, if the average internal energy of a particular molecule turned out to be kT over 2, then the heat capacity is just the derivative of kT over 2 with respect to T, so it's just k over 2. All right, so if we know the internal energy, we can get the heat capacity and vice versa. Now, I haven't told you why this is cool yet, but bear with me. This is a plot of the heat capacity as a function of temperature for some generic molecule. What we want to appreciate is that as the temperature increases along this axis from left to right, the capacity of a molecule to store energy increases in a stepwise fashion like this. Why is that? The answer is that at really low temperatures, only the translational states that are available to a molecule are occupied. In other words, the only way a molecule can store energy is by changing its velocity. Right? It can store more energy by speeding up. Once it gets to a temperature where the thermal energy available at that temperature equals the energy between rotational states of the molecule, now the molecule can start to rotate as well as translate. All right, so it's got a new manifold that it can access for storing energy. It can store energy as translation, but also it can store energy in terms of its rotational states because now it's reached the threshold here where the thermal energy available to it is high enough so that it can start to access. Now remember, these rotational states are much further apart in molecules than the translational states, much further apart. Finally, if the temperature is even higher, you get to the point where you're exciting many rotations, but suddenly you start to have just the threshold of energy you need to excite some vibrations of the molecule. Now you access the vibrational manifold and you've got three ways to store energy, translation, rotation, and now vibration. Okay, so let me point out a couple things about this diagram first. So it's not the slightest bit confusing. There's no units here, all right, but the units for this constant volume, he's capacitor are either k, in other words, 7 halves k, 5 halves k, 3 halves k. If we're talking about a single molecule, the units are in terms of k. If we're talking about a mole of molecules, they're in units of r because one mole, Avogadro's number times k is r, isn't it? Okay, so even though it doesn't say what the units are here, that's 3 halves r if we're talking about per mole. These guys, these temperatures here are the characteristic temperatures in your book called Thetis of v and Thetis of r. This is the characteristic rotational temperature and the characteristic vibrational temperature. The rotational temperature is just b written out in terms of joules, right, b, remember, is the rotational constant for the molecule. Write it out in terms of joules or write it in wave numbers and do a conversion to joules. That's what this is, always confusing to me. Divide by k and you get units of temperature, right, because k is joules per kelvin, right? If that's in joules, I'm going to get this in terms of kelvin, that's what that is right there, right? Likewise, that's the energy between vibrational states, h nu, if I write that in terms of joules and divide by k, I get that temperature right there. So that's the characteristic vibrational and the characteristic rotational temperature. We can calculate for that, these two temperatures for any molecule as long as we know b and h nu. Okay, so down here, we've got only translation going on. Up here, we've got translation and rotation because the thermal energy is high enough now so that the molecule can rotate as well as translate. And finally, up here, we've got all three things going on. Right, the capacity of the molecule to store heat increases as it has more channels in which to put the heat. Very intuitive idea, I think. Okay, so what the equi-partition does is it provides a shortcut method for estimating approximately now the internal energy and heat capacity of any molecule. What makes it interesting is it actually works. It's so simple and it actually works. It gives the right answer, approximately. How does it work? Consider the classical Hamiltonian for 1D harmonic oscillator, all right? Here's the way it works. You write the classical Hamiltonian for the molecule, the classical Hamiltonian, right? So if there's quantum mechanical stuff going on, we're going to miss it here. Then, we convert each one of these quadratic terms, well, let me show you. So consider the classical, so for a 1D harmonic oscillator, there's two terms in the Hamiltonian, a kinetic energy term that's not temperature and a potential energy term that's not volume. Kinetic energy, potential energy. The kinetic energy term is just p squared over 2m where p is the momentum, m is the mass. The potential energy is 1 1⁄2 kx squared, right? Just Hooke's law, all right? That's the force constant of the bond and that's the displacement of the bond from equilibrium, x, r minus r0, if you will, okay? So there's two terms in the classical Hamiltonian. The equi-partition theorem says that any quadratic term in this Hamiltonian having the form, for example, AP squared or Bx squared, the internal energy of the molecule is kT over 2 for each such term. How could it be that simple? I mean, any term at all, I just take the term and I multiply by kT over 2 and that's the internal energy. Yes, all right? And that's going to work. Well, we'll see. Okay, so the problem of applying the equi-partition theorem comes down to writing this classical Hamiltonian correctly, figuring out how many modes there are, right, that are actually participating in the energy storage and then assigning each one this magic number, kT over 2, or if you've got a mole, rT over 2, right? It's pretty easy. Now you recall that heat capacity is just the amount of energy, yes, we just said that. Okay, so if there's one term, if there's one quadratic term in the classical Hamiltonian, then this internal energy is kT over 2 and the heat capacity is k over 2 for a single molecule or r over 2 for a mole of molecules. Yes, just said that. Okay, so let's calculate something. Right now, all molecules translate and their classical Hamiltonian in three dimensions for translation is just this, p of x squared, the momentum in x squared, momentum in y squared, momentum in z squared divided by the two times the mass. Same for every molecule. How many quadratic terms are there? Three, one, two, three. Equipartition tells us that the translation, that the translation, that translation contributes three kT over 2 to the internal energy of a single molecule. Three because there's three quadratic terms. Okay, so the internal energy of a single molecule is going to be this, the internal energy of a mole molecule is going to be this and the heat capacity is just going to be derivative of that with respect to t. It's going to be 3r over 2. I just leave the t out. The contribution of molecular translation to the heat capacity is 3r over 2 for every molecule. Well, yeah, look at that, all right, 3r over 2. That's why that's 3r over 2. Now, is that only approximately correct? No, that's exactly correct. I'll show you in a second. Well, I'll show you at the end of the lecture. Okay, so this is also the total heat capacity for all monoatomic gases obviously because a monoatomic gas can't store energy any other way. It can't rotate, it can't vibrate and so this is the whole story for a monoatomic gas like neon or argon, right, it can't do anything else. All right, so this is the heat capacity of a noble gas for example. Full stop, there are no bumps, that doesn't happen and that doesn't happen, it's just boom. Okay, for molecules with more than one atom, vibration and rotation can also contribute to the heat capacity but vibration doesn't turn on until the temperature approaches the characteristic vibration temperature, same thing's true for rotation. Rotation doesn't turn on, when I say turn on, I mean it doesn't contribute to the heat capacity. So for a linear molecule, let's say that we're at a temperature that's higher than the rotational characteristic temperature but lower than the vibrational characteristic temperature. In other words, rotation is turned on but vibration isn't. All right, at moderately dull temperature, this turns out to be the case. Let's say below about 100 wave numbers in thermal energy. All right, so the Hamiltonian for rotation of a linear molecule now has got two terms, it can rotate an X and it can rotate an Y, these are the moments of inertia, these I's, so that should be I sub X and I sub Y. Okay, how many quadratic terms are there here? Two, could it be that simple? Rotation about the X axis, rotation about the Y axis, that's the whole story. Okay, so the internal energy of rotation now is going to be 2 times KT over 2 or for a mole of molecules, 2 times RT over 2, that's amazingly simple, isn't it? So the heat capacity then, the total heat capacity for the molecule in this temperature range has got two contributions to it. Here's the translational contribution, 3R over 2, that's always the same. That's always going to be 3R over 2. All right, here's the rotational contribution, boom. All right, it's 2R2 over 2 because the molecule's got two ways it can rotate. It can rotate an X, like it can tumble or it can rotate an Y. There's actually two coordinates that can rotate orthogonally to one another. All right, can it rotate along its axis like this? No, but it can rotate, if it's oriented like this it can rotate like that or it can rotate like that, right, that's the X and Y rotation that we're talking about. So the total heat capacity is just that some of these two things, 5R over 2, there's no vibrational contribution because we're way below the characteristic vibrational temperature, we said we're in this range here, we're way below the vibrational, the temperature where vibration would turn on. Okay, we're up here, right? That's 5 over 2, yes, that's just what we calculated. All right, so it looks like this plot probably applies to a linear molecule because if it wasn't a linear molecule, this wouldn't be 5R over 2, it would be that 2 would be a what? If it wasn't a linear molecule, it could rotate in all three dimensions, X, Y, and Z, right? So that 2 would be 3, now, for a nonlinear molecule, yes, this is just what I said, X, Y, and Z, 3KT over 2 or 3RT over 2, boom, all right, that would be the total heat capacity, 3R, if it was a nonlinear molecule. So this plot that I stole off Wikipedia obviously applies to a linear molecule, translation and rotation. Okay, now what about at higher temperatures where we start to excite not only rotation and translation but also vibration? As we said earlier, the classical Hamiltonian for vibration actually contains two terms, a little bit more complicated than for translation or rotation because even for a single mode, there's two terms in the classical Hamiltonian, the potential energy and the kinetic energy, all right, and we're going to sum these guys over either 3N minus 5 or 3N minus 6 vibrational modes per molecule, right, depending on whether molecule is linear or nonlinear. All right, if it's linear, it's going to be 3N minus 5. So following through with the predictions of the equi-partition theorem, we're going to get for each molecule 2KT over 2 per mode or for a molar molecule, 2RT over 2 per mode, 2KT over 2 per mode, all right, because the classical Hamiltonian contains two quadratic terms for each mode, so following through with the predictions of the equi-partition theorem, we've got translation for a nonlinear molecule, we've got rotation, right, 3 for X, Y and Z and we've got a contribution from vibration which is going to be either 3N minus 5 for linear molecules or 3N minus 6 for nonlinear molecules. That's translation, rotation and vibration and so the total is going to be that, shouldn't it be what? So 3N minus 5 is nonlinear molecules, 3N minus 5 is nonlinear molecules, yeah, sorry, right, sorry, yes, got to fix that, sorry, that should be nonlinear, okay, so for example, for a diatomic molecule, that should be 3N minus 6, is that right, yeah, so let's, yeah, okay, so if in fact that was a 6, this would be 3R over 2 for the translation of the diatomic molecule, it could rotate an X and Y, so it'd be 2R over 2 for its rotation and then it would be 3 times 2 for the number of atoms minus 6 times R, all right, so this would be 5R plus, 6 minus 0, plus 0, that's what we would have gotten for in nonlinear molecule, 7 halves are, let's do some examples, use the equi-partition theorem to estimate the constant volume molar heat capacity of I2 methane and benzene at 25 degrees C, okay, so the first thing that you want to figure out here is where you are on this plot in other words, how many terms are there going to be in your heat capacity expansion? Is translation only contributing? Translation and rotation or translation, rotation and vibration? The way that you figure that out is first of all, if you're at a temperature, near room temperature, what do we know about whether the rotations of the molecule are going to be excited or not? How much thermal energy is there at room temperature? What's KT at room temperature? In any units that you want to use, bless you. How much thermal energy is there at room temperature and wave numbers? Right, 207 or 200 roughly, right, 200 wave numbers. What is the energy spacing for rotation of a moderately sized molecule? Round numbers, energy spacing for rotation, what's B? Is it a thousand wave numbers? Anybody want to guess? 400, no that's too high, a handful, right, one, three, okay, one or a small number, right, for rotational states. How many wave numbers are there for vibration? Round number, OH stretching frequency. Remember that from organic chemistry, big blob over on the left-hand side of your spectrum, what were those energies, anybody remember? 3,000 wave numbers, that's an OH stretch, okay, so order of magnitude, 1,000 wave numbers, all right, so one or two for rotation, 1,000 for vibration, okay, so qualitatively this is going to help us figure out where we are on this diagram, all right, in case of I2, both of the vibrators are heavy, aren't they? Iodine is a big molecule, 126 grams per mole and so that's a pretty low frequency, right, that's a pretty low energy rather, 200 wave numbers, all right, but in the range where we sort of expected it to be, all right, 1,000 wave numbers is to one sig fig, that's how much energy there is in a vibration, okay, so do we have to think about whether this thing is going to be vibrating at 25 degrees C, well, at 25 degrees C we got 200 wave numbers of thermal energy, we know one or two is enough to excite rotation so this baby is rotating, all right, we don't have to worry about that, so we're definitely here, we're just not sure where we are here, are we up here, in other words, is that vibration excited or are we down here, is that vibration not excited? Well, we've already concluded that at 25 degrees C we got 200 wave numbers so we're close, will the vibration of I2 contribute to the heat capacity, well, if we're not sure, we can calculate the characteristic temperature from this 214 wave numbers, we just have to convert 214 to joules, divide by K and we get 308. Kelvin, all right, that's a little bit higher because that's not 200 wave numbers, it's 214, so that's why that's 308, okay, and so we're right here, all right, this line turns out to be 308, all right, and we're just below that, okay, and so this state, this vibrational mode of the I2 is significantly turned on, all right, it's starting to contribute to the heat capacity. We can either assume we're down here or assume we're out here and we always make the high temperature assumption, all right, if it's starting to contribute, we're going to use this to calculate our equipartition theorem heat capacity, confident in the knowledge that we're going to overestimate it a little bit, right, because this isn't a perfect science, we're not going to get the heat capacity exactly to three sig figs, we're shooting for one sig fig here, okay, so we're going to say yes, that mode is turned on because we're somewhere on this rising portion of this curve, the molecule starting to store energy in its vibrational modes as well as rotation, and so we've got translational contribution to the heat capacity, we've got two rotational degrees of freedom because it's a linear molecule and we've got one vibrational mode or one R, we're going to include the whole mode, we don't split it up, so that's 5R over 2 plus R is 7R over 2, actually this is 3.5R, right, and the actual heat capacity of iodine is 3.4, so we overestimated the heat capacity slightly but not by that much, we did a really good job of guessing what it would be, right, just using equi-partition theorem, all right, I like simple, intuitive things like this that allow you to get the right answer, all right, we're always looking for better chemical intuition so that we can, at an order of magnitude level, figure out what's going on, all right, that's the real challenge, all right, later on we can calculate this to 3 sig figs if we want but we want to get the, we want to have an intuitive understanding of how big that number is and we can get that with this equi-partition theorem, note if we left out this mode, if we left out the vibrational mode, we'd be way too low, 2.5R, okay, so that's a justification for including it even if we're not all the way turned on here, we're here, we're not all the way up here, all right, but we're going to include it anyway and most of the time, that's going to get us closer to the right answer. Let's look at this guy, obviously more complicated, here are all the vibrational frequencies that apply to methane, 1367, 1582 and so on, all right, do these vibrations contribute to the heat capacity at room temperature, what do you think? 1367 is going to be storing energy for you at 25 degrees Kelvin, where the thermal energy is how many wave numbers? 200, you've got 200 wave numbers of thermal energy, all right, and the lowest vibrational energy level of the methane is 1367, all right, is that 1367 going to be storing energy for you? No, 200 wave numbers, 1300 wave numbers, you'd need 1300 wave numbers of thermal energy before this thing gets turned on, right? Not sure, plug in, plug in, take the lowest one of these numbers, take the 1367, plug it in, convert it to joules, divide by K, 1367 is the lowest one, 1966 degrees Kelvin, that's how hot it would have to be for this lowest mode to get turned on, all right, so at 298 K, it's not on, you see why? It's just the energy is too high for this vibration, it's not getting excited at 298, okay, so we're not up here, all right, we're going to assume none of these guys is turned on, we are right here, in other words, rotations are turned on, but no vibrations are turned on, all right, that's the hard part of this little calculation, it's figuring out what do you include? You include the vibrations or not, you're almost always including translation and rotation, unless you're at a really low temperature, you're including translation and rotation, all right, the question is usually concerns vibrations, which ones are turned on, which ones aren't, some might be turned on, others are not, okay, so the heat capacity is going to be translation plus rotation, this is not a linear molecule, so that's a 3, and then we're going to include no vibrational modes, because they're all at energies that are too high, so we're going to predict the heat capacity is 3R and the reality is, for methane, it's 3.2, okay, so the reality is these vibrational modes are contributing a little bit, we neglected them, but in reality they're contributing a little bit, we missed that, but we get awful close, we get the right answer to one sig fig, now a toughie, benzene, has got all of these different states, pay attention to this column, this is the actual frequency, 1100, 3,000, 1,300, okay, should we include any of these in our, is benzene going to be storing energy in any of these modes right here, they're all too high, how much thermal energy is there at room temperature? 200, never forget that number, all right, what about here? Here's another mode, the CH out of plain WAG, 600 wave numbers, huh, it's a little bit higher than 200, but not way higher, right, 3,000 forget it, 1,000 forget it, 900, very high, 684, another one that's a little bit lower than all the rest, 1,400, 1,100, all right, why don't we see what happens if we include two modes, all right, we'll include this guy, 684, and we'll include this guy, 651, all the rest of them are much higher, let's see how close we get, so let's go with 651 and 684 wave numbers only, translation, rotation, it's a nonlinear molecule, so that's a 3, if it was linear it would be a 2, right, 2 times 2, because, and I would have to tell you this, there's no way that you could know each one of these modes is doubly degenerate, all right, so there isn't one 651 wave number mode, there's two, all right, you have to include that, each degeneracy corresponds to another way the molecule can store the energy, all right, so there's really four here, so it's 4R, so 7R would be the total heat capacity that we estimate if we include two modes, and forget all the rest, and you can see we don't quite get one sig fig of accuracy, the actual heat capacity is 8.8, so that means benzene can use some of these modes at sort of a thousand wave numbers, they can contribute a little bit to the heat capacity, even though we're way lower temperature, all right, we're at a thermal energy of 200 wave numbers, we shouldn't be turning these things on until we get to 1,000, but they get tickled a little bit even at this low temperature, they contribute a little bit, that's the difference between the seven that we calculated and the 8.8 that benzene actually has, yes, we should have, but let's go back and look, all right, these guys, where's the 900 wave number mode? Yeah, you know, who's going to know, all right, you can't expect it, in reality if we include the 900 wave number mode, we're going to get closer to the right answer, but how would we know that? So this is a very approximate arc, all right, and in this particular case it wouldn't be exactly clear which modes to choose and which ones to not choose, all right, and it can even be more complicated than this, all right, but in many, for simpler molecules, all right, in most cases it's fairly obvious which modes to include and which ones not to include. Now the way most people treat equi-partition theorem is they just include all the modes. The equi-partition theorem gives you the high temperature limit for the heat capacity, okay, and you can see where it would, all right, if you include all the modes and the molecule has to be really hot before it can access all these modes, in the case of benzene, okay, definitely a quiz question on this coming at you for Friday. Okay, now with that intuition, we need to be able to calculate exactly how big each one of these guys is, and I know you've been doing that already by if you've been doing the homework, going to discussion, but now we're going to talk about it in lecture just briefly today. We're going to start by talking about translation. Here's a molecule, that's the translational energy for it moving in three dimensions. This is my little pay no attention. And the quantum mechanical gas energies are given by the particle in the box model, so here's the classical, right, if we know the velocity in x, y, and z we can calculate the kinetic energy, okay, but quantum mechanically, we use the particle in the box, all right, where these are the dimensions of the box, Lx, Ly that should be not x, Lz that should be not x, sorry, y, and these are the quantum numbers for each of those dimensions. Remember this, way back probably from fall quarter, okay? So these are what those wave functions look like for goodness sakes in three dimensions, all right, blasts from the past. So now we're going to concentrate attention on ideal monotomic gases just for the moment. Such gases have no internal energy in form of rotations of vibration, we'll assume that just the ground electronic state of the system used to be considered in our analysis, so one of the tacit assumptions we've been making for the last 20 minutes is that the electronic states of the molecule are not contributing anything to the heat capacity because we're only occupying a single electronic state.  We talked about one, NL, right? But there's very few examples like that. Okay, because these various energy manifolds, rotation, vibration, translation can be separated, the solution to the monotomic gas, translational energy will also provide us with a general expression for the translational energy of any gas, no matter how many atoms it has. All we need to know is how big it is. Okay, so consider, first of all, a monotomic gas in one dimension, we've only got a one-dimensional term here, we've only got a quantum number for X and a dimension for X. The molecular partition function is just, we just have to plug this energy into our expression for the partition function, boom, right? That's all I did there. Now these energies are very closely spaced. Consider, for example, if I put this argon atom in a one micron box, one micron, how big is one micron? Well, it's 10 to the minus 6 meters, all right?  What's the smallest thing that you can see in an optical microscope? Anybody know, you've got an optical microscope, let's say you buy the world's best Zeiss optical microscope, you pay $12,000 for it, it's got objectives like beer cans on it, all right? You look through it, what's the smallest thing that you can see? What's the smallest size of the thing that you can see? How many people have had microbiology class? Come on, you guys, microbiology people should know the answer to this, how big is the bacteria? About a micron, can you see a bacteria? Yes, just barely, yes, all right? One micron, all right, in an optical microscope, you can see a one micron object, all right? It doesn't matter how much you pay for it because you can't see more than a fraction of a wavelength of light, all right? What's the wavelength of green light? Half a micron, all right? Turns out that's the smallest dimension you're going to see, doesn't matter how much money you pay for your microscope, all right? If you don't pay enough, you won't see that, okay? One micron is a tiny box, it's the smallest thing that you could possibly see in an optical microscope. So we're not giving the molecule very far to move, not only that, we're only considering its motion in one direction, all right, not Y and Z, okay? So these energies are very closely spaced, considering where we're going to want them, all right? So delta E, all right, what's the state spacing between the ground translational energy level and the first excited translational level? Let's just calculate that and find out what it is. H, M, in units of kilograms now, all right? So when you're doing this on the quiz on Friday, make sure that you use kilograms, okay? That's 10 to the minus 6 meters, all right? L is squared, okay, and we've got N equals 2, so 2 squared is 4 minus 1 is 3, all right, that's the energy we get, 2.48 times 10 to the minus 30 joules. Big energy is small, who knows, all right? It's joules, all right, it always looks small, all right? If it was big, it'd be 10 to the minus 20, 10 to the minus 18, it still seems like a small number, all right? We convert it to wave numbers, we know that's small, all right? 1.25 times 10 to the minus 7, wave numbers, tiny unit of energy, right? One wave number to get the molecule to rotate, 10 to the minus 7, okay? So the state spacing is really, really tiny, all right? Here's a log scale, here's 2.48 times 10 to the minus 30, it's right there, all right? As I increase the quantum number, I'm looking at the state spacing for higher and higher, look what happens, all right, the states can even get closer together, okay? So these states are quasi-continuous, there's a tremendous density of states. They're so close together that they're almost a continuous distribution, all right? And since that's the case, we can evaluate, we can turn this summation into an integral. We're going to integrate over all the states, 0 to infinity, all right? Just move that guy into the integral and we're going to integrate across all of the states, n sub x. And we're going to use a little trick to get the integral right. And when we plug everything in, we're just going to substitute alpha for everything here except for n, because n is the integration variable, okay? And when we do that and we evaluate with the integrate what the, what q is equal to, this is the expression that we get. After integration, we find out that the partition function for one-dimension is just the dimension divided by h root 2 pi m over beta, all right? Now we can calculate exactly what the partition function is in one-dimension, as many sig figs as we want. This is the translational function, partition function in one-dimension for any molecule, any molecule. All we need to know is its mass. Okay, calculate the partition function in one-dimension for an argon atom confined to one micron, one-dimensional box at 300 degrees Kelvin, boom, okay? Ten to the minus six, 1 over kT, right? We have to know T, it's 300. We have to know m in units of kilograms, kilograms, am I emphasizing this point enough? We want the mass of one atom, so we divide by, so if I look at the periodic table, it says 39.948 grams per mole, but we're going to write down kilograms. We're not going to forget that, or we're going to get none of the above when the right answer is actually right there. Okay? And so when we calculate this number, it's 62,000. There's 62,000 translational states in this one micron box? Amazing, all right? There are, in principle, 62,000 thermally accessible translational states at room temperature in this one micron box. That's a large number. Okay, what if it was a three-dimensional box? Well, we just have to cube the same expression we just arrived, we cube it so that's not a square root anymore, it's three-halves, and now we have to include Lx, Ly, Lz, got to cube the H as well. Okay? We cube everything because the translational partition function overall is just Qx times Qy times Qz, they're separable. Okay? And so this is just the volume, obviously. And so if I just move things around, that's the expression that I've got, and there's an even simpler expression. If I substitute something called the thermal wavelength and you've seen all this already, if you've been looking at the homework problems, we talked about the thermal wavelength already, all right? This is just a way to parameterize this equation a little more conveniently because if we define the thermal wavelength this way, then the translational partition function is just that, really, really easy to remember, okay? And so we can calculate the energy from this by using the equation that we derive, the least intuitive equation in chemistry, okay? Q is just this, so we can plug that in for Q. Where did we do? There we did it right there. There's Q, okay, so it's just thermal wavelength cubed over V, dd beta of V over the thermal wavelength cubed with the thermal wavelength cubed equal to that, all right? And if you trust me, all right, that's what we get for the internal energy for, it should be a mole. This should be the average internal energy because we've got K here unless we use N equal to Avogadro's number, okay? So the bottom line is this is 3 halves RT for one mole. Well, we knew that from Equipartition Theorem, didn't we? Okay, it's 3 halves RT for translation. Now we've proved that that's exactly right, okay? What is that, 100 slides, pretty good. So we'll see you on Friday.


Live from Nice, France. It's theCUBE, covering Dotnext Conference 2017 Europe, brought to you by Nutanix. Welcome back, I'm Stu Miniman, and this is theCUBE's live coverage of Nutanix Dotnext Conference in Nice, France. Happy to welcome to the program, a first-time guest, Danielle Montcousseau, who's fresh off the keynote stage, the director of innovation and engineering at TI Sparkle. According to your website, TI Sparkles, the world's communications platform, so thank you so much for joining me. Thank you. All right, so for those of us that aren't familiar, give us a little bit of outline of the company first. Yeah, so TI Sparkle is a fully owned company belonging to Telecom Italia Group, spin-off by the mother company back in 2003, with the mission to develop wholesale and corporate multinational retail and enterprise business abroad. 37 countries present office, 125 posts all around the world. That becomes around 1,000, if we consider also the partnership we'd have with other operators. Hundreds of thousands of kilometers of fiber-optic spreads between Southeast Asia to Europe to North American and also South America via private backbones, via submarine cables in consortia or bilateral. In the top rank for IP transit with our C-Bone backbone, we are number seven in the world. And I think number nine at the moment for voice in terms of Minix exchange to international carriers. Okay, and so innovation and engineering, what's under your purview? What's the relationship with kind of the IT department? Yeah, basically I am a peer within a division called ICT Engineering. I am a peer with the IT responsible. Her role is basically to develop the new digital OSS and BSS of the company, as well as the, let's call it, East-West API for the internet working with other peer operators. My role is instead to make this world speaking with the network elements, the network domains, the cloud domains, all the infrastructure. And we are undergoing a severe transformation altogether because of course things must be very much synchronized in this new crazy world that is accelerating day by day. Yeah, so I felt telecom, a lot of my careers I worked for one of the companies that spun out of AT&T back in the US. So many companies talk about digital disruption. Digital has had a huge impact on telecom. Transformation, you talked about fiber rollouts, it used to be. I remember in the 90s it was like, oh, we're going to have infinite bandwidth and prices are going to go there, things like that. So what are some of the key drivers? What's changing in your business? What are the stresses and opportunities? Well, we need to analyze in two parallel scenarios. One is the wholesale business on which we were a pioneer. We are still having a severe and big role in the market. But the issue is that wholesale is starting not to pay anymore. We face a severe dramatic price decline year over year and therefore in order to get the sustainability of the company, you need to start turning the bar in a strong way towards the enterprises because it's there that is the money. So this doesn't mean that, of course, you go out from the wholesale. We are a wholesale player. Our strategic plan imposes to consolidate and to enrich the offering of wholesale services as well as developing new services focused for the enterprises. Therefore, with high capability of execution very strong and fast time to market and enriched with a plethora of plugins that make the customer feeling the sparkle experience as we call it. Most of the actions on which we are active at the moment are the new dynamic services that are provided as part of the Metro Ethernet forum. Therefore, all on demand paradigm, new connectivity towards cloud platforms, connectivity enriched by cloud experience. In order to reach these targets, you need to abandon a little bit the concept of network infrastructure. You need to scale it up. You need to softwareize it. You need to make it closer to IT. And at the same time, IT needs to come closer to the network and the two needs to inter-work together in an orchestrated way. This is the new world, the fashion at work, orchestration. In reality, we like to speak more of choreography because orchestration is something that we see just residing within the company. Meaning, if you think an orchestra director is making all the instruments, all the artists that are within the company to play it in an harmonized way. But in reality, we want to export towards our customer this experience. And therefore, we see it more as a ballet. So the orchestration is the baseline. But in reality, we want the customer to feel embraced by what Sparkle can offer to it. All right, so connect the dots for us as to where Nutanix came into it, how that discussion started and what you're using with them. So this, let's say, paradigm of the digital transformation in Sparkle started around two years ago. We stopped one moment and we said, okay, what should we do? How can we do? How can we embrace it? Of course, there are a lot of issues that are related to business, processor, organization, skills. But also the technology is a fundamental driver and is about most important. So we started to design a new data center initially for our internal purpose. And we decided that in this data center, all new technology, all new software-driven capabilities of the company should be deployed. But if you see the numbers of Sparkles, Sparkle is a lean and clean company. We are just 700 people, despite a global presence. And so we cannot approach the transformation using the old paradigm of the best of breed, which is a traditional way of approaching things for third-party providers. We instead decided to go completely to a new road. We started to do a strong analysis on hyper-convergence. And we came to term with Nutanix. Finally, the new data center for what concerns all new network application is based on Nutanix nodes. And we force all our vendors to certify their application on Acropolis. So everything is AHB-based. And when we say everything, we are speaking about applications like voice-over-IP monitoring probes. We are speaking about lifecycle service orchestrator. We are speaking about network domains orchestrator, cloud automation and brokerage platform. Everything is running on Nutanix on this huge cluster with different nodes that are more or less powerful depending to which application we pin off. But the main driver there is easy-of-use, predictability, easy capacity and management. Everything runs in a very orchestrated and simple way.  I have to imagine that one of the reasons you looked at HCI and is that why Nutanix was the one that you chose? Yeah, absolutely. Those are fundamental features for us. And in the development that we are doing with Nutanix, we are working very close with their engineering to develop also new feature that are customized for our solutions. We see that at the moment, they are a perfect fit for our walking model. They are also a very fast company in developing things, agile development. They are kind of having some predictability of what customers need in the future. Back at the keynote a few minutes ago, we were discussing about the usage of Nutanix for arranging public cloud environments. We just say that HV needs a further step of maturation, but Sunil was immediately coming out with micro-segmentation and multi-tenancy features that, in our opinion, what the small missing tip to complete HV as a complete cloud solution. So we are going there, also this is our direction. Yeah, so absolutely, in your keynote, you spoke a lot at HV, getting it certified on all the platforms. I want to talk about that cloud strategy. What are you using from Nutanix? Did public clouds fit into your picture? Okay, hands to the kind of your cloud strategy. So let's always remind that we are a telco, no? So are we going to compete with the big guys? It's not in our core, it's not in our interest, and it's not possible for us to compete. Let me ask, there's lots of telecoms that tried and failed. Yeah, we are not even trying, we are not even trying. In a telco like ours, that basically does not have a real captive market, no? We are operating abroad, so theoretically, we are the small guy that is going to face the incumbent in the market. But we have regions on which we have a consolidated presence, especially in Europe, and we have data centers in Italy, Greece, and Turkey. These data centers were traditionally addressing a colocation business, both for carriers and on enterprises. So we decided when the direction was let's focus on enterprise to start the cloud journey, but focusing initially on those markets. Again, we started with the best of breed approach because this is what is in the telco courts. The telco needs to provide a service with a guaranteed SLA, with an infinite number of nine behind it. So at the beginning, the first choice is, okay, let's choose and let's pick the best pieces from each technology. It works, you arrange the solution. The problem is that you need to operate the service. And when you create a cloud infrastructure with the best of breed approach, but you want to maintain lean and clean operations, then it's becoming complicated because you need to have a plethora, a bunch of specialists for each technology that you are going to implement, meaning that you have storage specialists, storage area network specialists, backup specialists. It cannot work like this. If you don't have the ability to scale globally, you will never be able to get sustainability there. So in our cloud 2.0 strategy, which we are started already to apply from last year, Nutanix came to help because basically, we did an analysis, we did several proof of concept, and we found out that we can get the same SLA, the same predictability, the same or even better quality of service to our customer. But using something that, first of all, is manageable by generalist IT skilled people, you can simply expand by scaling more bricks. And at the end of the day, it's also more cost effective in terms of ratio between CAPEX and OPEX. You don't have granularity of OPEX, you have only one player to whom to speak, fight, negotiate, but finally get results. So that is the current scenario. On the cloud, as I said, we are still a V-Sphere shop, but we are starting already the move to HV, especially after this announcement of micro-segmentation coming through. What is our future in cloud? We are going to address a transformation of our POPs all around the world. They will essentially become micro data centers from which we can offer data proximity, data locality to customers, especially taking into consideration the GDPR entering from next year on World. I expect that many customers will feel a little bit more reluctant to disperse their data on centralized data centers without their having control of where really the data stays. So we are studying also with Nutanix, very small and compact solution that we can install in one of our cabinets in the POPs. And this will come also with the strategy of integrating these services with network virtualization, so load balancing firewall, everything residing in the same stack, and SD1. In this way, we are quite confident that we can, for sure, leverage on our existing customer bases but also try to attract more customers that at the moment are not interconnected to our network via local loops, simply using the internet as a new means of communication. All right, so, Danielle, a lot of pieces here. Just to finally get a brief statement from you. It looked like you're looking at Nutanix, you know, they were called kind of the core, there's their cloud, even the edge starting to took there. Why Nutanix? We have done some analysis. We have done a few proof of concept also with competitors or with former competitors, let's say. What we really missed, in our opinion, was the comprehensive vision. We understood from Nutanix, I mean, apart the numbers of performances that somehow you can also get with other solutions. But what was missing in the others was the focus, the strategy, the vision, and the certainty of the target that they wanted to get through. Speaking with Sunil, speaking with Binigil, speaking with all the guys, we see that they have a strong vision of where they want to be in a couple of years from now. And we have seen that they have a high capacity of execution and fast. And we basically have the same targets, we want to get the same achievements. So for us, it's a very reliable partner to work with in the next few years. All right, well, Daniel Muccuso, really appreciate you joining us. We know Nutanix always looks for the customers that are helping to move that digital transformation, be a partner with them. We'll be back with lots more coverage here from the Acropolis in Nice, France. I'm Stu Miniman, you're watching theCUBE.


Welcome to the Australian National University, to the National Security College here at ANU. I'm Rory Metcalf, the head of the National Security College and it's a real pleasure to be hosting the latest of our conversations with Australia's leading national security policy makers in this our 10th anniversary year. Before I introduce our guest Caroline Miller, who's the Deputy Secretary National Security for the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, I will as his customary acknowledge the traditional owners of the land on which we're having this conversation today and pay my respects to the elders of the Ngunnawal people past, present and emerging. So the National Security College is I think an important Australian institution I'd like to think and 10 years on we're doing significant work and really trying to bring together not only education for the national security community for all of the agencies of the Commonwealth Public Service for example, but also in contributing to the national conversation on what is security in this year of great disruption and really at the edge of this decade of great disruption. Now that sounds pretty daunting but I know that you have a far more daunting job and I want to really welcome you Caroline because this is a chance to share some thoughts with you on what are the challenges ahead for Australian national security. What are the kinds of things that in your line of work in your career you've seen governments like Australia's do to address those challenges and perhaps we might move to a little bit of career advice a bit further on. But first I want to welcome you to the studio and really ask you an opening question and that is in your career as a leading Australian policymaker as a diplomat going back into the 20th century how have you seen Australia's national security environment change? Well thank you very much Rory it's a great pleasure to be here and can I just first say though thank you for the work that you do in leading the National Security College very much in partnership with government as you mentioned and your executive development program in particular I think it's been very valuable for many of my colleagues and of course I've been very happy to to address some of your courses. But look the first thing I would say is I don't think in in my career and it's been growing for a while that there's ever been a more consequential time for an Australian official to work in international security and national security. We are living in a time of disruption as you say our strategic environment has deteriorated as as Prime Minister has said it's really the greatest strategic change since World War II and we're now in the Indo-Pacific and we find ourselves at the epicenter of a new age of strategic competition and great power competition between the US and China. It's a very different environment from the one in which I fought the early part of my career. Other things are the big factors of course are the enormous technological change than digital age. We have threat factors through cyber and other means that are challenging non-traditional parts of the of our national security environment. It's very different from from those earlier days. I think another another factor I'd point to is the sort of lack of confidence in some of the multilateral parts of our system a bit of an erosion of confidence in the rules-based order and the challenges it's facing from some countries that don't really share the purposes for which these institutions were established in the first place. So what we do in government now really matters more more consequentially than at any time that I've experienced and of course all the challenges we're facing now compounded by the global pandemic. We'll come back to a few of those issues and I particularly want towards the end of the conversation to go to really what motivates people like you to do what you do. I mean what are the incentives what are the motivations to grapple with these issues every day. Maybe before we do that it would be good to hear a few reflections on really how your own career has evolved on these issues. I mean in many ways you're playing a key convening role in national security policy making but you came at this really through diplomacy and foreign policy and international security. That's right. So I'd love to hear a few thoughts on how on your on your personal journey if you'd like. Well sure look when I first started working on national security it was back in the late 80s and of course that was a time of enormous optimism at the end of the Cold War. I was very lucky to be posted to Washington and it was a it was a very exciting era. There was that sense of triumphalism. The West has won. You know Western democracy has liberal democracy has triumphed and you'll probably remember Francis Fukuyama and his famous 1989 essay on the end of history and I should say that that was published in a journal called the national interest in Washington which was edited by an Australian Owen Harris that you may recall and I remember Owen coming to dinner one night and feeling very pleased he managed to publish such a seminal piece that had such enormous reach and influence at the time. Of course you know things have moved on but there was this very optimistic sense that we were now being able to reap a peace dividend that the UN could play the role in global security it was always there for and I can remember in Washington that that's a sense of power and excitement and it was very much the ear of the lobbyists and the power breakfast and the braces and all of that and then you know a few years later worked very closely on all the big non-proliferation and disarmament challenges. Moving into the early 1990s. Moving into the early 1990s exactly and because of the end of the Cold War we had an international security environment which made it possible for those things finally to start happening. So to be an Australian diplomat at that time was terribly exciting and we all loved it we were extremely motivated and your former Chancellor Gareth Evans who then the Foreign Minister really drove a lot of this internationally and Australia really played an outsized role and some of the big issues we worked on in those days of course were the Chemical Weapons Convention, the Mind Band Convention supporting Gareth and his role as chairman of the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Bound Treaty and one in which I was very involved which was the indefinite extension of the NPT and doing a lot of work on on nuclear weapons programs of concern around the world. That was a different era in a way. I mean there was a certain optimism there in 1990. I joined Foreign Affairs myself in that phase and I think came at the retail end of that. We're moving to a different environment now so it'd be interesting to know how that journey progressed for you or for your worldview if you like as a policymaker from the that moment if you like after the Cold War through to the present day and through the grim challenges we faced. Well indeed I mean I think that that sort of era if you like came to a very rude finish with the terrible 9-11 attacks in the United States and and having just been posted in New York at that time I think when we got back and this happened just after we returned we all felt it very viscerally and you really entered then a sort of a post 9-11 decade where the whole sort of national security apparatus pivoted very largely towards counterterrorism and we had you know of course the Bali bombings in Indonesia the attack on the Australian embassy in Jakarta the sort of the art offence force pivoted into an expeditionary force going to Iraq and Afghanistan working very closely with the United States and the coalition so it's a we shifted from that sort of earlier optimism if you like at the end of the Cold War and that enormous drive to finally get through all these things we thought you know the UN and the multi-lateral system was there to do and sort of peace to this very challenging time in terms of counterterrorism. And all of this was I guess in a way or I guess for Australia kind of an apprenticeship to dealing with the complexities that we deal with in the world today what I might do is is really pivot from I guess those formative phases of your career and I hope later on we can talk a little bit about what formative phases of a career look like in in security these days and it wasn't that long ago of course but but looking at the complexity of the issues that we face now so you've from a career that has principally been in international security for the past two years you've you've been in this key role in the part of Prime Minister and Cabinet and you're looking at national security in the way really I guess in a real policy sense and the way that intellectually we try to look at it here at the National Security College and that is in its complexity in its cross-cutting nature in the way in which the boundaries between what is domestic what is international what is economics what is security what is technology what is society these are all becoming so blurred it'd be great to hear a bit of how how on earth at the helm or at the the centre of policy how do you grip all of that up how is Australia doing well look um it's very challenging I think I'd be you know be sort of misleading people if I didn't say it was very challenging it's very challenging for all of us you know countries around the world are grappling with these issues in in similar ways and I don't think we've all collectively individually worked out quite how to how to handle them but but you're right it's a very different environment um you know in a way the simpler environment of mutual sure destruction you know exactly but you know at least that was very clear we're now everything is gray um in in the Prime Minister's department we set up a couple of years ago a sort of a cross-cutting economic and security process so that colleagues working on the sort of nexus where international security and international economics or national economics come together can work together to sort of make sure that we understand the different angles of the issues we're facing but you know um on your program here you've had people like Duncan Lewis talk about the sort of huge increase in SBNRs and foreign interference um countering foreign interference has been a major focus for this government as as you know um and we're dealing through with all these sort of cross-cutting challenges in sort of non-security areas like supply chains critical mingles critical infrastructure you know foreign investment in telecommunications and of course there's a vector of cyber that sort of cuts through everything enormous focus on on cyber security it's it's very evident to me talking to colleagues from across the firebys and japan and elsewhere that they're they're also finding this very hard to grapple with and i'll give you an example of how much the way we operate has changed from being as you say very much in the international international affairs diplomacy world last year i led a delegation to japan for our regular national security dialogue and and in the past it's been a very foreign policy focused looking dialogue and i was thinking you know where can we in the prime minister's department really add some value and our value is very much in our convening power bringing all these different elements together across the system and seeing how they intersect and how we can best advise government on how to how to handle them so instead of having a more traditional kind of defense and defect sort of delegation uh although they they were present with us we took people from treasury uh from their um national security area and also from home affairs dealing with countering foreign interference so that we could actually look at these cross-cutting issues and talk to our japanese counterparts about them they were really thrilled with this because they were just establishing their own economic security unit in the national security secretariat in in tokyo just sort of equivalent to the group that i run in in p m and c so we had a completely different kind of discussion from one you would have had probably even five years ago and that just gives you a sense of how much things have changed and i think the i mean that that's an interesting insight for listeners and viewers of this uh recording because of course this is a live podcast as as well a live webcast it's an interesting insight into the way in which um i guess the machinery of government is operating i mean we hear and you don't need to necessarily necessarily comment on this if you don't want to but we often hear this very simplistic view that you know foreign policy is now dominated by quote security hawks it sounds to me as if there's actually a very rich conversation between the different parts of government that you've got economic policy feeding into security policy and vice versa and increasingly technology social policy and so on can you absolutely correct look i think no i think that's absolutely correct um there's no doubt that we face very challenging a very challenging security environment so i make no apologies in my job for for for having a very strong national security focus but it's absolutely the case as you say that all the other different elements are coming into play so we are talking regularly with whether it's industry communications um health obviously in the context of a pandemic um but a whole bunch of other other players around town that a few years ago we wouldn't have been doing the same way so it's very cross cutting and it's not all one side of from the national security perspective as well because you know for example right now what is the major focus of the government is to get the economy moving it's it's jobs it's growth so it's very we very much have to look at these issues in an interconnected way can you touch on covid and the bushfires if you like the two crises that obviously hit us this year and i guess you know covid 19 and the response to that is the is the rolling the rolling crisis can you reflect a little bit more on how how government deals with crisis as opposed to the long-term challenges and maybe how that's reflected in your part of government well sure um you know one one of the roles that i have is an all hazards approach to crisis management as the crises occur and of course as things move on they they get dealt with by the parts of the system and we work very closely in that regard with emergency management australia in the department of home affairs but um the bushfires was a you know a very very challenging time obviously uh and one of the things we did as a result of that was an initiative of mine was to establish a cross cutting disaster preparedness and response branch in my group bringing in people from the social policy area and all sorts of other parts of the system with a kind of a small b a u sort of nucleus that could then surge in response to crises well of course we were then confronted with an almost immediate challenge in in in covid 19 and that that new area became the sort of nucleus of what became a very much bigger p m n c task force to support the prime minister at both national cabinet and the national security committee of cabinet in dealing with the crisis so that's the way in which we can sort of add value is really using that traditional p m n c convening power consultation bringing people together to sort of crunch through the issues and deliver the best coordinated advice to government that we can that's um probably a good moment for me to slightly change focus and maybe ask you a little bit more about your own role because as the deputy secretary for national security in prime minister and cabinet you you get to see all of the issues it sounds to me like you do a hell of a lot of wrangling of issues as well so it may be a little bit more clarity particularly for those who are watching this who are students who are trying to understand how government works on these issues what do you do and what does your day look like well the first thing i would say it's completely unpredictable so that my diary at the beginning of the day may not look anything like the same diary at the end because left fields happen left field things happen in the national security space all the time um it's it's it's very much a tradition we are very much now in that sort of a traditional central agency coordinating role and and you'll recall a few years ago there were big machinery of government changes with the creation of home affairs and the establishment of the office of national intelligence and our role had been a bit more expansive before then it's now become a more traditional central agency role so we do a lot of work with any emerging issue to ensure that all the key players are brought together to work out you know how we need to proceed now we that's not to micromanage other agencies because frankly if an area is very much clearly in the purview of a line agency to a large extent as long as you're pretty sure that they're getting on with it and they usually are you just let them do their job but where you have multiple um agencies multiple interests involved then we would tend to step in and try to ensure that there's a very coordinated process and that all the issues are getting a very balanced um you know uh consideration and so how and maybe you could even explain for those who who need to understand how that works with the politics of an issue how does that work with the relationship with the example of the pmo the pmo how how how do you connect with the hill as they say yeah well look the the the central sort of part of the job the most important part of the job by a country mile and it's an enormous privilege is to support the prime minister both in his international engagements and his role as as chair of the national security committee of cabinet so all our endeavor really in the prime minister's department like you would it for a line minister is to thinking how can we support the prime minister in this role to get the best advice to him in order for him to take decisions and with his cabinet colleagues so that's that's sort of overriding focus of of our role in that respect so that's um that that reminds me that a lot of these uh a lot of this architecture if you like a policymaking it evolves over time it's evolved before it will evolve again um and i think it was may have been Duncan Lewis when he was on this program was you know reflecting on the idea of whether in fact there should be a designated national security advisor with a capital in a capital s and a capital a whether there should be a national security strategy or statement by government to pull together a lot of what we're already doing i'm wondering if you can share any thoughts on either of those um those ideas well clearly it's a matter for government um so i've been a bit careful uh but look that just perhaps the advice of outlined a few considerations that that i think any any government would need to look at or would want to take into account uh with respect to a national security advisor of course uh when Duncan was in that role which he did superbly well it was a different era with a different architecture in the national security space so um it was before the creation of home affairs uh and it was before the creation of the office of national intelligence which brings together an enterprise approach to the intelligence community and home affairs of course is a negative part with many sort of agencies attached to it so um i think you'd be you'd be any national security advisor will be operating in a more contested space a more crowded space so i think that you know you'd have to look at what would be the role of of that position in today's environment what would its value add be and how could it go about it in a meaningful way so i think it's not to say you couldn't do it but i think those you'd have to look at it through a very contemporary lens and see where the value add would be in terms of a national security strategy um of course we've had them in the past in 2008 and 2013 um what i would say is this i mean in the last because of the contested environment which we're in in the last um you know four years we've had a 2016 defense white paper we've had a 2017 foreign policy white paper and this year we've had the defense strategic update all of which are set up very clearly the challenges facing Australia and how we're going to tackle them and cyber strategies and all the rest of cyber security strategy all of that also a a raft of government reforms the national security space encountering foreign interference in telecommunications um you know in in a whole raft of areas um security of critical infrastructure and of course there's some further reforms to that being progressed through the parliament now so there's been a whole range of this legislation a whole raft of white papers and policy updates so again where you need to look at where your space was what would be the right time to do something of that kind there could be value in it standing back wrapping the whole thing up but you'd have to look at when and how would be the right moment to do that i think it sounds to me that a lot of the elements are there uh it you know because if we all those documents all those changes to the way government does its business a case could be made that the elements are largely in place and you really need some sort of frame or chapeau but as you say it's it's timing it's it's it's it's what you know any government decides to do at the time yeah yeah look thank you um so what i'll do in the time remaining i want to i do want to move back a bit to um career issues particularly for people starting out in careers in policy or in national security particularly for women but not only for for women i want to come to that towards the end if that's all right a couple more other themes on a touch on i think and you've already alluded to some of this including in describing the the daily challenges in your job um what what are some of the parameters to success in national security policy making i wonder if you can either answer that now or think about that for a moment as we work through a few other things i'm just interested to understand a bit more you know what does success look like and then perhaps a little a reflection on who who does policy well around the world um what's the value of understanding history in making these are all big challenging personal stuff so look pick from that little smorgasbord first if you'd like um look what does success look like um party it's an absence of failure i think um you know uh we've for example if you look at the sort of counter terrorism work um of the challenges that we spoke about during that post 9 11 decade and then as we went through the sort of you know the early teens if you like um with with the rise of biases and al-qaeda um massive effort went into this into counter terrorism work the agency's pivoted towards that for for a long time um uh you know enormous amounts of of funding and huge and and we had in the you know since 2014 um seven terrorist attacks but 18 major CT disruption so i think it's it's putting that focus of effort to get to often it's preventive um that you know that preventing something is success and often those things don't the prevention aren't the things that are in the newspapers um ditto with cyber you know the prime minister for example called out you know a cyber attack by by a sophisticated state actor in june um that the things that are disrupted that are not successful that they go on all the time as well um that is success um have the the um security of the australian community is success the ability of the australian community to prosper is success and national security underpins a lot of them and i guess it's just one of those um characteristics of the job that not that the officials don't necessarily get to celebrate these successes in the in the public eye thanks for that what about um those other two thoughts uh you know where do you see security policy being done well and i think this is also partly i i know that australia has been on a journey in recent years like at the impression that a number of other countries look to australia i know also that you know we should sometimes be careful about holding ourselves up as the paragon of virtue and success but really um how does australia fair in the the league of countries around the world who are grappling with these new cross-cutting issues how are we tracking and maybe where can we also look to um to continue to improve look i think we're tracking reasonably well um certainly from my perspective when i've been wanting to talk to counter parts and we've talked to five eyes counter parts in japan and others it's often i've been thinking oh look they must be doing something i'll get some amazing insight magic formula magic formula and in fact what happens is it's very much a two-way street to sharing information and everyone is grappling with stuff that is really hard to do um there are areas where you'll you'll find you know some colleagues and in in another country are actually a bit ahead of you other things where they're desperate to learn from you because it's clear that you're ahead of them yeah but i think overall australia has been has been proactive it's been driving uh i think some of those big machinery of government changes i spoke about earlier have actually been a great assistance in that respect um and and i think we we've got quite a lot to be to be proud of but it's a journey that we've really only recently embarked on and it's going to be with us for this this current environment it's going to be with us for the long haul i think it's a bit a little bit foreboding um there's been a lot of dialogue this year and that's i guess again if i'm looking for a very small silver lining to what is a really difficult time uh i'm struck by the number of times you see that it's either the p.m. or ministers or officials are having all sorts of dialogue often virtually with counterparts all over the world that's almost seems to be more dialogue now than in a non-covid year i'm just wondering wondering if you can reflect on the proliferation or the value or the creativity and diversity of the dialogues we're having now uh whether it's bilaterals or the court or others and how those are either helping Australia in its security processes or perhaps helping Australia to uh to tell its story yeah no it's a very good point i mean i think the prime minister talked about networks of of aligned countries and so on and and uh i think that's that's never been more important for a country like Australia um and you're absolutely right i mean we sort of tottered up to you for example that in in uh my group the number of bilateral uh leader level calls the prime minister has made and it's an enormous number and also plurilateral and multilateral events virtually uh so the lack of time taken to travel particularly from a country like Australia where it's a major undertaking 48 hours basically travel time there and back to many places um means in fact there's been probably more time freed up and another wise very torrid year for those interactions uh and allowed all sorts of groupings that you might not have expected us to be necessarily part of but because we've been we have done very well for example with COVID and we've had some other other areas in which we've been very successful in the national security space that countries want to talk to us and that's been much much easier for a country from the southern hemisphere with countries from the northern hemisphere when you can do it virtually so we've had video conferences we've had secure video conferences telephone calls etc and that's also been reflected at the senior officials level yeah so it's been it's been actually in in a way quite a productive time now of course what you do miss is the body language the chats in the margins uh those little assides that sort of help inform the other way you think about these challenges but it has been actually surprisingly productive and and active uh in terms of just bilateral interactions including from the prime minister and I guess it means that uh you know the day goes for 24 hours sometimes but um those relationships that are sort of trust and so forth you need to have ideally develop those previously it's it helps it helps a great deal but but but but it's not always I mean we've I think that's fair to say that in the last sort of six months or so um that that both at the ministerial level and senior officials level people have also forged some new relationships virtually so before we move to the sort of the personal story which I'd really like to end on I want to talk a little bit about history and that is I mean because I think you you know you mentioned separately that you were a student of history and I think like a lot of policymakers have a certain you know respect for the historical sensibility if you like any further observations on how I guess understanding history can help frame policy and I also want to go in particular to the era in which you began your career which many would now see as history but of course history is never over and a lot of those issues like non-proliferation and so on are still with us uh nuclear weapons haven't gone away for example so I just wondered if you had any any thoughts on that that long view well I do think it helps if you've got a sense of where you've come from that's not just yesterday um and it's interesting though your point my daughter's doing international relations here or international security actually here at the ANU and writes essays on the cold war which we find a bit disconcerting because she says that history we see it as life you know but but I do think having that perspective and particularly when things have changed so rapidly I mean growing up through the cold war then having that sort of euphoric moment at the end when so much seen possible followed by the that the sort of you know 9 11 decade as I mentioned and then moving forward to where we are today with the kind of regional environment that we did not foresee probably even 10 years ago in the way it's developed so I think having a sense of where you've come from uh and it definitely helps at the same time you know all challenges never the same twice so being informed by that but not letting that determine uh your responses I think is important I guess and busy policy makers sometimes it's it's it's reading history something you're doing a spare time I suspect so look let's go if you don't mind to um a little bit about your advice for uh people starting out in a career in security uh it strikes me certainly from where I sit at the college that a lot of the issues that we either study or analyse or discuss often in our more academic or think tank uh type environment they've become very very real and none of these security issues are purely academic anymore at the same time as you as you I think said earlier there's perhaps a little bit less of the optimism at the moment around that you experienced in the in the 90s and a lot of people in your your cohort if you like in diplomacy and policy were able to really use to drive their careers and to maintain interest and motivation so I guess I'd love to hear some thoughts of advice particularly to women starting out in a security policy career and maybe some observations on what motivates officials these days well look I think the most important thing if you're starting out in any career including in national security is that you have to be really committed to it you have to it has to matter to you um and I think one of the things that motivates us and gets us up every day and it's been the same for most of my career is because I really believe what we do matters if you don't have that feeling I think it'll be hard to keep going particularly in long challenging days um of course it was very exciting when it's very exciting and motivating when you feel you've got something very positive to do it's also very motivating if it's somewhat more wearing when you feel you're dealing with very serious challenges and and right now I think there are many serious challenges and it is it is very motivating to think that what we do in the national security community in Australia really matters for our long-term prosperity sovereignty and security and that that is a that is a getting out of bed every day feeling so I think you have to be it has to be something that you actually feel strongly about yourselves so what I would say to people starting out is if you're still at university do a breadth of subjects because as I've just mentioned the threats we deal with today are going to non-traditional areas so don't just study international relations or international security weave in some stem data security massive issues cyber you know AI weave in some stem some economics you know geoeconomics is just is just as important as geopolitics these days um so you know legal issues very important international legal issues broaden your degree to give yourself that breadth the other thing I'd say is when when you start off in a career if you move into an agency that deals with international security if you decide to go into government um be open minded as to what you might end up being interested in sometimes the great passion you had as it is a third-year undergraduate doesn't survive first contact with the with the practicalities of doing it and other times of course it does but be open the thing I think for me is learning from really good people you know so whether that's that's you know brilliant lecturers at university or really inspiring senior leaders in the public sector or elsewhere um and and really learn from them some of those people are going to be tough taskmasters but I feel forever grateful for people that I learned from in my career so those are some of the things I would say for women you know it's a very different environment now from the one in which I joined which was I feel was deeply misogynist I mean and it was I joined just before the the 1984 equal opportunity that the sex dissemination act was passed and it was quite legitimate in those days to to for ambassadors to say they wouldn't have all their posts for example and it happened to one of my colleagues three times but after that legislation went through that that was not possible so we don't have those major obstacles it's I think it is still can be quite challenging and I have to say one of the things that's disappointed me slightly rising to these to the position I mean now is is the the lack of there aren't as many senior women in these big jobs as I think all of us would have expected given the demography of women going into these these jobs as graduates back in the mid 80s in equal numbers to men so there are still challenges but but I will just say to all young women starting out courage just just go for your dreams do what you want and and just push through did you see yourself becoming this role model I had I had no idea I was just really interested in it and when I first started off I was posted to Hanoi in in in the mid 80s and I wasn't at all sure that I was cut out for this kind of work and I can remember getting off the plane and it was a very um it was very poor miserable place in those days very isolated it's not it's not the Vietnam of today not the thriving Vietnam of today and the moment I touched the tarmac I just absolutely loved it from day one and every day I loved the job um from day one and I think you know you have your ups and downs but but overall I've never looked back that sounds like it keeps you going and I I just want to as an aside um thank you for I think talking about breadth of study and breadth of experience and certainly that's part of the mission that we have at the college and as you know we have a really a a new version of our degree for next year where we're going to be looking very much at issues like geo economics law technology crisis management as some of the issues and subject areas that true national security professionals need yeah well congratulations on that because it's exactly what's required and I give a big plug to Rory's course so thank you for that Caroline look to finish up um still on the personal side of it as you've said your days sound long and challenging and sometimes a bit crazy um so how do you do it how do you cope with some sort of work-life balance how do you how do you keep going back to it look I think work-life balance is a bit of a myth actually um for all the reasons you've just mentioned but look it is very important to build in some time to enable you to function and some time for do things that are that you know good for yourself um the first thing for me is my family and without without them I don't think I'd I'd be able to do this at all without their support and and and all the lovely things we do together um the other true things for me are exercise and and classical music I think you spotted me on on red hill with my dog on a few occasions uh and and also I'd like to go to the gym um what I had a coach about a year ago that gave me some very good advice because I felt at a particular point that the day was so squeezed I just didn't know how to carve out any time at all and it was it was to basically even if you can come up little micro periods of time that can be extremely restorative so I have a little routine in the morning I I listen to the news radio and I scan through all the things that are coming overnight on you know all these things that are happening all over the world not always very edifying and then from the moment between my house and the office in the car I just put on some classical music on on abc classic just for eight minutes and then I come into the car park feeling quite calm and relaxed to start the busy day you just make sure they time those symphonies or concertos but they get exactly to coordinate with your drive that's what that's it look that sounds like a good recipe for for for carrying on and doing what you do really in Australia's national interests so I want to be really very upfront and thank you very much Caroline for your insights your your advice as well and best wishes for what comes next thank you thanks very much Roy okay


Lorenzo was only 6 years old when his parents, Augusto and Michela Odone, took him to the hospital because he was stumbling, becoming bad tempered and not feeling well. After a few tests, the doctors diagnosed him with a rare disease called angiolucidistrophy. And according to the doctors, there was no cure for the disease, so this meant that little Lorenzo was going to continue to lose his balance, go blind and death gradually until he would finally die of aspiration. Little Lorenzo only had only 2 more years to live. After consultations with several doctors and specialists, Augusto and Michela were left with the same devastating answer that always echoed, no cure for the disease, so it meant little Lorenzo was going to die. At that point, Augusto knew that he wasn't ready to take no for an answer. He was determined to fight for the life of his son no matter what it took. He finally embarked on a journey to research everything he could about the disease so that he could come up with a treatment for his little Lorenzo before his 2 years timeline expired. However, there was a challenge. Augusto only had a high school level understanding of science and medicine, which means he had to begin his research from scratch and bring it to an end before the end of the 2 years if he wanted his son to leave. What do you think? Would he or would he not be able to achieve the one thing professionals had spent years researching with no possible solution after the time of the incident? Hold on, you're about to find out. Let's go back to you. Have you ever heard someone tell you that what you want to achieve is impossible? Well, in this video, I'll share with you how to prove people wrong and do the impossible. If you're new here, consider subscribing so that you won't miss other exciting videos like this. Let me say this first. Virtually nothing is impossible as long as you put your mind to it. Perhaps we should define impossibility. According to lexical definition of the word impossible, it means not able to occur, exist or be done. To say something is impossible is to say that it can never exist. Imagine you were present in the era of Wright Brothers, the man who created the first airplane. Before that time, would you have thought that anything or anyone can be transported from location to location via air? I bet you wouldn't. If anyone had dared to mention it, you would have laughed at them because to you, it was impossible. Robert Shuler, an American pastor, motivational speaker and author said that, the only place where your dream becomes impossible is in your own thinking. Also, according to Vince Lombardi, an American football player and coach, we would accomplish many more things if we did not think of them as impossible. So the first thing to do when people tell you that your dreams are impossible to achieve is to get rid of the mentality and accept that you can accomplish anything you want as long as you believe that you can. Christopher Reeve, an American actor, writer and director, said, So many of our dreams at first seem impossible, then they seem improbable, and then, when we summon the will, they soon become inevitable. Until Lorenzo's dad, Augusto, had the task of learning science and medicine from the scratch and also coming up with a cure for Lorenzo's disease in less than two years. Meanwhile, researchers and other specialists said it was impossible because they had been researching for years and still hadn't come up with a reasonable solution. They thought, how can a complete amateur in medicine develop a cure to a complex neurological disease that experts have been studying for decades. Against all the odds, however, Augusto pushed hard. During the day, he worked at World Bank and at night, he scored research papers and medical journals from the National Institute of Health. After months of long research, he finally got an insight from an unlikely source. Augusto figured out that the oils he used to make spaghetti carbonara can soak up the harmful acids before it hurts Lorenzo's nervous system. Of course, once again, the medical researchers thought it was a crazy idea but guess what, it worked. Although he didn't cure Lorenzo, it halted the process enough to provide him another additional 20 years until his death, which was as a result of an accident, not the disease. However, it took the doctors another 21 years to finally prove that the treatment works. Today, Lorenzo's all named after little Lorenzo has saved a lot of people all over the world. What if Augusto accepted what people said and didn't fight for the life of his boy? You see, the best response to people saying that your dreams can't be achieved is to prove them wrong and show them that impossibility is not a word that exists in your world. Once you've changed your mind and accept that nothing is impossible to achieve, as long as you put your mind to eat, what should you do next? Commit to it. Commitment as defined as lexical dictionary is the state or quality of being dedicated to a cost, activity, etc. Commitment is more than just trying to do something. It is a burning desire or drive that keeps you moving even when failure is evident. Commitment is what pushes you to achieve a particular cost because living without it seems pointless. According to Kenneth Blankard, an American auto, there is a difference between interest and commitment. When you are interested in doing something, you do it only when it's convenient. When you are committed to something, you accept no excuses, only results. Vince Lombardi also said that the quality of a person's life is in direct proportion to their commitments to excellence regardless of their chosen field of endeavor. To achieve the impossible and prove people wrong, you have to be willing to commit to doing something, not commit to trying. When you commit to trying something, it means that you will give it your best but if your best doesn't work out, perhaps it wasn't supposed to be. It's okay to be scared at first because it is something that you've never done and you don't know how to achieve it. You don't know what it will cost to do it and you're also scared of failure. However, when you commit to doing a thing, yes obstacles and doubts will arise but because you don't see the point of living without it, you will eventually achieve your dreams. So, when people tell you your dreams are impossible, 1. Change the impossibility mindset to the possibility mindset. 2. Commit yourself to do it. 3. Use them as a motivation to achieve your goals every time you get stuck. Good luck friends. Thank you very much for watching our videos. If you liked this video, watch more videos on our channel and subscribe. We love you.