Some big egos are about to be shattered. That's right. Today, we are going to be talking about the hardest college majors that you can get in college. That's right. You think you're smarter than me? Yeah. Okay. Well, you probably are. Yeah, fair play. But anyways, I live in a scholarship hall with 50 dudes from all different types of majors, and I could tell which ones had to study all the time, which ones were stressed out all the time, and which ones are just partying like it's 1989. And I am just going to tell you right away, you are probably going to be surprised by this list. Engineering, the one that you all think is going to be number one, isn't. So before we begin this video, right after you boop the like button in order to defeat the evil YouTube algorithm, go down below and type what degree you think is going to be the most difficult. All right. So starting the list off, number eight is going to be biology. And of course, there are a ton of different variations of this degree. One of them would be cell and molecular biology, for instance. And the average student is going to spend around 18 hours and 40 minutes preparing for these classes every single week. Now, this is going to be especially hard for people who don't have very good memories. So if someone has an incredible memory, this one might be one of the easiest ones you could possibly get. But everybody's going to be different. I happen to think that my memory isn't all that great. And so some of the hardest classes for me were memory intensive classes like anatomy, for instance. However, you are going to get a good dose of other subjects as well. So for cellular and molecular biology, for instance, you are going to be taking a lot of chemistry classes. In fact, there are going to be many courses you take that are going to require a tremendous amount of chemistry and mathematics. So some of them are going to include chemistry, biology, math, biochemistry, ecology, marine molecular ecology, and immunology. On top of that, it's going to require quite a bit of lab experience. Now, for some people, you're going to love labs. For other people, they're really annoying because a lot of the time you have to go back and, you know, check the Petri dish to see what's going on in there. And if you mess anything up, then you have to start over again. People who have worked in labs a lot will know exactly what I'm talking about. And after studying biology, you will never be able to do a normal handshake again without cringing, especially after 2020. All right. So this is one that pretty much everyone who's going for a health or science degree is going to have to take plenty of. Now the average hour studying for class each week is going to be just above 18. Some of the classes you're going to take are going to be general chemistry, physics, biology, organic chemistry, and maybe physical chemistry as well. And then on top of that, you're going to have to take some of the standard classes that pretty much everyone in science and math has to take like statistics and calculus. Now chemistry majors are going to spend a ton of time in the lab working with different chemicals, doing different experiments. And then after you're done, you have to make lab reports, which those can take a long time. Now chemistry is going to have quite a bit of memorization. So if you're someone who's pretty weak in that department like me, it might be a little more difficult for you. But at the same time, it's also going to be conceptually more difficult than something like biology. A lot of people have trouble with classes like organic and physical chemistry. And the reason for this is because there's a lot of problem solving there.  And you have to think about what happens on a micro level as well as a macro level. So yeah, if you're somebody who wants to do a hard science like this and challenge yourself, chemistry can be pretty tough. A lot of people go for biochemistry where they get a good mixture of biology and chemistry. And this is really great if you're trying to become a doctor or maybe a PA, something along those lines. All right, so number six on the list. Everybody's been waiting for this one. It is going to be computer science. So you know I had to put this one in the video somewhere. Now this one is increasingly in high demand in terms of the skills that it teaches you. However, it is relatively rigorous. You are going to spend a ton of time learning how to troubleshoot and problem solve as well as learning how to code. Now on top of that, you are going to be studying a good amount of mathematics as well as the fundamentals of how computers work in general. Some of the classes you might take would include algorithms, discrete structures, computer architecture, C++, Python, Java, as well as many other types of languages. Those who love tinkering with computers and love a challenge may find a good match with this degree. I see this as an absolute win. Number five on the list is going to be architecture. Now when it comes to the sheer amount of time you spend studying, it's about 22 hours a week, which is the highest on the entire list. So you could make a good argument that architecture is the hardest. And when it comes to architecture, you have to be extremely well rounded. So not only do you have to know a lot of mathematics and physics, but you have to know the history as well. And then on top of that, you have to be very well versed in art. Architecture is extremely interdisciplinary. So you could argue in some ways this could be the hardest on the entire list. And again, it's really going to come down to the person, your own personal strengths, what you like, what you don't like and your passions. But when you're talking about the average person, I think there are some on the list that are going to be even more difficult. Number four on the list is going to be math. Math is hard. Now math is almost like the language of the universe because everybody can look at a math equation and it really doesn't matter what language you speak, they understand it. Two plus two will always equal four. Although when it gets complicated, it might look like a foreign language. Now if you are somebody who understands the language of math, try not to get too excited here just because you're good at something that most people hate. Sorry, sorry, I was excited. Now along with taking these standard classes that everybody else is going to take like calculus and statistics, you are going to be diving much more deep when it comes to mathematics. We're going to be talking about differential equations, single and multivariable calculus, linear and abstract algebra, real analysis, probability and often computer science. Now some schools are a little bit different than others. Some of them focus more on the theoretical mathematics side of things and then some of them focus on more practical math. But regardless, it is going to be very challenging, especially if you consider the average person just isn't all that good at math. However, if you're somebody who loves math and you're really smart, this might be pretty easy for you. Number three on the list is probably going to come as a surprise, but it's going to be the pre-med track.  And you can technically major in just about anything in order to get into medical school as long as you take these core classes. And the classes themselves aren't necessarily as hard as a lot of the other ones on this list. What makes this really hard is the fact that you have to get ridiculously good grades in order to get into medical school. So the average GPA for people who get into medical school is about 3.71. And especially when you consider that a lot of them come from the plus minus system, that's extremely impressive. So with the plus minus system, if you get anywhere between 90 to 94%, that means you get an A minus. That is a 3.7 GPA. So these people who get into medical school, if they come from a plus minus system, are literally averaging an A. So to be honest, a lot of these classes aren't going to be the most difficult. I mean, physical chemistry, organic chemistry can be pretty tough, but they aren't going to be like incredibly difficult. There's going to be a lot of memorization involved. For instance, so there you are going to be studying quite a bit. But realistically speaking, they're not going to be as hard as like engineering or a lot of the math classes. But what makes these so difficult is you pretty much have to get an A in every single class. And then of course, everybody else in the class is also on the premed track, and they're trying to get an A too. And on top of that, if you wanted to get into med school, you have to do a lot of extracurriculars like shadowing, getting a job, internships, et cetera. Seriously, when I was in undergrad and I was taking these science classes, it seemed like every person I met told me that they were premed. And then at the end of the three years or so, a lot of them had switched to nursing or pharmacy or something else because of how rigorous this is. And I know one person who applied to med school four years in a row, that's right. So she graduated from college. She applied that year. She got rejected four years in a row. And then she finally gave up another person applied three years in a row and finally got accepted on the fourth year. So for that reason, the premed track is extremely competitive. And I guess you could add like a bunch of other things in here. Like let's say you're trying to go to a top law school that's probably also going to be very competitive as well. Number two on the list is going to be drum roll, please. Engineering. All right. So I put this one as number two on the list. And you know what that means.  They're going to be telling me down below why they should have been number one on the list. Very sad. But the truth is, maybe it actually is number one.  Just kidding. But this one is going to have the second most amount of time when it comes to studying every week. Most of the majors are going to range somewhere around 20 hours a week in studying alone. Now, of course, some of the engineering majors are going to be harder than others. There's a lot of arguments here about which one is the hardest. Most people say electrical, chemical, and then a lot of really smart people go into aerospace engineering. So those three are probably the hardest. But again, a lot of argument there. Let me know down in the comments, which ones you personally believe are the hardest.  It was one of my roommates back in college when I lived in a scholarship hall. This guy was so smart, it's actually painful to think about. Okay, like literally the smartest person I've ever met. First of all, he had a photographic memory or an idetic memory. He could remember just about anything literally reading it one time, didn't have to write it down, didn't have to read it a second time. It was absolutely ridiculous how good his memory was. On top of that, his mathematical ability and just quantitative ability and just problem solving in general was ridiculously good. I remember two particular occasions that really stand out to me, but honestly, there were a lot more than this. I remember a couple of my friends and I, I think we were on Zoom or some other platform where you can like talk to each other. And we were all doing this quiz where you type in the names of Harry Potter characters. Okay, so apparently there's like over 500 Harry Potter characters and you'd like type in the name and see how many of them you could actually remember from the book. And I forgot the exact number, but I think we got to somewhere around like 200. And we couldn't think of any more at that point. My roommate walks into the room. He asked me what I'm doing.  And I start like typing them in. And he names off like an extra 150 characters that we didn't even think of just off the top of his head. He's only read each of the books one time. And some of the other people that were on this quiz had read them like, you know, two or three times. And he still just remembered and not only did we remember the first name, right on this quiz, all you had to do is just type in the first name and that was good. But he would also remember their last names as well. Wow, he is so great. And honestly, I think he probably could have gotten to like 450 out of 500, whatever the max was, if he wanted to, but he just got bored after a while. And then the second occasion that I remember with this guy was I was studying for a really difficult chemistry test. I think it was like organic chemistry. And he just walked into the room, you know, I was studying this part, and I was having a lot of trouble with it. And it was really frustrating. And you know, he starts talking to me and I'm just telling him about how, you know, this part is really difficult. He looks at it for like 30 seconds. And he tells me what the answer is. And he's never even taken this chemistry class before. He told me that he knew the answer because he studied like AP chemistry in high school. And he read part of the chapter that he wasn't even supposed to read. And he remembered the answer from there. And he was just able to like infer or deduct the rest of it just off the top of his head. It was like a really complicated thing. It was not not easy at all. So yeah, like these guys are like next level.  I remember this guy during finals, he would he would just play Skyrim the whole time. Like he didn't study for any of his finals. He would play Skyrim. Well, everybody else in the scholarship hall was studying like crazy like 40 to 60 hours a week. Probably he was just playing Skyrim the whole time. And then he'd ace all of his tests. He got a 4.0. He won some kind of international aerospace competition. And he got like a super good like manager job right out of college smartest guy I've ever met without a doubt. But with that being said, there is one type of degree that is even more difficult than engineering degrees. Can you guess the name of the major? The name is just kidding. It's actually physics. And for normal people, physics looks kind of like this. But yeah, no physics in my opinion is probably the most difficult major that you can take. Not only you're going to be studying a lot of like theoretical stuff like mathematics, but you have to be able to apply that to real world problems.  Now this one is going to be in the top five when it comes to the amount of time you have to spend studying. But the reason this is number one is because of the fact that physics degree graduates have the highest IQs out of all the different types of majors. That's right, physics majors are big brain. They have the highest IQs out of all the different majors at about three feet. Just kidding. It's about 133 according to data at the educational testing service. So basically what that means an IQ of 130 means you're in the top 2% of intelligence. And some people would actually consider that to be genius. At the very least, this is considered to be borderline genius. So the average physics major just just like your average Joe sitting in a physics class is a borderline genius. Now math and engineering weren't far behind and a dark horse there was actually philosophy. Philosophy grads are very smart, even though it's not necessarily an extremely rigorous major, they're really intelligent. And the significance of this is if you are competing as other people where just the average Joe in the class, the average major is a borderline genius, that means that the professor can make the test ridiculously hard. I mean, think about it, it makes total sense. Usually colleges work on the curve, you know, they'll have a certain percentage of the class that gets an A and a B, etc. And so they're just going to make the test harder and harder until that curve is reached. But that's just my opinion. Don't get mad about it or anything. Let me know what you guys think down below. If you haven't done it already, go ahead and check out my other videos right here. I made them just for you. Go ahead, hit that subscribe button, ring that. Ring the notification bell, comment down below any thoughts, comments, criticisms, etc. that you have on the video and I will catch you guys later.


In this video, I'm going to give you three reasons why having anxiety in 2018 is awesome. So make sure that you stay tuned. What is up everybody? This is Chris from the Rewired Soul where we talk about the problem, but focus on the solution.  And this is the year where we have so many different tools that can help us manage our anxiety in a variety of different ways. And they're very, very simple. And all of you already have these things. All right. So even if you just stumbled across this video or you're somebody who has anxiety and knows other people with anxiety, make sure that you please, please, please share this video with them. Quit being so selfish. Help them out. Help them understand why 2018 is so awesome for having anxiety. All right. Let's jump into this thing. So reason number one, texting. Texting, texting, texting. All right. So as somebody with anxiety, I also had a lot of phone anxiety.  But the worst thing on earth for me or anybody who struggles with anxiety on the phone is like awkward silence, right?  Like what do I say? What are they thinking? All this other stuff. But texting, you ain't even got to worry about that because you send a text. It's like, hey, what's that? How you doing? They're like, oh, nothing. I'm just, I'm just chilling. You know, it's like, oh, what are you chilling doing? And then like, they don't get back to you for a while. And then you're like, oh, that's cool. Maybe they're making a sandwich or something.  Those are somebody with anxiety is worse nightmare. We should do another video on that. But also, when it comes to texting, like, we're able to identify who it is. And we have time to prepare everything that we're saying. That's not something that we could do on the phone. Like with my anxiety, whenever I got it, whenever I used to get a phone call and I would see it ringing, like the caller ID, like you'd be looking at it. And especially if it's an unknown number, like that is crazy, right in and of itself.  What do they need? So like, it's important that we text when we can if we struggle with anxiety, like, use this to your advantage. Now, of course, there's a lot of us who have jobs, like I have a job personally, why call people all day. But when texting is available, use it to your advantage.  And this kind of ties into the texting reason. Just a second ago, like through a dating app, like, I can have a conversation without freaking out the entire time. I can take my time, look at what I'm doing because, like, when I used to go out on dates and stuff like that, like, even though I would meet women like through a dating app, like, even when I went on dates, it, like, reminded me of being, like, Vince Vaughn from Wedding Crashers, you know what I mean? Am I eating? Am I talking too much? Are they talking enough? Am I interested? I'm not really interested. Should I play like I'm interested, but I'm not that interested. But I think she might be interested. But do I want to be interested? But now she's not interested. So all of a sudden, I'm getting, I'm starting to get interested. And, like, that's one of the other beautiful things about 2018, like, dating apps aren't weird or creepy anymore. It's like not back, like, in the 90s, where it was just, like, AOL chat rooms, and it was just, like, some weird dude sitting in his basement, like, pretending to be, like, a 15-year-old girl. Like, it's not like that anymore. Well, I guess there are still, like, catfishes out there and stuff like that. But it's even more rare than it used to be. Like, now you can get to know somebody before you actually meet up with them. And, like, that in itself is, like, very, very comforting. Like, my rule of thumb, back in my single days, like, I would be able to talk to a woman for at least a week or two before we met up. So, like, I already knew her likes, her dislikes, things about her and stuff. So it's, like, the momentum of the conversation was already going. Rather than just blindly walking into that first date and trying to figure out what you have in common, are you even compatible, and all these other things. Like, for those of you who haven't checked out the Valentine's Day video I made from our beautiful girlfriend, you should go check it out. But, fun fact, me and her actually met on a dating app. Like, that's where we met. And it's amazing, you know what I mean? So, if you're somebody who struggles with anxiety, like, use dating apps for your advantage. Like, they can help you out a ton. And lastly, reason number three is delivery. Delivery, delivery, delivery. All right? So, most of us grew up in a time where, like, the most you can get delivered was, like, pizza or Chinese food. But now, like, apps have, like, changed the game. So, for me, like, I get a lot of social anxiety. When I am in a crowded space, it fuels my anxiety. It's very difficult. Now, like, I use a bunch of different methods because I actually don't use these apps because my anxiety is a little bit more tame than when it used to be. But, like, I highly suggest using these delivery apps if you're not ready to go out and just run around Costco or your local grocery store. Like, when it's, like, the weekend and it's packed, like, it can start making you have a lot of anxiety. And a lot of people, like, they start getting frustrated and angry and upset. They take it out on their kids or other people. And everybody in there is just these walking bowls of, like, anxiety. But now, you have all these different apps. And by the way, hashtag not sponsored. But you have all these different apps that can pretty much pick up whatever you want. Not only are your food options even wider. So, you can use things like Postmates. There's other apps that will just, like, grab something for you from, like, the gas station or around the corner on Valentine's Day. Like, girlfriend, she had Starbucks delivered to my door. She had Starbucks delivered to my door. But aside from that, aside from those little, like, snacks and treats you like, like, there's other services where they will legit deliver, like, a week's worth of groceries to you. Plus, there's all these other food places, like, what is it, like, Blue Apron, where they deliver you, like, meals, like, prepped meals that you could just put together, cook and make. By the way, maybe that's how I can get a brand deal with Blue Apron. Yeah, Blue Apron. I'm coming for you. But, like, just think about it. So, you can do these things in the comfort of your own home. And since I got a little bit of time left, I'm about to drop on you a surprise reason. Reason number four, movies. A lot of people get anxiety going out to the movies. You know what I mean? Like, being in a crowded room next to strangers. Who are you sitting next to? Are they going to be making noise? Are they going to do this? Are they going to do that? Is there somebody who's going to be loud? Is somebody going to talk to you? Like, here in Las Vegas, the movie theater, my son and I go to a lot. There's a signed seating and, like, trust. Like, nothing makes my anxiety go through the roof more than when somebody comes up to me and they're like, oh, you're in the wrong seat. This is my seat and I start freaking out in my head. Like, now you have so many movies available to you in the comfort of your own home. Like, personally, I don't even use cable. I just use Hulu and Netflix and YouTube. Like, I watch a ton of YouTube videos, but there's this new movie. What is it with Natalie Portman? It's called Annihilation. Like, it's in the theaters right now and it's about to be on Netflix very soon. And then Netflix has all of its originals on there. Like, I love all the Marvel shows and stuff like that. But, like, we live in a time where you can do so much from the comfort of your own home. So just think about that. Think about that. Like, I wanted to make this video because I'm extremely optimistic and I'm a glasses half full kind of guy. And it's all about, like, this gratitude that we have to have for the technology that we have. Like, imagine if you had this type of anxiety. Like, I don't know, even like 20, yeah, even 20 years ago, even 10 years ago, half this stuff that I just mentioned we didn't even have. Like, sugar was texting, dating sites were like, eh, you know what I mean? But now you can have groceries delivered and all that kind of stuff. Like, stay grateful and use these things to your advantage. Now, don't get me wrong. This was kind of a fun video for me to make. I do have a lot of other videos on how to manage your anxiety and kind of get out there into the world. But, like, a lot of my videos that I create, they are meant for baby steps. Okay, so don't just plunge and dive into the deep end. A lot of them are baby steps, but I wanted to make this video so I can meet you exactly where you're at. And if you're somebody who feels uncomfortable, very anxious, going out in public for all these different reasons that I just listed, I wanted to give you some options so you understand that there are things available for you. All right? But make sure you're checking out my other videos because, like, one of the reasons I made this channel is, like, I want to show people that no matter if you're struggling with anxiety, depression, addiction recovery, whatever the issue is, like, we can function like everybody else. It's all about just having the tools to do so. Okay? And it's gradual. We're working on a marathon, not a sprint. Okay? But anyways, like I said, like I said, if you know somebody, if you know somebody who has anxiety, like, be sure to share this video, share it on Facebook, go tweet it at some folks, private message it, slide up in that DM, give them some help for their anxiety. Okay? But anyways, thank you so much for watching. And if you are new here, I have, now I have over 250 videos about mental health, click the little round subscribe button, or click or tap on one of those thumbnails right there. In fact, do both. Do both of those things. All right? But thanks so much for watching. Manage your anxiety today, and I'll see you next time.


Welcome to Spotlight Advanced. I'm Liz Wade. And I'm Colin Lover. Spotlight uses a special English method of broadcasting. It is easier for people to understand no matter where in the world they live. When Betty Apio married her husband many years ago, both their families were full of hope and happiness. Apio lives in the country of Uganda. In Uganda, as in many countries, everyone expects women to have children. Many people there believe that women exist to have children. To fail at this is to fail as a wife and as a woman. After Apio was married, her husband prepared their house for children. Then they waited. They tried again and again to have children but the children never came. Today's spotlight is on infertility. Some people are not able to have children even when they are trying for over a year. This is infertility. There are many medical reasons for infertility but today's spotlight is on the social attitudes surrounding infertility. Betty Apio and her husband went to a doctor to find out what was wrong. She received some medical treatments from the doctor but they did not work. To make the situation worse, her husband's family began to make fun of her and call her bad names. In Uganda, a man can have more than one wife. So his family told him to find another woman, a second wife. This new wife gave him two children. Now Apio lives a different kind of life. She told the Washington Post Foreign Service. People will never give me respect. They believe I have no value. They insult me.  It is horrible. I must be strong or I will not survive. Infertility affects people all around the world. It does not matter if you have money, education or power. And it affects both men and women. Experts say that globally about 15% of all couples who are at the age to have children are infertile. In some places this number can be as high as 20%. Infertility is common but people do not often talk about this problem. Many people feel great pressure to have children even if they are successful in other areas of life. To men and women who want to have children but are not able, the pressure can be crushing. And often if a couple cannot have children, people blame the woman. This can lead women especially to feel shame. They believe that they are alone in their struggle with infertility. They may even avoid talking about children. They may avoid attending events where children will be present. They may even find it difficult to be happy when children are born to other people. It is difficult to be infertile but the social attitude about infertility only makes the problem worse. As in Betty Appier's case, the community can make infertile people feel great shame. But people should not feel shame about their infertility. They should not feel alone. In fact, some women are speaking out to encourage other people who may be struggling. By talking together they are finding hope. Betty Appier wanted to be one of these women. She decided to talk about her situation. She wanted to share her story with other women. She did not want other people to feel like she did. Appier has found some help at a support centre in Kampala. At the centre there were groups that help women. These groups explain the medical reasons for infertility. Women can connect with other women. And they can connect with doctors who can help them at a fertility centre. Prakash Patel runs one of the fertility centres in Kampala. He told The Washington Post that many women struggle to visit him. Women often do not want anyone to know they are going to a fertility centre. And they share great sadness. He said, I say to them, this is not a disease. There are many like you. You do not have to feel shame. If you or someone you know is infertile, the best thing you can do is to find people who support you. Surround yourself with people who will love you and care for you. These people may be in your own family, but they may not. They may be some friends or people from your community. If you do not feel comfortable talking to a friend or family member, there may be resources in your community. Many fertility centres have support groups. They are a good place to learn about what medical treatments are possible in your area. These treatments are not possible for everyone. They may cost a lot of money and they do not always work. But the most important treatment is the support and love to face the challenge of infertility. The emotional pain of infertility is very real. This is true even for people who are able to build their family in other ways, such as through medicine or through adoption, caring for a child without parents. Many people who are infertile feel anger and shame. They may wonder why this could happen to them. They may want to feel peace and acceptance, but they also may not want to lose the dream of having children. Shannon Woodward wrote a book about her struggle to make peace with her infertility called Inconceivable. It was not easy for her. Her desire to have her own children never went away. Woodward is a Christian. She says she was able to see how God can work through her pain. She writes, For years I hated my broken body parts. I took my worth from what I could or could not produce. I asked God to heal my body. But it turns out he had a better plan. He healed parts of me I did not know were broken. He put new skin on old wounds. He freed me from my pain and self-hatred. Infertility is painful. But facing infertility can bring healing. If you are infertile, look for support. And if you know an infertile person, offer them love and support. Do you know someone who has struggled to have a baby? Is there support for infertility in your area? Tell us about your experiences. You can leave a comment on our website or email us at contact at spotlightenglish.com. You can also find us on Facebook and YouTube. The writer of this program was Adam Navis. The producer was Michio Ozaki. The voices you heard were from the United States and the United Kingdom. All quotes were adapted for this program and voiced by Spotlight. You can listen to this program again and read it on the Internet at www.spotlightenglish.com. This program is called No Baby, No Shame in Infertility. Visit our website to download our free official app for Android and Apple devices. We hope you can join us again for the next Spotlight program. Goodbye.


Hello and welcome to this presentation of the STM32 LCD TFT display controller. It covers all features of the LTDC controller which is used to interface with TFT displays. The LCD TFT stands for Liquid Crystal Display Thin Film Transistor. The controller is highly configurable and interfaces with standard parallel RGB interfaces. The benefits of the LCD TFT display controller include flexible programmable display parameters, integrated pixel format converter and blender. The LCD TFT display controller or LTDC frame buffer can be located either in on-chip memory or in external memory depending on the panel resolution. The LCD TFT display controller provides a 24-bit parallel digital RGB or red-green-blue interface with additional signals for horizontal and vertical synchronization. The LTDC is master on the AHB bus matrix and can access internal memories like internal flash, SRAM 1, SRAM 2, or external memories via FMC quad-SPI interfaces. It also features a dedicated 64-word FIFO per layer. It supports programmable timings and polarity parameters to interface with a wide range of display panels. The LTDC offers flexible programmable parameters, allowing it to support a wide variety of display panels. Programmable display size, for example, QVGA, WQVGA, and VGA. Programmable background color, 24-bit RGB value, programmed in LCD controller register, LTDC BCCR, used for blending with the bottom layer. Multi-layer support with blending, two layers. Dithering, two bits per color channel, 2-2-2 for RGB. The dithering pseudo-random technique is used to add a small random value or threshold to each pixel color channel or RGB value, thus rounding up the most significant bits in some cases when displaying 24-bit data on an 18-bit display. And new programmed values can be loaded immediately at runtime or during vertical blanking. This is the LCD TFT controller block diagram. The LTDC features three clock domains, AHB clock domain or HCLK, to transfer data from memories to the layer FIFO and frame buffer configuration registers. APB clock domain or PCLK to access the global configuration and interrupt registers. And the pixel clock domain or LCD CLK to generate LCD TFT interface signals, pixel data, and layer configuration. The LCD CLK output should be configured according to the panel requirements. To interface with TFT panels, all timings are programmable through the LTDC controller. These timings come from the TFT panel datasheet and are VBP or vertical back porch, VFP or vertical front porch, HBP or horizontal back porch, or HFP, horizontal front porch, Hsync or horizontal synchronization, and Vsync or vertical synchronization. The LTDC output signals are summarized in this table. The LCD TFT controller pins must be configured by the user application. The unused pins can be used for other purposes. The programmable pixel format is used for the data stored in the frame buffer of a layer. This table describes the pixel data mapping versus the selected input color format. The LTDC can be configured with up to eight programmable input color formats per layer. Direct color, ARGB 8888, RGB8888, RGB565, ARGB 1555, ARGB 4444, indirect color, L8, 8-bit luminance or CLUT, AL44, 4-bit alpha and 4-bit luminance, and AL88, 8-bit alpha and 8-bit luminance. When the color format of a bitmap is converted into another one, this operation is called pixel format conversion or PFC. The pixel data is read from the frame buffer and then transformed to the internal ARGB 8888 format as follows. Components, which have a width of less than 8-bits, get expanded to 8-bits by bit replication. The eight most significant bits are chosen. Note that conversion from direct color to indirect color or from indirect color to direct color is easy to do, but converting a direct color to an indirect color format would mean regenerating a color lookup table or CLUT, which is a very complex operation. The color lookup table is only used in case of indexed color for L8, AL44 and AL88 input pixel formats. It supports up to 256 entries per layer. The frame buffer contains an index value for each pixel. The CLUT has to be loaded with the RG and V values that will replace the original RGB values of that pixel or indexed color. Each color or RGB value has its own address, which is the position within the CLUT. Every layer can be positioned and resized. The programmable layer position and size define the first and last visible pixel of a line and the first last visible line in the window. It allows display of either the full image frame or only a part of the image frame. Every layer has a configurable number of lines and line length for the color frame buffer and the pitch. The pitch is the distance between the start of one line and the beginning of the next line in bytes. These parameters are expressed in bytes, not in pixels, so their values depend on the number of bits per pixel. The line length and the number of lines parameters are used to stop the prefetching of data from the layer FIFO at the end of the frame buffer. The LTDC features configurable blending factors. The blending order is fixed and it is bottom up. If two layers are enabled, layer 1 is first blended with the background color, then layer 2 is blended with the result of the previous blending. Each layer can have a default color in the ARGB format, which is used outside the defined layer window or when a layer is disabled. Tricky use case. Layer 1 is enabled. Layer 2 is disabled with default color black. If blending factor is set to constant alpha equals 0xFF, no image is displayed. Only black window is displayed. Default color of layer 2 is black. To bypass the default color, set the blending factor to transparent, alpha equals 0x00. A color key, RGB, can be configured to be representative for a transparent pixel. If color keying is enabled, the current pixels after format conversion and before blending are compared to the color key. If they match for the programmed RGB value, all channels ARGB of that pixel are set to 0. The color key value can be configured and used at runtime to replace the pixel RGB value. Color keying is enabled through the LTDC LXCKCR register. Line interrupt. Generated when a programmed line position is reached. Register reload interrupt. Generated when the shadow registers are relocated during the vertical blanking period. FIFO underrun interrupt. Generated when a pixel is requested from an empty layer FIFO. And transfer error interrupt. Generated when an AHB bus error occurs during data transfer. The LTDC is active in run and sleep modes. An LTDC interrupt can cause the device to exit sleep mode. The device is not able to perform any communication in stop and standby modes. Graphic applications require a high quality user interface. This can be achieved using the STM32MP1 to connect the display thanks to the LCD TFT controller. In addition, the FMC or Quad SPI interface may be used to access an external flash memory containing all of the graphical contents needed such as background images, high resolution icons, or fonts to support multiple languages. This is a list of peripherals related to the LTDC. Please refer to these peripheral trainings for more information if needed. Reset and clock control or RCC. And general purpose inputs, outputs, or GPIO.


Hello everyone. I am Dr. Anudhya K, VG resident in the Department of Radial Diagnosis, ABBMS and Dr. RML Hospital in New Delhi. Today I am presenting a topic on MDCT Imaging of Concernital Lung and Amelies under the guidance of Dr. Anil Taneja, Professor and HOD, Department of Radial Diagnosis, ABBMS and Dr. RML Hospital. Coming to introduction. Concernital Lung and Amelies represent a diverse group of developmental disorders which may produce severe symptoms during infancy with respiratory symptoms or may be detected incidentally. Many theories explaining the idiopathogenesis of Concernital Lung and Amelies was proposed, which included defects in the budding, separation and differentiation of primitive forward structures, airway obstruction and vascular abnormalities leading to secondary pulmonary displastic changes. Lung and amelies can be classified into three broad categories. Broncopulmonary or lung-bud anomalies including lung agenesis, hypoplasia complex, congenital pulmonary airway malformation, congenital lobar emphysema, bronchial atresia and bronchogenic cyst. Vascular anomalies including absence of main pulmonary artery, anomalous origin of left pulmonary artery or pulmonary sling, anomalous pulmonary venous drainage, pulmonary artery venous malformation, combined lung and vascular anomalies which include the schematar syndrome and broncopulmonary sequestration. The aim of the study was to detect and characterize the congenital lung anomalies with multi-detector computed tomography, materials and methods. The study was conducted at Department of Diagnosis at ABBMS and Dr. RML Hospital New Delhi. Study type, cross-sectional observational study. Study duration was from August 2020 to September 2022. Sample size, 38 cases. Study was done using semen somatom definition flash, 128 slides dual source CT scanner. Scan was performed in supine position at the end of full inspiration. Thin axial sections were taken from lung epics to upper abdomen in plain and post IB's contrast scans. Study was done in all patients suspected to have congenital lung anomalies on primary chest x-ray and the scan were analyzed to identify congenital lung anomalies and characterize them. Result and discussion. A total of 38 patients were included in this study out of which eight patients showed pulmonary anomalies which included congenital pulmonary malformation, bronchogenic cysts, congenital low bar impulsima. 26 patients showed vascular anomalies which included the absence of main pulmonary artery, anomalous pulmonary venous drainage and pulmonary AB malformation. Four patients showed combined lung and vascular anomalies which included the schematar syndrome and bronchopulmonary sequestration. The first image is a bar graph showing the distribution of cases as per age and gender. Five male patients and two female patients were under the age group of 0 to 10 years. Nine male patients and three female patients studied were in the age group of 11 to 20 years. Six male patients and five female patients were in the age group of 21 to 30 years and five male and three female patients were in the age group of 31 to 40 years. The following is a pie chart showing the distribution of cases according to their incidence in our study. 39% of patients who were studied had absence of main pulmonary artery. 26% patient had total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage. 11% patients had bronchogenic cyst. 8% had congenital pulmonary airway malformation. 5% each had schematar syndrome and bronchopulmonary sequestration and 3% each had congenital lobar emphysema and pulmonary AV malformation. The following images are contrast enhanced CT images axial and societal showing heterogeneously enhancing lesion in the posterior basal segment of right lower low with multiple variable size cystic spaces within showing peripheral enhancement and few internal enhancing septae with adjacent consolidation and ethyl ectasis. The lesion is supplied by the normal pulmonary vasculature. No abnormal communication is seen between the cystic spaces and the tracheobromchil tree. Diagnosis of congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation was made. The second image is a axial HRCT image showing multi-cystic lesion in the left lower low with multiple variable size thin walled air fill cysts. There is no evidence of communication with the tracheobromchil tree. The media synom is shifted towards the right. Diagnosis of congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation or congenital pulmonary airway malformation was made. This is a axial HRCT image showing a well-defined homogeneous lesion of fluid adenuation in the right paratrical region. No mass effect is seen on the SVC or trachea. Similar case is seen which shows a homogeneous round lesion of fluid adenuation in the pariotic region. No mass effect is seen on the arch of iota. These cases were diagnosed as bronchogenic cysts. Axial and coronal contrastion and CT images showing well-defined solid mass in posterior basal segment of left lower loop in paravertible location. Multiple vessels are seen within the mass. Artificial supply of the lesion is derived from the descending thoracic iota and venous drainage is via the descending left pulmonary vein. This is a case of intralobar sequestration. Coronal contrastion and CT images are seen in which the left superior and inferior pulmonary veins are seen to join and drain into the left precocephalic vein. The right pulmonary vein is seen draining into the IVC. This is a characteristic finding of Schematar syndrome. The following axial and sagittal contrastion and CT images show overriding of the iota with non-visualization of main pulmonary artery or its branches. This was a case of tetralogy of allot with pulmonary atrasia. I would like to conclude that the benefits of fast speed, high-resolution and volumetric imaging with multi-planar and 3D reconstruction made multi-director CT the technique of choice for non-invasive conformation and characterization of consulate and lung anamides and also in detection of their associated complications. These are my references. Thank you.