So, a bit of a random one for you guys today. As far as I know, I don't think we've ever seen what's behind a Cycle's mask. Well, today we do. How's it going guys? My name is DPJ and I'd like to thank you for stopping by and checking out my video. If you do enjoy it leaving a like, truly helps me out and subscribe if you want to see more Borderlands. Also guys, every week I give away copies of this game to everyone for yourself or a friend. Simply subscribe and make sure you have notifications turned on. Drop a like on this video and leave a comment down below. So I was just running through side missions and I got to one called Porta Prison. Now this mission consists of you well, believing you are helping someone stuck in a Porta Putty or Porta Lu as we in the UK know them. It takes place within Electricity and Promethia where you help this dude via killing robots and collecting parts. You can see the Porta Putty on screen now. Now I try going into photo mode as I was curious to see if there was anybody actually inside here because you hear a voice but actually going into photo mode there's no one in here. The mission then ends up on Meridian Outskirts where this poor dude is strapped to the back of a vehicle and well being dragged all over the map and either way people it doesn't end well for him. But this time we can actually see the person inside it as he's hanging on for his life. So I try getting close so I could go into that photo mode and that's exactly what I did. At the time I had no idea until I saw what he was wearing and his tattoos and then I realised that this is actually a cycle without the mask and I do believe although my memory sucks that this might be the first time we've seen what's behind the mask of a cycle. I mean to be honest I didn't even think they had faces I won't lie to us.  Now if actually doing this mission if you ain't aware you get an exclusive blue rare weapon called the Port of Poop of 5000 and it actually shoots poop people. Yes you heard that right this thing shoots poop. It's actually not too bad of a weapon. It offers radiation too. Now I ain't sure who has radiation in their poops. Me personally depending on what I've ate maybe a little fire like damn not radiation. But yeah you know what this weapon actually for a rare isn't too bad whatsoever I mean clearly it's meant for a joke but all in all there are definitely worse weapons in this game. It's a form one to use. But yeah guys just a quick video a FYI video for those that have never seen what is behind the mask of a cycle.  But on that note we have come to the end guys if you enjoyed the video leaving a like really helps out. If you're new around here and want to see more boylands videos be sure to subscribe and if you never want to miss a video or upload a can turn notifications on by hitting that bell button. But guys thanks as always for stopping by hopefully you enjoyed the video and hopefully I'll see you on that next one


Earthbound has obtained a substantial cult following over the past couple of decades, thanks to its oddball atmosphere, sense of humor, and the kind of story you didn't see much of back in the 16-bit era. Many of you know that Earthbound is actually the second game in a series, in Japan it was released as Mother 2, so how about we take a look at the first Mother game, simply titled Mother, released only in Japan up until 2015 when it was released worldwide on the Wii U Virtual Console as Earthbound Beginnings. This game was scheduled for a North American release in 1991, but it was dropped at the last minute. A prototype of that version still got out and has since gone by the title Earthbound Zero. Mother was also released as part of a compilation Mother 1 and 2 on Game Boy Advance in 2003, only in Japan. Now, this is a difficult game to review. Mother is an RPG as you might expect, developed by what is largely the same team as Earthbound, and unsurprisingly it does have a very similar vibe to a certain extent. The problem, however, lies with the limitations inherent to the time, because man, oh man, this game could be hard to get through, mostly because, well, it's just how RPGs were back then.  Still, Mother has a certain magnetism to it because of how the dialogue is written, how goofy some of the characters are, and how fun the story is. Well, how fun it gets eventually. The first half of the story is pretty bland, but the second half of the game picks up. It really stands out significantly among all its peers, even if you throw in games from other platforms like the E-Series, it's still distinct for that specific time.  Or this guy here asking if you think his wife is terrible and getting all mad when you agree with him, I don't know, either you think it's funny or you don't, humor is entirely subjective. I happen to like it, especially as a contrast to other early RPG dialogue. Mother takes place in the late 80s where you play as Nin-Ten. Yes, Nin-Ten.  And just like Earthbound, he has to track down eight melodies, only except for being behind boss fights at the end of Dungeons, they're hidden throughout the game. So yeah, you have to spend a lot of time here exploring and checking for various items, like right away you have to check the dresser to obtain the first melody, then you have to talk to your dog to find the basement key. Both the game structure and the combat system are the same as games like the early Dragon Quest series, you wander around towns, talk to people, buy equipment, use magic, all that stuff. But of course what makes Mother different is that it's not a fantasy or sword and sorcery motif. It's a modern setting and a lot of the NPC dialogue is played up for laughs. In fact, one of, if not the best thing about this game, is that it makes fun of other role-playing games. So if you're already very familiar with games of its time, then you'll get a big kick out of this one. However, this is a game where I have to say the phrase at the time and of its time a lot because the combat is pretty limited. There's strict limits on inventory and while there's an auto battle function which helps, even the most basic battles can be brutal.  And the game does cleverly allow you to backtrack by leaving breadcrumbs where you'd like so you can warp back to certain locations. There is a run button which helps as well, but it only works in the Earthbound Beginnings and Game Boy Advance versions. If you're playing the Earthbound Zero ROM, it just functions as kind of a fast forward button and speeds up everything. But while those aspects help the overall experience, Mother is still majorly flawed. Like when you get certain new party members and they start out at level one, come on, really? So you gotta grind and grind to prevent them from being utterly useless and you gotta travel all around getting their equipment up to speed which takes forever. It's worth mentioning though that you can also do tricks that can help you out a bit, like opening the menu every few steps, since evidently that resets the random encounter sequence. But still, you shouldn't have to resort to stuff like that, it just gets annoying. But maybe the most annoying factor that routinely keeps popping up is the inventory limit. Ugh. So yeah, your enjoyment of Mother or Earthbound Beginnings or Earthbound Zero all depends on if you like early role-playing games like this. I can tell you, if you like the original Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy games, you're really gonna dig this one. But if you feel like life is too short for random battles and backtracking and being confused, then I don't blame you if you don't want to play this one. I should mention that there is a patch out there that completely rebalances the game and makes it much more forgiving and player-friendly, which is nice because it allows you to experience the entire story, which is worth seeing. The game definitely has that Earthbound vibe where it manages to be simultaneously funny and creepy and unsettling, and the music here really accentuates that big time. The bottom line is, if you want to play Mother, you gotta know what you're getting yourself into. If you like old, grindy RPGs, go for it. If you don't, then avoid this one. If you don't but you still want to experience the story, then you try out the easy patch.


Mr. President, Ministers, Ambassadors, Madam Director of ITU Development, Telecommunication Development Bureau, and as a Director of Radio Communication Bureau and Director of Sanitation Bureau of Telecommunications. Ladies and gentlemen, I'm really pleased to see you all here for this WTDC. We just enjoyed very much this cultural show. I think today we are here in Gigali, one of Africa's great cities in Rwanda, a model of digital transformation for the Africa continent and for the world. Thank you to the people of Rwanda for the warm welcome and extraordinary hospitality. We are honored by the presence of His Excellency Porokagami, President of the Republic of Rwanda. Thank you, Mr. President, for hosting and addressing the conference. Both will be a source of inspiration for us, like those delivered by Secretary General of the United Nations, just as we heard, and the last time at WTDC five years ago, the message from Holiness Pope Francis at our last WTDC, stressing the importance of leaving no one behind. Much progress has been made with almost 5 billion people being online today. We have seen the strongest growth in ICT, uptake in the developing world, and that is very encouraging. Yet, one-third of humanity is still offline. That is close to 3 billion people, mostly people in developing countries, and in poor areas, rural areas, areas where we need to attract investment, something that is being one of my priorities. I echo the UN Secretary General's call for universal connectivity with affordable service by 2030, and hope this conference will make a good way on removing all remaining barriers to connectivity. What makes me confident is all the young people we saw during the youth summit earlier in the previous days. Those, also, the Nelson Medina called our greatest asset of our planet when he came to Geneva for one of our major events almost 30 years ago. We have obligation to them and to each other to connect the unconnected, drive the development of new technologies central to achieving the UN certain development goals and continue to show the world what ITU can do as a technical and equally important development agency. I must add a few words here that we have established this development sector of ITU almost 30 years ago, but still the public perception of ITU is still a technical agency, not yet as a developing agency. So we still have to work more to make sure that these status be widely recognized and supported. I look forward to the output from the conference which will be fed into the ITU strategic plan to be endorsed by our plenary position conference in Pogarest, Romania later this year. I also like to draw your attention to an information document I have just provided for your consideration based on the many outputs of the WISIS Forum 2022 that concluded last Friday in Geneva relevant to the discussion in this conference. I call on the spirit of collaboration of the ITU family and wish you all successful WTDC 2022. I would also like to take this opportunity to recognize two individuals joining us. I think that we have our chairman of PP 2022 nominated and we have our strong supporter from private sector, Mr. Carlos Lim, who joined us yesterday for the broadband commission together with President Kagami, both of themselves co-chairs of this important institute and very important United Nations broadband commission for sustainable development since 2010. Now I would like to invite President Kagami to come to the stage to deliver his remarks and keynotes addresses. I'm honored to present his excellency President Kagami with a certificate that recognizes Rwanda's digital transformation and commitment to bringing broadband connectivity across Africa and the world and surely his strong leadership as President of Africa State and as champion for ICT in the world. So Mr. President, can we invite you here?


Hi, I'm Julia Giacchella and I'm studying medicinal and biological chemistry at the University of Edinburgh and Since I've completed bioinformatics internship. I basically fell in love with galaxy and I Created a tutorial on trajectory analysis using Monopole-3 And I'm going to show you now how it works So I am using human cell atlas dot use galaxy dot EU Because it's quite reliable when it comes to searching the tools But the tutorial should work fine on any galaxy you instance that you're using So you don't have to have another window open with the tutorial Obviously you can but it makes things easier when you click on this icon Which opens the tutorial mode and you can easily navigate to the tutorial you're doing in a moment, so We will be using data from case study series and You can just click on the tutorial and follow the instructions The easiest way to get data we'll be working on is to copy those two lines and then just go to upload data Click here and just paste it Then close the window and wait until your files are loaded Once it's loaded navigate to tutorial mode again and see what is the next step Normally those tools should be clickable, but if they are not just go to the search box and Type the name of the tool that you need to use So we are now extracting observations and variables from on data and If you don't want to type the name of the tool again, just click on the repeat arrow and Just change the parameters Now quickly rename the file so that you know what is what We are going to remove macrophages from our data set So the information about cell types is stored here and to check the number of this column You can look at this preview window and you can see that in our case. It's number 22. So keep that in mind Check which tool we are going to use next find it and Specify that we are going to filter out all macrophages from the column 22 we've just modified the file with cell Information that we are going to use for monocle free. So rename that file so that it's easy to track Alright, so back to the tutorial mode again Check the next step find the tool and now we are going to replace The title of one of the columns which stores gene names Because monocle would need to use the title called gene short name instead of the symbol So we can check that it's column number three and simply replace that title And this is the file that we are going to use as input data for a monocle free So let's rename the file so that it's easier to navigate afterwards Okay, so we've prepared information about cells and genes. So now let's move on to the expression matrix First we need to extract the full matrix from and data in the same way as we did with observations and variables We want to keep things tidy so again rename the file So let's get the genes and cells IDs from the files. We've already prepared as input files And we'll do that by cutting the columns out of the files All right, so getting cells IDs went fine But as you can see here Galaxy doesn't show the genes file that we want to get the genes IDs from So the reason for that may be incorrect format of the genes file So to change that just go to this file click on data types and change the data type to tabular Okay, cool. It helped. Now we can see the file we need So we just repeat the same steps as before a quick note about data types is Always do check if they are correct. And if you get any error Make sure that the data type of the file you're using is Compatible with the operation you want to perform We will now perform a series of steps to modify the unprocessed matrix By using genes and cells IDs from the files. We've already prepared We can now compare them to columns and rows in our unprocessed matrix and Select only those that corresponds to each other By this operation we added a column that is the same as the one we already have So the next step in the tutorial will show you how to remove it The genes IDs are currently in the first row So we need to transpose the matrix and only then we can perform the same operations as before We are now modifying the expression matrix Using genes IDs in the same way as we did before using cells IDs Once it's done the information we have in our cells file genes file and Expression matrix file is consistent. So we have now prepared all the files for monocle free So let's get started with monocle The workflow is quite straightforward and we will start with monocle free create tool and Now finally you can use those files that you have been preparing all that time Make sure that you choose the correct format of the file and in our case We are using TS file, but it's useful when you work with your own data in other formats The next step is preprocessing and we will accept the default settings Except dimensionality of the reduced space, which we will set to 250 The explanation why we use this value is in the tutorial So have a read through that But you are very welcome to play around this value so that you understand what it changes Next step is dimensionality reduction. So make sure you choose the preprocessed file And accept all the defaults Again, you can play around the dimensionality reduction methods All are also shown in the tutorial, but we are using you map because it gives the best results So now there is a blog of plotting in front of us because it would be nice to see the results of our work, right? But it's quite straightforward. Just go to plot cells then choose the file that you want to use for plotting and Change the cell attribute, which is the name of the column containing particular information about our results In our case that was cell type, genotype, batch and sex So you can always go back to the files We use at the beginning to check How those names are spelled to avoid any typos and errors? And actually you can stop here and switch this toggle bar from yes to no in the label cell groups Because otherwise you will get the labels on the plot and that won't be very Legible, which you will see in a moment Okay, so this is a cell types plot and You can see that the labels are very small and it would be better to have them next to the plot as a legend But let's just have a look at the all generated plots and change their names accordingly The full analysis of the appearance of the plots is in the main body of the tutorial So have a look at that to get more understanding of the biology behind The next step is clustering. So we will assign ourselves to clusters and partitions We will change the resolution value which corresponds to the granularity of the clusters and the r-value Which is related to partitions You can see the output here So almost all the cells were assigned to one partition what we wanted to obtain and Also the clusters correspond nicely with different cell types that we have in our data set So those are the genes that expression we are interested in the most So let's just copy and paste those genes and talk to them and this is how they look There are clearly some correlations that you can read about in the main tutorial text Speaking about the genes we can now use top markers tool to Generate a table with the genes most expressed in particular clusters or cell types there is the PDF file with a plot of the results and Also table which summarizes the results Now is the crucial part which is learning the trajectory graph Fairly simple. Make sure you choose the input file as the last CDS file generated by monocle Accept all the defaults click and execute and wait In the meantime, you can use another tool to plot the learned Projectory graph onto the cell types as you can see the trajectory graph is just a line going through the whole data set But we will need it to order the cells along this trajectory and to do so we will use order cells tool and visualize the output in pseudo time To order the cells monocle needs a starting point You can specify the starting point in different ways But we will use double negative cells as starting point and we know that they are stored in cell type Column, so let's just type in the dose values Finally, we can generate a plot in pseudo time just make sure that your input file is the output of order cells tool and Change the cell attribute to pseudo time So all the work you've done was to see this beautiful colorful plot that shows development of T cells I'll say that once more for more biological insight, please do have a look at the tutorial Now there is actually a lot of other things you can do to analyze this data more in depth But in Galaxy we will only use the tool for differential gene expression There is a bunch of information that you can use for downstream analysis But the aim of this tutorial was to show you the tools of a label in Galaxy to perform Trajectory analysis using monocle free So if you have any questions or comments, please do get in touch. I'll be very happy to hear from you So I hope you will enjoy working with Galaxy and monocle and I wish you happy coding


Welcome back to the NPTEL lecture series on bioelectricity. So, today we will be starting our tenth lecture. So, in the last lecture we talked about in details about microelectrode array the planar microelectrode arrays. So, we talked about how this planar microelectrode arrays could be used in drug discovery, understanding the neuronal circuit and understanding cardiac action. So, yesterday I showed you a circuit in that where I showed that you know you can make a small circuit with defined number of neurons. Similarly, you can place there are few other modifications what you can do you could recreate say for example, we know that the cardiac myocytes or the heart cells are being regulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic neuron. So, do the muscle cells are being regulated by motor neuron. So, what you can do by the same same patterning techniques you can rebuild those circuits. So, something like this say for example, if I call this if these are the cardiac myocytes you know the beating cardiac myocytes and we know these cardiac myocytes are being inner weighted by the sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. So, what we can essentially do we can really study. So, if cardiac myocytes and these are the parasympathetic sympathetic circuit. So, these sympathetic parasympathetic circuit actually regulates the cardiac myocytes. So, what essentially do you can translate this whole thing on in a microelectrode array to study the exact mechanism what is happening. So, in order to do that what you have to do say for example, you have an array like this out here and you have these electrodes sitting all over the place like this. You can make these arrays custom made you can I am just drawing a limited number of arrays in order to and say for example, you have a physical barrier like this. So, that the cells on the other side cannot move to this side whereas, the only the processes can move something like a physical barrier like this. So, what you do see take the cardiac myocytes and you start growing the cardiac myocytes on this other side. So, these are the cardiac myocytes which are growing these cardiac myocytes cannot move on to the other side because you have created a barrier. So, that these cells cannot move whereas, you put your sympathetic parasympathetic neuron likewise but the process can really travel to this side. Similarly, you have so essentially what you are doing you are recreating that circuit of control of sympathetic and parasympathetic to the cardiac myocyte or in other word you can study the heart physiology cardiovascular physiology on a small chip or a microelectrode chip and these are the power of these kind of simple system where you can. So, what you essentially can do you can say for example, you can stimulate this you stimulate this and stimulate this electrode out here and you could see the response out here you will be able to see the see the kind of response which is taking place on this electrode on this electrode or wherever. So, you could have a 1 to 1 connection between it. So, this side is showing just for you the parasympathetic I am showing sympathetic or parasympathetic neurons and on the other side you have the cardiac system and these kind of devices are called biohybrid devices and these biohybrid devices are nothing but where there is electronic component are being integrated with the biological component and that leads to a marriage of these 2 diverse system in order to extract meaningful information out of it which could be used for several purposes. I mean look at this system this could be used for I mean wide array this could be used for drug discovery one of the major areas this could be used for a chronic studies a long term effect of drugs or something like that this could be used for understanding network which is a very challenging task in a real life situation you really cannot and basically what you can do you can add component by component into these kind of circuits to do similarly you can build another circuit like you could have.  So, how to build these kind of circuits.  So, much that it would allow really and you can actually pattern these substrates in such a way that they will only go grow in a certain fashion as I have already discussed to you with you people about the pattern and here the cells will and here they are forming the neuromuscular junction something like this. So, these are the power of these kind of systems. So, basically what you can do out here you can stimulate the individual motor neuron and you can see the response out here in the muscle. So, you have in your control now the individual synapses. So, you can really access the individual neuromuscular junction or N M J or neuromuscular junction synapse. So, these are the reductionist approach to study bioelectrical events which are responsible for our very core of our survival and these not only helps you to understand circuit as I was mentioning you are a whole path of other application this is an upcoming rising area by hybrid devices which can change the way we think. Another approach is now what is the next level of development which is taking place whenever you look at these kind of arrays these are flexible arrays. So, these are flexible arrays. So, now what you can do essentially is these flexible arrays now there are materials by which you can make this non flexible arrays you can make them flexible arrays flexible micro electrode arrays M A's these flexible M A's could be implanted directly into the nervous system or any other excitable systems of the body. So, you can really roll them up you can put it there and they have they are finding in future they will rather they will find applications in terms of prosthesis in terms of wide range of applications which as of now is kind of out of like you know this stuff to comprehend at this time, but these are the areas which are going to change the way we study biological systems though these are very reductionist approach, but they give very profound information very clean information with least amount of noise in them. So, with this understanding of micro electrode arrays I will move on to the patch clamp technique. So, before I start the patch clamp technique. So, let us get some of the time line right what happened when during last. So, if you go back and if you look the way if this is the I am drawing the x axis and I am showing you the time somewhere 1700 or 1800 this is the time when there were preliminary understanding. So, people have understood by electricity was pretty much there all over the place and somewhere down out here somewhere out here by electricity was discovered followed by that people were starting to do a whole bunch of started doing sharp and during this time of course, this gives birth to the whole field of electrical engineering. If you go back to the time of Volta Galvani during the time well there was no formalized discipline called electrical engineering and people were discovering charges and all these kind of things and it is during that time that by electricity was discovered as a matter of fact some of the bioelectrical phenomena were discovered much earlier than formalizing the whole field of electrical engineering. So, after that during 1800 there were people were doing sharp electrode they were trying to you know pushing electrode and with voltmeter they were trying to make recordings and everything during early 1900. So, this is the time when late 1800 and 1900 this is the time plant by electricity was discovered and plant and will be of course, will be dealing with this whole section there is a whole section in this course will be dealing with it and the pioneer in this was Sir J C Bose. He worked extensively on MIMOSA touch me not plant and several other related plants which show electrical activity and published is seminal contribution and pretty much proved beyond doubt these plants have plants exhibit bioelectrical phenomena. So, in one way it can be said those were the systematic beginning of understanding bioelectricity early half or later half of 18 century and as a matter of fact, the that is the same time the pretty much out here just for later half of the 18 century when the discovery of Galena as semiconductor and as a matter of fact semiconductor concept of semiconductor came even earlier than that by the first such evidence which could not be described was shown by Michael Faraday he really could not explain he saw some deviation from the known ohm's law you know there was a very unusual deviation non-linear relation started picking up he could not explain it was after that the semiconductor was being discovered and I am forgetting the name of the individual I will get back to you with that and then it was the discovery of Galena as a functional device. So, this is basically what he showed is but Bose showed is a functional device, but after this he moved on to the plant and made seminal contribution in understanding plant bioelectricity and as a matter of fact he the first one to propose that plant have life actually that is the time it was kind of you know out of the world and how it could be said that plants have life he pretty much showed that they generate action potential like impulses and those are recorded and that was pretty much a systematic beginning then on during this part 1900 to 1950 I should say the time when there was enormous work happened across Europe on animal bioelectricity a systematic study mind it these studies were going on it is not that systematic studies were being done some of the I should say some of the very hallmark was the discovery of action potential by Hodgkin and Huxley there are several other people whose name I am not mentioning here, but that does not mean their contribution or any less it is just I am just trying to build up the story how the patch clamp came into being, but even Hodgkin and Huxley they use sharp electrodes which I have shown you before earlier. So, you have this cell and you have a sharp electrode and you are making recordings as a voltmeter or whatever, but based on their action potential traces they did a complete mathematical formalism of what they believed is something like when the membrane is kind of you know becoming short, but then the suspicion that there are entities like ion channels. So, there was no ion channels which was known and it binded this is the time when not a single protein was kind of crystallized it was the time when Max Barouds was trying to crystallize hemoglobin today you see of so many proteins which have been crystallized and all those things and forget about membrane protein those are not even clear and it is the time when the most famously celebrated membrane model of the fluid mosaic membrane model that was not I mean it was kind of it was not really clear at that time what is the structure of the membrane. So, essentially what we did not know at that time was if this is a cell the structure of the membrane was not clear. So, this is I am talking about 1940's membrane structure was not clear the ultra structure was not known proteins crystallization has not taken place. So, really we had no idea much idea about protein just recently DNA was discovered. So, this is I am talking about 1940's and 50's DNA was discovered by Watson and Crick it is a time when action potential was discovered, but nothing was clear that there are ion channels and all those things which we talk so easily nowadays was like you know could be an could be at that time could be a like you know very daring dream and that is what pretty much Hodgkin actually did the in their mathematical formalism came up with you know there are possibilities there are specific channels through which the ion passes and likewise when and so forth. It was purely mathematical based on certain experimental data then came the next breakthrough in 1970's with the discovery of a technique called batch clamp and so if I go back in the timeline chart. So, the next discovery was here 1970 and in between there is one discovery out here which is very significant though nothing to do with biology though, but it played a significant role out here that is this this is the time when semiconductor was discovered and they go all hand in hand semiconductor discovery by Bardeen, Britain, Shockley. It was during that time that opened up a flood gate of developing silicon based devices mind it semiconductor sorry I am wrong here just let me correct it crystalline semiconductor. So, semiconductor was known much earlier than that, but what was what was the breakthrough out here was the crystalline silicon using crystalline silicon and this was the discovery which was made in Bell Labs New Jersey. So, this discovery change the way we perceive the world there are certain discoveries we totally change everything and this is one discovery, but how this discovery has to do with what we know today about ion channels or bioelectricity. So, the connection is fairly straight forward because of the discovery of semiconductor this leads to development of electronic devices which are much more profound as compared to previously when people are using germanium and all those kind of you know where the signal at signal occurring fidelity is fairly low and all those, but here there was a scope that you could really acquire very profoundly good signal. So, that leads to the development of very high precision during this period it opened up a flood gate for the development of very high gain electro meter electro meters and amplifiers this. So, those of you have forgotten electro meter if you remember that you could major charges getting a gold leaf foil that is why they use electro meter. So, this was the time which was a really very amazing time where like you know some of the path breaking discovery took place and the whole field was kind of rocking and with the discovery of very high gain amplifiers. So, one of the challenge you have to realize that you are majoring current at nano ampere pico ampere dimensions it is not easy it is very noisy you really have to have a very good hold or understanding about the phenomena otherwise you will be recording noise. So, it was during that time this discovery of these high end amplifiers and simultaneously it was during that time pretty much around 70s on this is the time which saw the next development I will come back to this and they all have played very significant role to what use people see today is with computers it is the time when computers were slowly coming into existence. So, with the discovery of crystalline silicon as a material semiconductor material for device development followed by development of very high end amplifiers for these kind of recordings the stage was set for the next discovery and the next discovery was I started when you start is that the discovery of patch clamp, but then when you shifted all the way to Germany two gentlemen two Germans Irving Nihar and Bert Sackman they were instrumental in developing patch clamp technique what essentially patch clamp is all about. So, if this is a cell so we are talking about fine this is a cell and these are the iron channels on the cell this green millions of such iron channels all over the cell. Now, what you wanted to understand is you want to access or you want to measure the current flowing through these iron channels it could be a potassium channel it could be a sodium channel it could be a calcium channel it could be a chloride channel. So, your goal is this you want to see the movement like this or you want to measure the movement like this or say like this or this. So, in to measure these ionic fluxes so in order to understand that you have to really come close. So, that you can access an individual iron channel how to do so. So, what was being done by Nihar and Sackman is Nihar essentially do is they develop this nice glass biped. So, how they did it let us understand it first. So, you have this you all have seen a capillary. So, here you have a capillary tube now I take the capillary tube and keep it in without touching and keeping it at a very hot coil they keep it in a hot coil. So, this is whose temperature you can control and on these two sides you have two clamps by which. So, for example, these are the clamps by which you can pull this in two direction on either direction. So, now what will happen when you will expose it to a very high temperature this will start to melt like this and then if you give a very strong pull on either side this for your understanding sake. So, you have this coil now if you give a very strong pull what you will be essentially landing up with is this depending on the strength of the pull will be landing up with a narrow bore or a thick bore glass biped like this. This is what I was trying to draw here which is essentially like this this is what you are going to land up with. Now, the if you look at the diameter of these kind of glass pipet they will be approximately around 1 micron or micrometer or maybe 0.5 micrometer likewise and mind it if you look at the cell is compared to this which is 20 to 30 micron or even sometime may be 35 to 40 micron the bigger better of you are in terms of picking up signal. So, now what essentially you can do with that small tip you can access at least a 1 micron patch of a cell and mind it what is the name and the name is patch of a cell patch clamp.  So, you are holding a small patch of a cell and in that small patch of a cell you are manipulating the membrane properties along that small patch and that is why it is called patch clamp and what all you can hold there it only two parameters I will come to the whole electronic configuration, but let us understand it there are two things you can hold here. If you go by the most fundamental of v is equal to i r you can either. So, where v is your voltage i is your current and r is your resistance. So, there are only two things you can hold here you can either hold the voltage or you can hold the current when you clamp in that zone you can hold the voltage this is called voltage clamp because you are holding the voltage or the voltage is in your control you can change the voltage you can clamp it at different level minus 80 minus 70 minus 60 minus 50 minus 40 minus 30 minus 20 minus 10 0 likewise you can hold the voltage or you can clamp the current which is called current clamp. So, current clamp is essentially you can inject a finite amount of current to the preparation through that electrode. Now, what we will do we will. So, essentially you would see patch clamp with a. So, I kind of give a graphical summary of this. So, you have patch clamp and under patch clamp you have voltage clamp or you have current clamp. Now, with this background I will move on to the next phase where we will be talking about how these circuits are being built how these are being dealt and all other details. So, today we will close in here and the next class we will move on and we will talk about in depth about the circuits. Thanks a lot.


Welcome to another episode of 420grams here on newsclick.in, now if you can see that I'm glowing today that's because my man Arjun Pandit is for a change right here in studio next to me, so it's going to be a fun episode today hopefully, and it's a big day because the new jersey for the Indian football team has been launched just a few minutes ago, our man Leslie Xavier was at the launch, it's a new brand, a new step forward for the Indian team, so let's go across to Leslie and take a look at what happened at the jersey launch. In a couple of weeks time the Indian football team will be playing the AFC Asian Cup after a gap of 8 years, they last played in 2011 and the team before they head off to the UAE, they had a small gathering here in which they announced their latest kit sponsorship deal and also their latest kit. I'm sure there's a bigger smile lying somewhere inside guys, for the broadcast team right at the back. Your initial reaction on seeing the stripes that you've come to associate with the Tigers, I just hope that it brings a lot of luck to us, that will be the most important thing. That shows us a glimpse of what's to come. Alright thanks for that Leslie, so Pandit coming to you man, what is your take firstly on this new look, new brand jersey for the Indian team? Yeah bro, this is our biggest ever tournament and I would say bigger than the 2011 one because we've qualified, so we belong there, we haven't gone through a backdoor tournament. And while there is good in the jersey of course we'll talk about it, that you've got a deal and they're paying you money and all but just purely on looks and seeing the Indian team wear that play against UAE, Thailand, Bahrain. It's a complete fail for me bro, I'm not buying it, what is that synthetic kind of thing bro, is reminding me of the college school kind of jersey. I don't know if the players themselves would be very happy wearing that jersey, you're coming from a Nike brand and of course the difference being that Nike wasn't paying you money, these guys are paying you money. So that is a step in the right direction but it has to be aspirational. I didn't see anything aspirational in terms of looks, I didn't like it at all, especially the whole shiny feel. I remember the college and school, when we used to play Nivea Cup and Inter college tournaments. And I'm being very polite right now, honestly speaking. So over the last let's say 10 years or so after the deal with Nike was signed, the national team has played in some very nice looking kits. So Nike was not paying us money? No, Nike was just supplying the kit to teams across all age groups and the women's teams as well. So the deal was that wherever you're going to play, we'll give you fresh kits for everything. And now there's this new brand 656 which is manufacturing the kit. It's a new company, they are a couple of ISL teams, Kerala Blasters, Pune City. I think one of the positives because let's look at the silver lining. One sec bro, before we move ahead and talk about the positives, you didn't tell me what you thought about the jersey. Just purely in terms of looks. At the end of the day, you don't buy a jersey because they're giving you endorsement for Indian football. You'll pick up a jersey A because it's your team and B because you like the way it looks. And how it looks on you. So then what's your thought? My thought is that... People are saying it with so much of a pause. Fortunately, over the years I've managed to collect several of the old kits. I think I'll stick to wearing those when I have to. So yeah, I think that's, I'll give it a 5 on 10. It's a start, maybe a step in the right direction and I think the positive will be maybe that since these are local manufacturers, they are in the textile business. By the way, this is a company owned by or run by a young brother, sister duo. The Anejas Avni and Ambar are their names. It's a six month old company. I think they have a cricket background as do most sports manufacturers in India. But they're seeing the kind of growth trend in Indian football and I've decided to at least partner for the next five years. So hopefully the positive will be that at a non-ridiculous price like 4,000-5,000. That was the Nike price. 4,000, 3.5,000. When it was available at all because there was a major stock issue as well, right? We've been looking for India jerseys for so many years and usually you only find them in factory outlets or places like that where the old stock will be. So I'm hoping that the... How much can we expect the MRP to be around? I think based on what they are pricing the ISL jerseys, it will be pretty similar to that. So in the 1,000-1,200 rupee range. Yeah, but would you not agree with me that an India jersey as opposed to a club jersey should be aspirational? And if... See, that's what I'm thinking is the dilemma. That you said that you want something which is 1,100-1,200 bucks, which is readily available and easily available to everyone on their pocket who wants to go and buy this jersey, right? But at the cost of what? At the cost of making a shiny looking jersey. At the cost of the team looking good on the pitch. Yeah, man. At the cost of that. Unfortunately, yes. I'm sorry, man. That's an Indian team. It's not Kerala Blast. It's not FC Pune City. And all due respect to those ISL teams, that is the Indian team. That is the pinnacle of Indian football.  They're not going to play Friendlies. They're not going to play a SAF. They're playing the Asian Cup, man. The biggest tournament that we've qualified for in God knows when? Ever. Yeah. So yeah, I mean... So yeah, I mean, there's also the fact that not so long ago, the Indian team wouldn't have proper kit, the national football team, right? Yeah. It would be very similar to how, when you were playing with clubs. Shiv Nuresh time. Yeah. Shiv Nuresh or even beyond. Best case scenario, they would have a couple of kits for the actual matches. But training, kit, etc. They wouldn't get all that. Even clubs, yeah. I remember Durant Cup... Everyone wearing their own... First time, remember, we went to see Durant and Jopal, we were seeing playing for East Bengal, went to him and said, Jopal, I loved the game, I loved the game. He said, yeah, it's the same jersey. We'll have to wash it off in the next match. After the tournament, right? So, my first jersey was Sumatai Shiza. Jopal's jersey. It was the same shiny, thick, dirty material. I think three sizes too big for Soso. And he had long hair at the time. I think they lost that Durant Cup final. So after the final, he chucked me the jersey over the fence. That was my first football memento. So coming from that kind of background, I think when Bob was in charge of this team, one of the things that he thought was that for the team to play like a team, first they need to at least start looking like a team, feeling like a team. Right? And you'll also agree with the fact that football is a lot of... a lot of it has to do with how you feel. Any sport? I feel like the looks on the faces of the players. We can show you some of those shots. They sort of betray what the players think of the new kid as well. This is mere speculation. Absolute speculation. We are basically judging it on the first reaction we got when we guys were checking it out on Twitter or whatever, on our phones.  Because she's seen our India jerseys back at home, which we've got, of course, from the Nike jerseys and all. She's like, what is this? This is the Indian team jersey? And, you know, like you said, these young, young, young people who are involved in this, of course their heart is in the right place, which is a step forward for Indian football.  A couple of crores a year, probably like a five year deal to ten crore deal overall. Which is big. It's okay, sure. It's somewhere. Maybe we can afford to now play a couple more friendlies, who knows. Problem. But still, I think, that's where I'm stuck. That this is an Indian team jersey, it should be aspirational. You know, it should be something, of course, it should be earned. And just the fact that it's the Indian team jersey should be enough, but it should look royal, man. It should look of that stature that this is Sunil Chhetri's jersey. The white jersey, to be fair, is still a little better than the blue one. But I think because it's white, so there's less of that shiny, shininess. But yeah, I think... So you've given a five on ten, right? I'll give a two on ten. Two? I mean, I am really disappointed. So the idea is not to bash a young local company just for the fun of it. But you're looking at a jersey and you're calling it as it is. And perhaps what the guys who made this plan could have considered was that the eve of a major tournament might not be the right time to do this. They could have waited a couple of months, used the existing kit or extended the existing deal by a few months and then post the Asian Cup because there are going to be other changes as well. No, but from their point of view, India is playing the biggest tournament. So they're saying if we're entering into a five-year deal with you, we want to be a part of that tournament. So that's a smart business move. Why would you wear the Asian Cup Nike? If I'm giving you money, then even if it's the start of our tenure, then I want to be a part of it. You can understand that. I can understand it from the company's point of view, undoubtedly. But not so much from the team or the federation's point of view. Because now with the Asian Cup being a 24-team tournament, we will play in four years' time again. Hopefully. Unless Asia suddenly has more countries coming in, I think we'll be in the top 24. I think it should be from now on. I don't expect us to take so many steps back now that this train has started rolling. You want to judge the past jerseys as well? Do you remember the past jersey? For the people who are watching right now, should we tell them the evolution of the Indian jersey? I don't know if you can call it evolution. There was a time when it was pretty random, where they would just approach some kid manufacturer and that manufacturer would supply, let's say, 50 kids in whatever size you got, however you got it. As per your number, don't pick it up and leave. There was no name or anything. Then there was the Adidas kit, the stripe one. The light blue and dark blue stripe kit. Light blue, dark blue. I didn't like it that much. Maybe also how styles have changed. Like if you look at pictures of Baichung, we can maybe pull up a couple of those pictures. It looks so oversized, but then I guess back in the 90s, people were wearing oversized... That was when men's fashion was still men's fashion and not women's fashion coming into men's fashion with the fitted clothes. Players had pot bellies also. There were things to hide. Post the Adidas kit came the Nike kit, which was in the Asian cup, where they had the sleeves with the orange and the white. Of course, you had the light blue sleeve and the dark blue thing and the V-neck, right? I liked that jersey because it was something new. Yeah, and the full sleeves. The full sleeves was in the area. Before that, there was Nehru Cup. I wore Nehru Cup, which one? That white stripe that was going down from here. When N.P. Pradeep scored the winner. The first Nehru Cup. First Nehru Cup.  That was the first... Bro, for me at that time, that was aspirational. Absolutely. It was because it was Nike. Of course, Nike, Reebok, these are big brands. Adidas, big brands. But just purely with the way it looked. So when I saw it on the field, I said, dude, find out where it is. And the obvious question being Nike, but it was never available in the showrooms. And it was expensive. At that time, it was 2500 bucks or something like that. But it was still aspirational, man. After the Asian Cup, The Continental Cup, the light blue kit with the orange stripe.  No one's got a belly now. Everyone's got eight pack, nine pack, ten pack. That looked good. Then the China kit. Again, the dark blue. Dark blue. I like that kit a lot. Very nice. If I had to pick a kit... Yeah, but if I had to pick a kit over all the kits that we've taken right now, for me the China one is the... the clencher. But it only lasted for one game. That should be about it. Let's not make it a full-on fashion episode. Yeah. I mean, just take a look at our clothes. I mean, who are we to give fashion advice here? If someone's wearing a skydive, then someone's got up from the bed. Anything else you want to add to the squad? Send them a little farewell message. I will be supporting you boys with all my heart but wearing my old Nike jersey. Sorry. I think they might ask us to bring some for them also. Alright. So, let's wind up this episode then, Pandit, on that note. It's good chatting. Good chatting with you too. Thanks for coming in. I mean, these are our own personal thoughts on the jersey.  Wear it with pride and whatever that comes along with wearing an Indian team jersey and have fun. Have fun. I hope you enjoyed watching this episode. Until next time, good bye.


this session on the functional components of cranial nerve nuclei. There is one of the topic which students find it most difficult in neuroanatomy. So I have decided to take up this topic for you all. So in this session we will be covering all the functional components. So which all are the functional components? Here we can see the list. There are three motor columns and there are four sensory columns. So all these functional components will be covering in this particular session. Before beginning with the functional components a little knowledge about the embryology is essential. So we will see that. So during the development of the brain and the spinal cord in the neural tube we can see there is a longitudinal groove which is referred to as sulcus limitance. Okay here we can see this is the development of spinal cord and this mark structure this is the sulcus limitance which divides the lateral wall of the neural tube into a dorsal ailer lamina and a ventral basal lamina. Okay so this is a basal lamina and this is the ailer lamina. Basal lamina is motor which will have motor nuclei and ailer lamina sensory will be having sensory nuclei. Okay so this is in the neural tube and this is in the region of spinal cord. Okay and when we see in the region of the brain stem this neural tube opens up like this on each side. Okay it will open up in this way so that the ailer lamina which is seen it is deviated to the lateral aspect. Here we can see this is the ailer lamina and basal lamina is on the medial aspect. This is in the region of the brain stem here we can see the cavity of the fourth ventricle and here this structure is the sulcus limitance. When we study the floor of the fourth ventricle there is a structure which is referred to as sulcus limitance medial to which there is a basal lamina which contains a motor nuclei and lateral to it there are sensory nuclei. Okay so this basic knowledge is important before studying the functional components and we should be knowing about the various difference between the functional components in spinal cord and functional components in brain stem. We all know there are in all seven functional components but in spinal cord there are four functional components. Okay there's some additional functional components in brain stem. So here we can see the functional components of the spinal cord. In spinal cord all functional components are general. Okay all four components are general whereas in brain stem few additional special functional components are added up and that's how it becomes seven in number. So four general are general somatic afferent, general visceral afferent, general somatic efferent and general visceral efferent. Okay these four are the components in spinal cord. There's some additional special components which are added on in the brain stem and that's how it becomes seven in number. Two special components we can see special visceral efferent. So here we can see general somatic efferent and general visceral efferent. In between them there'll be a component special visceral efferent. Similarly here there'll be a component special visceral afferent. Okay and there is one more special component which is on the lateral most part this is referred to as the special somatic efferent. So these are all the seven functional components in in the brain stem okay and therefore functional components are in the spinal cord. Now let's explore each functional component one by one. So motor components as you all know they are three in number. So I've listed down all the three. So depending upon the name of the functional component we can derive what is the function of that component. So whenever there is a component which is referred to as special visceral efferent it refers to the muscles of the pharyngeal arches. As you all know the pharyngeal arches have got separate nerves. The nerve of the first arch is mandibular nerve that's the branch from the trigeminal nerve. Then seventh now facial nerve is the nerve of the second arch. Glossopharyngeal nerve nerve of the third arch and nerve of fourth and sixth arch together is the vegas nerve. Okay fourth and sixth arch together the nerve is vegas nerve. Fourth arch is superior laryngeal nerve sixth arch is recurrent laryngeal nerve. So all the muscles supplied by these nerves will have the component special visceral efferent. So there's one keyword for special visceral visceral efferent that is pharyngeal arches. Then general visceral efferent. Just appreciate the name general visceral efferent. This refers to the supply to the parasympathetic supply to the smooth muscles and the glands of the body. The parasympathetic supply is also referred to as the craniosacral outflow. The cranial is formed by the three seven nine and the tenth cranial nerves okay. Three seven nine ten they form the cranial parasympathetic outflow and those are included in general visceral efferent column. All the glands the submandibular glands sublingual parotid and glands in the GI tract glands in the respiratory tract all will be supplied by this component. General visceral efferent component okay. Then general somatic efferent means soma refers to the body wall. So muscles which are derived from the somites those will be supplied by the general somatic efferent component. So in the head and neck region there is extracular muscles and tongue muscles. Extracular muscles those applied by the third fourth and the sixth cranial nerve and tongue muscles are supplied by the twelfth cranial nerve hypoglossal nerve okay. So these nerves will have this functional component general somatic efferent component. So this was just a basic idea of the motor of the efferent columns. Now let's see the sensory or the efferent columns. So sensory columns are four in number. First I have listed down special visceral efferent. Special visceral efferent refers to the taste sensations. Taste is a special sensation. So taste sensations are carried by the seventh nerve, ninth nerve, tenth nerve okay. Then general visceral efferent this refers to the general sensation. What do you mean by general sensations? Pain, touch, temperature okay. All these are included in general sensations. Just for an example if you are having a coffee the temperature of that coffee is a general sensation. But the taste of the coffee is a special sensation okay. General visceral efferent is general sensations from the viscera. General somatic efferent, general sensations from the body wall. The pain, touch, temperature sensations from the outer aspect of the body. If you see the head and neck region the cryominal nerve, the fifth cranial nerve has got this component general somatic efferent component okay. The other nerves as well but this is the major nerve having general somatic efferent component. And special somatic efferent this refers to the special sensations from the body wall. What do you understand by special sensations from the body wall? The sensations from the ear. The auditory sensations those are included in special somatic efferent. Also also actually an optic are included here okay. In this image we can learn about the various location of the nuclei of the functional components. So all those nuclei which we learned now are listed here. These are the motor nuclei and these are the sensory nuclei. Okay in motor GSE, GSE was muscles derived from the somates. So third, fourth, the sixth cranial nerve they supply the extrocular muscle. The twelfth cranial nerve supplies the tongue muscles okay. Then SVE was for the pharyngeal arches. Now the pharyngeal arches are fifth nerve, seventh nerve, ninth and the tenth now okay. The eleventh cranial accessory nerve also joins with the tenth nerve that's why it is included here. This is the muscles derived from the pharyngeal arches and GVE this is the cranial parasympathetic outflow. Cranial nerve three, seven, nine, ten which supplies the glands and the smooth muscles in the body okay. In salivatory nucleus there are two salivatory nucleus there is superior salivatory nucleus inferior salivatory nucleus and they have shown three here because they have shown one lacrimatory nucleus as well. Lacrimatory nucleus is the part of superior salivatory nucleus. So third now fourth sorry third now seventh, ninth and tenth these cranial nerves are included in GVE column. Then coming to the afferent columns these two columns special visceral afferent and general visceral afferent they have only a common nuclei and that's why the name of the nuclei is referred to as nucleus of practice solid areas okay. The cranial most part of this nuclei receives the special sensations SVA the taste sensations are perceived by the cranial most part of this nucleus of practice solid areas as the remaining part will receive the general visceral afferent that is the pain touch temperature from the viscera. The general somatic afferent I told you the fifth now the trigeminal nerve is the major nerve which is it carries these general somatic afferent fibers and here we can appreciate the size of this trigeminal nucleus it occupies the midbrain as well it occupies the pons as well as occupies the medulla oblong data and some part also extends in the spinal cord okay. So this is the largest of all the cranial nerve nuclei and it has got three components there's a mesenchepalic nucleus there's a chief sensory nucleus there's a spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve since there are three components it will be having three different functions as well the mesenchepalic nucleus responsible for proclioception the chief sensory nucleus responsible for the touch tactile sensation its spinal nucleus is responsible for pain and temperature okay and in special somatic afferent there is the vestibular nuclei vestibular and the cochlear nuclei are included in special somatic afferent okay. So this is just a summary of all the cranial nerves with their functional components we'll quickly try to revise it olfactory optic and the vestibular cochlear nerve these three have same functional component special somatic afferent okay oculomotor nerve has got general somatic efferent as well as general visceral efferent trochlear nerve only general somatic efferent supplying the extrocular muscle and trigeminal nerve has got two functional components general somatic efferent and special visceral efferent whenever special visceral efferent is there that means pharyngeal arches okay muscles derived from the pharyngeal arches will be supplied by this component then facial nerve glossopharyngeal nerve and vegas nerve the functional components looks extensive but to try to logically remember the you can see the glossopharyngeal nerve and vegas nerve have got almost same functional components except the vegas nerve has got one component extra that is the general somatic afferent because it carries some sensation from near the ear okay special visceral efferent refers to the pharyngeal arch GBE refers to the glands and muscles of the GI tract as well as the respiratory tract and special visceral afferent whenever special visceral afferent is there that means it refers to the taste sensations and general visceral afferent is pain temperature and all okay so depending upon the area of supply of the nerve we can determine the various functional components let's see the facial nerve special visceral efferent because it is supplying muscles of the pharyngeal arches GBE because it supplies the glands the submandibular gland sublingual gland lacrimal gland okay special visceral afferent because taste sensation from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue then general somatic afferent certain uh sensation from the skin around the ear is carried by facial nerve okay then accessory nerve accessory nerve has got two components cranial accessory and spinal accessory cranial accessory has got this component special visceral efferent and spinal accessory has got this component general somatic efferent hypoglossal nerve has got only one component GSE that will supply muscles to the tongue so this was all about the functional components of the cranial nerve nuclei so I've tried to concise the topic so that the basic concepts of the cranial nerve nuclei becomes clear to you all okay so if you all have any doubts you all can ask in the comments section below okay thank you