Hello, it's great to be here with you today. Good morning from Seattle, Washington, which is where I'm joining you from. I'm executive editor of Cipher, a new publication by Breakthrough Energy, covering the technological transformation that we need to tackle climate change. Cipher means zero, as in our collective goal of zero emissions. We just launched a few weeks ago, and you can sign up for our news updates at ciphernews.com. I'm thrilled to be joined by an incredible panel today to talk about the world's transportation industry, which accounts for about 16% of global greenhouse gas emissions. How this industry can embrace the urgent goal of reaching net zero emissions by 2050. We've timed today's panel to coincide with Transport Day at COP26, that's nearing an end today and this week, in Glasgow, Scotland. Our panelists will help make sense of all the news coming out of COP26 and also the commitments and actions by some of the leading transportation companies in the world. I'll also be receiving some questions via the audience for those. Now without further ado, our panelists today are Ajay Singh, Chairman and Managing Director of SpiceJet based in India, Frank Apple, CEO, Deutsche Post DHL based in Germany, Dara Kosher Shahi, CEO, Uber Technologies based in the United States. Thank you so much for joining us today. So for the opening question, I would love to just get a high level reaction take from each of you. So over the last 10 days, we've heard major announcements from cities and countries and businesses. I feel a bit saturated with all the news and I can imagine many other people do as well. So cutting through that noise, what do you think are the most important outcomes for COP26? Ajay, why don't we start with you? Well, Amy, we've all heard the news. There's lots of good stuff happening. A lot of commitments being made, including by the Indian Prime Minister who announced that India will be net zero by 2070. I think we were the first developing country to announce that. And that's a significant milestone for our country, which has typically been deprived in a sense of the use of the dirty technology that has allowed the world to prosper. So I think the Indian announcement was a really significant one. We take our responsibility extremely seriously as a country with 1.3 billion people. We know that we will pollute more than many others in the future. And we need to grapple with that and make sure that we have a solution. In the aviation space as well, we have really been very proactive along with the World Economic Forum and the Clean Skies for tomorrow. And we will talk about this through the conversation. But I think the one thing that concerns me about COP26 is who the hell is going to pay for all the cleanup that needs to happen? Because there seems to be a lot of dispute about that at the moment. In 2009, the developed countries promised that they will provide $100 billion by 2020 to developing countries. Did it really happen? They are resisting an audit. So we don't know if that really happened. Who really pays? And if it is that the polluter pays as a principle and the developing countries have to develop, countries have to pay, who amongst the developed countries have to pay? So I think we need to cut through that crap as soon as we possibly can because we are in deep, deep trouble. And I think we need to find an answer to this. I think that's the biggest thing for me from COP26 that over and above the commitments that people are making, where is the money? That's great. That is definitely a theme. And whether it comes to things like loss and damage, to the impacts of climate change, to paying for the new technologies that companies like yours will need down the line. So that's great. Thanks so much. Frank, why don't we go to you? Thank you, Amy. And good morning. Good afternoon, wherever you are. So I think I would take three things somehow. The first is that definitely the commitment to reduce deforestation or stop it somehow is I think it's a major achievement. The second is that countries now committing to reduce methane are getting admitted to the world. But the most important one is I think we have much more discussion how we tackle global warming instead of what we need to do. So it's much more now we are getting closer to an execution of which I think is important. And that's also visible if you talk to many companies, I think the world has accepted that this is a problem and now we are working on the solution. And that I think is very encouraging. Great. Thanks so much. Dara, why don't we go with you now? Absolutely. So I think from our standpoint, it's clear that we all have to work rapidly to decarbonize the transportation sector. The transportation sector is one of the biggest emitters out there. Uber specifically, we have committed to be emission free as a mobility platform by 2030 in US, Canada, Europe, and then 2040 all over the world. And for me, what was encouraging as it relates to COP26 is industry, private companies, governments coming together and making these kinds of commitments because ultimately the commitments are going to lead to action. And this is, I've always said climate is a team sport, no individual country, no individual industry, no individual company is going to be able to drive this without all of us coming together. And for us specifically, we were proud to sign the landmark declaration on zero emissions as it relates to cars and vans. And we saw government come in, Chile, Canada, the UK sign up as well.  And I think once you get countries, industry, companies committed, then the action plans start happening. And there's a lot of work to do between now and then, but a statement, but it starts with a statement of purpose. That's great. I want to double down a bit more on specifically what your companies have committed either at COP or around COP and how you plan to achieve those goals. So, Dara, why don't we start with you on that? I know you've had a lot of news on this front lately. Yeah, sure. Absolutely. Well, for us, it starts with our drivers and the vehicles themselves. And we need to create the environment where drivers who are engaging in the mobility platform have financial incentives to move from emission vehicles to zero emission vehicles. And so some of the examples that you'll see, for example, in London, London Mayor City Khan has really pushed forward a very forward-looking congestion and emissions charge in London, where EVs essentially aren't subject to that kind of an emission charge. And that kind of a policy then creates the incentive for drivers to start flip over to EV cars. So in London specifically, our drivers, rideshare drivers are flipping over to EV vehicles at 12 times the rate than the averages that you see in London as far as the average driver goes out there. And you can count that our drivers are logging a lot more miles or kilometers than the average driver. So they should be the tip of the spear. And with City Khan, with this kind of a visionary policy, we're already seeing a flip over on in our population to EV. In Europe, our drivers are flipping over EV five times faster than, again, the average car owner. And probably if you measure it in miles, it's higher than that as well. So it starts with drivers. You see another announcement for us in terms of in the US, allowing our drivers who are renting cars to be able to rent Teslas, which one are very cool. Our riders like Teslas a lot, but it's an affordable way for renters of vehicles to, again, getting into emissions free vehicles. So it starts essentially with a fleet for us. We are then creating a consumer product. And Uber Green is now in over 100 cities all over the world. It is the broadest mobility green product available out there. We want our Uber users to want to go green and to pay premium on green, whether that premium relates to price or waiting time. So we want to familiarize users with this and allow them to contribute into the climate change as well. Putting these two together, we think can create a lot of momentum for us to become emissions free as a platform and hopefully pushing other providers to do the same. Well, that's a good segue to Frank. I want to ask you that question about what your company has committed to either at cop or round cop.  So I would love to hear what you guys have committed to and what you might do in the future. Thank you, Amy. So we have done a lot already for quite some time. We started the journey already in 2008 by saying we want to increase our efficiency. We have committed already for five years now that we want to be carbon free by 2050. The biggest footprint of ours is, of course, the airplanes we are operating either directly or indirectly in scope free. Earlier this year, we have committed to spend $7 billion until 2030 to reduce our carbon footprint on a science based target. For instance, by having 30% of a few we use in our airplanes, sustainable aviation fuel, 60% of our fleet electric delivery events, we have already 20,000 that would be 80,000 by then and the electric vehicles we have produced our self-majority. We will do all carbon free new buildings in our warehouse and space. I think important is that we said we want to spend $7 billion until 2030 and that has changed internally as well by climate dynamics. Overall, what we see in our industry is that the train has left the station. The mixture of governments are looking to the investors are looking to that and demanding carbon reduced solutions is striving now and in scanning pace. Our customers are looking for reduced carbon footprints and logistics. We want to provide them. Just today we announced, and that is linked to COP26, we announced that we will now use sustainable aviation for the out of British midlands.  We need more sustainable aviation fuel and the good news is that customers are demanding and we will not provide that. I think what is necessary to go further beyond the companies is that we get the infrastructure to really produce sustainable aviation fuel that is currently from cooking oil and we need, of course, other solutions. But the good news is our customers are looking for these solutions. We want to provide them. We secure, we pay significantly higher prices for it. So, AJ's question earlier, who will pay for it? At the end of it, the customers will pay for it. I have no doubt that this will happen because customers are looking for that. And I think as I said to the train has left the station and is gaining pace. I want to dive into that a bit deeper in just a moment. But first, I want to go to AJ you and say your take. I mean, as a company in a country that's still rapidly growing, how do you balance your commitments as a company to reduce your carbon footprint while you're still growing? Look, you know, India will be the third largest aviation country in the world by 2025. We will surpass Great Britain. And so, after the US and China, we will be the third largest aviation country in the world. So, we have an added responsibility. And as a company, we have committed to net zero emissions by 2050. We've signed on to that pledge. We have also committed to a 10% blend of SAF by 2030. All our flights will be on a 10% SAF blend by 2030. We have demonstrated that this is possible already. We have actually flown a flight with a 25% blend. And just as a demonstrator flight, and we would be doing more of those. As Frank was saying, of course, we need to look for, you know, where the sustainable aviation fuel comes from. We have worked with VEF and the teams for tomorrow initiative and produced a report for the government of India, you know, detailing where the feedstock is, what the production technologies is, how the government can go about doing this. And we are pushing the government very hard. I think the first proposal is to ensure that there is a 1% blend immediately. And then going up to a 5% blend in the next five years and by 2028 going up to a 10% blend. I think over and above that in the short term, Spicejet has committed that they will replace all their old aircraft for new aircraft, which is new technology burns 20, 25% less fuel than the old aircraft. And this process should be complete by 2022.  So what would you say? Maybe Dara, I'll throw this one to you to start. What would you say are the biggest challenges, hurdles preventing you from having more success with your goals? Is it political? Is it economic? Is it technological? Is it consumer behavior, particularly with a company like Uber? I think for us, it's about the economics. You've got to make the economic flywheel work. And I point out two issues right now, which is the majority of the successful EV vehicles now, the Teslas of the world, are luxury vehicles. And you ultimately have to transition this vehicle base and moving over to EV to be something that can be more affordable. So I think affordability for the general populace and especially for our driver pool is a real challenge. We are stepping up, we're essentially paying a premium for every electric ride or a hybrid ride versus an emission ride in order to create an economic incentive for drivers to flip over to an electric vehicle. But in addition to our stepping up, essentially we need governments to step up, industry to step up, local regulators to step up as well. You've got to make it work industrially for everybody, not just let's say the lead or the wealthy who can afford to do so because it's easier for some for wealthy countries, et cetera, to make that switch. The second I'd say is on infrastructure, which is in cities, we need charging infrastructure. We need to invest very aggressively in charging infrastructure. What we've seen is that a tendency for the charging infrastructure to go into the middle of cities, obviously more highly trafficked, et cetera, but we need to look at infrastructure holistically and make sure that charging infrastructure is available in the outskirts, in the neighborhoods where our drivers live. They don't have a garage to recharge. Many of them don't have a garage to recharge or vehicle with. And we want the charging infrastructure to be there, not just for the well off, but for the broad population in the cities in which we operate. And is your thinking, Dar, that having Uber drivers being able to rent Teslas helps just have Teslas permeate the non-wealthy population more in addition to being able to have subsidies from the federal government, for example, because electric vehicle costs are actually, their sticker prices are going up along with all cars, of course. Yeah. We want to make it broadly available. What we see with our rental drivers is that they tend to log a significant number of miles. Our rental drivers on average drive greater hours and log more distance than our non-rental drivers. So we want it to target we're very data oriented as a company. And we want to be as effective as possible as early as possible. And with rental drivers, we allow a bridge to EV. It does maximal good in terms of environmental impact. And it's a bridge for them to understand just how much they can earn with an electric vehicle to create this flywheel, this economic flywheel for our broader driver base. Great. Frank and Ajay, I want to go back and kind of drill down a little bit more into the sustainable aviation fuel and the cost because that was something that struck me as a common challenge that you're both facing. Here at Breakthrough Energy, we have a term called the green premium, which explains the cost of a green technology compared to its fossil fuel counterpart. And with sustainable aviation fuel, it's one of the biggest gaps because SAF remains so expensive. So how do you see that cost coming down? And what is the role for companies like yours in doing that? Or is it more something that governments need to step up to do? Ajay, maybe we go to you first. So, Amy, I think firstly, look, it needs to be done. We just need to find a way to do it. And I think it's important that we get all the stakeholders to the table. As Dara was saying, ultimately, it's about economics. Aviation is a very, very small margin business. And we certainly cannot afford expensive SAF to fuel our planes because we don't believe that the customers who will be willing to pay for a green flight are a significant number of people at the moment. So what you have to do is, much as I think what happened when we set up the International Solar Alliance and you remember that the cost of solar energy was really, really high, at least in our country was extremely high. And then as volumes built, as technology improved, as volumes built, the cost came crashing down. And today, solar power in this country costs less than thermal power. So you need to do something similar in sustainable aviation fuel. Governments will need to step up and reduce taxes or completely eliminate taxes. I think in a country like India where there's a lot of feedstock available, it's an agricultural country, there's a lot of excess molasses, sugar, all those kind of feedstock which you could possibly use. You need to use it on an industrial basis to create production capacity, which is large scale. And as you build scale, I think you would drop the cost of SAF. And the goal, of course, is to get SAF to be lower cost than aviation turbine fuel currently. That's the one way in which everybody will adopt it really, really fast because the margins are so, so slim that the moment that there is a small differential and SAF is actually cheaper than aviation turbine fuel, everybody will run to adopt it. So we need to find a way to make that happen through industrial process, government, all stakeholders, and of course, some mandates from government as well. Thank you. I made a comment about the lack of supply for sustainable aviation fuel. Can you talk about how that is challenging? No question about it. I mean, there is no supply at the moment. What we manufacture is really in little labs, and those are good for test flights. But there is no significant production at the moment. I think this needs to be like a national program, an international program where important airports have facilities which actually are producing sustainable aviation fuel by using waste. And we need to find a way of paying for it. The governments pay for it. Or the customers certainly are very unlikely to pay for it in aviation, in the short run. And so we need to find a way of reducing production cost as well as taxes and making it viable. Great. Thank you so much. Frank, I understand that your company has joined the Biden administration's first movers coalition, which I understand is aimed at helping create demand. So then there will be supply for things like sustainable aviation fuel. Can you talk about the challenges of getting that fuel and the cost of that fuel? Yes. So maybe, first of all, we are a little bit in a different spot because we are doing B2B business, despite that we are doing a lot of e-commerce. But finally, the business customers are paying, the e-tellers are paying for the services. If you look currently, what is happening in logistics for business customers, their prices are skyrocketing. And that is encouraging to see. So nobody has stopped buying abroad a global trade despite that the prices are extremely high at the moment. If you think then in the future, if you think about what we are doing, we probably could be offsetting our whole carbon footprint by 10% more costs. That would mean 10% of our revenue, I mean. And then we have to increase prices. The prices at the moment for ocean trade and air freight are significantly higher than that. So since our customers, business customers are getting demand from their shareholders and their customers, they are looking for solutions. They have to come to us. So it's not an economic problem. 10% by 2030 of our revenue would be not a game changer, I think. The problem is more that we need more availability. And that starts where the governments have to play a role. I understand that in other sectors, like Adra's or Adara's is different because consumers are not willing to pay. But business customers, I think, is different because they have different constraints. We need more infrastructure. We need renewable energy around the world. And that is an infrastructure project. I think energy companies want to build that. But if they can't transmit the power to the right places, it is difficult. Energy companies, we are talking to want to build power to liquid plants if they commit to demand, which we want to do. But then where the green energy is coming from all these kinds of. So I think it's more a problem that, as I said, the train is that decision that is tremendous demand for sustainable aviation, food and maritime. And we see that customers are willing to pay for it. Even retail customers, believe you or not, these are normally tough cookies. They are willing to pay for sustainable maritime food because they need it for their shareholders and their customers. They need it. The problem is, we don't have the world doesn't have the infrastructure to convert solar or wind energy into power to liquid fuel or hydrogen or you name it. And I think that's the goal where the government can help if they facilitate that by allowing to build these plants much more rapidly. But in the democracy of the West, it takes ages before you really get a new plant open or a new cable or poles in place and all this kind of stuff. And that's the challenge, man. And there the government has to play a role, like for all infrastructure governments have to play a role. If that is secured, I will, I have no doubt will see a significant uptake of sustainable aviation from the next coming years. Because again, the surplus price is little in comparison to what customers, business customers are paying currently for container on a vessel or for a tunnel on air freight in the air. The extra cost would be significantly lower. So the model economically could work because the world didn't come to a standstill because the customers are paying significantly higher prices. And that is encouraging despite all the constraints we have supplied to us at the moment. It's encouraging economically it can work, but we need to supply. And so fascinating and encouraging to hear that business customers are willing to pay a higher price. Because to some degree, there will not that will need to occur here in the early stages of this transition. Dara, I want to transition back to individual consumers now. And, you know, you've talked about the critical role that electric vehicles play, but many experts say that another overlooked solution is just more sharing. So using Frank's metaphor of the train, you know, a lot of people get into one train and people get into one bus and then, you know, Uber pool was something many people took before the pandemic. But what role do you think a company like yours plays in encouraging more shared transportation? Well, I think we have to play absolutely a big role there. And I would actually open up the ecosystem a little bit as it relates to sharing and multimodal. And that we are reintroducing Uber pool. We have been investing in high capacity vehicles in Egypt, for example, where you can get 15, 20 passengers in a single vehicle as well. We'll switch over those vehicles to electric in order to get greater density, let's say per vehicle. At the same time, you don't need a four-wheel vehicle to pick up an individual in every single time. So we're investing in multimodal options, two-wheelers and three-wheelers, whether it's bikes and scooters, we have an investment and a great alliance with line bikes. For example, I was in London, there are some great line e-bikes in London. And it's a great way to get around in London, you know, to be trafficked, for example. Then last but certainly not least for us is transit partnerships to make sure that transit methodologies show up right alongside four-wheelers, two-wheelers, three-wheelers, shared and transit so that the consumer has a full choice in terms of where they want to go. And hopefully with the incentives and the economic incentives that we put in play, we'll be marketing Uber green, we'll be marketing pool, we can get consumers to make the right choice for themselves and for the world. That's great. One thing I love about this panel is that you all represent such different industries, but it's still all about how we move ourselves around and how we move our things around. And that's certainly been a top topic in the pandemic, of course, with everything that's been turned upside down because of that. I want to ask each of you, what do you wish that your fellow panelists or other people who you talk to in the climate and energy space, what do you wish that they better understood about the challenges facing your particular industry? Ajay, maybe we start with you. Well, I wish people would understand what a difficult business aviation is and how difficult it is to really, you know, look at the environment and balance, you know, just survival with protecting the environment. And what we do to protect the environment is at great cost, I think to ourselves, but it still needs to be done and we do it and we do it proudly and happily. So I think people need to understand that it's tough out there and that they need to be more supportive and cooperative. I think there's sometimes a lack of understanding of that, especially within government and some other stakeholders. Great, Frank. Yeah, I think, you know, the colleagues on the panel probably have a pretty good understanding of what we are doing and what the challenges are.  If you do that end-to-end, like we do that in our express business is, you know, it's much more stable than the passenger. So I would say when I talk to, you know, CEOs of airlines, you know, they are having much more difficult time because they don't do the end-to-end, you know, Uber maybe the front end and the back end, but not the end-to-end like we do for parcels in express. And they have more demanding customers, you know, at parcels if it's late, nobody is happy. But if an airplane is late, you know, you have 150 people who are complaining heavily why the airplane is late. And that is definitely... I think one other thing that people don't understand is that aviation actually contributes less than 2% of the greenhouse gases of the world. It's just that, you know, people presume that we are the bad boys of omission and actually it's not true. But because the perception is what it is, we still need to do what we need to do. Yeah, that is always true. You know, there are people and that is a little bit of a tricky one with consumers. Consumers are expecting that everything is fixed by companies and that's the reason why consumers are much more challenging than business customers. Business customers have their own interest to create a competitive advantage. But, you know, that, you know, people can buy already sustainable aviation food as pilot passengers on an airplane, but how many pay for it? And if I talk to some CEOs, they say, ah, if I say, you know, I have done it, they say, ah, you were the person who did it. And now I know at least the single passenger. So it is a long way to go. But I think we have to tell consumers as well. You know, they, if they want to live in a greener planet, they have to take a share as well. It can't be just that companies and governments or taxpayers are paying for it. I think everybody has to contribute. And I think we have to make that clear. I wish that it would be different, but it's not different. I think we all have to have skin in the game, including consumers. And we have to educate consumers. If you want to have a greener world, you have to pay a bill for it. And of course, it's much more difficult in India than in the US or in Germany. You know, we are richer in principle. And therefore, we have to find concepts as well, how we balance that. Not people in India can't pay the same costs for a ton of carbon like you can do that in Germany or in the US. I think that is also clear for me, that we have to find schemes where people, everybody pays for carbon emissions, but of course, to a different price. Like we do it's actually in the postal industry for more than 100 years. If you send a letter from India to Germany, the last delivery costs are not the same as you have to, as a private consumer, to pay for a first-class stamp. We as postal operators have created that scheme because we understand otherwise stuff get removed because an Indian can't pay the German price for a first-class letter. We have to think about the same that people in India pay differently or lower than people in Germany or the US or in other rich countries. And I think that's the way to go because then everybody has gained the gain. Everybody contributes, but of course, depending on the development status of the country. Great, Dara, you do interact with a lot of individual consumers. What's your take on what Frank just said, and then also going back to my original question about some misunderstandings either you may think people that you talk to in the energy and climate space or consumers? I think from my standpoint, we're behind. And we have to catch up as it relates to investments in electrification. And for me, it goes to what Frank talked about, which is the most difficult transition is going to be for lower income or disadvantage both countries or people as it relates to, for example, our driver base in cities really leaning into that population and having differential policies where you're leaning in more, whether it's charging infrastructure or thinking about second-hand vehicles, building a second-hand vehicle marketplace for electric vehicles. Those aren't yet top of mind, but they have to be top of mind if we really want to hit the big numbers. The second theme that I would hit is, listen, everyone can rationalize, everyone can say, I'm in a small portion of emissions. This is a tail problem. And so when you're putting together regulations, they have to affect everybody. It's very easy to get an exception. But for example, if you think about the London emissions kind of charge and those kinds of legislations, they've got to apply to everybody. They've got to apply to Uber. They've got to apply to private owners, buses, taxis, delivery trucks. And everybody may try to rationalize and say, well, it shouldn't apply to me because that's Y and Z and my transition is going to have to be harder. We need everyone in if we're going to make this transition work and we can't let people opt out regardless of the industry that you're in or your particular circumstances. That's great. One common theme I'm hearing from the three of you is that the economic urgency and economic imperative of tackling climate change is approaching. Of course, I don't need to tell you this, but in the big scheme of the climate and energy debate, sometimes it gets lost that you still need to make a profit to survive as a company in the world that we're living in. So how do you balance and how do you make sure that you now that climate change is such a pressing issue? How do you make sure that that's a top priority? Well, also not sacrificing safety, whether it's the safety of the fuel, the clean fuel going into your planes or the safety of your scooters if people don't wear helmets. How do you balance those issues when as you all know, if you don't have safety, you don't have anything? RJ, maybe start with you. Well, like you said, safety is absolutely paramount. That is completely non-negotiable. I don't think you can put anything, aviation is such a regulated space that you can't possibly put anything into a plane unless it's been tested by so many, so many people. So in a country like India where it's climate is still not top of the mind when it comes to aviation. People don't say, look, these guys are polluters and therefore maybe we shouldn't fly and stuff like that. I think that's more a Western phenomenon at the moment. It's not as much true in India. So for us, it's more of a duty and more of a responsibility. And we certainly are not saying as Zara was saying that, look, I'm only a small part of the problem so I shouldn't be a part of the solution. Absolutely not. We want to be a leader in finding a solution even if we are a small part of the problem. And it's tougher, a little tougher on us because unlike in Zara's case where they have electric vehicles, we still don't have electric planes. Hopefully we will have them someday and that will help. But we need to take a lead and we need to show the way. And we need to say that, look, even if we are a small part of the problem, even if we are a developing country, even if our people cannot afford to pay, we will still find innovative ways of cleaning our act up and abiding by the same commitments that are peers in the Western world and abiding by them. Great. Well, we just have a few minutes left and I would love to end on a relatively positive note with this evolving challenge. So going back to the COP26 climate conference and everything that's happening in your space on these issues, what are one or two things that each of you are finding inspiration from and that is giving you hope and determination to continue down this race, which is very much a marathon that we'll be running for the rest of our lives. Dara, maybe I'll start with you. Yeah, I think for me what is inspiring, Frank talked about it to some extent, which is companies not get it. Companies, both their employees, from a shareholder standpoint, from a stakeholder standpoint, the incentive is there not just to walk, but to run in a to a non-emissions direction. And when we see regulations like London resulting in a 12x increase in our driver switching over versus the average in London or 5x in Europe, we see that these kinds of incentives work, these kinds of regulatory structures work. So with COP26, with some of the commitments that we made with some of the commitments that many of our compatriots, companies, cities, etc. made, we will see more momentum around this flywheel. And I'm confident that when we check in a year later, two years later, three years later, the flywheel is only going to accelerate. This is not a linear process. This is a non-linear process. And I'm starting to see a little bit of nonlinear curve happen. That's great. Frank, what are some positive things coming out of COP26 and with your company that gives you hope that the train is going to keep moving? Yeah, I think it is now about the how and that is very encouraging. Being a chemist from education, I said a while ago that if we start thinking about carbon dioxide as a resource instead of something which is just creating global warming, because our body consists out of carbon and water in principle, then we will move a needle and I think we are getting there. We can capture carbon dioxide. It's not scaled yet, but I think we can do that in principle. We have the technology from the chemical process, hydrogen and liquid fuel out of our water carbon dioxide, which is great. Or we do ammonium somehow. So it is really now moving. And I think what I take away from the momentum we gain is that our great-grandchildren probably have to pay to take carbon dioxide out of the air. So I'm very optimistic because that is perfect circular economy. When we capture carbon dioxide, we combine it with water and use renewable energy. We have enough wind, we have enough sun. So if we get that way, we definitely will solve that problem. Nature has created that already for millions of years, so why should we not be able? We have cracked so many different difficult things as humanity. So I'm very optimistic because the politicians accepting that this is a problem, the business is willing to help to solve it. Science is making great progress and I think COP26 was probably the next step in that journey. We are talking now about the how and what any longer and I think that's very encouraging. That's great. Ajay, I want to go to you now with some final comments. From your perspective, you opened up with noting out the big and relatively surprising news for many of us of India's net zero goal. What gives you inspiration that a company like yours will be able to grow rapidly as you should be able to because other airline companies in other countries have? What gives you hope that will both be able to combat climate change and have a rapidly growing country and company? I think firstly, what gives me hope is the fact that a poor country, relatively poor country like India can set a goal of net zero by 2070. I think that's something that gives me great hope. India is really growing rapidly and I don't think growth is going to be a huge challenge for a company like SpiceIt but the question is always going to be can we grow responsibly and can we grow in a way that we don't hurt the world and the earth that we live on. So I think the fact that there is so much conversation around COP26 gives me great hope. The fact that it seems to me that there is a bit of an inflection point here that we've been hearing talk for so many years and it seems that there is a little bit of a bias towards action now and that gives me great hope. That's great and the common theme I'm hearing here whether it's Frank's train metaphor or Dara's flywheel is that things are moving. I think the biggest challenge is that things need to move faster. Climate change, the toughest thing about this problem is that it's cumulative. So the longer we wait the harder it gets to solve because the problem gets worse and stays worse until we take big action to solve it. So it's really heartening to hear that change is happening and action is occurring and do in large part to much of the work that your companies are doing. So I want to say thank you very much for the panelists for your insight today. Dara I think you're the one who said when we check in in a year or five years so we'll come back to you for another event to see how progress is being made. I want to thank you to the audience for tuning in from around the world. You can learn more about the firm's related initiatives on a mobility and transportation at weform.org and you can follow my covers of these topics at cyphernews.com. Thank you so much and have a great rest of your day or night. Thank you. Good night.


Hi everyone, this is Jason here from Nathaniel School of Music. In this lesson, I'm going to introduce you to left hand accompaniment techniques which can go over a variety of soloing or melody playing in the right hand and the main intention for this is to give you these techniques assuming you already know some left hand stuff already. Maybe you know how to do like a simple arpeggio kind of thing going on here or maybe you're used to just playing chords stuff like that or maybe some simple grooves with a melody line. So assuming you know some accompaniment in the left hand as a beginner or as an intermediate kind of player, I'm sure you'll find something in this lesson quite useful for your piano journey. The whole intention is to just add little bit to what you already know and that little bit is going to sound really really pro. It's exactly the secrets done by all the super pro piano players which me and you guys I'm sure already idolize and over my years as a growing piano player, I've learned that you know some of these things you just get one day it just comes to you but it's more trial and error and sometimes you kind of get a bit annoyed that you're doing everything which the great pianist is doing, you just don't sound like that particular player. So there's this small thing which they do which really adds the color and makes it sound professional like the best it can possibly get. So there are five of these secrets or pro sounding left hand accompaniment techniques which I definitely am eager to share with you and before I do it'll be awesome if you can hit that like button, leave us a comment with anything you'd like to learn, there's a subscribe that will really help our channel grow, join our channel, there's a bell which will remind you of lessons which keep coming your way and we also have a Patreon account where all of my handwritten notes sometimes MIDI files and a few other things whenever the lesson supports it or demands it, it'll be available on our Patreon. Let's get cracking. So if you're playing any old melody, let's say a lot of people will play a song like My Bonnie Lies Over The Ocean with arpeggios either F C F root 5th octave. You know, now this is convenient for the fingers I understand but it doesn't sound pro. So how do you make this left hand arpeggio accompaniment always work and sound pro? You need two things. The most important is study that chord. There is no third in there. So what do you need to do? Bring in a third. What's the easiest way? Knock off the octave. You don't need that octave twice. What do you do instead? There we go. You have F major now a proper F major and a very deep F major. So even if you want to do a lower chord C major can really make your harmony sound really dense and epic. Now the challenge here is you can't really stretch even at least I can't. I can't really go a tenth interval like this. So what I do is I use the pedal kind of curve my hand to latch on to that A and you just practice that. So now if you take the same melody earlier it was now with this technique also allow your right hand to do a lot more. You can also do dominant chords in a spread way so you need to get used to this system and what makes it sound really thick is actually this spread voicing technique here. It's not really it's sometimes not even the melodic embellishments. You can just play simple melody that's spread voicing for chords and there's a lot of additional content which we've done regarding spread voicing. We have a playlist where I've even walked you through a version of amazing grace where we've done that with fully spread voicings. And we also go very very advanced into the concept of spread voicing. So spread voicings make things sound really pro. Moving on. So a very underrated rhythm on the piano is where you just think like a bass player who plays country music, similar music and just goes tum tum tum tum tum tum tum tum tum that's essentially root fifth. Now you could play the root and the fifth above it or you could play the fifth below it so just keep that groove going. This can really bring out a lot a lot of groove depending on the melody. So if you're doing a groovy melody or a melody which has a few off beats like for example so root and fifth toggling the root and fifth is very very important. Just keep that root toggling and whenever the chords shift fast avoid that. So you can also do this in a very bluesy context. It works for a lot of things. It will really also work for dancy stuff. If your melody is maybe like a dancy melody anything you want jumpy in the right hand you can complement it really well in the left hand with a root and a fifth toggle. So that's the next way to make your left hand accompaniment go absolutely pro. Moving on. Right so the third accompaniment technique is what I call as the magic arpeggio. So what happens there is you just take let's say a chord and you played in an arpeggio which is L H M H. So first of all that makes it very unique I find a lot of students doing that one that's not very professional what the pros do is they go L H M H okay root fifth in this case third and then fifth so you toggle that and you can use your pedal or you could hold your pinky holding the pinky makes it very professional very tasteful with the pedal it adds the overtones you could also for contrast start with the lower root then play the root higher so that's L H M H L H M H L H octave of the L so you can do so many things with this stuff like this do it slowly so L H M H another nice song to learn with L H M H is the theme from the movie amily it goes we've done a lesson on that you can definitely check it out there so L H M H arpeggio really really important with pinky holding with pedal hold very very important moving on so if you want to make people dance on the piano there is one groove you have to learn that is called as the thresio so the way it works is you've heard it everywhere you've heard it in Ed Sheeran songs you've heard it everywhere you've heard it in every modern pop dance song ever ever done so if you incorporate that in your left hand maybe with a let's say G now you could go fully EDM by going root octave octave root oct octave just just makes anything dancey not that you have to make those songs dancey but you get the idea it just transforms it now you could do root octave octave you can even do you can do the spread voicing as I talked about in point number one in the thresio just playing some random stuff but if you're finding this stuff you can even do like this or like that root octave root third fifth root third all of this has to be like an engine while your right hand change the chord there we have it right so the last way to make your left hand accompaniment sound absolutely pro would be to just use the pedal and figure out a strategy to play a very deep bass for example F and then take your same left hand and come over a little bit higher around middle C remember the pedal is holding that see without the pedal it would be over so you hold the pedal play that particular root of the chord come to the right hand and play which whichever chord you're trying to do so if you take let's say you know this Beatles song right so this is a very loungey and very deep dense sound because you're getting the root here and the chord there you know do all sorts of things if you take a minor version should definitely listen to artists like Eric Satie who's a really incredible sort of ambient piano player very classical meets jazz very modern like going from that classical era to the the the more jazzy era right so there are a lot of artists who do this so let me try and put this all together and give you one song with all the five left hand accompaniment strategies why don't we just take everyone's favorite song I'm sure it's your favorite as well twinkle little star there is no song better than that so let's do it with that so what's happening here spread voicing with the chords F major G minor D minor F over a C7 maybe C spread okay so if you take twinkle in that style now what else do we do twinkle with root and fifth toggle you probably want to groove up the melody a bit more because it needs to contrast that right okay now twinkle with the magic arpeggio there we go very classical as well you hear a lot of classical pieces with this style LHMH okay now let's groove it up and make twinkle like an EDM song Tressio not carried away there but the actual groove is okay last version the mellow version chords with the pedal and deep bass could also change it quicker and give it a more stride feel so just by making it more staccato versus legato you get different feels like a nice stride ragtime kind of feel would be you know but the same thing with a more loungy version with the pedal and some deep bass will sound like this there we go so as I've hopefully showed you you're able to play the best song on ever written in all these five ways so now you could do this do it with twinkle and obviously do it with your favorites and my main purpose or my main intention with this lesson is to boost what you already know so if you're already working on a song if you're working on a piece of music which maybe a company is like in a more bland way or if it if to you it feels it sounds a bit simple it doesn't sound the way I heard it on Spotify by the original artist maybe it's one of these five techniques which will help you transform it from a like a beginner or a basic sounding version to something you might enjoy right guys so those were the five ways to make your left hand accompaniment sound professional and I hope you found the lesson useful do consider heading over to our patreon to get some of these notes from this lesson things in the past and things in the future for sure it's a subscription of about five bucks a month and you could also consider a yearly subscription where you get a discount and you get all the notes from all the lessons on the patreon again this is Jason here don't forget to subscribe leave us a comment share the video with your friends and keep rocking cheers


Hello, good morning or good afternoon. How are you doing? So, sorry, I'm a bit sick. I'm running a course. Hopefully, I will be able to talk until the end. So, hi, I'm Christian. I'm now going to talk to you and explain to you my personal private views how to start as a security engineer. So, the talk started actually last year at DEF CON India. That's the traditional opening. They got that stuff from the fireworks last year. I've given a keynote about security and community and responsibilities and people asked me actually how to start as a security engineer. So, agenda and goals, what you're going to learn here. And if you start with this climber, this is a very opinionated and subjective talk. It's just my personal ideas, which maybe you find it useful or not. It's also incomplete, probably biased, because I'm more of a back-end engineer and it's not that serious. It's a bit of an entertainment too. So, I hope to entertain you a bit. So, chapter one is going to be thinking and chapter two is going to be learning. So, how to think as a security engineer and how to, what I think is useful to learn. And one thing is to learn is that security engineering are not always the people that are liked by most because it's one of the feedback I got DEF CON India Well, either we break stuff or we break stuff. Whatever. So, and a quick recap from a presentation I gave last year as DEF CON's, what should we care about security? Just very very quick. So, it's for one about money. You can lose a lot of money if you don't care about security.  And replacing a pacemaker is not an easy thing if the cut people open to fix a security bug and nobody wants to get cut open. So, let's start with some statements and propositions just to get you feedback from the audience. You think about that? So, security is actually a feature or something you can sell your customers to. And as an attacker you only need just one vulnerability, but as a defender somewhere like us writing software we must be always perfect, always.  So, what do you think? Feedback. So, we think that's a valid proposition, valid statement or we think that's Ends up? We think it's good? Okay, just a few hands. Well, okay, I think I spoiled it a bit, but I think I think that's actually I used to think like that blame the users. We are the engineers. We are perfect and users are now Please close the door Thank you I think it's very dangerous. Patti also arrogant to think like that and I'll explain you later why. Because we engineers, we software developers actually do stuff for users. So, if you know the old movie Tron, we fight for the users. We don't fight like for ourselves. We want to build something to sell to people to be useful, especially as open source engineers. So, chapter zero actually attitude. So, how you should actually think about security and the first thing is security is not a feature, not like by itself because Would you buy a car that's like advertised like that? You would just assume that a car just doesn't explode by itself and nobody would actually advertise cars to, yeah. So, and civil engineers, automobile engineers, they all run that the hard way. There were multiple accidents in the past. Let's see Bridges in Scotland 150 years, 200 years ago. Let me see my speaker's lights, a secret note. Again So, they learned the hard way that you should not build bridges in a way that they just collapse and The aeronautics Industry also does lots of testing. So, that picture I had last year how they actually engineer and test Airplanes, so that's a wing up test. You see that's the tip of the wings So they do very thorough testing because if you have an airplane, there's no safe mode as soon as it's in the air So, you have to get that thing down in one piece somehow and if that fails, well Yeah, it comes down, but you want to have one piece and yeah It's also security also not digital.  Let's see only what I could find. So it means it's not just either totally secure totally insecure There are multiple shades between that Alex Gaynor wrote a very good blog post about that the worst-reason information security that you must be perfect always in most cases, it's not that it can have like Slightly insecure software with you do it the right way and How do they like to exploding cars? Hmm. Yeah, so maybe you you need Sometimes a car that does not explore you should have that maybe in other cases You want to have like a cheap car that runs on standard like roads and that's something you have to figure out Who's your advert? adversary, your enemy who tries to attack you and how much can you actually lapse and Also, there's no thing as unbreakable encryption or absolute security If somebody asked me a I worked something on breakable How about like a Kardashev level 3 alien civilization that can harness the energy of the whole universe To power a supercomputer. Can they break your encryption? Well, if you can prove that even alien civilization could not do that. Maybe then you're unbreakable, but maybe not Yeah So you have to think about Threat modeling you have to wait cost and benefits and you have to actually document what could go wrong One point that people are always I think good example that is a fingerprint sensor on your mobile phone For most people it's actually beneficial to use a fingerprint sensor because It's very easy to unlock and unlock your phone Except if you have like state sponsors Attackers that want to steal like your data if you're like a journalist, then it's maybe not the best way But for most people although it can be broken more or less easily yeah, or cost benefits Some it's fun to think about like quantum computer TLS ciphers But in most cases it's actually don't use vegetable names. Yeah, go for the low-hanging fruits So people in the past have that so you want to have like defense in depth Or like aircraft do that also they are like multiple so that's a Wing from the airplane just they have multiple ways to actually control the thing That's not going to into because already that's like one-half minutes into the beginning to explain that but Even if both engines the so the power generator and the batteries fails and that control the flaps and Spoilers and whatever they have on the wings. There's still one more backup mechanism for airplanes And that's a figure that out of a bit more safe to fly They can do something like that. They can just That's a rat that's a ram atobine. So even if everything fails They can still power the whole engine the the whole hydraulic and control the plane. So If you develop software like that, even if everything goes wrong, you have like a backup pretty good and That makes the our industry a very safe place I still have the site from 2017 because 2018 was not that good and also in 2017 We had like that one Where Amazon brought one engineer brought a large part of the internet down and We didn't have any bad large outtakes this year's first and last year's first and no and so last month please mind the user and If you're from London, you may know that one so please Take care of the users because if you still think that users are to blame for our security incidents.   And so you have to ask yourself Not what users can do for security what what security engineers can do for users to make users more safe and Especially people like that your grandmother So what's your first reaction you see that? anybody Yeah, okay. Yeah, if it failed you shouldn't probably scream at your grandmother But just ask yourself. Why did you rent another install flesh? Maybe she wanted to watch an old Video recording she made like years ago with a old phone The only way to achieve view the video calling is use a baby is installing flesh. So ask why and Right to that user interfaces There's been two accidents Incidents the last two and a half years left is Hawaii Well, somebody Making mistake and didn't understand the user interface the other one a couple of months ago Very unfortunate where there was an incident where an airplane crash because user interface did not tell the pilot something the park could understand in an immersion situation and Basically the airplane tries to to save itself by driving the step down in the sea and people just died We all know crew everybody on board by user interface problem and The L industry has another way to model that kind of security or like a lot because they are usually safe It's called the Swiss cheese model where you have multiple layers that protect each other and only when all this Holds the small gaps in your design come together. So human error technical error design errors Then it's failed so No, next one. How do you think as a security engineer? Oh, I'm awesome time One sentence that I picked out many years ago from a book by Bruce nice to be professional paranoid and paranoid in quotes because paranoia is actually a serious mental illness not something you should make fun of But I think most people think of security engineers that they Emphasize too much on security less on usability and sometimes blow out security backs out of proportion and just to remember keep professional keep your own bits of paranoia and You have to find a balance and another thing I personally do a lot is just to go on be creative think of like the funny crazy ideas, but the other thing is Often security backs repeat themselves. They've been like blighting but high tech for us 20 years Take on RSA. I'm not sure if you cover that because I missed your talk Often if you see like a security back home in for language, so I'm on the Python security team and They have been places in cases where we have bugs in Ruby and PHP and we're the same in Python because we made the same mistakes and sufferers often are even profitable like in this layers and these Abstraction layers are leaky especially if you consider security and they might even less look like this stone, but more like Jenga tower always falling over and they leak through Very good example for that. I like is the way you can actually exploit Behavior of electrons in the computer from JavaScript in your browser and do a Rohammer attack And that goes through so many layers of indirection abstraction. It's just mind-boggling RSA attacks can even crack them with a microphone. They have been funny attacks using acoustics I have that slide for a couple of years now. So all of that is funny a new one I found just going the other way if you're looking to security want to what make you like your data center secure is against like intrude ears and That's not a typo Today to go on Twitter are just too funny to not add that so It doesn't help if you make the software you serve a secure You also want to make access to your infrastructure secure So and there's so many levels and animals are fun. That's also something I'd rather bring up Terrorism actually most dangerous moment as squirrels This is the list a website that lists power outages of data centers and big cities by animals with maps and links to news reports and And Finally another slide I'd like to bring off this It's also if you use a security engineer or engineer in general about ethics and compliance and just be nice And don't be an idiot so We have a responsibility to keep people safe I Posting what this company who solved that as a t-shirt, but last sentence boss Should I love you and the girl replied me? Yeah, I love you, too. I think that's the better version of that So What should you learn? You how to think actually admit to yourself it that you actually don't nothing so there's these so-called socratic paradox I know that I know nothing and Must be a word that computer science Security programming it's so complex. It's visually impossible to even understand one area very well You can have like be especially been very narrow error or know like a bigger area a bit better But actually knowing all of it is impossible. So Be aware of that So that why you need communication think it's the most important skill both in the sense of talking to your team members talking to users and astounding users also to gather information and Finally It's by Google's security princess Theresa tablets Stop reading start doing so you can read a lot of security But you actually must get your hands dirty and get practical But if you want to start by reading and actually recommend that I really like that book was one of my first security books and You can get that now for free It's a bit dated but still very good Explains like different kind of security modeled by I think household military base in a hospital Like a practical ideas and practically case studies Okay, let's get down to a bit more concrete things Running through that. So I also will upload the slides. So you don't need to write down all the links names I will pop up next couple of minutes. I guess throwing the slides in your face and hopefully I also slides up in an hour or so. So one of the Important things is do you need soft skills? Like as a hero engineer, but general as an engineer You want to work in a team? You want to work in a team that's diverse both in a social Consideration but also technical expertise. You need people who know like how hardware works You need people who knows to crypto works other, you know, how like browsers work because I don't know like front-end development I've almost no clue about that But we have a lot of people on our team that know front-end things and if I talk to them and change exchange ideas They may come in my dear and yeah It's also very important to know how to find information It's less about like knowing all the things these days You can just use duck-tock go Google or whatever to find information But understanding concepts and then be able to find information about that Concept and ever get which information is actually good, which is maybe bad information. Yeah Other things that have your legal affairs if you deal with security that often compliance rules If you find security backs, you may actually get in trouble reporting then depending which country you are or which company you find a security bug Rhetorics is good how to convince people that they may have a problem and Yeah, and reading and writing documentation. I think lots of engineers consider like dog writers as Like second-class whatever people what think writing clear documentation That's easy to be understandable by the target audience either for other engineers or for end users or for managers for decision-makers politicians That's not that easy We need them so Last chapter like in social human interaction is One book or two books and one website is related to a book that I like regarding social engineering. That's the secret agent stuff So how to trick people and give me information or excess so that's one of the books I read By the way, the books I'm showing here are books that I own and have more or less read and I like them There are tons of other good books. These are one I actually enjoyed Obstructing security Stuff you should know first of all self-defense. So It's it helps to eat your own dog food understand how to protect yourself to then explain users how to they can protect themselves And also to learn how to make it easier for users to protect them that and freedom of the press Has a very good training material for journalists even in countries that are less friendly yeah, and Edmund things if you work in unix environment There's one good book. I have at the second edition of the third one is even more up-to-date or man pages So if you do like back-end development, you want to know how your operating system actually works in this design That one helps other than that any engineers does something with internet should actually know how like IP for 4 IP for 6 works How like firewalls work DNS is very important Red Haters should know as a linux a bit and there are tons of very good tools I sometimes use and it are recommended like wire sharks analyzing network traffic and map metasploit or December if you're going a bit deeper So up there For big projects a the open web application security project CB CWC in CVE and the ITF request for comments these are standard documentations and good listing of security bugs and Recommend to if you work in any kind of development to keep track of that especially the for web developers the OW ASP is very helpful listing like comments and vulnerabilities and You should be familiar with these kinds of attacks as a front-end and web developer and back-end developer or really fun funny still these days XML attacks are Dominant they're still in the top 10 of bugs applications, but also Unicode. They are fun things They are like characters or looked at other characters or if you have white characters and do Quoting normalization the wrong order you can actually have like a persistent XSS. Just learned that all the other day programming languages To understand security you probably like very low-level things to write these days new program New software probably use the the right side because their memory safe Cryptography three books The left one I was my first script a book actually bought over as a kid That's more like a popular science easy reading book from some things playing crypto from like ancient Egyptian to post quantum computer of these More like a history book a very fascinating The book in the middle is a bit dated but still good But I would not use the book to design a new protocol but to understand like thinking and the right one is a rather modern Crypto book by JP Amazon Also, if you know a bit math and bit crypto it's good to read other resources There's the crypto or crypt of the one then boom course you can still sign up They just open up the signing process three days ago four days ago I like that Crypto pulse challenge and the last books also for free But that's actually super complex if you want to know in the math behind my letters. I don't understand that but well For TLS SSL certificates, that's the standard book these days for long time We didn't have a standard book the CAB forum link That's the standard used by all modern browsers and CAs that are public For pattern of indications if you still think you should have one upper one lower one number Read that guide. That's from this and you will no longer think it's a good idea to f a fido or a web often what was coming up now open my D connect for protocol that use like Social network logins are good and sorry hands have a been pwned. That's a it's a very useful side That list like you can even check your account if you got exploited by an attacker Some misc stuff.  I recommend videos from these four conferences There are from politics to easy to mind-boggling complex things For case computer cook they usually have names like 35 C3 so that makes it easier to find them on YouTube and Here's a bunch of names from people. I follow on Twitter or read the blog posts. They work for different companies and just fun following them a month of time and summary keep learning the experience and if you have more like links names or suggestions, please contact me and Yeah, and get your hands early and don't use your own crypto in production That's for you see move


Let's get back to some classic science fiction, shall we? This is a 1962 collection of short science fiction stories by Robert Sheckley, written in the 1950s. Most of them are very short. Like all of Robert Sheckley's work, it's beautifully written and all very original. Robert Sheckley is just pure entertainment. One story in particular on page 24 called The Girls in Nugent Miller. It's a 10-page post-apocalypse story, and yes, there are thousands and thousands of post-apocalypse stories. This one contains the phrase, not all men, with the response basically yes all men. For him to be writing this in 1960, wow, that's amazing. Look for this collection, excellent light reading. By the time this uploads, we'll know who our new president is going to be. I'll be spending the night either curled up in a ball of deep depression or running for Canada with my hair on fire. I'm not looking forward to either one of those.


Hi, I'm Zach Carlson, extension beef cattle specialist here at North Dakota State University. Cattle producers have a lot of challenges this year. Extreme periods of drought led to reduced hay production, reduced pasture production, high feed prices, extreme cold temperatures throughout many parts of the winter, and in April, heavy blizzards and large amounts of precipitation across many parts of the state, while a lot of cattle producers are still within their calving season. What I want to talk about today are amongst all those challenges, getting our cows prepared after calving, going into this coming breeding season. We do know that for a cow to maintain a calving interval of 365 days, so calving each year around the same day, she must rebreed 80 to 85 days after calving. That is not a large period of time or long period of time to make any nutritional changes and make changes to that cow going into that breeding season. We do know body condition scoring is an effective management tool to estimate the energy reserves of a cow. So if we can monitor multiple times a year, say a calving and a breeding, it's a good indicator of direction of body weight change. Now a thin cow at calving would be classified as a mature cow with a body condition score of four or less on a scale of one to nine. The ideal body condition score for a mature cow being that of a five at calving. A large influence on the reproductive success of a cow is the direction and magnitude of body weight change after calving going into the breeding season. Because nutritional demands for lactation after calving can be quite high, it's difficult sometimes for cows to be gaining weight during that period of time. But research has shown that thin cows in a thin body condition, so again four or less, that are gaining weight after calving going into the breeding season and continue gaining weight throughout the breeding season have similar pregnancy rates to those cows of moderate body condition, say a score of five or so, that maintain their weight. And so we can use this information and identify our thin cows that may have issues going into this breeding season if we can sort them off and manage them a little different, possibly bringing in some additional supplemental feed. While pasture turnout will likely be delayed for many, even while on pasture, green grass won't solve all of our winter feeding issues in relative to these thin cows, less spring forage can pose nutritional challenges with that spring pasture being high in crude protein but also in water content. Therefore supplementing thin cows and pasture might be required to keep those thin cows gaining weight and moving in a positive plane of nutrition going into and during the breeding season. Now, past spring pastures are often high in crude protein and so what we really need to be supplementing are energy feed sources. Those can often be considered any grain supplement or what I would call highly fermentable fibers which are often our co-product feeds, soy holes, feed pulp, distillate screens, wheat meds and corn gluten feed are great sources of supplemental feed that we can be providing to these cows. If there's any additional corn silage, that can also be a great supplement while cows are out on pasture. Again, we want to target the supplementation to thin cows so keeping sorting them apart from the rest of the mature cows in your herd will be important to not only reduce the economic costs associated with additional supplementation but we'll also make sure and ensure those thin cows are actually getting that supplement where our other cows won't need that. With high feed prices, it's really critical that you price these supplemental feeds on a price per unit of energy. With that in mind, consider delivery costs and costs associated with feeding, potentially grinding that feed, storing it as well as the potential shrink and make sure you're accounting for that.