Section 74 of the Book of Household Management. Baked Damsons for Winter Use. 1535. Ingredients. To every pound of fruit, allow six ounces of pounded sugar, melted mutton suet. Mode. Choose sound fruit not too ripe, pick off the stalks, weigh it, and to every pound allow the above proportion of pounded sugar. Put the fruit into large dry stone jars, sprinkling the sugar amongst it. Cover the jars with saucers, place them in a rather cool oven, and bake the fruit until it is quite tender. When cold, cover the top of the fruit with a piece of white paper cut to the size of the jar. Pour over this melted mutton suet about an inch thick, and cover the tops of the jars with thick brown paper, well tied down. Keep the jars in a cool dry place, and the fruit will remain good till the following Christmas, but not much longer. Time. From five to six hours to bake the Damsons in a very cool oven. Seasonable. In September and October. Damson cheese. 1536. Ingredients. Damsons. To every pound of fruit pulp, allow one half pound of low sugar. Mode. Pick the stalks from the Damsons, and put them in a preserving pan. Simmer them over the fire until they are soft, occasionally stirring them. Then beat them through a coarse sieve, and put the pulp and juice into the preserving pan with sugar in the above proportion, having previously carefully weighed them. Stir the sugar well in, and simmer the Damsons slowly for two hours. Skim well. Then boil the preserved quickly for one half hour, or until it looks firm and hard in the spoon. Put it quickly into shallow pots or very tiny earthenware molds, and when cold, cover it with oiled papers, and the jars with tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg. A few of the stones may be cracked, and the kernels boiled with the Damsons, which very much improves the flavor of the cheese. Time. One hour to boil the Damsons without the sugar, two hours to simmer them slowly, one half hour quickly. Average cost. From 8 pence to 10 pence per one-third pound pot. Sufficient. One pint of Damsons to make a very small pot of cheese. Seasonable. Make this in September or October. Compote of Damsons. 1537. Ingredients. One quart of Damsons. One pint of syrup number 1512. Procure sound-ripe Damsons. Pick the stocks from them, and put them into boiling syrup made by recipe number 1512. Simmer them gently until the fruit is tender, but not sufficiently soft to break. Take them up, boil the syrup for five minutes, pour it over the Damsons, and serve. This should be sent to table in a glass dish. Time. About one-quarter hour to simmer the Damsons five minutes to boil the syrup. Average cost. Nine pence. Sufficient for four or five persons. Seasonable in September and October. Damson Jam. 1538. Ingredients. Damsons. To every pound of fruit, allow three-quarter pound of loaf sugar. Mode. Have the fruit gathered in dry weather. Pick it over, and reject any that is at all blemished. Stone the Damsons, weigh them, and to every pound allow three-quarter pound of loaf sugar. Put the fruit and sugar into a preserving pan. Keep stirring them gently until the sugar is dissolved, and carefully remove the scum as it rises. Boil the jam for about an hour, reckoning from the time it commences to simmer all over alike. It must be well stirred all the time, or it will be liable to burn and stick to the pan, which will cause the jam to have a very disagreeable flavor. When the jam looks firm and the juice appears to set, it is done. Then take it off the fire, put into pots, cover it down, when quite cold, with oiled and egged papers, the same as in recipe number 1530, and store it away in a dry place. Time. One hour after the jam simmers all over. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Sufficient. One and a half pint of Damsons for a pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in September or October. A very nice preserve of Damsons. 1539. Ingredients. To every quart of Damsons, allow one half pound of loaf sugar. Mode. Put the Damsons, which should be picked from the stocks and quite free from blemishes, into a jar, with pounded sugar sprinkled amongst them in the above proportion. Tie the jar closely down, set it in a saucepan of cold water. Bring it gradually to a boil, and simmer gently until the Damsons are soft without being broken. Let them stand till cold, then strain the juice from them, boil it up well, strain it through a jelly bag, and pour it over the fruit. Let it cool, cover with oil papers, and the jars with tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg, and store away in a dry, cool place. Time. About three-quarter hour to simmer the fruit after the water boils. One-quarter hour to boil the juice. Seasonable. Make this in September or October. To preserve Damsons or any kind of plums. Useful in winter. 1540. Ingredients. Damsons or Plums. Boiling Water. Mode. Pick the fruit into clean dry stone jars, taking care to leave out all that are broken or blemished. When full, pour boiling water on the plums until it stands one inch above the fruit. Cut a piece of paper to fit the inside of the jar, over which pour melted mutton suet. Cover down with brown paper, and keep the jars in a dry, cool place. When used, the suet should be removed, the water poured off, and the jelly at the bottom of the jar used and mixed with the fruit. Seasonable in September and October. Compote of Green Figs. Illustration. Compote of Figs. 1541. Ingredients. One pint of syrup, number 1512. One-and-a-half pint of green figs. The rind of one-half lemon. Make a syrup by recipe number 1512, boiling with it the lemon rind, and carefully remove all the scum as it rises. Put in the figs, and simmer them very slowly until tender. Dish them on a glass dish, reduce the syrup by boiling it quickly for five minutes. Take out the lemon peel, pour the syrup over the figs, and the compote when cold will be ready for table. A little port wine or lemon juice, added just before the figs are done, will be found an improvement. Time. Two to three hours to stew the figs. Average cost. Figs, two shillings to three shillings per dozen. Seasonable in August and September. To bottle fresh fruit, very useful in winter. 1542. Ingredients. Fresh fruits, such as currants, raspberries, cherries, gooseberries, plums of all kinds, damsons, etc. Wide-mouthed glass bottles, new corks to fit them tightly. Mode. Let the fruit be full-grown but not too ripe, and gathered in dry weather. Pick it off the stalks without bruising or breaking the skin, and reject any that is at all blemished. If gathered in the damp, or if the skins are cut at all, the fruit will mold. Have ready some perfectly dry glass bottles, and some nice new soft corks or bones. Burn a match in each bottle to exhaust the air, and quickly place the fruit in to be preserved. Gently cork the bottles, and put them into a very cool oven, where let them remain until the fruit has shrunk away a fourth part. Then take the bottles out. Do not open them, but immediately beat the corks in tight, cut off the tops, and cover them with melted resin. If kept in a dry place, the fruit will remain good for months, and on this principally depends the success of the preparation. For if stored away in a place that is in the least damp, the fruit will soon spoil. Time. From five to six hours in a very slow oven. Two. 1543. Ingredients. Any kind of fresh fruit, such as currants, cherries, gooseberries, all kinds of plums, etc., wide-mouthed glass bottles, new corks to fit them tightly. Mode. The fruit must be well grown, not too ripe, and gathered on a fine day. Let it be carefully picked and put into the bottles, which must be clean and perfectly dry. Tie over the tops of the bottles pieces of bladder. Stand the bottles in a large pot, copper or boiler, with cold water to reach to their necks. Kindle a fire under, let the water boil, and as the bladders begin to rise and puff, prick them. As soon as the water boils, extinguish the fire, and let the bottles remain where they are to become cold. The next day, remove the bladders, and strew over the fruit a thick layer of pounded sugar. Fit the bottles with corks, and let each cork lie close at hand to its own bottle. Hold for a few moments in the neck of the bottle two or three lighted matches, and when they have filled the bottle neck with gas, and before they go out, remove them very quickly. Instantly cork the bottle closely, and dip it in bottle cement. Time, altogether about eight hours. To bottle fresh fruit with sugar, very useful in winter. Fifteen forty-four, ingredients. Any kind of fresh fruit, to each cork bottle, allow one-quarter pound of pounded sugar. Mode. Let the fruit be gathered in dry weather. Pick it carefully, and drop it into clean and very dry cork glass bottles, sprinkling over it the above proportion of pounded sugar to each cork. Put the corks in the bottles, and place them in a copper of cold water up to their necks, with small hay wisps around them, to prevent the bottles from knocking together. Light the fire under, bringing the water gradually to boil, and let it simmer gently until the fruit in the bottles is reduced nearly one-third. Extinguish the fire, and let the bottles remain in the water until it is perfectly cold. Then take them out, make the corks secure, and cover them with melted resin or wax. Time, about one hour from the time the water commences to boil. To frost holly leaves for garnishing and decorating dessert and supper dishes. Fifteen forty-five, ingredients. Sprigs of holly, oiled butter, coarsely powdered sugar. Mode. Procure some nice sprigs of holly. Pick the leaves from the stalks, and wipe them with a clean cloth, free from all moisture. Then place them on a dish near the fire to get thoroughly dry, but not too near to shrivel the leaves. Dip them into oiled butter, sprinkle over with some coarsely powdered sugar, and dry them before the fire. They should be kept in a dry place, as the least damp would spoil their appearance. Time, about ten minutes to dry before the fire. Seasonable. These may be made at any time, but are more suitable for winter garnishes, when fresh flowers are not easily obtained. Compote of gooseberries. Fifteen forty-six, ingredients. Syrup made by recipe number fifteen twelve, to one pint of syrup, allow nearly a quart of gooseberries. Mode. Top and tail the gooseberries, which should not be very ripe, and pour over them some boiling water. Then take them out and plunge them into cold water, with which has been mixed a tablespoon full of vinegar, which will assist to keep the fruit a good color. Make a pint of syrup by recipe number fifteen twelve, and when it boils, drain the gooseberries and put them in. Simmer them gently, until the fruit is nicely pulped and tender, without being broken. Then dish the gooseberries on a glass dish, boil the syrup for two or three minutes, pour over the gooseberries, and serve cold. Time, about five minutes to boil the gooseberries in the syrup, three minutes to reduce the syrup. Average cost, nine pence. Sufficient, a quart of gooseberries for five or six persons. Seasonable, in June. Gooseberry jam, one. Fifteen forty-seven, ingredients. To every pound of fruit, allow three-quarter pound of low-sugar, current juice. Mode. Select red, hairy gooseberries. Have them gathered in dry weather, when quite ripe, without being too soft. Wave them, with a pair of scissors, cut off the tops and tails, and to every six pounds of fruit, have ready one-half pint of red current juice, drawn as for jelly. Put the gooseberries and current juice into a preserving pan. Let them boil tolerably quickly, keeping them well stirred. When they begin to break, add to them the sugar, and keep simmering until the jam becomes firm, carefully skimming, and stirring it, that it does not burn at the bottom. It should be boiled rather a long time, or it will not keep. Put it into pots, not too large, let it get perfectly cold. Then cover the pots down with oiled and egged papers, as directed for red current jelly, number fifteen thirty-three. Time. About one hour to boil the gooseberries in the current juice, from one-half to three-quarter hour with the sugar. Average cost, per pound pot, from six pence to eight pence. Sufficient. Allow one-and-a-half pint of fruit for a pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in June or July. Two. Fifteen forty-eight. Ingredients. To every eight pounds of red, rough, ripe gooseberries, allow one quart of red current juice, five pounds of low sugar. Mode. Have the fruit gathered in dry weather, and cut off the tops and tails. Prepare one quart of red current juice, the same as for red current jelly, number fifteen thirty-three. Put it into a preserving pan with the sugar, and keep stirring until the latter is dissolved. Keep it boiling for about five minutes. Skim well. Then put in the gooseberries, and let them boil from one-half to three-quarter hour. Then turn the hole into an earthen pan, and let it remain for two days. Boil the jam up again until it looks clear. Put it into pots, and when cold, cover with oiled paper, and over the jars put tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg, and store away in a dry place. Care must be taken in making this, to keep the jam well stirred and well skimmed, to prevent it burning at the bottom of the pan, and to have it very clear. Time. Five minutes to boil the current juice and sugar after the latter is dissolved. From one-half to three-quarter hour to simmer the gooseberries the first time, one-quarter hour the second time of boiling. Average cost. From eight pence to ten pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Allow one-and-a-half pint of fruit for a pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in June or July. White or green gooseberry jam. 1549. Ingredients. Equal weight of fruit and sugar. Mode. Select the gooseberries not very ripe, either white or green, and top and tail them. Boil the sugar with water, allowing one-half pint to every pound, for about one-quarter hour. Carefully removing the scum as it rises, then put in the gooseberries and simmer gently till clear and firm. Try a little of the jam on a plate. If it jellies when cold, it is done, and should then be poured into pots. When cold, cover with oiled paper, and tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the unbeaten white of an egg, and store away in a dry place. Time. One-quarter hour to boil the sugar and water. Three-quarter hour the jam. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Allow one-and-a-half pint of fruit for a pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in June. Gooseberry jelly. 1550. Ingredients. Gooseberries. To every pint of juice, allow three-quarter pound of loaf sugar. Mode.  Then strain them through a sieve, and to every pint of juice allow three-quarter pound of sugar. Boil the juice and sugar together for nearly three-quarter hour, stirring and skimming all the time. And if the jelly appears firm when a little of it is poured onto a plate, it is done, and should then be taken up and put into small pots. Cover the pots with oiled and egged papers, the same as for current jelly number 1533, and store away in a dry place. Time. Three-quarter hour to simmer the gooseberries without the sugar. Three-quarter hour to boil the juice. Average cost. From eight pence to ten pence per one-and-a-half pound pot. Seasonable in July. Compote of green gauges. 1551. Ingredients. One pint of syrup made by recipe number 1512. One quart of green gauges. Mode. Make a syrup by recipe number 1512, skim it well, and put in the green gauges when the syrup is boiling, having previously removed the stalks and stones from the fruit. Boil gently for one-quarter hour or until the fruit is tender, but take care not to let it break, as the appearance of the dish would be spoiled where the fruit reduced to a pulp. Take the green gauges carefully out, place them on a glass dish, boil the syrup for another five minutes, let it cool a little, pour over the fruit, and when cold it will be ready for use. Time. One-quarter hour to simmer the fruit, five minutes the syrup. Average cost. In full season, ten pence. Sufficient for four or five persons. Seasonable in July, August, and September. Green gauge jam. 1552. Ingredients. To every pound of fruit weighed before being stoned, allow three-quarter pound of lump sugar. Mode. Divide the green gauges, take out the stones, and put them into a preserving pan. Bring the fruit to a boil, then add the sugar, and keep stirring it over a gentle fire until it is melted. Remove all the scum as it rises, and just before the jam is done, boil it rapidly for five minutes. To ascertain when it is sufficiently boiled, pour a little on a plate, and if the syrup thickens and appears firm, it is done. Have ready half the kernels blanched. Put them into the jam, give them one boil, and pour the preserve into pots. When cold, cover down with oiled papers, and over these, tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg. Time. Three-quarter hour after the sugar is added. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Allow about one-and-a-half pint of fruit for every pound pot of jam. Seasonable. Make this in August or September. To preserve and dry green gauges. 1553. Ingredients. To every pound of sugar, allow one pound of fruit, one-quarter pint of water. Mode. For this purpose, the fruit must be used before it is quite ripe, and part of the stock must be left on. Weigh the fruit, rejecting all that is in the least degree blemished, and put it into a lined saucepan with the sugar and water, which should have been previously boiled together to a rich syrup. Boil the fruit in this for ten minutes. Remove it from the fire and drain the green gauges. The next day, boil up the syrup and put in the fruit again, and let it simmer for three minutes, and drain the syrup away. Continue this process for five or six days, and the last time, place the green gauges when drained on a hair sieve, and put them in an oven or warm spot to dry. Keep them in a box with paper between each layer, in a place free from damp. Time. Ten minutes the first time of boiling. Seasonable. Make this in August or September. Preserved green gauges in syrup. 1554. Ingredients. To every pound of fruit, allow one pound of low sugar, one-quarter pint of water. Mode. Boil the sugar and water together for about ten minutes. Divide the green gauges, take out the stones, put the fruit into the syrup, and let it simmer gently until nearly tender. Take it off the fire, put it into a large pan, and the next day, boil it up again for about ten minutes with the kernels from the stones, which should be blanched. Put the fruit carefully into jars, pour over it the syrup, and when cold, cover down so that the air is quite excluded. Let the syrup be well skimmed both the first and second day of boiling, otherwise it will not be clear. Time. Ten minutes to boil the syrup, one-quarter hour to simmer the fruit the first day, ten minutes the second day. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Allow about one pint of fruit to fill a one pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in August or September. To make fruit ice creams. 1555. Ingredients. To every pint of fruit juice, allow one pint of cream, sugar to taste. Mode. Let the fruit be well ripened. Pick it off the stalks and put it into a large earthen pan. Stir it about with a wooden spoon, breaking it until it is well mashed. Then, with the back of the spoon, rub it through a hair sieve. Sweeten it nicely with pounded sugar, whip the cream for a few minutes, add it to the fruit, and whisk the whole again for another five minutes. Put the mixture into the freezing pot, and freeze in the same manner as directed for ice pudding, number 1290. Taking care to stir the cream, etc., two or three times, and to remove it from the sides of the vessel, that the mixture may be equally frozen and smooth. Ices are usually served in glasses, but if molded, as they sometimes are for dessert, must have a small quantity of melted isn't glass added to them to enable them to keep their shape. Raspberry, strawberry, currant, and all-fruit ice creams are made in the same manner. A little pounded sugar sprinkled over the fruit before it is mashed assists to extract the juice. In winter, when fresh fruit is not obtainable, a little jam may be substituted for it. It should be melted and worked through a sieve before being added to the whipped cream. And if the color should not be good, a little prepared cockney or beetroot may be put in to improve its appearance. Time, one half hour to freeze the mixture. Average cost, with cream at one shilling per pint, four pence each ice. Seasonable, with fresh fruit in June, July, or August. To make fruit water ices, 1556, ingredients. To every pint of fruit juice, allow one pint of syrup made by recipe number 1513. Illustration, dish of ices. Mode. Select nice ripe fruit. Pick off the stalks and put it into a large earthen pan with a little pounded sugar strewed over. Stir it about with a wooden spoon until it is well broken, then rub it through a hair sift. Make the syrup by recipe number 1513, omitting the white of the egg. Let it cool, add the fruit juice, mix well together, and put the mixture into the freezing pot. Proceed as directed for ice puddings number 1290. And when the mixture is equally frozen, put it into small glasses. Raspberry, strawberry, currant, and other fresh fruit water ices are made in the same manner. Time, one half hour to freeze the mixture. Average cost, three pence to four pence each. Seasonable, with fresh fruit in June, July, or August. Lemon water ices, 1557, ingredients. To every pint of syrup made by recipe number 1513, allow one third pint of lemon juice, the rind of four lemons. Mode. Rub the sugar on the rinds of the lemons, and with it make the syrup by recipe number 1513, omitting the white of the egg. Strain the lemon juice, and add it to the other ingredients. Stir well, and put the mixture into a freezing pot. Freeze as directed for ice pudding number 1290. And when the mixture is thoroughly and equally frozen, put it into ice glasses. Time, one half hour to freeze the mixture. Average cost, three pence to four pence each. Seasonable, at any time. Iced currents for dessert, 1558, ingredients. One quarter pint of water, the whites of two eggs, currents, pounded sugar. Mode. Select very fine bunches of red or white currents, and well beat the whites of the eggs. Mix these with the water, then take the currents a bunch at a time and dip them in. Let them drain for a minute or two, and roll them in very fine pounded sugar. Lay them to dry on paper when the sugar will crystallize round each current, and have a very pretty effect. All fresh fruit may be prepared in the same manner, and a mixture of various fruits iced in this manner and arranged in one dish looks very well for a summer dessert. Time, one quarter day to dry the fruit. Average cost, eight pence for a pint of iced currents. Seasonable in summer. End of Section 74. Section 75 of the Book of Household Management. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Book of Household Management by Isabella Beaton. Recipes. Chapter 31, Part 3. Melons. 1559. This fruit is rarely preserved or cooked in any way, and should be sent to table on a dish garnished with leaves or flowers as fancy dictates. A border of any other kind of small fruit arranged round the melon has a pretty effect, the color of the former contrasting nicely with the melon. Plenty of pounded sugar should be served with it, and the fruit should be cut lengthwise in moderate sized slices. In America it is frequently eaten with pepper and salt. Average cost, English in full season, three shillings six pence to five shillings each, when scarce, ten shillings to fifteen shillings. Seasonable June to August. French, two shillings to three shillings, six pence each. Seasonable June and July. Dutch, nine pence to two shillings each. Seasonable July and August. Melon. The melon is a most delicious fruit, succulent, cool, and high flavor. With us it is used only at the dessert, and is generally eaten with sugar, ginger, or pepper. But in France it is likewise served up at dinner as a sauce for boiled meats. It grows wild in tartary and has been lately found in abundance on the sandy plains of Jaipur. It was brought originally from Asia by the Romans and is said to have been common in England in the time of Edward III, though it is supposed that it was lost again as well as the cucumber during the wars of York and Lancaster. The best kind, called the cantaloupe, from the name of a place near Rome where it was first cultivated in Europe, is a native of Armenia, where it grows so plentifully that a horse load may be bought for a crown. Preserved mulberries. 1560. Ingredients. To two pounds of fruit and one pint of juice allow two and a half pounds of loaf sugar. Mode. Put some of the fruit into a preserving pan and simmer it gently until the juice is well drawn. Strain it through a bag, measure it, and to every pint allow the above proportion of sugar and fruit. Put the sugar into the preserving pan, moisten it with the juice, boil it up, skim well, and then add the mulberries which should be ripe but not soft enough to break to a pulp. Let them stand in the syrup till warm through, then set them on the fire to boil gently. When half done, turn them carefully into an earthen pan and let them remain till the next day. Then boil them as before, and when the syrup is thick and becomes firm when cold, put the preserve into pots. In making this, care should be taken not to break the mulberries. This may be avoided by very gentle stirring and by simmering the fruit very slowly. Time. Three-quarter hour to extract the juice. One-quarter hour to boil the mulberries the first time. One-quarter hour the second time. Seasonable in August and September. Illustration. Mulberry. Mulberry. Mulberries are esteemed for their highly aromatic flavor and their sub-acid nature. They are considered as cooling, laxative, and generally wholesome. This fruit was very highly esteemed by the Romans who appear to have preferred it to any other. The mulberry tree is stated to have been introduced into this country in 1548, being first planted at Cyan House where the original trees still thrive. The planting of them was much encouraged by King James I about 1605, and considerable attempts were made at that time to rear silkworms on a large scale for the purpose of making silk. But these endeavors have always failed, the climate being scarcely warm enough. To preserve Morello cherries. 1561. Ingredients. To every pound of cherries, allow one and a quarter pounds of sugar, one gill of water. Mode. Select ripe cherries, pick off the stalks, and reject all that have any blemishes. Boil the sugar and water together for five minutes, put in the cherries, and boil them for ten minutes, removing the scum as it rises. Then turn the fruit, etc., into a pan, and let it remain until the next day, then boil it all again for another ten minutes, and, if necessary, skim well. Put the cherries into small pots, pour over them the syrup, and, when cold, cover down with oiled papers, and the tops of the jars with tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg, and keep in a dry place. Time. All together twenty-five minutes to boil. Average cost, from eight pence to ten pence per pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in July or August. The Cherry Tree in Rome. The cherry tree was introduced into Rome by Lucalis about seventy years after the Christian era, but the capital of the world knew not at first how to appreciate this present as it deserved. For the cherry tree was propagated so slowly in Italy that more than a century after its introduction it was far from being generally cultivated. The Romans distinguished three principal species of cherries, the Apronian of a bright red with a firm and delicate pulp, the Lutation, very black and sweet, the Seicillian, round and stubby, and much esteemed. The cherry embellished the third course in Rome and the second at Athens. Preserved nectarines. 1562. Ingredients. To every pound of sugar allow one-quarter pint of water. Nectarines. Mode. Divide the nectarines in two, take out the stones, and make a strong syrup with sugar and water in the above proportion. Put in the nectarines and boil them until they have thoroughly imbibed the sugar. Keep the fruit as whole as possible and turn it carefully into a pan. The next day boil it again for a few minutes, take out the nectarines, put them into jars, boil the syrup quickly for five minutes, pour it over the fruit, and when cold cover the preserved down. The syrup and preserved must be carefully skimmed or it will not be clear. Time. Ten minutes to boil the sugar and water, twenty minutes to boil the fruit the first time, ten minutes the second time, five minutes to boil the syrup. Seasonable in August and September, but cheapest in September. Stewed Normandy Pippins. 1563. Ingredients. One pound of Normandy Pippins, one quart of water, one half teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, one half teaspoonful of ground ginger, one pound of moist sugar, one lemon. Mode. Well wash the pippins and put them into one quart of water with the above proportion of cinnamon and ginger and let them stand twelve hours. Then put these all together into a stew pan with the lemon sliced thinly and half the moist sugar. Let them boil slowly until the pippins are half done. Then add the remainder of the sugar and simmer until they are quite tender. Serve on glass dishes for dessert. Time. Two or three hours. Average cost. One shilling six pence. Seasonable, suitable for a winter dish. Iced oranges. 1564. Ingredients. Oranges. To every pound of pounded loaf sugar allow the whites of two eggs. Mode. Whisk the whites of the eggs well, stir in the sugar and beat this mixture for one quarter hour. Skin the oranges, remove as much of the white pith as possible without injuring the pulp of the fruit. Pass a thread through the center of each orange, dip them into the sugar and tie them to a stick. Place this stick across the oven and let the orange remain until dry when they will have the appearance of balls of ice. They make a pretty dessert or supper dish. Pure must be taken not to have the oven too fierce or the oranges would scorch and acquire a brown color which would entirely spoil their appearance. Time. From one half to one hour to dry in a moderate oven. Average cost. One and a half pence each. Sufficient. One half pound of sugar to ice twelve oranges. Seasonable from November to May. The first orange tree in France. The first orange tree cultivated in the center of France was to be seen a few years ago at Fontainebleau. It was called Le Conetable, the constable, because it had belonged to the Conetable de Bourbon and had been confiscated together with all property belonging to that prince after his revolt against his sovereign. Compote of oranges. 1565. Ingredients. One pint of syrup, number 1512. Six oranges. Mode. Peel the oranges, remove as much of the white pith as possible and divide them into small pieces without breaking the thin skin with which they are surrounded. Make the syrup by recipe number 1512, adding the rind of the orange cut into thin narrow strips. When the syrup has been well skimmed and is quite clear, put in the pieces of orange and simmer them for five minutes. Take them out carefully with a spoon without breaking them and arrange them on a glass dish. Reduce the syrup by boiling it quickly until thick. Let it cool a little, pour it over the oranges, and when cold they will be ready for table. Illustration. Compote of oranges. Time. Ten minutes to boil the syrup. Five minutes to simmer the oranges. Five minutes to reduce the syrup. Average cost. Nine pence. Sufficient for five or six persons. Seasonable from November to May. The orange in Portugal. The orange known under the name of Portugal Orange comes originally from China. Not more than two centuries ago, the Portuguese brought thence the first scion, which has multiplied so prodigiously that we now see entire forests of orange trees in Portugal. Orange and cloves. It appears to have been the custom formerly in England to make New Year's presents with oranges stuck full with cloves. We read in one of Ben Johnson's pieces, The Christmas Mask, he has an orange and rosemary but not a clove to stick in it. Orange marmalade. One. Fifteen sixty-six. Ingredients. Equal weight of fine loaf sugar and sevil oranges. To twelve oranges allow one pint of water. Mode. Let there be an equal weight of loaf sugar and sevil oranges and allow the above proportion of water to every dozen oranges. Peel them carefully, remove a little of the white pith and boil the rinds in water two hours, changing the water three times to take off a little of the bitter taste. Break the pulp into small pieces, take out all the pips and cut the boiled rind into chips. Make a syrup with the sugar and water. Boil this well, skim it, and when clear, put in the pulp and the chips. Boil altogether from twenty minutes to one-half hour. Pour it into pots and, when cold, cover down with bladders or tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg. The juice and grated rind of two lemons to every dozen of oranges added with the pulp and chips to the syrup are a very great improvement to this marmalade. Time. Two hours to boil the orange rinds, ten minutes to boil the syrup, twenty minutes to one-half hour to boil the marmalade. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Seasonable. This should be made in March or April as sevil oranges are then in perfection. Two. Fifteen sixty-seven. Ingredients. Equal weight of sevil oranges and sugar. To every pound of sugar allow one-half pint of water. Mode. Weigh the sugar and oranges, score the skin across, and take it off in quarters. Boil these quarters in a muslin bag in water until they are quite soft and they can be pierced easily with the head of a pin. Then cut them into chips about one inch long and as thin as possible. Should there be a great deal of white stringy pulp, remove it before cutting the rind into chips. Split open the oranges, scrape out the best part of the pulp with the juice, rejecting the white pith and pips. Make a syrup with the sugar and water. Boil it until clear, then put in the chips, pulp, and juice, and boil the marmalade from twenty minutes to one-half hour, removing all the scum as it rises. In boiling the syrup, clear it carefully from scum before the oranges are added to it. Time. Two hours to boil the rinds, ten minutes the syrup, twenty minutes to one-half hour the marmalade. Average cost. Six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in March or April when Seville oranges are in perfection. An easy way of making orange marmalade. 1568. Ingredients. To every pound of pulp, allow one-and-a-half pounds of loaf sugar. Mode. Choose some fine Seville oranges. Put them whole into a stew pan with sufficient water to cover them and stew them until they become perfectly tender, changing the water two or three times. Drain them, take off the rind, remove the pips from the pulp, weigh it, and to every pound allow one-and-a-half of loaf sugar and one-half pint of the water the oranges were last boiled in. Boil the sugar and water together for ten minutes. Put in the pulp, boil for another ten minutes, then add the peel cut into strips, and boil the marmalade for another ten minutes, which completes the process. Pour it into jars, let it cool, then cover down with bladders or tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg. Time. Two hours to boil the oranges, altogether one-and-a-half hour to boil the marmalade. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in March or April. Orange marmalade made with honey. 1569. Ingredients. To one quart of the juice and pulp of Seville oranges, allow two pounds of honey, one pound of the rind. Mode. Peel the oranges and boil the rind in water until tender and cut it into strips. Take away the pips from the juice and pulp, and put it with the honey and chips into a preserving pan. Boil altogether for about one-and-a-half hour or until the marmalade is of the proper consistency. Put it into pots and, when cold, cover down with bladders. Time. Two hours to boil the rind, one-and-a-half hour the marmalade. Average cost. From seven pence to nine pence per pound pot. Seasonable. Make this in March or April. To preserve oranges. 1570. Ingredients. Oranges. To every pound of juice and pulp, allow two pounds of loaf sugar. To every pint of water, one-and-a-half pound of loaf sugar. Mode. Holy grate or peel the oranges, taking off only the thin outside portion of the rind. Make a small incision where the stock is taken out, squeeze out as much of the juices can be obtained, and preserve it in a basin with the pulp that accompanies it. Put the oranges into cold water. Let them stand for three days, changing the water twice. Then boil them in fresh water until they are very tender and put them to drain. Make a syrup with the above proportion of sugar and water, sufficient to cover the oranges. Let them stand in it for two or three days. Then drain them well. Weigh the juice and pulp. Allow double their weight of sugar, and boil them together until the scum ceases to rise, which must all be carefully removed. Put in the oranges. Boil them for ten minutes. Place them in jars. Pour over them the syrup. And when cold, cover down. They will be fit for use in a week. Time. Three days for the oranges to remain in water. Three days in the syrup. One half hour to boil the pulp. Ten minutes the oranges. Seasonable. This preserve should be made in February or March when oranges are plentiful. Orange salad. 1571. Ingredients. Six oranges. One quarter pound of muscatel raisins. Two ounces of pounded sugar. Four tablespoons of brandy. Mode. Peel five of the oranges. Divide them into slices without breaking the pulp, and arrange them in a glass dish. Stone the raisins, mix them with the sugar and brandy, and mingle them with the oranges. Squeeze the juice of the other orange over the whole, and the dish is ready for table. A little pounded spice may be put in when the flavor is liked, but this ingredient must be added very sparingly. Average cost. One shilling. Sufficient for five or six persons. Seasonable from November to May. Compote of peaches. 1572. Ingredients. One pint of syrup number 1512. About 15 small peaches. Mode. Peaches that are not very large and that would not look well for dessert answer very nicely for a compote. Divide the peaches, take out the stones, and pair the fruit. Make a syrup by recipe number 1512, put in the peaches, and stew them gently for about ten minutes. Take them out without breaking, arrange them on a glass dish, boil the syrup for two or three minutes, let it cool, pour it over the fruit, and when cold it will be ready for table. Time. Ten minutes. Average cost. One shilling tuppence. Sufficient for five or six persons. Seasonable in August and September. Peach and nectarine. The peach and nectarine, which are among the most delicious of our fruits, are considered as varieties of the same species, produced by cultivation. The former is characterized by a very delicate down, while the latter is smooth, but as a proof of their identity as to species, trees have born peaches on one part and nectarines on another. And even a single fruit has had down on one side and on the other none. The trees are almost exactly alike as well as the blossoms. Pliny states that the peach was originally brought from Persia where it grows naturally. At Montruil, a village near Paris, almost the whole population is employed in the cultivation of peaches. And this occupation has maintained the inhabitants for ages, and in consequence they raise better peaches than anywhere else in France. In Maryland and Virginia, peaches grow nearly wild in orchards resembling forests. But the fruit is of little value for the table, being employed only in fattening hogs and for the distillation of peach brandy. On the east side of the Andes, peaches grow wild among the cornfields and in the mountains, and are dried as an article of food. The young leaves of the peach are sometimes used in cookery from their agreeable flavor, and a liqueur resembling the fine noyau of martinique may be made by steeping them in brandy sweetened with sugar and fine with milk. Gin may also be flavored in the same manner. The kernels of the fruit have the same flavor. The nectarine is said to have received its name from nectar, the particular drink of the gods. Though it is considered as the same species as the peach, it is not known which of the varieties came from the other. The nectarine is by some considered as the superior fruit. Peaches preserved in brandy. 1573. Ingredients To every pound of fruit weighed before being stoned, allow one-quarter pound of finely pounded loaf sugar, brandy. Mode Let the fruit be gathered in dry weather, wipe and weigh it, and remove the stones as carefully as possible without injuring the peaches much. Put them into a jar, sprinkle amongst them pounded loaf sugar in the above proportion, and pour brandy over the fruit. Cover the jar down closely, place it in a saucepan of boiling water over the fire, and bring the brandy to the simmering point, but do not allow it to boil. Take the fruit out carefully without breaking it. Put it into small jars, pour over it the brandy, and when cold, exclude the air by covering the jars with bladders or tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg. Apricots may be done in the same manner, and, if properly prepared, will be found delicious. Time From ten to twenty minutes to bring the brandy to the simmering point. Seasonable in August and September Baked pears 1574. Ingredients Twelve pears, the rind of one lemon, six cloves, ten whole allspice, to every pint of water allow one-half pound of loaf sugar. Mode Pear and cut the pears into halves, and should they be very large into quarters. Leave the stalks on, and carefully remove the cores. Place them in a clean baking jar with a closely fitting lid. Add to them the lemon-drying cut-in strips, the juice of one-half lemon, the cloves, pounded allspice, and sufficient water just to cover the whole with sugar in the above proportion. Cover the jar down closely, put it into a very cool oven, and bake the pears from five to six hours, but be very careful that the oven is not too hot. To improve the color of the fruit, a few drops of prepared cockeniel may be added, but this will not be found necessary if the pears are very gently baked. Time Large pears, five to six hours in a very slow oven. Average cost, one pence to tuppence each. Sufficient for seven or eight persons. Seasonable from September to January. Pear The pear, like the apple, is indigenous to this country, but the wild pear is a very unsatisfactory fruit. The best varieties were brought from the east by the Romans, who cultivated them with care and probably introduced some of their best sorts into this island, to which others were added by the inhabitants of the monasteries. The Dutch and Flemings, as well as the French, have excelled in the cultivation of the pear, and most of the late varieties introduced are from France and Flanders. The pear is a hardy tree and a longer liver than the apple. It has been known to exist for centuries. There are now about 150 varieties of this fruit. Though perfectly wholesome when ripe, the pear is not so when green, but in this state it is fit for stewing. An agreeable beverage called pear is made from pears, and the varieties which are least fit for eating make the best pear. Preserved Pears 1575. Ingredients Jargonel Pears To every pound of sugar, allow one half pint of water. Mode Procure some jargonel pears, not too ripe. Put them into a stew pan with sufficient water to cover them, and simmer them until rather tender, but do not allow them to break. Then put them into cold water. Boil the sugar and water together for five minutes, skim well, put in the pears, and simmer them gently for five minutes. Repeat the simmering for three successive days, taking care not to let the fruit break. The last time of boiling, the syrup should be made rather richer, and the fruit boiled for ten minutes. When the pears are done, drain them from the syrup and dry them in the sun or in a cool oven, or they may be kept in the syrup and dried as they are wanted. Time One half hour to simmer the pears in water, twenty minutes in the syrup. Average cost, one pence to toughen siege. Seasonable Most plentiful in September and October Stewed Pears Illustration Stewed Pears Fifteen seventy-six Ingredients Eight large pears Five ounces of loaf sugar Six cloves Six whole allspice One half pint of water One quarter pint of quart wine A few drops of prepared cocconeal Mode Pair the pears, have them, remove the cores, and leave the stalks on. Put them into a lined saucepan with the above ingredients, and let them simmer very gently until tender. Which will be from three to four hours, according to the quality of the pears. They should be watched, and when done, carefully lifted out onto a glass dish without breaking them. Boil up the syrup quickly for two or three minutes. Allow it to cool a little, pour it over the pears, and let them get perfectly cold. To improve the color of the fruit, a few drops of prepared cocconeal may be added, which rather enhances the beauty of this dish. The fruit must not be boiled fast, but only simmered, and watched that it be not too much done. Time Three to four hours Average cost One shilling six pence Sufficient for five or six persons, seasonable from September to January. The Bon Shretien pear The valuable variety of pear called Bon Shretien, which comes to our tables in winter, either raw or cooked. Received its name through the following incident. Louis XI King of France had sent for Saint Francois de Paul from the lower part of Calabria in the hopes of recovering his health through his intercession. The Saint brought with him the seeds of this pear, and as he was called at court, Le Bon Shretien, this fruit obtained the name of him to whom France owed its introduction. Pineapple chips 1577 Pineapples Sugar to taste Mode Pair and slice the fruit thinly, put it on dishes, and strew over it plenty of pounded sugar. Keep it in a hot closet or very slow oven, eight or ten days, and turn the fruit every day until dry. Then put the pieces of pine on tins, and place them in a quick oven for ten minutes. Let them cool, and store them away in dry boxes with paper between each layer. Time, eight to ten days Seasonable, foreign pines in July and August Preserved pineapple 1578 Ingredients To every pound of fruit weighed after being paired, allow one pound of low sugar, one quarter pint of water. Mode The pines for making this preserve should be perfectly sound but ripe. Cut them into rather thick slices as the fruit shrinks very much in the boiling. Drop the rind carefully that none of the pine be wasted, and in doing so, notch it in and out as the edge cannot be smoothly cut without great waste. Dissolve a portion of the sugar in a preserving pan with one quarter pint of water. When this is melted, gradually add the remainder of the sugar and boil it until it forms a clear syrup, skimming well. As soon as this is the case, put in the pieces of pine and boil well for at least one half hour or until it looks nearly transparent. Put it into pots, cover down when cold, and store away in a dry place. Time, one half hour to boil the fruit. Average cost, ten pence to one shilling per pound pot. Seasonable, foreign pines in July and August The pineapple in heathen dumb. Heathen nations invented protective divinities for their orchards, such as Pomona, Fertumnus, Priapus, etc. and benevolent patrons for their fruits. Thus the olive tree grew under the auspices of Minerva. The muses cherished the palm tree, bacchus the fig and grape, and the pine and its cone were consecrated by the great cybel. Preserved pineapple for present use. 1579. Ingredients. Pineapple, sugar, water. Mode. Cut the pine into slices one quarter inch in thickness, peel them and remove the hard part from the middle. Put the pairings and hard pieces into a stew pan with sufficient water to cover them and boil for one quarter hour. Strain the liquor and put in the pieces of pine. Stew them for ten minutes, add sufficient sugar to sweeten the whole nicely, and boil again for another quarter hour. Skim well, and the preserve will be ready for use. It must be eaten soon, as it will keep but a very short time. Time. One quarter hour to boil the pairings in water, ten minutes to boil the pine without sugar, one quarter hour with sugar. Average cost. Foreign pines, one shilling to three shillings each. English, from two shillings to twelve shillings per pound. Seasonable. Foreign in July and August. English all the year. Plum jam. 1580. Ingredients. To every pound of plums weighed before being stoned, allow three quarter pound of low sugar. Mode. In making plum jam, the quantity of sugar for each pound of fruit must be regulated by the quality and size of the fruit. Some plums requiring much more sugar than others. Divide the plums, take out the stones, and put them onto large dishes, with roughly pounded sugar sprinkled over them in the above proportion, and let them remain for one day. Then put them into the preserving pan, stand them by the side of the fire to simmer gently for about one half hour, and then boil them rapidly for another fifteen minutes. The scum must be carefully removed as it rises, and the jam must be well stirred all the time, or it will burn at the bottom of the pan, and so spoil the color and flavor of the preserve. Some of the stones may be cracked, and a few kernels added to the jam just before it is done. These impart a very delicious flavor to the plums. The above proportion of sugar would answer for Orleans plums. The impratrice magnum bonum and wine sour would not require quite so much. Time. One half hour to simmer gently, one quarter hour to boil rapidly. Best plums for preserving. Violets, mussels, Orleans. Imperatrice magnum bonum and wine sour. Seasonable, from the end of July to the beginning of October. Plums. The damson, or damocene plum, takes its name from Damascus, where it grows in great quantities, and whence it was brought into Italy about 114 BC. The Orleans plum is from France. The green gauge is called after the gauge family, who first brought it into England from the monastery of the Chartres, at Paris, where it still is. It still bears the name of Rhine Claude. The magnum bonum is our largest plum, and greatly esteemed for preserves and culinary purposes. The best sorts of plums are agreeable at the dessert, and when perfectly ripe, are wholesome, but some are too astringent. They lose much of their bad qualities by baking, and are extensively used, from their cheapness, when in full season, in tarts and preserves. But they are not a very wholesome fruit, and should be eaten in moderation. Preserved plums. 1581. Ingredients. To every pound of fruit, allow three-quarter pound of low sugar, for the thin syrup, one-quarter pound of sugar, to each pint of water. Mode. Select large ripe plums. Slightly prick them to prevent them from bursting, and simmer them very gently in a syrup made with the above proportion of sugar and water. Put them carefully into a pan, let the syrup cool, pour it over the plums, and allow them to remain for two days. Having previously weighed the other sugar, dip the plums quickly into water, and put them into a preserving pan with no more water than hangs about them. And boil the sugar into a syrup, carefully skimming it. Drain the plums from the first syrup, put them into the fresh syrup, and simmer them very gently until they are clear. Lift them out singly into pots, pour the syrup over, and when cold, cover down to exclude the air. This preserve will remain good some time, if kept in a dry place, and makes a very nice addition to a dessert. The magnum bonum plums answer for this preserve better than any other kind of plum. Green gauges are also very delicious done in this manner. Time. One-quarter hour to twenty minutes to simmer the plums in the first syrup. Twenty minutes to one-half hour, very gentle simmering in the second. Seasonable. From August to October. To preserve plums dry. 1582. Ingredients. To every pound of sugar, allow one-quarter pint of water. Mode. Gather the plums when they are full-grown and just turning color. Prick them, put them into a saucepan of cold water, and set them on the fire until the water is on the point of boiling. Then take them out, drain them, and boil them gently in syrup made with the above proportion of sugar and water. And if the plums shrink, and will not take the sugar, prick them as they lie in the pan. Give them another boil, skim, and set them by. The next day add some more sugar, boiled almost to candy, to the fruit in syrup. Put all together into a wide-mouthed jar, and place them in a cool oven for two nights. Then drain the plums from the syrup, sprinkle a little powdered sugar over, and dry them in a cool oven. Time. 15 to 20 minutes to boil the plums in the syrup. Seasonable from August to October. Plums. The wild slo is the parent of the plum, but the acclimated kinds come from the east. The cultivation of this fruit was probably attended to very early in England. As Gerard informs us that, in 1597, he had in his garden in Holborn three-score sorts. The slo is a shrub common in our hedgerows, and belongs to the natural order, Amy-Gadalier. The fruit is about the size of a large pea, of a black color, and covered with a bloom of a bright blue. It is one of the few indigenous to our island. The juice is extremely sharp and astringent, and was formerly employed as a medicine where astringents were necessary. It now assists in the manufacture of a red wine made to imitate port, and also for adulteration. The leaves have been used to adulterate tea. The fruit, when ripe, makes a good preserve. Stewed French Plums. A dessert dish. 1583. One-and-a-half pounds of French plums. Three-quarter pint of syrup, number 1512. One glass of port wine. The rind and juice of one lemon. Mode. Stew the plums gently in water for one hour, strain the water, and with it make the syrup. When it is clear, put in the plums with the port wine, lemon juice, and rind, and simmer very gently for one-and-a-half hours. Arrange the plums on a glass dish, take out the lemon rind, pour the syrup over the plums, and, when cold, they will be ready for table. A little allspice stewed with the fruit is by many persons considered an improvement. Time. One hour to stew the plums in water, one-and-a-half hour in the syrup. Average cost. Plums sufficiently good for stewing, one shilling per pound. Sufficient for seven or eight persons. Seasonable in winter. End of Section 75. Section 76 of the Book of Household Management. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Ariel Lipshaw. The Book of Household Management by Isabella Beaton. Recipes. Chapter 31, Part 4. Preserved Pumpkin. 1584. Ingredients. To each pound of pumpkin, allow one pound of roughly pounded loaf sugar, one gill of lemon juice. Mode. Obtain a good sweet pumpkin, have it, take out the seeds, and pair off the rind. Put it into neat slices, or into pieces about the size of a five shilling piece. Weigh the pumpkin, put the slices in a pan, or deep dish in layers, with the sugar sprinkled between them. Pour the lemon juice over the top, and let the whole remain for two or three days. Boil all together, adding one-quarter pint of water to every three pounds of sugar used until the pumpkin becomes tender. Then turn the whole into a pan, where let it remain for a week. Then drain off the syrup, boil it until it is quite thick. Skim and pour it, boiling over the pumpkin. A little bruised ginger and lemon rind, thinly paired, may be boiled in the syrup to flavor the pumpkin. Time. From one-half to three-quarter hour to boil the pumpkin tender. Average cost, five pence to seven pence per pound pot. Seasonable in September and October, but better when made in the latter month, as the pumpkin is then quite ripe. Note, vegetable marrows are very good prepared in the same manner, but are not quite so rich. Quince jelly, one-five-eight-five. Ingredients. To every pint of juice, allow one pound of loaf sugar. Mode. Pair and slice the quince's, and put them into a preserving pan with sufficient water to float them. Until tender, and the fruit is reduced to a pulp. Strain off the clear juice, and to each pint, allow the above proportion of loaf sugar. Boil the juice and sugar together for about three-quarters of an hour.  The residue left on the sieve will answer to make a common marmalade for immediate use by boiling it with one-half pound of common sugar to every pound of pulp. Time. Three hours to boil the quince's in water, three-quarter hour to boil the jelly. Average cost from eight pence to ten pence per pound pot. Seasonable from August to October. Quince marmalade. One-five-eight-six. Ingredients. To every pound of quince pulp, allow three-quarter pound of loaf sugar. Mode. Slice the quince's into a preserving pan, adding sufficient water for them to float. Place them on the fire to stew until reduced to a pulp. Keep them stirred occasionally from the bottom to prevent their burning. Then pass the pulp through a hair sieve to keep back the skin and seeds. Weigh the pulp, and to each pound add lump sugar in the above proportion, broken very small. Place the hole on the fire, and keep it well stirred from the bottom of the pan with a wooden spoon until reduced to a marmalade, which may be known by dropping a little on a cold plate, when, if it jellies, it is done. Put it into jars whilst hot, let it cool, and cover with pieces of oiled paper cut to the size of the mouths of the jars. The tops of them may be afterwards covered with pieces of bladder, or tissue paper brushed over on both sides with the white of an egg. Time. Three hours to boil the quince's without the sugar. Three-quarter hour to boil the pulp with the sugar. Average cost. From eight pence to nine pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Allow one pint of sliced quince's for a pound pot. Seasonable in August, September, and October. Raisin cheese. One, five, eight, seven. Ingredients. To every pound of raisins allow a pound of loaf sugar, pounded cinnamon, and cloves to taste. Mode. Stone the raisins. Put them into a stew pan with the sugar, cinnamon, and cloves, and let them boil for one and a half hours, stirring all the time. Let the preparation cool a little, pour it into a glass dish, and garnish with strips of candied lemon peel and citron. This will remain good some time if kept in a dry place. Time. One and a half hours. Average cost. Nine pence. Sufficient. One pound for four or five persons. Seasonable at any time. Raspberry jam. One, five, eight, eight. Ingredients. To every pound of raspberries allow one pound of sugar, one-quarter pint of red current juice. Mode. Be gathered in fine weather, and used as soon after it is picked as possible. Take off the stalks, and put the raspberries into a preserving pan. Break them well with a wooden spoon, and let them boil for one-quarter hour, keeping them well stirred. Then add the current juice and sugar, and boil again for one-half hour. Skim the jam well after the sugar is added, or the preserve will not be clear. The addition of the current juice is a very great improvement to this preserve, as it gives it a peak on taste, which the flavor of the raspberries seems to require. Time. One-quarter hour to simmer the fruit without the sugar. One-quarter hour after it is added. Average cost. From six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Allow about one pint of fruit to fill a one-pound pot. Seasonable in July and August. Raspberry jelly. One-five-eight-nine. Ingredients. To each pint of juice, allow three-quarter pounds of loaf sugar. Mode. Let the raspberries be freshly gathered, quite ripe, and picked from the stalks. Put them into a large jar after breaking the fruit a little with a wooden spoon, and place this jar covered in a saucepan of boiling water. When the juice is well drawn, which will be in from three-quarters to one hour, strain the fruit through a fine hair sieve or cloth. Measure the juice, and to every pint, allow the above proportion of loaf sugar. Put the juice and sugar into a preserving pan, place it over the fire, and boil gently until the jelly thickens when a little is poured on a plate. Carefully remove all the scum as it rises, pour the jelly into small pots, cover down, and keep in a dry place. This jelly answers for making raspberry cream, and for flavoring various sweet dishes, when, in winter, the fresh fruit is not obtainable. Time. Three-quarters to one hour to draw the juice. Average cost. From nine pence to one shilling per pound pot. Sufficient. From three pints to two-quarters of fruit should yield one pint of juice. Seasonable. This should be made in July or August. Rhubarb jam. One-five-nine-oh. Ingredients. To every pound of rhubarb, allow one pound of loaf sugar, the rind of one-half lemon. Mode. Wipe the rhubarb perfectly dry, take off the string or peel and weigh it. Put it into a preserving pan with sugar in the above proportion. Mince the lemon rind very finely, add it to the other ingredients, and place the preserving pan by the side of the fire. Keep stirring to prevent the rhubarb from burning, and when the sugar is well dissolved, put the pan more over the fire, and let the jam boil until it is done, taking care to keep it well skimmed and stirred with a wooden or silver spoon. Pour it into pots, and cover down with oil and egged papers. Time. If the rhubarb is young and tender, three-quarters hour, reckoning from the time it simmers equally, old rhubarb, one and one-quarter to one and one-half hour. Average cost, five pence to seven pence per pound pot. Sufficient. About one pint of sliced rhubarb to fill a pound pot. Seasonable from February to April. Rhubarb and orange jam to resemble scotch marmalade. One-five-nine-one. Ingredients. One quart of finely cut rhubarb, six oranges, one and one-half pound of loaf sugar. Mode.  Slice the pulp into a preserving pan, add the rind of half the oranges cut into thin strips, and the loaf sugar, which should be broken small. Peel the rhubarb, cut it into thin pieces, put it to the oranges, and stir all together over a gentle fire until the jam is done. Remove all the scum as it rises, put the preserve into pots, and when cold, cover down. Should the rhubarb be very old, stew it alone for one-quarter hour before the other ingredients are added. Time, three-quarters to one hour. Average cost, from six pence to eight pence per pound pot. Seasonable from February to April. Raspberry and currant, or any fresh fruit salad. A dessert dish. One-five-nine-two. Mode. Fruit salads are made by stripping the fruit from the stalks, piling it on a dish, and sprinkling over it finely pounded sugar. They may be made of strawberries, raspberries, currants, or any of these fruits mixed. Peaches also make a very good salad. After the sugar is sprinkled over, about six large tablespoons of wine or brandy, or three tablespoons of liqueur, should be poured in the middle of the fruit. And when the flavor is liked, a little pounded cinnamon may be added. In helping the fruit, it should be lightly stirred, that the wine and sugar may be equally distributed. Sufficient, one-and-one-half pint of fruit with three ounces of pounded sugar for four or five persons. Seasonable in summer. Strawberries and cream. One-five-nine-three. Ingredients. To every pint of picked strawberries, allow one-third pint of cream, two ounces of finely pounded sugar. Mode. Pick the stalks from the fruit, place it on a glass dish, sprinkle over it pounded sugar, and slightly stir the strawberries that they may all be equally sweetened. Pour the cream over the top and serve. Devonshire cream, when it can be obtained, is exceedingly delicious for this dish, and a very thick indeed may be diluted with a little thin cream or milk. Average cost for this quantity with cream at one shilling per pint, one shilling. Sufficient for two persons. Seasonable in June and July. Strawberry jam. One-five-nine-four. Ingredients. To every pound of fruit, allow one-half pint of red currant juice, one-and-one-quarter pound of loaf sugar. Mode. Strip the currants from the stalks, put them into a jar. Place this jar in a saucepan of boiling water, and simmer until the juice is well drawn from the fruit. Strain the currants, measure the juice, put it into a preserving pan, and add the sugar. Select well-ripened but sound strawberries. Pick them from the stalks, and when the sugar is dissolved in the currant juice, put in the fruit. Simmer the whole over a moderate fire from one-half to three-quarters hour, carefully removing the scum as it rises. Stir the jam only enough to prevent it from burning at the bottom of the pan, as the fruit should be preserved as whole as possible. Put the jam into jars, and when cold, cover down. Time. One-half to three-quarters hour, reckoning from the time the jam simmers all over. Average cost, from seven pence to eight pence per pound pot. Sufficient. Twelve pints of strawberries will make twelve pound pots of jam, seasonable in June and July. Preserved strawberries in wine, one-five, nine-five. Ingredients. To every quart bottle, allow one-quarter pound of finely pounded loaf sugar, sherry, or Madeira. Mode. Let the fruit be gathered in fine weather, and used as soon as picked.  Pick the stalks from the strawberries, drop them into the bottles, sprinkling amongst them pounded sugar in the above proportion, and when the fruit reaches to the neck of the bottle, fill up with sherry or Madeira. Cork the bottles down with new corks, and dip them into melted resin. Seasonable. Make this in June or July. To preserve strawberries whole, one-five, nine-six. Ingredients. To every pound of fruit, allow one-and-a-half pounds of good loaf sugar, one pint of red current juice. Mode. Choose the strawberries not too ripe, of a fine large sort and of a good color. Pick off the stalks, lay the strawberries in a dish, and sprinkle over them half the quantity of sugar, which must be finely pounded. Shake the dish gently, that the sugar may be equally distributed, and touch the underside of the fruit, and let it remain for one day. Then have ready the current juice, drawn as for red current jelly number one-five-three-three. Boil it with the remainder of the sugar until it forms a thin syrup. And in this, simmer the strawberries and sugar, until the whole is sufficiently jellied. Great care must be taken not to stir the fruit roughly, as it should be preserved as whole as possible. Strawberries prepared in this manner are very good served in glasses and mixed with thin cream. Time. One-quarter hour to twenty minutes to simmer the strawberries in the syrup. Seasonable in June and July. To make Everton Toffee. One-five, nine-seven. Ingredients. One pound of powdered loaf sugar.  One-quarter pound of butter. Six drops of essence of lemon. Mode. Put the water and sugar into a brass pan, and beat the butter to a cream. When the sugar is dissolved, add the butter, and keep stirring the mixture over the fire until it sets, when a little is poured onto a buttered dish. And just before the toffee is done, add the essence of lemon. Butter a dish or tin. Pour on it the mixture, and when cool, it will easily separate from the dish. Butterscotch, an excellent thing for coughs, is made with brown instead of white sugar, omitting the water, and flavored with one-half ounce of powdered ginger. It is made in the same manner as toffee. Time. Eighteen to thirty-five minutes. Average cost, ten pence. Sufficient to make a pound of toffee. Dessert dishes. One-five, nine-eight. The taza, or dish with stem, the same as that shown in our illustrations, is now the favorite shape for dessert dishes. The fruit can be arranged and shown to better advantage on these tall, high dishes than on the short, flat ones. All the dishes are now usually placed down the center of the table. Dried and fresh fruit alternately, the former being arranged on small round or oval glass plates, and the latter on the dishes with stems. The fruit should always be gathered on the same day that it is required for table, and should be tastefully arranged on the dishes with leaves between and round it. By purchasing fruits that are in season, a dessert can be supplied at a very moderate cost. These, with a few fancy biscuits, crystallized fruit, bonbons, etc., are sufficient for an ordinary dessert. When fresh fruit cannot be obtained, dried and foreign fruits, compotes, baked pears, stewed Normandy Pippins, etc., etc., must supply its place, with the addition of preserves, bonbons, cakes, biscuits, etc. At fashionable tables, forced fruit is served growing in pots, these pots being hidden in more ornamental ones and arranged with the other dishes. A few vases of fresh flowers, tastefully arranged, add very much to the appearance of the dessert, and when these are not obtainable, a few paper ones, mixed with green leaves, answer very well as a substitute. In decorating a table, whether for luncheon, dessert, or supper, a vase or two of flowers should never be forgotten, as they add so much to the elegance of the two ensembles. In summer and autumn, ladies residing in the country can always manage to have a few freshly gathered flowers on their tables, and should never be without this inexpensive luxury. On the continent, vases or appearance filled with flowers are invariably placed down the center of the dinner table at regular distances. Ices for dessert are usually molded. When this is not the case, they are handed round in glasses with wafers to accompany them. Preserved ginger is frequently handed round after ices to prepare the palate for the delicious dessert wines. A basin or a glass of finely pounded lump sugar must never be omitted at a dessert, as also a glass jug of fresh cold water, iced if possible, and two goblets by its side. Grape scissors, a melon knife and fork, and nutcrackers should always be put on table if there are dishes of fruit requiring them. Zests are sometimes served at the close of the dessert, such as anchovy toasts or biscuits. The French often serve plain or grated cheese with a dessert of fresh or dried fruit. At some tables, finger glasses are placed at the right of each person, nearly half filled with cold spring water, and in winter with tepid water. These precede the dessert. At other tables, a glass or vase is simply handed round, filled with perfumed water, into which each guest dips the corner of his napkin, and when needful, refreshes his lips and the tips of his fingers. After the dishes are placed and everyone is provided with plates, glasses, spoons, etc., the wine should be put at each end of the table, cooled or otherwise, according to the season. If the party be small, the wine may be placed only at the top of the table, near the host. Dish of nuts, 1599. These are merely arranged piled high in the center of the dish, as shown in the engraving, with or without leaves round the edge. Philberts should always be served with the outer skin or husk on them, and walnuts should be well wiped with a damp cloth, and then with a dry one, to remove the unpleasant sticky feeling the shells frequently have. Seasonable. Philberts from September to March, good, may be had after that time, but are generally shriveled and dry. Walnuts from September to January. Hazelnut and Filbert. The common hazel is the wild, and the filbert the cultivated state of the same tree. The hazel is found wild not only in forests and hedges, in dingles and ravines, but occurs in extensive tracks in the more northern and mountainous parts of the country. It was formerly one of the most abundant of those trees which are indigenous in this island. It is seldom cultivated as a fruit tree, though perhaps its nuts are superior in flavor to the others. The Spanish nuts imported are a superior kind, but they are somewhat oily and rather indigestible. Philberts, both the red and the white, and the cob nut, are supposed to be merely varieties of the common hazel, which have been produced partly by the superiority of soil and climate, and partly by culture. They were originally brought out of Greece to Italy, once they have found their way to Holland and from that country to England. It is supposed that, within a few miles of maidstone in Kent, there are more filberts grown than in all England besides, and it is from that place that the London market is supplied. The filbert is longer than the common nut, though of the same thickness, and has a larger kernel. The cob nut is a still larger variety, and is roundish. Filberts are more esteemed at the dessert than common nuts, and are generally eaten with salt. They are very free from oil, and disagree with few persons. Walnuts. The walnut is a native of Persia, the Caucasus, and China, but was introduced to this kingdom from France. The ripe kernel is brought to the dessert on account of its agreeable flavor, and the fruit is also much used in the green state, but before the stone hardens as a pickle. In Spain, grated walnuts are employed in tarts and other dishes. The walnut abounds in oil, which is expressed, and which, being of a highly drying nature and very limpid, is much employed for delicate painting. This, on the continent, is sometimes used as a substitute for olive oil and cooking, but is very apt to turn rancid. It is also manufactured into a kind of soap. The mare, or refuse matter, after the oil is extracted, proves very nutritious for poultry or other domestic animals. In Switzerland, this is eaten by poor people, under the name of Pan Amair. Box of French Plums. 1-6-0-0. If the box which contains them is exceedingly ornamental, it may be placed on the table. If small, on a glass dish. If large, without one, French plums may also be arranged on a glass plate, and garnish with bright colored sweet-meats, which make a very good effect. All fancy boxes of preserved and crystallized fruit may be put on the table or not, at pleasure. These little matters of detail must, of course, be left to individual taste. Seasonable. May be purchased all the year, but are in greater perfection in the winter, and are more suitable for that season as fresh fruit cannot be obtained. Dish of mixed fruit. 1-6-0-1. For a center dish, a mixture of various fresh fruits has a remarkably good effect, particularly if a pine be added to the list. A high raised appearance should be given to the fruit, which is done in the following manner. Place a tumbler in the center of the dish, and in this tumbler, the pine, crown uppermost, round the tumbler, put a thick layer of moss, and over this, apples, pears, plums, peaches, and such fruit as is simultaneously in season. By putting a layer of moss underneath, so much fruit is not required, besides giving a better shape to the dish. Grapes should be placed on the top of the fruit, a portion of some of the bunches hanging over the sides of the dish in a negligee kind of manner, which takes off the formal look of the dish. In arranging the plums, apples, etc., let the colors contrast well. Seasonable. Suitable for a dessert in September or October. Grapes. France produces about a thousand varieties of the grape, which is cultivated more extensively in that country than in any other. Hygienists agree in pronouncing grapes as among the best of fruits. The grape possesses several rare qualities. It is nourishing and fattening, and its prolonged use has often overcome the most obstinate cases of constipation. The skins and pips of grapes should not be eaten. Box of chocolate. 1602. This is served in an ornamental box, placed on a glass plate or dish. Seasonable. Maybe purchased at any time. Dish of apples. 1603. The apples should be nicely wiped with a dry cloth and arranged on a dish, piled high in the center, with evergreen leaves between each layer. The inferior apples should form the bottom layer, with the bright-colored large ones at the top. The leaves of the laurel, bay, holly, or any shrub green in winter are suitable for garnishing dessert dishes. Oranges may be arranged in the same manner. They should also be wiped with a dry cloth before being sent to table. Dish of mixed summer fruit. 1604. This dish consists of cherries, raspberries, currants, and strawberries, piled in different layers, with plenty of leaves between each layer, so that each fruit is well separated. The fruit should be arranged with a due regard to color, so that they contrast nicely one with the other. Our engraving shows a layer of white cherries at the bottom, then one of red raspberries. Over that, a layer of white currants, and at the top some fine scarlet strawberries. Seasonable in June, July, and August. Almonds and raisins. 1605. These are usually served on glass dishes, the fruit piled high in the center, and the almonds blanched and strewn over. To blanch the almonds, put them into a small mug or teacup, pour over them boiling water, let them remain for two or three minutes, and the skins may then be easily removed. Figs, dates, French plums, etc. are all served on small glass plates or oval dishes, but without the almonds. Seasonable at any time, but more suitable in winter when fresh fruit is not obtainable. Dates. Dates are imported into Britain in a dried state from Barbary and Egypt, and when in good condition they are much esteemed. An inferior kind has lately become common, which are dried hard and have little or no flavor. They should be chosen large, softish, not much wrinkled, of a reddish-yellow color on the outside with a whitish membrane between the fruit and the stone. Dish of strawberries. 1606. Fine strawberries, arranged in the manner shown in the engraving, look exceedingly well. The inferior ones should be placed at the bottom of the dish, and the others put in rows pyramidically, with the stalks downwards, so that when the whole is completed, nothing but the red part of the fruit is visible. The fruit should be gathered with rather long stalks, as there is then something to support it, and it can be placed more upright in each layer. A few of the finest should be reserved to crown the top. To have walnuts fresh throughout the season, 1607. Ingredients. To every pint of water, allow one teaspoonful of salt. Mode. Place the walnuts in the salt and water for twenty-four hours at least, then take them out and rub them dry. Old nuts may be freshened in this manner, or walnuts, when first picked, may be put into an earthen pan with salt sprinkled amongst them, and with damped hay placed on the top of them and then covered down with a lid. They must be well wiped before they are put on table. Seasonable. Should be stored away in September or October. End of Section 76. Recording by Ariya Lipshaw in New York City. Section 77 of the Book of Household Management. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Katie Gibbany. The Book of Household Management by Isabella Beaton. Chapter 32. General Observations on Milk, Butter, Cheese, and Eggs. Milk. Milk is obtained only from the class of animals called mammalia, and is intended by nature for the nourishment of their young. The milk of each animal is distinguished by some peculiarities, but as that of the cow is by far the most useful to us in this part of the world, our observations will be confined to that variety. Milk, when drawn from the cow, is of a yellowish-white color and is the most yellow at the beginning of the period of lactation. Its taste is agreeable and rather saccharine. The acidity and specific gravity of milk are somewhat greater than that of water, but these properties vary somewhat in the milk procured from different individuals. On an average, the specific gravity of milk is 1.035, water being one. The small cows of the Alderney breed afford the richest milk. Milk, which is carried to a considerable distance so as to be much agitated and cooled before it is put into pans to settle for cream, never throws up so much nor such rich cream as if the same milk had been put into pans directly after it was milked. Milk, considered as an element, is of such importance in domestic economy as to render all the improvements in its production extremely valuable. To enlarge upon the antiquity of its use is unnecessary. It has always been a favorite food in Britain. Lachde et carneau vivante, says Caesar in his commentaries, the English of which is, the inhabitants subsist upon flesh and milk. The breed of the cow has received great improvement in modern times as regards the quantity and quality of the milk which she affords. The form of milk cows, their mode of nourishment and progress, are also manifest in the management of the dairy. Although milk in its natural state be a fluid, yet, considered as an element, it is both solid and fluid, for no sooner does it enter the stomach than it is coagulated by the gastric juice and separated into curd and whey, the first of these being extremely nutritive. Milk of the human subject is much thinner than cow's milk. As is milk comes the nearest to human milk of any other. Goat's milk is something thicker and richer than cow's milk. U's milk has the appearance of cow's milk and affords a larger quantity of cream. Mare's milk contains more sugar than that of the U. Camel's milk is used only in Africa. Buffalo's milk is employed in India. From no other substance, solid or fluid, can so great a number of distinct kinds of element be prepared as from milk. Some forming food, others drink, some of them delicious and deserving the name of luxuries, all of them wholesome and some medicinal. Indeed the variety of elements that seems capable of being produced from milk appears to be quite endless. In every age this must have been a subject for experiment and every nation has added to the number by the invention of some peculiarity of its own. Butter. Beckman, in his history of inventions, states that butter was not used either by the Greeks or Romans in cooking, nor was it brought upon their tables at certain meals as is the custom at present. In England it has been made from time immemorial, though the art of making cheese is said not to have been known to the ancient Britons and to have been learned from their conquerors. The taste of butter is peculiar and very unlike any other fatty substance. It is extremely agreeable, one of the best quality, but its flavor depends much upon the food given to the cows. To be good it should not adhere to the knife. Butter, with regard to its dietetic properties, may be regarded nearly in the light of vegetable oils and animal fats, but it becomes sooner rancid than most other fat oils. When fresh it cannot but be considered as very wholesome, but it should be quite free from rancidity. If slightly salted when it is fresh its wholesomeness is probably not at all impaired, but should it begin to turn rancid, salting will not correct its unwholesomeness. When salt butter is put into casks, the upper part next, the air, is very apt to become rancid, and this rancidity is also liable to affect the whole cast. Epping butter is the kind most esteemed in London. Fresh butter comes to London from Buckinghamshire, Suffolk, Oxfordshire, Yorkshire, Devonshire, etc. Cambridge butter is esteemed next to fresh. Devonshire butter is nearly similar in quality to the latter. Irish butter, sold in London, is all salted, but is generally good. The number of furcans exported annually from Ireland amounts to 420,000, equal to a million of money. Dutch butter is in good repute all over Europe, America, and even India, and no country in the world is so successful in the manufacture of this article, Holland supplying more butter to the rest of the world than any country whatever. There are two methods pursued in the manufacture of butter. In one, the cream is separated from the milk, and in that state it is converted into butter by churning, as is the practice about epping. In the other, milk is subjected to the same process, which is the method usually followed in Cheshire. The first method is generally said to give the richest butter, and the latter the largest quantity, though some are of the opinion that there is little difference either in quality or quantity. Cheese. Cheese is the curd formed from milk by artificial coagulation, pressed and dried for use. Curd, also called casein and caseus matter, or the basis of cheese, exists in the milk and not in the cream, and requires only to be separated by coagulation. The coagulation, however, supposes some alteration of the curd. By means of the substance employed to coagulate it, it is rendered insoluble in water. When the curd is freed from the whey, kneaded and pressed to expel it entirely, it becomes cheese. This assumes a degree of transparency, and possesses many of the properties of coagulated albumin. If it be well dried, it does not change by exposure to the air, but if it contain moisture, it soon putrefies. It therefore requires some salt to preserve it, and this acts likewise as a kind of seasoning. All our cheese is colored, more or less, except that made from skim milk. The coloring substances employed are Arnato, turmeric, or marigold, all perfectly harmless unless they are adulterated, and it is said that Arnato sometimes contains red lead. Cheese varies in quality and richness according to the materials of which it is composed. It is made, one, of entire milk, as in Cheshire. Two, of milk and cream, as in Stilton. Three, of new milk mixed with skimmed milk, as in Gloucestershire. Four, of skimmed milk only, as in Suffolk, Holland, and Italy. The principal varieties of cheese used in England are the following. Cheshire cheese, famed all over Europe for its rich quality and fine piquant flavor. It is made of entire new milk, the cream not being taken off. Gloucester cheese is much milder in its taste than the Cheshire. There are two kinds of Gloucester cheese, single and double. Single Gloucester is made of skimmed milk, or of the milk deprived of half the cream. Double Gloucester is a cheese that pleases almost every palate. It is made of the whole milk and cream. Stilton cheese is made by adding the cream of one day to the entire milk of the next. It was first made at Stilton, in Leicestershire. Sage cheese is so-called from the practice of coloring some curd with bruised sage, marigold leaves and parsley, and mixing this with some uncolored curd. With the Romans, and during the Middle Ages, this practice was extensively adopted. Cheddar cheese much resembles Parmesan. It has a very agreeable taste and flavor, and has a spongy appearance. Brick bat cheese has nothing remarkable except its form. It is made by turning with rennet a mixture of cream and new milk. The curd is put into a wooden vessel the shape of a brick, and is then pressed and dried in the usual way. Dunlop cheese has a peculiarly mild and rich taste. The best is made entirely from new milk. New cheese, as it is called in London, is made chiefly in Lincolnshire, and is either made of all cream or, like Stilton, by adding the cream of one day's milking to the milk that comes immediately from the cow. They are extremely thin and are compressed gently two or three times, turned for a few days, and then eaten new with radishes, salad, etc. Skimmed milk cheese is made for sea voyages principally. Parmesan cheese is made in Parma and Piencenza. It is the most celebrated of all cheese. It is made entirely of skimmed cow's milk. The high flavor which it has is supposed to be owing to the rich herbage of the meadows of the Poe, where the cows are pastured. The best Parmesan is kept for three or four years, and none is carried to market till it is at least six months old. Dutch cheese derives its peculiar pungent taste from the practice adopted in Holland of coagulating the milk with muriatic acid instead of rennet. Swiss cheeses in their several varieties are all remarkable for their fine flavor. That from Greyer, a Baillewick in the canton of Freiburg, is best known in England. It is flavored by the dried herb of mellilotos aficinalis in powder. Cheese from milk and potatoes is manufactured in Thuringia and Saxony. Cream cheese, although so-called, is not properly cheese, but is nothing more than cream dried sufficiently to be cut with a knife. Eggs, there is only one opinion as to the nutritive properties of eggs, although the qualities of those belonging to different birds vary somewhat. Those of the common hen are most esteemed as delicate food, particularly when new-laid. The quality of eggs depends much upon the food given to the hen. Eggs in general are considered most easily digestible, when little subjected to the art of cookery. The lightest way of dressing them is by poaching, which is effected by putting them for a minute or two into brisk boiling water. This coagulates the external white without doing the inner part too much. Eggs are much better when new-laid than a day or two afterwards. The usual time allotted for boiling eggs in the shell is three to three-and-three-quarter minutes. Less time than that in boiling water will not be sufficient to solidify the white, and more will make the yolk hard and less digestible. It is very difficult to guess accurately as to the time. Great care should be employed in putting them into the water to prevent cracking the shell, which inevitably causes a portion of the white to exude and lets water into the egg. Eggs are often beaten up raw in nutritive beverages. Eggs are employed in a very great many articles of cookery, entrees, and entrements, and they form an essential ingredient in pastry, creams, flip, etc. It is particularly necessary that they should be quite fresh, as nothing is worse than stale eggs. Cobbett Justley says, stale or even preserved eggs are things to be run from, not after. The metropolis is supplied with eggs from all parts of the kingdom, and they are likewise largely imported from various places on the continent, as France, Holland, Belgium, Guernsey, and Jersey. It appears from official statements mentioned in McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary that the number imported from France alone amounts to about sixty million a year, and supposing them on an average to cost four pence a dozen, it follows that we pay our continental neighbors above eighty-three thousand pounds a year for eggs. The eggs of different birds vary much in size and color. Those of the ostrich are the largest. One laid in the menagerie in Paris weighed two pounds fourteen ounces, held a pint, and was six inches deep. This is about the usual size of those brought from Africa. Travelers describe ostrich eggs as of an agreeable taste. They keep longer than hen's eggs. Drinking cups are often made of the shell, which is very strong. The eggs of the turkey are almost as mild as those of the hen. The egg of the goose is large, but well-tasted. Duck's eggs have a rich flavor. The albumen is slightly transparent or bluish, when set or coagulated by boiling, which requires less time than hen's eggs. Guinea-fowl eggs are smaller and more delicate than those of the hen. Eggs of wild fowl are generally colored, often spotted, and the taste generally partakes somewhat of the flavor of the bird they belong to. Those of land birds that are eaten as the plover, lapwing, rough, etc., are in general much esteemed. But those of sea fowl have, more or less, a strong fishy taste. The eggs of the turtle are very numerous. They consist of yolk only, without shell, and are delicious. End of section 77, recording by Katie Gibbany.


perovskite solar cells, PSEs, have become a hot spot for solar cell researchers due to their rapid increase in efficiency up to 22.1% during the past few years, long carrier diffusion lengths, widely tunable band gap with great light absorption potential, and low-cost fabrication techniques. However, device instability, JV hysteresis, and lead toxicity reduce further improvement and future commercialization of PSEs. This review discusses the crystal and electronic structures of perovskite materials, evolution of PSEs, major barriers on the pathway for commercialization, stability issues, sustainability problems, and provides a road map for current needs and future research directions to address these challenges. This article was authored by Zheng Chishor and Ahalapidia H. Jayatissa.


Bucks on structural ecosystem modelling typically differentiate between three types of structural ecosystem models. The path analysis model, the confronted factor analysis model and the structural ecosystem model. Let's take a look at what these models are and also cover some other basic terminology in structural ecosystem model. The three main analysis books on structural ecosystem modelling typically present a typology of three different models. These three different kinds of models are the path analysis model, the confronted factor analysis model and the structural regression model. The idea of a path analysis model is that these are models that don't have any latent variables except the error terms. So these are the kind of models that econometricians would refer to as simultaneous equation models and you would use for example GMM or seemingly unrelated recursions for their estimates. Confrontal factor analysis models on the other hand are models where we have latent variables and observed variables so that the latent variables are modeled as causes of the observed variables and the relationships between the latent variables are left unexplained so they are freely correlated. So we are simply interested in knowing what the observed variables have in common and that's the tool that confronted factor analysis answers. Then the structural regression model is a combination of a path analytical model and a confronted factor analysis model. So the idea is that we take a confronted factor analysis model and instead of saying that all the factors are freely correlated, we don't care about their correlations, we specify that the factors are actually related to each other following a path analytical model. So we can for example run a recursion model or run a mediation model using the latent variables as variables in those models. So because the variable, a latent variable is simply a variable for which we don't have data, there is no other special thing about latent variables. All these three modeling techniques or approaches are basically the same. We just don't have data for some of the variables when we do latent variable modeling and that needs to be taken into account when we estimate model. The variables can be in a couple of different configurations in a structural equation model. So this model is not identified, it's just an example, but we can basically have this typology of latent variables versus opposite variables, endogenous variables and exogenous variables. A variable in an SCM model is endogenous if it has incoming recursion paths. If it does not have incoming recursion paths, then it is exogenous. So endogenous if we have incoming paths, exogenous if we don't. This is of course a bit confusing because the term endogeneity and endogenous variable is used for a slightly different meaning in econometrics. So the fact that you have an endogenous variable in a structural equation model, for example Y here, does not mean that you have an endogeneity problem. You have an endogeneity problem if you have unmodeled correlations between error terms or any of the predictors of the variable to which that error term belongs to. How we typically model these is that the latent variables, those are basically the variables that represent constructs in our theory. And quite often in a factor analytical model, we model these what we call reflective indicators. So A1 is an indicator, it depends on A and some E which represents measurement there or here. There is of course a lot more to this, but this is just a simplified case. Then we have also causal composite or formative indicators. These are often used problematically. And even if you have something that is measured without any error, which we assume when we use these kind of variables shown as Y1 here, is that there is no measurement error. So that's a bit difficult to justify. But there's also another alternative for modeling these kind of no measurement error scenarios. And it is to use a latent variable A for those indicators and just fix the error variance to B0. I will address these techniques more on the videos that talk about measurement. But this is the basic configurations. We have offset variables, we have latent variables, we have endogenous variables, we have exogenous variables. And typically you should avoid having absurd variables as exogenous predictors, unless you really know what you're doing. Then the variables can have different configurations. So we have paths from exogenous to endogenous variables, paths between endogenous variables, and then we have correlations and variances between exogenous variables. We cannot have a path between exogenous variable and another exogenous variable, because when we draw a path from variable to another, then the target variable will become endogenous. So by definition exogenous variables cannot have incoming rigors and paths. So that's a relationship that is not allowed. One thing that beginners of SCM wonder why cannot we have correlations between endogenous variables or correlations between exogenous variable and endogenous variable in the model as model parameters. The reason for this is that all endogenous variables are actually weighted combinations in the linear model, weighted combinations of exogenous variables. So whatever the variance is, is simply a function of the other model estimates and their variance itself is not estimated. So for example if we know that the variance of X is 1 and the variance of Z is 1, we know that X and Z are uncorrelated. We take a sum of X and Z, then we know that the variance of the sum will be 2 and it does not need to be estimated, because it's a function of two of those exogenous sources of variation that we estimate. So this is the basic terminology and the basic kinds of models that we deal with in structural ecosystem modeling.