Welcome to this lecture series on Aspects of Christian Philosophy, module 32. This lecture attempts to introduce the philosophy of Edmund Riesel, which is known as phenomenology. And we will concentrate on basically on two-three aspects of phenomenology, because it is a very important philosophy, which is very important in the sense like 20th century European thought, particularly the continental European philosophy was very significantly influenced by the contributions of this philosopher Edmund Riesel, particularly his phenomenology. Like some of his famous disciples, one of his famous disciples is Martin Heidegger, who is one of the very important and great thinkers of 20th century European thought. And many others like Hans Kierg-Gadamer, when he develops his hermeneutics, he still remains as a phenomenology. So, phenomenological approaches to philosophy is a very significant movement in 20th century thinking. So, we will basically try to focus on the issues like where phenomenology talks about what is phenomenology, we will try to understand. And then afterwards, we will see the, there is another very important problem, another very important concept, the concept of intentionality. And then the method, the method phenomenologist approach or particularly Edmund Riesel has adopted the method of reduction. So, we will concentrate on the three aspects of this philosophy. So, we will start with Edmund Riesel, he is no doubt one of the most influential philosophers of 20th century European thought. And his reputation is mainly due to his contributions to phenomenology. So, he is known as a founder of phenomenology, though many others, many other philosophers before him had talked about phenomenology. It was as a kind of philosophy and a kind of method, it was Uzor who brought phenomenology into the forefront of philosophical enterprises. And now again, like as I mentioned there are many other thinkers like Kant, Fitch, Hegel and Enes Mac, they all referred to the term phenomenology in their respective philosophies. Hegel for example, has even written a book, phenomenology of the guised of the spirit. Credit actually goes to Uzor when it comes to phenomenology, introducing phenomenology as a separate philosophy. And so in all major contributions in this area are from him. And in philosophy, phenomenology appears both as a philosophy as well as a method. So, he suggests a method which is known as phenomenological method, which consists of several stages of reduction which finally takes us to a kind of transcendental reduction, which isolates the transcendental ego. And again it was Uzor who conceives phenomenology as a foundational science, a presuppositionalist philosophy. This is again a very important and interesting aspect of his thought, because 19th century philosophy or 20th century by the time it was 20th century, philosophy was gradually losing its importance as a foundational discipline. As all of us know, as we have discussed in our previous lectures in this lecture series, most of this traditional European thinkers were conceiving philosophy as a foundational discipline. In the Greek, during the Greek ages it always enjoyed the status. And even when in modern philosophy many thinkers try to define philosophy as a foundational discipline by making it epistemology, they thought that philosophy is going to do a very important job for humanity. But gradually it was losing this foundational status and Fusel is trying to regain it by establishing philosophy as phenomenology, as a foundational discipline, as a foundational science which he calls a presuppositionless philosophy. So, as a presuppositionless philosophy, phenomenology tries to arrive at or tries to get a knowledge about the most important or rather to put it in other words, the primordial data of all our knowledge. So, try to capture the primordial data of all human knowledge, whether it is science or any field for that matter. The basic experience, the primordial data of all knowledge, all experience. And the question is where do you find them? Where do you find this primordial data? And Fusel's answer is we find them in our consciousness. So, consciousness thus becomes a very important domain of philosophical inquiry. And a philosopher should inquire or should examine the consciousness with an intention to understand the most immediately given data to consciousness, when we know something. So, all knowledge presupposes this data, where something is given directly, immediately to the consciousness. That raw data from where the consciousness would later on apply its categories and other things and develop a knowledge, a system of knowledge. But the primary data, the primordial data consist of those immediately given things. So, philosophy or phenomenology should attempt to try to capture that. So, that is a major, I mean that is the most important aspect of phenomenological inquiry. The slogan is back to things themselves. So, these are the things in themselves according to Fusel. They are not the things in themselves of the Immanuel Kant, where it has been designated as Nomina, which are unknowable, which cannot be known through sensors or which remains as in a domain which is unknowable, agnosticism. But here, Fusel is not an agnostic or a skeptic like you, but he is very clear about it. He asserts that the primordial data of all knowledge can be found in consciousness with an inquiry into consciousness, a phenomenological inquiry into consciousness. What is this inquiry? This inquiry consist of removing everything that is unimportant and focusing only on consciousness and its content. So, this is precisely the aim of consciousness. So, in summary phenomenology consist in this assumption, this philosophy and this method. Now, let us see Fusel's phenomenology. He was a mathematician, that is another interesting aspect about his career. And since he is a mathematician like all mathematicians he is also he was also interested in abstract concepts, entities, numbers. But then when you try to understand what a number is, whether it is a concept in the mind, if normally understood that one way to understand the numbers are to conceive it as a concept in the mind. But if it is a concept in the mind, whether it is a mental entity, whether it is psychological or subjective, something which Fusel was not very comfortable with. So, he was as part and parcel of his project, Fusel advocates a form of anti-psychological which is which is also found in another contemporary I mean contemporary of Fusel, another mathematician and logician Gottler Frege, which you have very briefly been mentioned in our one of our previous lectures. So, he was he was a student of Franz Brentano who was a psychologist, very well known, very interesting philosopher, his descriptive psychology and was also influenced by the empiricism of David Hume and he opposed the naturalism and historicism in German thought, which is which we can see in for example, the historicism, the kind of historical approach to philosophy. So, he was sort of opposing all these things and trying to be trying to do justice to the to the logical foundations or rather to put it in other words inquiry into the foundations of mathematics led him to logic and then to epistemology and finally to philosophy. So, the root is very clear like as it happened in the case of Frege Wittgenstein and many others, he started out with mathematics and from mathematics to logic, but here he goes to epistemology and later on finds that many of the questions, many of the problems which he is concerned about cannot be answered from the framework of an epistemologist. So, if epistemological turn in philosophy inadequate to answer some important questions in philosophy. So, he turns to philosophy in a different way. So, phenomenology was proposed as an alternative method. Now, there are basically three conceptions of phenomenology, the one hand it was conceived as a science of sciences, I have already mentioned it the foundational science, it is in reverse to discover the basis of consciousness and so that is what the primary entity with which phenomenologists are concerned with is consciousness. Number two, it is conceived as a first philosophy and in that this sense it is coextensive with philosophy and the third sense is where probably the most important conceptualization of phenomenology, where phenomenology is conceived as a transcendental idealism, transcendentalism all meaning had its source in the transcendental ego. So, ultimately Husserl aims at all to this domain of transcendental ego and its pure contents. So, that is it what phenomenology's ultimate aim is. Now, when you try to assess the contributions of phenomenology particularly the Hazelian phenomenology, it definitely consisted of a break from many traditional concerns and also inaugurated in UF thinking in European philosophy. Though phenomenology as such is not a very old idea as a method, as a philosophy Husserl combines it brilliantly and presents it in the context of one of the most turbulent centuries, 20th century in human history. So, it on the one hand there is a break from the traditional concerns and on the other hand it is inaugurates in UF thinking. Then it is also influenced many philosophers, I have already mentioned a couple of names Heidegger, Martin Heidegger, then Hans Georg Gallimer, Ron Paul Sartre. So, French philosopher and existentialist Ron Paul Sartre, then another very notable phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty, who is a French phenomenologist and there are many others. So, existentialism, hermeneutics, deconstruction, all these people, all these philosophers who belong to these different schools and traditions were influenced by Husserl's phenomenology. And as I already mentioned it emerged at a time when philosophy was facing a crisis. So, one of Husserl's aim was to bring back philosophy to that status of foundational discipline by conceiving philosophy as a presuppositionless endeavor and provides a new life to German philosophy as the decline of great idealistic tradition had already begun by that time. So, you can see that importance of Husserl needs to be assessed from this background. You can see that two very important traditions of 20th century philosophy, hermeneutics, which was primarily spearheaded by Adama also to some extent Heidegger. Then on the other hand, the existentialist or existentialism, the philosophy which was advocated by French philosophers Ron Paul Sartre, Albert Camel and many others in Europe, continental Europe, they were all influenced by Husserl's phenomenology. And now, let us see the subject matter of phenomenology, phenomena. So, phenomena is the subject matter of philosophy. That is the reason why we call it phenomenology. And what is phenomena? A phenomena is their objects and events around us. It is a technical term used by Husserl, not in the sense, in the sense in which Immanuel Kant has used the term phenomena, where he distinguishes it from phenomena or things in themselves which are ultimate realities. For Kant, this is an appearance. The phenomenal world is an appearance. It is not something which is the real world, but for a phenomenologist, the phenomena consist of the primordial entities which are directly given to the consciousness. So, there are objects and events around us, other people, ourselves, even in reflection, our own conscious experiences as we experience them. All these things constitute what we understand phenomena is. Things as they are given to our consciousness, whether in perception or imagination or thought or volition. So, things as they are given to our consciousness, directly given to, most immediately given to. All these are descriptions which phenomenologists use to describe the concept of phenomena. And there are, of course, there are two types of phenomena we can designate. And particularly this distinction was very important when Brentano Husserl's predecessor, of course, not a phenomenologist. He was a descriptive psychologist and Husserl also was trained by him for some time. So, Brentano is the one thinker who has actually started taking this concept of phenomena to the forefront of philosophizing. And Brentano does this in order to distinguish the mental phenomena, the psychic phenomena from physical or material, the events, the phenomena in the material world. So, he wants to maintain a distinction. He would assert that the mental phenomena is unique. And according to Brentano, we will see it later, what distinguishes the mental phenomena, physical phenomena is the intentionality aspect of it. So, we will come to that. Husserl also in the beginning recognizes that there is a distinction, but he would never associate intentionality with mental phenomena alone. I will come to that. So, mental phenomena what occurs in the mind or acts of consciousness or their contents. And physical phenomena are objects of external perception starting with colors and shape. Elaborate these concepts a little later. Now, consider phenomenology, Husserlian phenomenology and its fundamental objectives. As I already mentioned it, it is a study of the phenomena. And phenomena is as we have seen experienced in various acts of consciousness, they are directly given to consciousness. And they are isolated by suspending all consideration of their objective reality or subjective association. So, this is what phenomenology does precisely, that you try to isolate this immediately given most primordial data of consciousness by separating them by applying a method, the method of reduction. We will see it later. By applying this method, you separate this conscious immediately given data from all other associated knowledge about the reality, about our subjective prejudices etcetera. It definitely another important thing is phenomenology is associated with a search for certainty. It is a philosophy or particularly Husserl, Husserl conceives philosophy as a rigorous science dealing with ideal objects or essences of things originating in the consciousness. So, once you can identify them and locate them and isolate them, you have with you things which are the most primordial, the essences of things which directly originate in the consciousness. They are the fundamental data of all knowledge. Now, as I already indicated, the concept of phenomena when Husserl develops this concept, he was significantly influenced by Brentano his own teacher. And I have already mentioned this, that Brentano makes a distinction between psychological and physical phenomena. And according to him, what characterizes a mental phenomena is intentionality, the directedness of experience. In our consciousness, I see an object say for example, the chair in front of me. My consciousness about the chair is directed towards an object the chair, which is not there in my mind, but which is outside. So, this is a very important characteristic feature of a mental phenomena according to Brentano. And it exists intentionally in acts of consciousness. This is called intentional inexistence. All mental phenomena exist in this way. And it defines and classifies the various types of mental phenomena. He goes on doing that elaborately. Now, we will see how Husserl has appropriated this notion of intentionality, what makes Husserl's position different.  This is something which Husserl, Brentano as well as Husserl share. This intentional directedness constitute as a core of Brentano's descriptive psychology. Though there is a concept, a disease of intentional directedness, that mental phenomena directed towards an object that exists outside. And when it comes to Husserl, Husserl replaces psychical phenomena with experiences or intentional experiences. So, here he is not very happy with identifying or with the term psychical phenomena, because Husserl's phenomenology as I already indicated in the beginning was also advocating a form of anti-psychological. So, according to Husserl, intentional means it aims at or refer to something objective. So, it cannot be a subjective feeling, but rather it refers to something which is objectively out there. Also influence by, so in developing the notion of intentionality and developed his own concept, Husserl was influenced also by William James, his principles of psychology. And now, let us see the principle of intentionality discussed by Husserl. So, phenomenological count of experience, when phenomenologist tries to give an account of experience, he says that Husserl says that everyday experiences are intentional, all day to day experiences are intentional. But at the same time, there is another problem like as an empiricist or as a philosopher who emphasizes on experience, everyday experience or whatever. Experiences are always, they always reveal their objects from a perspective. Say for example, when I see this pen, when I see this pen like this, let us keep it like this, I do not see this part of the pen. I can see this only if I turn my head to this side, then I can see this. So, my for as well as I am concerned only this aspect, only it is only revealed from this aspect, it is perspectival in that sense. But the phenomenological account of intentionality reconcile with the objectivism of intentionality on the one hand, perspectivalism or perspectivism of empirism on the other. So, it tries to combine these two principles into a more comprehensive conception of experience. Principle of intentionality, where consciousness is always consciousness about something. So, this aboutness is emphasized. It points to something outside the mind which is conscious of the object and everyday experiences are directed towards objects, properties and states of affairs. So, this aboutness is something which makes as one would be wondering a philosopher like Husserl is talking about consciousness. He wants you to look inside your own consciousness and see what are the contents present there. So, is it solipsism? Is it subjectivism? So, the answer probably is that it is not subjectivism because this consciousness is not just consciousness in abstract. There is nothing called an abstract consciousness, a condensed consciousness. Consciousness is always treated as consciousness about something. It points outwardly to an object in the world. So, it cannot be merely subjective. So, everyday experiences are directed towards objects, properties and states of affairs. And though experience reveals its object from a perspective as I have already pointed out in the case of this pen. It is seen from a perspective, but we are intentionally directed toward a full three-dimensional object. But what I see is not this part of the pen. My perception or my consciousness, this pen is given as a complete object. It is not just this aspect of the pen. Though I do not see it, I do not see all the aspects of this pen. Now, there are different modes of consciousness. For example, presentation, judgment, love, hate, desire. These are all different modes of consciousness I have. Something, there is a consciousness. When I desire an object again, but all of them, what is common to all of them is they are all about something. There is an aboutness. There is something which points outward to itself. And this is what is called transcending. So, objects are presented in experience as transcending in my mind alone. But my mind or my consciousness point towards something that lies outside. So, there is an element of transcendence there. They are presented as going beyond the experience we have of them. So, as I mentioned, the experience I have of this pen is confined to or limited to this part of the pen, not this part. But still, what I experience is not this part of the pen, but the whole pen, the pen as such. So, in that sense, they are presented as going beyond the experiences we have of them. Again, experience is perspectival. All experiences are perspectival as I already mentioned, but it also presents its object to us as transcending the perspective. When we see a tree, we do not see a mere image of the tree or a packet of sense data, but we see the tree itself. So, here it goes beyond empiricism. One theoretical position or theoretical aspect, which is related to empiricism is the image theory. We have already examined this when we discussed John Locke's concept. There is an image, an idea which comes to the mind, which is not the object, but there are several images. The mind forms several images, several ideas. So, perception enables us to go beyond the image which is presented to us. This is what, because the object itself is given to me. We relate to the object itself as an image to a certain extra conscious object. So, we do not probably see all aspects of the object at a time, because all experience is perspectival. But what we see is essentially related to that object. So, for us, what is given to us in consciousness is the entire object as such. We do not get a row uninterrupted image, images in consciousness.  So, when I see this pen from this part, I get an image, I get a data. There is some data which is received by me, but this data is not something which comes to me in isolation one by one. But my reception of this data is already interpreted in a certain way. I interpret it as an image or a data of the pen, which I see. So, the pen as such is given in consciousness and can discuss forms of sensibility, space and time. He has shown that objects, the sensibility, for example, the objects are given through sensors already in a pre-ordered form. So, all seeing in one sense is understanding. There is no pure seeing of an object. So, similarly, we get the data as already interpreted as images of some object or other. So, this is again as I mentioned, while developing the theory of the intentionality principle, Housel was influenced by his teacher, Frans Brentano. And Brentano says that every mental phenomena is characterized by the intentional in existence of an object. We have already seen this. It is directed toward an object or imminent objectivity. It is called imminent objectivity. The objectivity is imminent to that process of being conscious of an object, because it is directed towards an object that is outside. Every mental phenomenon contains something as an object within itself, although not everyone does so in the same way. This object is the reference to a content. So, there is a reference to a content. When I see a chair, I see a chair, not a part of the chair. So, it is not just a mental-psychical phenomena. In that sense, there is something to which it is directed to. But Brentano's intentionality principle has some limitation. I have already indicated that it aims at distinguishing the physical from the psychical, which was not actually the purpose of Housel. This is because consciousness is always intentional according to Brentano. And in this context, it becomes necessary for Brentano to initiate a study of consciousness, because this is what intentionality is something which distinguishes psychical from physical. And psychical is always found in the consciousness. So, to capture that, you have to study consciousness and also on the phenomena as they are directly given to consciousness. So, when I see something for instance, let us take a very concrete example. When I see a ball point pen, what is that which is given to me into my consciousness? That is the subject matter of inquiry. I am just taking a very trivial, very day-to-day kind of an experience. Every mental state contains its object completely within itself. So, this pen, I mean this, I am conscious of a pen in which not a part of pen I am conscious of. I am conscious of this entire pen. It may not contain all the fine details of the pen. Say for example, its color, its shape, its make, the material out of which it is made, the things which are written on it. All these things are details which need not be known to me. They will understand that this is a pen. There is something which is necessary for me to understand this as a ball point pen. So, when I understand this as a ball point pen or to put it in other words in the language of a phenomenonologist, when this pen is given to me, given to my consciousness, how my consciousness understands it? What are those aspects which are captured by the consciousness? That is the subject matter of inquiry. Intentional object is imminent to the mental state.  I have already said this. There is no such distinction as far as the principle of intentionality is concerned made by Husserl. He says that I do not see color sensations, but colored things. So, when I see a red flower, I do not say that I have sensations of redness and sensations of flower. I would say it is a red flower. So, I see sensations, not sensations, but colored things. Any kind of entity like physical objects, persons, numbers which are not spatiotemporal, like a patch of blue, universals like blueness, state of affairs, mental entities like thoughts, images and feelings, etcetera, can become an intentional object. So, the domain of intentional objects are not confined to psychical entities. They include all these things according to Husserl. Then, he proposes a method to isolate this directly given essences. So, there is a definite method. So, this is another important aspect of Husserlian phenomenology. It is not just a philosophy, but also a method or rather to put it more accurately. It is a philosophical method, a method that combines a philosophical theory as well as a kind of practical application aspect. Phenomenology focuses on the essential aspects, which can be termed as the meanings. The ultimate, I mean most essential things are the meanings. So, phenomenology tries to understand that and it seeks to isolate the essences. So, I have already indicated this, that when you see this pen for instance, let us take a very concrete example. The pen is, in the language of phenomenology, the pen is directly given to the consciousness when I understand it. Now, what is it for a phenomenologist to say that, I understand that this is a pen or an understanding, the experience of a pen consists of what? So, I need to isolate the essence. I have several details here. I have already mentioned those details like the make of the pen, the material out of which the pen is made, the color of the pen, the shape of the pen. All these things are aspects about the pen, which are not really essential to understand what is this object. So, all those aspects, which are in the essential needs to be removed.  So, that is what phenomenologist tries to do. So, everything perceived is bound to, bound up with the essence of perception, which is different from the object that exists in nature. Every intentional experience gives meaning as the essential characteristic of giving some meaning. So, that is again the meaning giving act is the intentional act. So, when I am conscious of something, that very process of conscious of something is a meaning giving act, which is done by the consciousness. And by the process of giving meaning to that object, the object is comprehended. So, it is, they cannot be separated, they are not two different processes. So, in the process of comprehending the object, the meaning giving process also is completed. Let us see, I have been taking examples of pen and as I myself mentioned that it is, I am taking a very trivial example like. And a philosopher definitely is not interested in understanding what is this object, whether it is a pen or a chair or whatever. These are something which everyone knows that this is a pen. I have just taken this example to highlight important steps involved in a process of phenomenological understanding. The aim of phenomenology is to grasp the perceived as such, grasp what is essentially given, not a part of it, not an aspect of it, but the entire thing as it is given to the consciousness. The phenomenon as meant needs to be captured and search for a senses in the consciousness, the domain of a senses. So, this is another very fundamental assumption of phenomenologist, that consciousness is the most important domain of philosophical explorations. Every meaning, because it is consciousness which gives meaning to the world, it is consciousness which brings the world into being. Even that is what Husserl says, it is consciousness which brings the world into being. Because if there is no consciousness the world as such lacks every being, all meanings, all values, everything is brought by the consciousness. So, consciousness is very important in that sense. So, search for consciousness, the essences in the consciousness which is the domain of essences or meanings. Search for pure mental processes which are imminent to the sphere of consciousness that investigates them and the focus is on pure consciousness. So, gradually by step by step he is taking us to an examination of pure consciousness. Initially you know you search for objects, then you reach a point where you struck at consciousness and or rather your ego and its objects. Now, what you have to do is that apply the same principle to your ego itself which will finally take you to the conception of transcendental ego. A little bit more about consciousness and mental processes. So, these are some of those mental processes. When I remember something imagining, judging, willing, describing, feeling, perceiving, all these are mental processes. Each has its own essence. So, in a process of remembering something is remembered, something is imagined, something is being judged, something is being will, something is described, something is felt, something is perceived. What is that something? It is, it has its essence and to identify to locate that essence, the method is being suggested. The method is the phenomenological method. In examining these we exclude what does not lie in the mental act itself.  So, what is it? So, everything else that do not lie in the sphere of this mental act of imagining or passing or whatever needs to be eliminated. So, a method is devised for this examination, a method to build a science of essences because ultimately it deals with essences. It examines the consciousness which is a domain of essences and tries to identify essences within a consciousness which are imminent to that. To find the essence of consciousness by excluding what is non-essential, overcome the natural attitude. So, here Kusar talks very elaborately about something called natural attitude. This is something which all of us subscribe to natural attitude which is called natural attitude. So, in essence what it is? It is by suspending the spatio-temporal world and focusing on pure mental processes. So, what happens? What is natural attitude? See for instance, all of us we live in a world with a natural attitude for a taken care of kind of taken for granted kind of an attitude. We do not reflect upon what is going on around us. I mean I am not even consciously aware of the fact that this is a chair when I came and sat on this chair. I just take it for granted that this is a chair by just seeing it. I am not very consciously reflecting upon it. I just I mean because things around me in this world serves my purposes and there are several assumptions I have about things in this world. All these assumptions put together constitute what I mean by what Husserl's means by natural attitude. So, we believe certain things, we assume certain things, we take for granted certain things. We never question them, we never reflect upon them. So, this taken for granted kind of an attitude and living on the basis of that attitude in this world. Certain meanings are already attached piece of post to objects. A chair is something which I am going to see. I don't reflect upon it. So, these kind of an attitude needs to be questioned. We have to set them aside and such an attitude is an entrance for me to examine the object and its essence. So, the phenomenological reduction is performed in this context. The process of bracketing or apache, the Greek word which means cessation, removal or taking keeping it aside. There are certain things about an object which is not really required for understanding object. So, you just suspend them. So, that is what it is meant here. Suspending the spatio-temporal world and focusing on pure mental processes.  See when I see this pen, it is made up of plastic. Suspend it. That is not very important for me to know what it is. It is blue in color. Again put it in bracket. I mean I am not just throwing it out, but I am just putting it bracket and not using it for the time being. So, gradually all those inessential features and aspects of the pen is being bracketed. Finally, to reach a point where further bracketing would become impossible. That point is where you capture the essence of the object, whatever it is. So, here exclude all that is not genuinely imminent from the sphere of absolute data. So, what is the absolute data? The pen as it is given to me in consciousness. All other things, color, shape, everything is inessential to that. So, all those things are bracketed, kept aside. And what is intended is adequately given in itself. So, when this pen is given to me, directly given to me, I intend it. I understand it at my comprehension of it as a pen presupposes me intending it as a pen. So, this process is called bracketing. Setting aside or suspension of judgment is called bracketing. A suspension of inquiry, the object status as reality is suspended. A neutralization of our belief. Like we may believe a lot of things about an object. All those beliefs are bracketed, suspended. We are neutralizing them. Set aside everything that is external and the prejudices that we associate with the reality of the world. And concentrate only on the inner content of our conscious act. So, it is a gaze inside. Like you look inside deep into your consciousness. What is remembered in the act of remembering? Imagined in the act of imagination. Perceived in the act of perception. So, that is the essence. Not other paraphernalia of processes and things that might appear when a particular thing is being understood. There are so many other things which we already know about it. All those things need to be suspended. There are actually different stages of reduction. Phenomenological reductions attempts to focus on pure consciousness. Describes objects as they appear. Not in their natural causal relationships. We know everything is causally connected and our understanding is when we understand an object we also know it in connection with other objects. So, all those connections everything needs to be suspended. Hence, it is phenomenological and it is transcendental. It is called transcendental because it deals with the conditions that make any knowledge possible. That is givenness to consciousness. It is the givenness of an object to consciousness which is a precondition of all knowledge. Hence, it is called transcendental. Now, we will wind up this lecture with by very briefly examining the three types of reduction which Husserl proposes. He says that there is a phenomenological psychological reduction. Probably, there is no such hierarchy who Husserl would have imagined, but of course, there is a kind of an order. We have to start with the phenomenological psychological reduction which is a little negative which tries to avoid and eliminate unwanted information about the data which is directly given. And then, adetic is as the term indicates a dose means essences. It is more positive. It tries to isolate the essences. Concentrate on that and isolate it. The third one is transcendental which probably is the ultimate objective or aim of phenomenology. So, the psychological thing is it is a gate way to phenomenological attitude from natural attitude. I have mentioned what natural attitude is. The kind of taken for granted kind of an attitude about this world, how the world works, functions, all these things. We have certain assumptions. We are not really conscious about them. Unless we start reflecting upon them, we would not be able to be conscious of them. So, a phenomenologist needs to be careful. He or she has to be aware of his or her prejudices and taken for granted kind of an attitude in this world. So, natural attitude is bracketed.  There are so many things which we know about things and events that happen around us. So, all those things have to be bracketed. So, that ourselves from all presuppositions refrain from taking any natural objective position. So, now comes the second stage which is called edetic which is a little more important stage because it deals with a dose or essences. Individual existence of the object in question is bracketed since phenomenology is interested only in essences. So, here it looks more positive. There is a more positive look on the essences and attempt to try to understand what an essences is. It elevates the a dose, the essences, the properties, kinds of types, ideal species that entities may exemplify. So, the essences are being isolated. Properties, kinds or types or ideal species though through free variation of individuals in our imagination several individuals which belong to the same class. We find out what characteristics these things have in common. That is how you identify the essence. So, let us go back to this so called trivial example of ours, pen. There are 1000 types of pens we would have come across in our day to day life. These different types of pens might have something in common not the color, not the shape, not the make, not the material, but there is something in common. So, our mind in imagination can gaze through all these things through free variation of these individual pens in our imagination. We can identify what is common to all of them. That is the essence and locate the invariant forms which are essences. Now, we come to the ultimate goal of reduction which is transcendental subjectivity is the goal. So, this is probably the most important and interesting aspect of phenomenology. It indicates that reduction has the purpose to inhibit and take back as it were all references to the transcendent as the intentional correlate of our acts and to trace them back to the immanent or transcendental acts in which they have their source. This is from Spielberg's book on phenomenology classic work where he says that to trace them back to the immanent or transcendental acts in which they have their source. And Husserl makes a very interesting observation here. He says that I already referred I have referred to this observation made by Husserl sometime back without consciousness there would not be a world at all. Phenomenology has to study the realm of pure consciousness and the essential formations found there. So, here comes the concept of transcendental ego because as I mentioned phenomenologists are the final ultimate objective of phenomenology is to transcendental is a kind of transcendental reduction which ultimately takes us to the domain of consciousness pure consciousness pure ego. The proper understanding of ego is essential that is probably where phenomenology concludes. There is a fundamental problem with our understanding about the ego. This is again a very interesting observation because when we talk about ego or consciousness it is always linked with a notion of mind or something which is empirical something which is in this world. The talk of ego brings the natural attitude into picture because we always find ourselves in a world of objects and entities and bracketing to be applied to the ego as well. Now, as we have seen phenomenological epoch a bracketing is where you bracket all those aspects which are in essential about an object like in the case of the pen, the pig, the color etcetera. Similarly, the same method is applied now to yourself to your ego and when you apply this method to yourself, when you apply the method of bracketing to the ego the empirical ego. There are several factors which might condition or qualify the empirical ego name, place all those things all those things according to usal are in essential to understand what the ego is and you perform a kind of transcendental reduction of the ego which finally takes you to a state further reduction would be impossible. So, that part I mean that moment one can we can say that we have captured the ego that is the transcendental ego the pure ego. So, what remains is the pure ego and its pure condense the condense of its consciousness. So, this is the transcendental reduction where bracketing the ego and its intentions ceases to affirm the existence of the ego as a psychological reality. So, it is not an empirical ego which finds itself in this world and stands against the world as a subject I mean in a subject and object relationship in that sense a relational entity to this world no it is not it is pure. The empirical or psychological ego has to be set aside. So, the empirical and psychological aspects of the ego is bracketed suspended and what remains is the pure ego this is from Husserl's Cartesian Meditations I quote by phenomenological apache I reduce my natural human ego and psychic life the realms of my psychological self-experience to my transcendental phenomenological ego the realm of transcendental phenomenological self-experience. So, here we enter into the domain of meaning not the consciousness of an individual human being, but the essence of all meaning making. So, the essence of all meaning making it is not just one persons, but the essence of the meaning making activity itself what happens in all consciousness I may die this is an interesting observation which Husserl made during the last days I mean in a private conservation to his friend he has stated that I may die, but my transcendental ego is eternal it will not die and in that that actually this is one aspect of transcendent the phenomenology the transcendental phenomenology which Husserl would Husserl had not worked out elaborately by the time he died unfortunately and also by the time he was very old. And here this is probably had he developed this this aspect of phenomenology today have been really unique in western civilization because this is something which is very totally alien to western thinking that conceiving an ego which I mean of course in Plato's philosophy and in many other philosophies we have seen it, but here it is you conceive a transcendental ego which is eternal which is also again he talks about essence the essence of humanity etcetera. So, I do not want to compare it with anything in Indian philosophy as such, but I could I cannot avoid for some blends similarities this view has with the conception which is there in the open issues about the self the art man the brahman and all that and phenomenology is ultimately the philosophy of self. So, all phenomenology is ultimately a philosophy of the self it tries to understand the self there are different phenomenologies phenomenology of the body of health and many things, but ultimately all of them point to the consciousness to the self because the motto of phenomenology can be summarized in the statement back to things themselves and where do you go you go to the consciousness. I think we will wind up this lecture here as I already mentioned Husserl's influence Husserl has influenced many philosophers future thinkers and many philosophies like existentialism and hermeneutics and others we will be examining some of these contributions in the subsequent lectures of this lecture series. Thank you.


Okay, cool. So this one's number two on exam 2b. Calculate the number of moles of calcium chloride in 72.6 mils of a .254 molar calcium chloride solution. So what do we know already? So the first thing we want to do is write down the things we know. So volume, we're eventually going to have to figure out liters, but we know it in milliliters. 72.6 mils. Well, let's convert that to liters. We know the molary, which is zero point, that's what we're looking for. So what equation do you know that correlates these three variables? It's the molarity equation. Molarity equals number of moles of solute, the volume and solution in liters. We're trying to figure out the number of moles of solute there. So now we want to isolate that variable. We've got the Vl in the same side of the equation, so we want to get rid of that. So all we do is multiply by Vl. That cancels there. We've got Vl there. So we've got number of moles equals the volume in liters. Let's plug these two numbers in. So the volume in moles is volume in liters, which is 0.0726 liters multiplied by the molarity, 0.254 moles per liter. Letters cancel, number of moles, which is 1.3, 1.84.


The Kraft Foods Company presents Willard Waterman as the great Gildersleeve. Gildersleeve is brought to you transcribed by the Kraft Foods Company. Kraft, makers and importers of the world's favorite cheese, now brings you a new triumph of cheese making. It's Kraft Natural Swiss Cheese, sliced and sealed by Kraft for your convenience. Natural Swiss cheese is the kind with the holes. Try Kraft Natural Swiss soon. We're sure this new addition to the Kraft family of quality foods will become one of your all-time favorites. Most harbingers of Christmas are beginning to appear in the shop windows and the great Gildersleeve is painfully conscious of this as he walks down the street this morning. One of the penalties our water commissioner pays for his popularity is the long list of Christmas presents he must buy. Right, George, the stores look great. The man doesn't want to be tempted.  Even Peabee has his windows all tricked up. What does the sign say? Come in today and take advantage of Peabee's after Christmas sale. After Christmas. Oh, hello Peabee. Hello, Mr. Gildersleeve. What can I do for you today? You can explain why you have that sign in the window. To get curious people like you in the store. Peabee, I'm not curious. You're in the store. Yeah, all right. Why are you having an after Christmas sale before Christmas? Well, if I don't sell the stuff before Christmas, I'll have to put it on sale after Christmas, you know. Why not sell it now? Peabee, you're pretty true. I think so. At least I'm a month ahead of the other merchants. What can I sell you, Mr. Gildersleeve? Oh, don't start on me yet. I thought you might want to bring Yuletide Joy to somebody's heart with a hot water bottle, I mean. Yes. We haven't been attracted to colors this year. Baby blue with pink stoppers is sorry, Peabee. But I'm being very careful about my purchases this year. I'm not throwing my money to the wind. I'm not asking you to do that. Just toss a little in the store. I will, I will. The problem with me is I get carried away with a holiday spirit. Every year it takes me until Thanksgiving to pay my Christmas bills. You don't take. Getting so, that's what I have to be thankful for. And bills can be a problem if you let them get away from you. You bet. Now, here's my check from the water department. It should take us through the month. As the time Leroy taps me for his Christmas money and I buy a few things, it'll be gone. And it took me 20 years to work out a solution to that problem. Oh, I called a family conference. What did you do, Peabee? Mrs. Peabee and I took our month's earnings and put it out on the table. And I said, Mrs. Peabee, this money is as much yours as it is mine. Now, how do we get rid of it? Oh, how did she get rid of it? She didn't. She put it in the bank.  They just like to spend yours. That sounds like a good idea. Yeah, I might try it on Leroy. That's what I'm saying. You let him in on the family finances and he'll share the responsibility of staying within the budget. Well, it worked with Mrs. Peabee. All I can do to get car for out of town, no. No, Peabee. But I've got an ace in the hole. I've never told Mrs. Peabee that I'm getting 35 cents for malls. You haven't? That's not all. One day a traveling man came in for lunch and he left a quarter on his plate. I didn't tell her about that either. Peabee, you know you don't keep any secrets from Mrs. Peabee. You know, I wouldn't say that. Have you seen Leroy? Leroy's study? It is getting close to Christmas. Yes. Well, when he finishes, I'd like to call a family conference. Something wrong? No. I have a little idea. I want to sell Leroy. You know how he runs through money at Christmas time. Oh, he's got a list of things a mile long he wants to buy. Well, on my way home, I stopped at the bank and cashed my salary check. That's good. The grocery man and the milkman left their bills this morning. You're not so fast, Bertie. That's not why I cashed the check. No, sir. At least I want Leroy to see the money before it's all gone. Yes, sir. Hi, Aunt, what's up? Leroy, I'm calling a family conference. Oh, for corn's sake. I'll go back and study. Wait a minute. This one's going to be different. You mean somebody can talk besides you? We are going to decide what to do with our monthly paycheck. What do you mean, our? I'm glad you asked. Come over to the table here and sit down. Okay. I got no money. What can I lose? If this don't concern me like the instance of raising salary, Bertie will go to the kitchen. We'll excuse you, Bertie. Yes, I thought so. Of course, this may have some bearing on a future raise if Leroy cooperates. Yes, sir. Leroy, attention to us. Come on, Aunt, let's get back to that check of ours. Well, here's our monthly salary and cash. I'll put it right here on the table. Yay. Looks a lot bigger all spread out. Don't be deceived. There's a place for every penny. And it's up to you and me to put it in the right place. Yeah? It's half yours, you know. Okay, I'll take my half. I got places for it. Leroy. Hands off. But you said... Just a minute. You didn't listen to all I have to say. Oh, sorry, Aunt. The sight of money made me flip my lid. Yes, yes. I've got Christmas presents to buy. Well, that's why we've called the meeting. Something tells me I'm coming out on the short end of this deal. In the long run, we'll both benefit. Are we going to spend this money willy-nilly during the holidays and be in debt for months, or shall we live within our budget? Have we got a budget? Well, our paycheck's our budget. We have just so much for food, so much for clothing, your schooling, and for the rainy day that always comes. Why do you need more money when it's raining? Leroy, this is serious. Boy, is this? Oh, where was I? Oh, yes. Next summer, you'll want to go to camp. I'll say. And if we watch it through the holidays, chances are we'll have the money for it. Hey, King! So, I believe we've decided we won't spend it for Christmas. Wait a minute. How am I going to buy my presents? It's only December 2nd. Plenty of time to earn money outside and not touch the family coffers. Well, this will help me go to camp. Yes, indeed, my boy. I can work after school at the corner grocery. There are a lot of little jobs you can pick up and make Christmas money. Oh, heck, I'm not worried about me. But what are you going to do for outside money? Me? You'll need a lot. You've got so many girlfriends. Well, of course I'm the wage owner. Ah, you mean you can spend our money, but I can't. Well... But deals are... But... You tried to trap me. Well, Leroy... You want to spend our paycheck, but you don't want me to. Yeah, I don't want either one of us to. I mean... Okay. We don't buy presents unless we earn extra money. Either one of us. Well, when you put it that way... That's the way you put it. Yeah, but both of us earned him spare money for Christmas. Now he's back in house. What do you think, Bertie? Well, they say what's salt for the goose is salt for the gambler. Yeah. But, Leroy, I'm water commissioner. I have no time for earning money on the outside. Well, I've got to go to school. But I'm going to make time, so why can't he, Bertie? What's salt for the goose is salt for the gambler. We know that. Okay, I've got to let you off the hook. What? I just wish you wouldn't bring up these things and then let me down. Well, let's spend the money, willy-nilly. If that's how you feel, we'll both earn our own Christmas money. That's nice. What's salt for the goose is salt for the gambler. Hey. Well, I'm a goose forever starting this. Ian Bessie hasn't come to the office yet. What a secretary. Oh, well, she may not be the smartest secretary in the world, but she's honest. You know, it's this. Oh, a note she left in the typewriter last night. Yeah, let's see. Dear Mr. Gildersleeve, sorry I am late, but my alarm clock didn't go off this morning. Oh, my goodness. Who does she think she's kidding? Good morning, Mr. Gildersleeve. Good morning, Bessie. I guess you got my note. Yes, I did. Hey, Bessie. Yes, sir? When you wrote that note last night, how did you know your alarm wouldn't go off this morning? I knew I wouldn't set it. It would be silly to write you that note and set my alarm clock by that would be telling a fib. If Bessie, you've been late to work practically every morning. Yes, sir. Why is this? Mr. Gildersleeve, I know it upsets you when people know you're late to the office, so I stay away until after you come, so you won't be embarrassed. Go on, found it, Bessie. From now on, let's be here on time. Yes, sir. Do you want to start dictating right away, or do you want to go in your office and think about what you want to dictate first? Well, I'll admit, I have some thinking to do. Come into my office, Bessie. Am I going to think with you? I want to bounce some ideas off you. Oh, yes, sir. Bessie, I'm afraid I've been maneuvered into what could be an embarrassing situation. Oh, don't worry, Mr. Gildersleeve. It isn't the first time. Bessie, will you just listen and refrain from comment? Oh, that's right. You just wanted to bounce the ideas off me, didn't you? Yes. You know, what I'm getting at is I made an agreement with Leroy that we both earn our own Christmas money. Isn't the water department still paying you, Mr. Gildersleeve? I get a trickle. But this year, we're not touching the family funds. I have to get it on the outside. Now, what would you do, Bessie? I demonstrate mud packs. Mud packs? Yes. I saw an ad for somebody to sit in Hogan Brothers' window and demonstrate mud packs. That's what I do. Bessie, make a public display of yourself? Well, who knew who I was with mud on my face? Zeke. Bessie, this has to be something I can do. It has to be dignified work. It is something I can do without having people know I'm doing it. Well, that's what I like about mud packs. Forget the mud packs. Yes, sir. You could sell Christmas cards. Please, Bessie. Well, you could do it at night when nobody could see you. Bessie, you'd better run along. You don't need me? No, I'll bounce my ideas off the wall. You mean I can go for the day? No. Hello? Anybody home? We have a call, Mr. Gildersleeve. Well, close my door and see what is. Yes, sir. Now, let's see. What can I do to earn Christmas money?  I have to buy something for Leroy, Birdie, the mayor, and Bessie. Pee-wee and the Jolly Boys. And unfortunately, I'm going with quite a few girls. Irene, Grace, May. Excuse me, Mr. Gildersleeve. It's a cute insurance salesman. Well, tell him I'm not. Hello there, Commissioner Gildersleeve. Tell him to come in. Yes, sir. I think he's in. Commissioner, my name's Riley. How do you do, Mr. Riley? Sorry, but I have all the insurance I need. You always have all the insurance you need until you really need it. It was true, but I take my insurance from a relative. Our company has a new policy that I'm sure a far-sighted man like you will be interested in. You know, perhaps, if I didn't take from a relative. Well, one of our services is reviewing your insurance program, making recommendations. You know, like I say, I leave that to the relative. I know most of the insurance people in town. Perhaps I know this relative of yours. No, no, you wouldn't know him. Distant relative. Well, I'd like to write a policy and make a little extra as Christmas money, but it's nice to talk to you anyway, Commissioner Gildersleeve. Yeah, wait a minute. Christmas money, you say? Oh, I could use some. Well, I have a lot of calls to make. We're a little shorthanded at the office. Yeah, Mr. Riley, I was just wondering. I know a lot of important people and good prospects. And maybe we can both make some Christmas money. Are you serious, Commissioner? Yeah, many an important man as a sideline, stocks, bonds, insurance. Fine. I'm in charge of the office. If you think you can sell, bring your prospects around. Yeah, well, George, I might do that. I'll look forward to hearing from you. You may hear from me sooner than you think. I hope so. Goodbye, Commissioner. You're right. Bessie. Bessie, I want to talk to you about insurance. I take from a relative. Oh, cool. Gildersleeve will be back in just a minute. Tonight, I want to tell you about a wonderful new treat from Kraft. It's Kraft Natural Swiss Cheese, made in this country by Kraft. Slice by Kraft and sealed by Kraft in handy airtight packages.  And it used to be that most of this good cheese with the holes was imported from Switzerland. But now Kraft has perfected a new way to make fine natural Swiss cheese here. Make it without rind. Make it so that every bit of it has that special heart of the cheese goodness. Every bit of Kraft Natural Swiss has the perfect nut sweet flavor and the tender texture found only at the center or heart of the wheel of imported Swiss cheese. And Kraft slices this fine natural Swiss for you and seals it in convenient half pound packages. Try Kraft Natural Swiss Cheese. Discover how delicious it is in sandwiches or cold cut suppers with fruit for dessert with crackers or pumpernickel and your favorite cold drink for a snack. Once you taste this pale golden cheese with the heart of the cheese goodness, we're sure you'll want to have it on hand all the time. Tomorrow, look in your grocer's dairy case for the long package marked Kraft Natural Swiss Cheese. The great Gildersleeve thought it was a good idea this year to persuade Leroy to earn his Christmas money and not take it out of the family budget. And before the water commissioner knew what was happening, Leroy had him agreeing to the same thing. Right, George. It was a stroke of luck when that insurance man walked into my office. I'd never thought of selling insurance in my spare time. He's dignified and necessity and doesn't interfere with my water job. I can just direct prospects to Riley and collect my commission. Yeah, I'll see if I can help Phoebe with some insurance. Hello, Phoebe. Hello, Mr. Gildersleeve. What can I do for you? Yeah, I want to talk to you. And I'm bidding right now. You, well, put down your pen and listen to what I have to say. This is serious. It's no sense. I'm writing a check. Suppose something happened and you couldn't write checks. You mean like if I ran out of ink? No. And I got a whole shelf full of it. I know. Red, blue, green, purple, black, blue, black. You're all right, all right. What kind of ink do you want, Mr. Gildersleeve? I don't want any ink. Well, then why are you afraid I'd run out? I didn't say that. You weren't listening. I'm talking to you about preparing for the future. You don't change it. It's only as a friend that I'm calling this to your attention. But let's face it, we're here today and gone tomorrow. Not anywhere you'll be, but I'm going to be here tomorrow. You can't be too sure. I have to be. It's Mrs. Phoebe's birthday. Well, if you don't care about yourself, think of Mrs. Phoebe. I'm not likely to forget her. Mrs. Phoebe undoubtedly has valuables at home that should be protected. No, Mrs. Phoebe's valuables here. What? I'm it. Phoebe, I'm talking about things like jewels that might be stolen. Well, Mrs. Phoebe has a cameo locket with a picture of me and the parrot in it. I don't know if anybody would want to steal that. How about your store? It needs protection. Yes. I don't want to frighten you. What if you came down some morning and found your pharmacy burned to the ground? How would you feel? Not so bad. I'm loaded with insurance. Oh, my God. It's a week. With what I pick up shovel and sidewalks, I'll have around 30 do-made, Aunt. Well, my boy in the insurance game, the first thing you do is lay groundwork. Have made a dime, huh? No. What a salesman. I'm going to get anything for Christmas. Looks like I'll have to buy it myself. You'll get your present, and so will everybody else. Why don't I want any IOUs in my sock? Get on the ball, Aunt. Yes, yes. Hey, I got an idea. They need a Santa Claus in the toy department down at the Emporium. Oh, my goodness. You'd wear a beard nobody would recognize you. I'd rather wear a mud pack. What? It's never mind. Anyway, there's no money in being a Santa Claus. I'm just kidding, Aunt. But if you can't sell insurance... Conn, found it, I can sell insurance. Yeah? Yeah. Excuse me. I want to see Birdie a minute. About insurance? Yeah, about dinner. Oh, Birdie. Yes, Mr. Guilty. And no hurry about dinner. Yes, sir. Um, Birdie, have you ever given thought to buying a little insurance? Oh, yes, sir. I'm a strong-believing insurance. Good. Now I have here a little policy. Oh, I take from the Lodge. The Lodge? Yes. They got a policy for 50 cents a week you can't beat. Yeah, I wouldn't get much Christmas money at that rate. And again, you got the 50 cents that carry you on the books. Yeah, well, I just thought I'd ask.  Well, Leroy's pressing me. I have to sell the policy soon to save face. Well, maybe you're overlooking a lot of prospect. Well, I don't know who. Well, how about your girlfriend? My girlfriend? You got to buy them all a present so if you can sell them all a policy, you can buy them presents with the premium. Oh, I don't know, Birdie. Well, most single girls don't have insurance. I guess they don't. No, sir. They're waiting for the right man to come along. Let him buy the insurance. Oh, I don't think girls look that far ahead. Well, here's what it does. Birdie wouldn't have that large insurance if she could see the right man in her future. You wouldn't? And when it comes to marriage prospects, Birdie's scraping the bottom of the barrel. Yeah, I guess you're not a good insurance prospect, Birdie. Well, I'm open for deal. You get Birdie a husband and she'll guarantee you get the insurance. Well, there must be an easy way to make Christmas money. Nothing wrong with trying to sell my girlfriend's insurance is protecting their future. Yeah, I'm doing them a favor. Besides, I'm getting off the hook with Leroy. Irene's a smart woman. School principal. She can see the value of adequate protection. It's a strange way to spend the day, but I'll be subtle about it. Hello, Chuck Morden. Come in. Hello, Irene. Something for you. What lovely flowers. Yeah. And you enclosed a card. You bet. Let's sit down and read it. All right, and then I'll put them in a vase. Yeah, I gave quite a lot of thought to that message. Oh, from Chuck Morden with love and a thought for your future. What a nice sentiment. What does it mean? Well, it means I'm interested in your future, Irene. You are? And it's high time you gave some thought to it. Oh, I have. I think about me a lot. You know, I've been thinking about you, too. And now I am in a position to guarantee your future security. Oh, this is so sudden. I guess you didn't expect anything like this, right out of the blue, but I just got the idea myself. The one who just got the idea, you're certainly moving fast. Well, I have to produce some results before Christmas. I wanted to speak to you about it before I ask anybody else. Well, it's nice of you to think about me first, Rockmorton. I should be flattered, but I'm afraid your approach is a little puzzling. Well, I'm a little new at this, Irene. Don't say no until you've heard my proposition. What? What is your proposition? Well, let me speak frankly. Please do. I talked on the phone to Mr. Riley, and he thought you'd be a good risk. Rockmorton, just how do you mean that? Well, you're in good health. You have temperate habits. Of course, you'll have to take a complete physical. I will? Yeah, of course, Mr. Riley would insist on that. Who is Mr. Riley? Who is Mr. Riley? Who is the insurance man? You mean you talk to your insurance man before you talk to me? Well, naturally. How careful can a man be? You want to report to the veterinarian before you buy the horse? Well, Irene, in these days, you won't get anybody to take your sight unseen. Kildersleeve, I'm not asking anybody to take me. Well, Irene, you need the protection. I can protect myself. Now take your flowers and ask somebody else, or you'll never make it by Christmas. What did I do wrong? I have some news for Leroy. Yes? At last, I sold the policy. You did? Well, don't sound so amazed, Bertie. No, sir. Like that, my boy, I sold an insurance policy. No kidding. Yes, indeed. Now, I'll have the proof here any minute. Mr. Riley is coming by with my commission check. Good for you, honk.  You didn't back out. Well, now that I've proved I can sell a policy, I think we should give up the idea of earning our Christmas money on the side. I really don't have the time. I understand, honk. We'll tap the budget, huh? Yeah, that's the surest way for us all to get presents soon. Yes, Mr. Riley, Bertie. I'll go. Well, here I am, Commissioner. Hello, Mr. Riley. You were in a big hurry to get this commission check. Well, I had a reason. Leroy, look at this. Gosh, that's swell, honk. Mr. Riley, this is my nephew, Leroy. Hello, Leroy. Hi. Mr. Riley, who did honk sell the policy to? Didn't he tell you? He sold it to himself. The great killess Lee will be with us again in just 30 seconds. How do you like your Swiss cheese best? In sandwiches, with fruit, with crackers? Tomorrow, I'll give yourself a treat. Get Kraft natural Swiss cheese and try it your favorite way. Kraft natural Swiss is the good old fashioned kind with the holes, but it's made a new Kraft way to have heart of the cheese goodness all through. And it's sliced and sealed by Kraft in airtight packages. See for yourself what we mean by heart of the cheese goodness. Enjoy the exceptional flavor and tender texture of this fine natural Swiss. You'll be delighted with Kraft natural Swiss cheese. You've dawned on me why Irene practically threw me out and slammed the door. She thought I was proposing marriage, but all I want to do is sell some insurance. Well, I'll straighten that out right now. Women are so touchy, you have to handle them just so. Oh, it's you, Throckmorton. Hello, Irene. I guess you wonder why I'm here. Well, I didn't expect you back after last night. Irene, you were mistaken about my intentions. Oh, when I said Mr. Rowley thought you'd be a good risk, but that nobody would take your sight unseen. I was talking about insurance. Insurance? Of course. I wasn't talking about marriage. Proposing to you was the last thing I had in mind. Now may I come in? What did I do wrong this time? Good night, folks. Played by Willard Waterman and is an NBC radio network production. The show is written by John Elliott and Mandy White and is transcribed. Included in the cast are Walter Jettley, Kathy Lewis, William Randolph, Gloria Holliday, Frosty Fowler, and Dick LaGrant. Musical composition by Jack Meakin. This is John Heaston saying good night for the craft foods company, makers of the famous line of craft quality food products. Be sure to listen in next week and every week for the further adventures of The Great Gildersleeve. There are two kinds of delicious craft prepared mustard. Mild craft mustard, so smooth and delicately spiced, and craft mustard with snappy horseradish added. And whichever you prefer, remember when you add a little mustard, you add a lot of tang. Try it on cold sandwiches, hamburgers, frankfurters, and cold cuts. Enjoy the wonderful sauces you can make for hot meat and vegetable courses with craft prepared mustard. Keep both kinds on hand and keep the whole family happy. Get mild craft mustard and craft mustard with snappy horseradish added at your favorite food store. Now play You Bet Your Life with Groucho on the NBC Radio Network.


Dear students, in this module, we are going to discuss Marxian theory of population control. Karl Marx, the renowned philosopher economist, he offered the perspective on population growth, which is quite different from the perspective of Malthus. His theory is driven more by the social and economic structures than by these biological or natural impulses. So he criticized Malthus' theory, arguing that it blamed the poor rather than the poverty and the divert attention from the real causes of capitalism and class struggle. So basically, Karl Marx's key argument is that when we talk about population growth, it is not necessary that we agree with Malthus' point of view. Just look at it from this perspective. The way Malthus thought that the growth of the population is exponentially higher as compared to the available resources, so resources will get scarier as much as the population and then the population will explode like a bomb and ultimately that would become a very dangerous situation. In comparison to that, Marx thought that the real cause of this population growth is not a natural process, rather it is inherent in the capitalist system. The way the capitalist system needs more and more cheap labour, a reserve army of labour is more beneficial for the capitalist system, so the capitalist system promotes ideas and ideologies in such a way that people are more likely to have children. So ultimately Marx is responsible for the capitalist system rather than for a natural process. So in Marx's perspective, population growth is not the cause of poverty or resource shortage. Instead it is a social system specifically capitalism that leads to resource inequality. According to Marx, under capitalism overpopulation occurs when the labour supply surpasses the capital's demand leading to a surplus population or the reserve army of labour. So this reserve army keeps the wages low as there is always a ready pull of labourers willing to work for less. So the more people there are, the more possibility that you will be affected by cheap labour. So Marx thinks that there is inherent flaw in the capitalist system because of which such policies and ideologies are promoted so that people are more likely to have children. And the capitalist system is more likely to have cheap labour. So he proposed that the solution lies in a classless society where resources are equally distributed and the exploitation of proletariat ends. So Marx's system suggested that there is a classless society and in a classless society, the potential inequalities between the people will be reduced and therefore the chance to promote those ideologies or to grow those ideologies will be reduced and in this way you will be able to control your population. In Pakistan for example, the high rate of unemployment, especially among the youth in urban areas can be seen as the reflection of this Marxian concept of the reserve army of labour. If we talk about Pakistan, you see that the rural population, especially the poor population has a very high growth rate and birth rate. And the principle reason for that is that the more children they have, the more earning hands they will have. And those earning hands become the potential army of reserve labour. And ultimately what happens is that in this capitalist system, because there are more people and more labourers, then the capitalist is potentially in an exploitative position in which the cheaper labour possible in the reserve army of labour can be used for themselves to form an exploitative system or exploitative system.


Now, we are going to talk about a very important aspect of NGNs, that is the identification management of the entities which are interacting with each other to transfer data and to communicate with each other. So, we shall first of all look at what is the purpose of identity management. Then we look at some interesting relationships which exist between different aspects known as the attributes, credentials and the particular identity types. Then we look at the scope of identity management and we look at the best practices or the principles which are adopted for identity management to make sure that a user develops a trust level with the network. So, as a next generation network, a vendor or a service provider or an operator has to provide identification management according to some functional architecture and this is where the identity management framework comes into play. It uses very important information regarding the network and the user to offer certain services purely from the business and security viewpoint. The information that a user can offer is the user subscription, the location information, the policy that governs provisioning certain security and business related services, access to that user and the presence of user in a certain proximity at a point in time. There are certain network elements which play their role in offering identity management. These include the HSS, the call control functions and the service border control. The identity information is essentially from multiple angles and dimensions. For instance, the identifiers of the IDs themselves, then their credentials and then the attributes. All these identities and their aspects actually refer to the entities which are involved in the network. The most important entity is of course the user that has certain subscription. So it means a user can be a network user or it can be a subscriber to a certain service. This can be an organization if it's a commercial organization or it's a government organization or it could be even an individual. The entities could also include the network elements which are part of the NGN, the user devices which a user can switch from a tablet to a smartphone, etc. Then there are certain objects which are not tangible in terms of their physical presence but are virtually present. For instance, there could be network elements which are run on a single physical server or a single physical machine. Then there are certain objects which could be the network parameter settings, the profiles, etc. So it means that every entity which is present in NGN has to have at least one ID or it can have more depending upon different types of interactions and different types of services that the user might be interested in. Consider an individual on NGN if it has access to different services and different quality of service profiles it can have multiple digital identifiers. The obvious purpose of identity management is to facilitate. Facilitate using certain services which would be identity management services, the implementation of these services through certain functions and depending upon how comprehensive a certain identity management system within NGN is, there would be some capabilities which could be very high end capabilities or it could be very rudimentary or basic capabilities. So the IDM actually provides business and security applications with certain services. So these services actually can be considered to be present on the transport stratum and the services stratum. It actually means that the identity management covers both the transport and service strata of NGN. Let us look at the overall identity management as a relationship between the business and security applications and the identity management functions and capabilities and the definitions that we have just looked at in the form of identifiers, credentials and attributes. Let's look at the top first. So we have the business and security applications. For instance, we have multimedia application, IPTV, security protection, access to certain resources. So this actually is the application layer perspective of identity management. Then we have a more technical or functional level of identification management. That is how the information is managed in the form of a database. How is it organized in the form of a tree? What is the basically authentication mechanism to have access to the IDs of users or group of users? What is the assurance mechanism that this ID management system is going to be reliable, trustworthy? How the identity management systems can be discovered and how can an endpoint exchange certain credentials and important information with the identity management system or how one IDM can interact with other IDMs? Then the last part, which is of course the part is the entities. If we look at the entities, these entities actually have certain identities. The identities are marked through identifiers, which are the physical IDs of, for instance, service provider, IP address, account number of a certain subscription. And then against each ID, we can have some credentials. For instance, these credentials could be time limited, for instance, tokens issued for a certain time period or digital certificate issued by a third party. Then we have against every identifier, we can have certain attributes. For instance, for a certain user, we can have limited attributes, for instance, telephone number only or an email ID. We can even take it further by taking the context, the location, etc. of the user into account so that a user can be provided better service. So it means that the overall identity management becomes a very complex task. At the more entities level, we have the users, we have the devices and we have the network elements that we've already discussed. Let's look at the identifiers in a little more detail. Depending upon the subscription information, an identifier is issued. An identifier can actually differentiate between the access which a user is entitled to. For instance, if it's a residential user or an enterprise, then the network elements through which the connectivity is provided need to be identified. And the service provider amongst a multitude of operators and service providers needs to be identified. And this is typically done through the URL or the domain name that identifies a certain service provider. The attributes which the identity is going to have actually is the feature or the aspect of a certain user device or network interface. For instance, we can have the email ID, the identifier in the form of URI, an IP address, the authentication method through which this particular entity can be authorized or authenticated. Then the physical location or the relative network location of this particular entity. Then we have lastly the credentials. As I said earlier, these credentials actually determine the overall validity of a certain service to a certain user. For instance, the username and password as the token, the digital certificate or token for a certain service. Now we are going to look at a very important aspect. No matter how comprehensive the identity management for certain NGN may be, there are certain golden principles or thumb rules which would ensure that a user trusts the network. The first one is of course that data binding for a certain specific service would only be activated depending upon the attributes, the credentials, etc. Once that service is being provided, so it means once a service is not being used, the associated data should not be recalled or should not be accessed from the identity management system. Then multiple applications should not share this information with each other. It means that there should be no pass the information or relay the information subsequently from one application to the other. This is going to result into secure information leakage. So even if it has to be done, it has to be done through explicit users consent. So it means that if multiple applications are going to use certain identifiers and certain attributes and credentials, these have to be accessed from the IDM system and this transaction has to be recorded so that it is known who accessed what information regarding a certain user at a point in time. Then we also have to consider that limited identity information should be shared. This is known as the need to do basis or being discrete. So it means if certain information is required, which only deals with the IP address, then in addition, the domain name, the URL should not unnecessarily be shared. The last one is that at the end of the day, it is the user who is paying the network for certain services. So a user has to be the super administrator or the super user to manage, share, delete and update the personally identifiable identifiers. It means if a user can be identified through a certain IP address and certain username and password and if a user wishes to change one, delete one, keep the other, then everything has to be done through proper user based control.


It really is sad that here in the Senate that's supposed to represent us, the people who are in favor of killing are the ones who have the power, and the people like us who want to see an end to the killing are harassed, stopped, arrested. It's just all upside down.