Welcome to DEF CON. How many first timers? Raise your hands. All right. Good amount. Good amount. So I guess everybody is here for the 10 a.m. old malware new tools on the Commodore 64. So we have Cesar here to our left. Welcome to me. He's a first time speaker. So everybody knows what that means. Yes it does. Good morning and let's have Cesar kick it off. Good morning, everyone. Thank you for being here with me. And okay, let's start immediately. Speaking about the strange things for DEF CON maybe, something like coming from the past. But I think that it makes sense, especially for this ER team. Let's speak about me for a second, but just for a few slides, for one slide. My name is Cesar Pizzi. I work, my main job is service engineer. So I spend most of my time looking at other codes. But sometimes I also try to write something for the community. And I like a lot, for example, to write software always about security regarding security tools, like for example, volatility, open canary, C2s, Spikyzi, and also have a couple of main projects running Seenwall and Resplate, which are entirely done by me. If you want to reach me out, you can obviously reach me on Twitter or on GitHub, open an issue, just get in touch with me. I will be more than happy to speak with you about everything about security. But okay, let's start with the why. It sounds pretty weird on 2022 to speak about the common 64 viruses. And what made me decide to do this? To do this was this picture coming from the DEF CON 30 team. I don't know, something went in my mind when I saw it. I decided to do something like try to bring my knowledge that I have today back with something that I was using when I was a child, for example, but be sure that this is not a talk about, it's not a nostalgic talk, it's not something about okay, the good old days, because that's not my way of approaching things. I want to report another sentence that is coming from the DEF CON 30 team. And so that's exactly what this talk is about. So trying to move what was interesting in the past into the future. So try not to lose what we learned in the past and try to keep it and make experience about it. So also doing this, I also realized that there were a lot more. Like for example, I saw this kind of viruses which was really illuminating and very, very interesting to do, this kind of exercise. And remember that we are speaking about few hundred bytes of software. Everything written back then about viruses were more or less one kilobytes of software. This is particular that we are looking at today, it's in 700 bytes. And we will see that there will be a lot of things done in 700 bytes. Okay, let's set some common background about Comer 64, because maybe nobody, not all of you know what we are speaking about. And okay, this is a picture of Comer 64 in Italy, where I come from. It was called a big biscuit because of the shape and the color of the chassis. I don't know if it's the same in other countries as well, but that was the way. And it was one of the first home computer that born in 1982, together with Apple II and a lot of others. It was mainly based for, used for gaming actually, because of several reasons. But viruses were a thing back then. And so they were existing, but it was very different from the current reality. Okay, let's start in defining a virus before going ahead, so that we are all on the same page. Okay, virus, it's a, let's say a kind of a program that without user knowledge try to persist and replicate. I'm sure that this is not a 100% fitting definition, but it's a good starting point for all of us to going ahead and understanding what we are speaking about today. Okay, today if we think about virus or Mauritius software, we are thinking about something that is built to give again to the talker. Mainly we are speaking about financial gain or gain of other type, like I don't know, information harvesting or something like that in any case is going to financial gain at the end. But if we think about the situation back then, it was a completely different thing, because there were no financial motivation behind the virus, but it was something more done for show off technical knowledge really, and not doing something malicious to the user, but pranking people maybe, or just show something that is, okay, I can do it, so I can show you that I can do it, but I don't want to harm you or whatever else. And that's the reason why I tend to define this more close to the demo scene back then. So the demo scene was the way of showing the skills of a programmer doing graphic sounds and so on. And in some way viruses were something like that done for showing the low level technical expertise, let's say. And you may think that the lack of financial gain behind this may go to some name code, a few functionalities or something written very badly, but it's not the case. We will see together that these tiny programs are really little jewels of programming and technical skillset. Okay, let's start from the state of the art. So which are the viruses known for Commer 64? This is the list, pretty much complete. It sounds pretty funny if you look at it, because we have, we count seven entries here, which is more or less what we can think it's happens in a minute of malware creation nowadays. So it's really nice to see that there were so many, so few viruses back then. And there are great analysis already done on most of them, especially for BHP, which is the first one, and considered to be the first virus is created for Commer 64 and one of the first virus ever created. But there is one which is not analyzed yet. It's the Bula virus. The only thing, it was in the list we saw before here, it was the fourth one. And the only thing that I found around before starting this kind of analysis was this little sentence coming from wiki.com saying that nothing was really known about this virus. And there were some things happening when you run it, but it was not clear how it was replicating and so on. And so I decided to get this one. In order to try to get this back to life, I obviously used some tools and some things to having it running again. And these tools, we are going to list them right now, are something to do static analysis, which is, for example, the tool I use for static analysis Ghidra, a well-known tool, I'm sure that you know it, with a specific plugin used to load the Commer 64 virus. I did some custom scripting for analyzing the virus itself with Java and the plugins of Ghidra itself. I also created a 010 editor custom template in order to be able to analyze the disk images. The 64 images are the files representing a disk in Commer 64. Then I did also some dynamic analysis, obviously, and I used the vise emulator for doing that. Vise emulator, it's an emulator which has also a very nice debugger in it, and then you'll master 3.1.5 which is an utility used to manage the 64 images again. A couple of screenshots about this, and this is, for example, the screenshot from vise, which is the emulator I used for dynamic analysis. As you can see on the bottom, you see the Commer 64 screen, and on the top, you see the debugger. The debugger is very well done. It allows you to step into the code, dumping memory, dumping op codes, and there is also this little window on top right showing your register and also these windows showing computer and drive aid. Remember this because it will be very important for our analysis. So it looks like we don't have a register just only on the main CPU, and that's important to remember for our analysis here. Then I used Ghidra, as I said, okay, this is a well-known tool, so it was for static analysis, it's assembly code, it supports the Commer 64 architecture which is based on 6502 CPU. It also decompiled the code, but in this case it's not useful to have the code decompiled, to be honest. So I just looked at the raw assembly code. Then here we have the custom template I created for 010 editor, which allows me to inspect the content of a disc of Commer 64. I'm going to release this template, I already released it this morning, and I will give you some more details at the end of the presentation about it. Okay, let's now start in giving some details about our specimen, so our virus itself. The virus from what we know exists in two variants which are identified by a version, which is 6.13 and 8.32, so we have also major release for that, and both of them are available to download if you want to, I don't know, have a look to them, to tweet or replicate the analysis or doing something by yourself, you can download it from csdbe.dk site. Okay, but before going into details, we need to set some common knowledge on Commer 64 hardware, because it's very important. You will see during the analysis that a lot of characteristics of the Commer 64 will be used in the code of the virus itself. And let's start from the main CPU. The main CPU of the Commer 64 is the well-known 6510 CPU, which is based on 6502, which was one of the first very cheap CPU that were produced in early 80s, and probably it's the CPU that gave the start to the home computer movement. It's the CPU were used and on which it's based, were based most of the home computer back then, Apple II, Atari, Commodore, and a lot of others. So it was a very cheap CPU doing a lot of things. In case of Commer 64 one, we had a clock of 1 MHz, 64K of RAM, and 48 kilobytes of for program, for a basic program. Commer 64 had a characteristic, a special one, had also some additional chipsets for managing video and sound, and that's why it became very popular for gaming mainly. But the main CPU is exactly the same as all the other home computer at the time. What it is interesting is that, and I learned it doing this research, is that it's still used. You can actually buy one if you want from this site. The form factor is a bit different right now, as you can see, but the 6502 and other variants of the CPU are still existing, are still used, according to the site, and so that's why I'm saying you are not wasting your time this morning looking at this presentation, because you are going to learn something very interesting like basics on 6502 assembly that we can use maybe on your next automotive project, I don't know if you want to use the 6502 CPU. And okay, let's spend a couple of words about mass storage. You see that picture of Commer 64 before, which was that keyboard with some ports on that. It doesn't any kind of mass storage in it, so the mass storage back then was done in two ways, mainly. The cheap one was a tape player, which is awful, slow, reliable.  Really, I remember it as unusable, mostly, and it was the cheap solution, so that's what I bought for the first time. And then when you start to save some money you can buy another piece of hardware, which is a bit better. It's not really a great hardware as well, but it's a lot better than the tape, which was a disk drive, reading the floppy disk, the five inches floppy disk you don't know if you ever saw it, the black one, the floppy one, exactly. And why I'm mentioning this hardware? Because it's a little less known that the 1541 disk drive had exactly another 6502 CPU in it, a running code, having some memory, having some register. This is why I told you to have a look to the register window before on the emulator, the bugger window, because actually you really have another CPU equal to the one installed on the mainboard. That means that you, in some way, you had a multiprocessor system back then in 1982, because the two CPU can actually communicate between them and they can transfer code between them and execute code at the same time. So it was pretty surprising to understand that you actually had a multiprocessor system with the main CPU and the one running on the drive. You can also upload some works on the CPU of the drive itself. It was not so easy because the connection between the two system was done through a serial bus, so it was slow and so on, but it was actually usable and it was used also by legit software, let's say, like Turbo Loader, which were programmed to load things and so on. And guess what? Yes, this can be abused by viruses as well and this is actually what the Bula virus is going to do, and we will see how in a while. But before going into the details, I promised you a crash course of assembly of 6502 assembly and so we will go very, very briefly. It's a crash course of two slides, so don't be afraid about it. Let's have a look on how it actually works. So we have a few registers in the CPU, a lot less than what we expect from current architectures like the Intel one, let's say, where we have a lot of them, and we have basically a program counter which is more or less the same as the instruction AP of the Intel architecture and is pointing to the current instruction of the of the processor. And then three general purpose registers. One is the A, which stands for accumulator, and you can store values in it. And then X and Y, which are indexing registers. So these are three general purpose registers you can use in your programs. And that's all, what you have. You have also some stack pointer pointing to a fixed memory region, going from <IP_ADDRESS>.0.2.1. And then a flag status which holds the results of comparisons, carry and so on. So very basic structure, very simple one, but you can see that you can do a lot of things with this. I'm adding also these lights here regarding the registers 0.0.1, which are reported by device emulator because these are out of our scope today. They are registered for the sound interface device, which was one of the chip I mentioned before used for doing sounds, but we don't need our analysis today just reporting these because of for completeness. And so, very basic crash course about assembly. So we can basically do some things with the register. We can store values there and load values from the register themselves. So the instructions are pretty simple. It's a very, very simple instruction set on the 6502. And you have LDA to load a value in the accumulator, so you can put a value there. You can put an immediate value by putting a dash before it or you can reference a memory address. And the opposite way, you can also store the value that is in the accumulator into memory. So you have LDA and STA. At the same time, you have LDX, STX and LD and STY and LDY for the same operation with other registers. It's like the move operation in TURL assembly, let's say. Then we have another instruction, which is interesting for us, which is the JSR, which is the basically the same as the call in Intel architecture, with closely used by an RTS instruction, which is returning to the call in function. And then, obviously, we have also some branching instructions, so you can jump around basically on the results of several operations and so on. So you have this set of instructions here, BPL, BMI, BVC and so on. Couple of slides, then we can jump into the virus itself. So, kernel, that strange word, it's coming from Commodore 64 era. What is kernel? It sounds like it has been bespelled and actually it was. It's something like, probably it was meant to be kernel with E, not DA. And this is the Commodore 64 ROM resident operating system call. So you can call some routings doing basic operation by calling a specific memory address. Compared to the modern, I put some quotes here, PC world, it's something like the BIOS OS routing you have, we have in current PC more or less. So we have this way to call basic and low level kernel calls. And then we have another way of calling more higher level routings, which are the basic one, which are stored from A00 to BFFF. And these memory areas hold the code for the basic operation. So, let's say, if you want, I want to do a print, the code of the print is stored in this area and I call it directly by calling the memory area instead of writing print in my basic program. And that's a way of doing things in Commodore 64. But let's start now with our analysis. So the Bula virus, which we saw before that it has been, it's one of the few viruses remained which were not analyzed yet. Okay, we need to obviously start it in some way. Remember, okay, I said before the virus never dies, so it's just a matter of giving him the right environment and it starts again. And the right environment, in our case, is the emulator, obviously. And this is what happened when you start the virus. Something strange, actually. So you see this flashing screen here and some gibberish printed out on the screen, which is, and then nothing happens. So it looks like really nothing has been done to the user. But what happened behind the scene in this case? So let's start with some code snippets. Okay, this is written really tiny here, but don't worry, I will go into the details now. So we'll see with more detail. So what happens doing this common, so running the program virus, is that the serial bus was open on the device. So remember that I spoke that the two processors between CPU, the main CPU and the one on the disk drive communicate between serial bus. So this serial bus has been opened. There was an execution of a command. Then there was this flashing screen and then the bus has been closed. So let's see what really happened here. These are the set of instruction opening the serial bus. As you can see, there are a JSR and a jump instruction point to the kernel. Do you remember the addresses beginning with FF? So these jump and JSR are pointing to two kernel calls, which are the calls actually used to open the bus, the serial bus, to communicate with the CPU of this 1541. And then there is the execution of a command. The execution of a command is simply sending a couple of characters, three characters in this case, m dash w, which stands for memory write, and sending these commands, these characters, these ASCII characters, or PETASCII in this case, because command 64 had a custom ASCII code. Sending this and some codes, what happened is that some codes from the main CPU is transferred to the memory of the disk drive in this case. So what the virus is doing right now is just getting its code and transferring it on the CPU drive. Then there is the flashing screen and the closing. Why the flashing screen? Back then IO operations were really slow and you were sometimes really looking at the screen trying to understand if something was happening or not. And the flashing screen was a way, a trick, used to let the user know that something was happening during the IO operation. So that's why it has been added probably in this case. So just to let the user know that something was happening. And then, okay, the serial bus just closed. So at this point, what has been done is that the virus code has been transferred on the CPU of the floppy, but nothing else. So the code has not been executed yet. Why this has been done for two reasons, maybe, because in this way it's still here, obviously, because the virus doesn't reside anymore on the main memory. And it's more persistent right now because even if power off or reset the Commodore 64, actually until you don't power off the drive, the virus still resides there and it's not going away. So that's a neat way to gain persistent on the call itself. Yep. And so now the virus it's on this drive memory. Okay, it's time to execute it. Just to execute it, it's just a matter of sending another command like the MW we saw before. The command it's U3. It's another command coming from the ROM of the 1541, which exactly just start codes at a very specific address, which is 0500 on the disk drive. Since the set of instruction we saw before was transferring code to that address, the U3 command is just executing code residing there. So what happens here, again, snippets and we are going into the details, is that the serial bus is open again. There is a U3 command sent on the serial bus and that means that the code starts. So the virus itself is starting on the disk drive memory. There was a set of commands U3 from U9 executing code at different addresses from 0500 to FF01. It was just a matter of what you want to do and execute in this case. And what happens meanwhile on the 1541, obviously there is some code landing at 0500 where you have the code waiting for something. And there is just this tiny loop here which is just waiting for something. It's waiting for an attention signal to becoming low. That means that it's waiting for this activity. So the virus has transferred the code on the drive and it's just waiting for something to happen. If the user accesses the file or save a file or open one or whatever. Again, we need to set some other knowledge about the 1541 disk drive structure and layout before going ahead so that you will get the entire virus life cycle. OK, disks were splitting tracks as today more or less. So no difference in this. Floppy disks had 35 tracks in them with different number of sectors for each track. Obviously the smaller tracks or the internal one were smaller and so they had fewer sectors than the external one with fewer storage capacity obviously. One interesting track is track 18. Track 18 it's a special truck in special truck in the 1541 because it holds the information about the disk and which files are on the disk. So it's the truck holding the directory. It's like the MFT and bit mapping and TFS more or less. So holding all the information about the disk. And the special track 18 which is also 12 in X decimal has a special structure as well. Sectors one to 18 of the directory track contain the directory entries. So all the files stored on the disks are listed in these sectors. And there is a special sector, the sector zero, the very first one which is the BAM, the block availability map which holds the information about the free and used blocks on the disk itself. Which is very important because we will see that the virus will use this information. This is the structure of the sector zero, the BAM. Okay, you see the first two bytes which are holding some data that we are not interested in them right now. So some generic data but what is interesting for us it's the byte four which holds the number of free sectors of track one and then the subsequent three bytes holding the bitmap of free sectors on the first track. And then this structure is repeated again and again and again for all the tracks of the disk. So you have the at byte eight the number of free tracks for sector two and then the bitmap of sector two the bitmap is just a set of one or zero saying which blocks are used and which aren't. Then all the other so this is for the sector zero of track 18. Then you have sectors one to 18. Sectors one to 18 are holding the files. There is this kind of structure repeated for each file and with this specific structure here. You see that the first two bytes are pointed to the next one. So when the first two bytes are zero this means that this is the last file used by the disk itself. Then you have very important for our analysis it's the byte starting from zero to so the third byte and the fourth and fifth byte because they are holding the file type which could be PRG, Sec, Reel or USL and the track and sector number of the first block of the file. Remember this because we will see that it will be used by itself. Then there are some other information like obviously the file name, file size and so on. This structure is repeated for every single file into the comma 64 of the list of files. I told you that there are different file types in comma 64. These are the known one so PRG, Sec, Reel, USL and L. PRG is what is interesting for us. PRG is the executable files. It's like the executable in the modern PC so it holds code that can be loaded into memory and the first two bytes of the file itself are the address to where the program itself must be loaded. This is what it actually executes code. Then we have also other type of files which are less interesting for our analysis but let's just have a quick look to them. We have a sequential which are just byte streams. A way to access files without random positioning. A Reel one which is a similar way to access files but with actually the possibility to position the pointer in the file itself. Then USL which is a user defined one and okay that one which is undocumented one. Comma 64 also had a basic integrity file system and so you had to close the file before removing the disk and you had also the possibility to have a star before the type of the file if the file has not been closed in the proper way. Now okay we set this knowledge we know now that which are the information we need to understand what happens now and let's start to see what happens when we try to infect the program starts to infect the program itself. So we left the program waiting for this activity to remember. When this activity is recognized okay there is a start of a specific function which is the 600600 this function which is residing on the 1541 do a very specific thing. So it starts to find the first three blocks where on track 18 so on track 12 in hexadecimal. So that means the virus it's not trying to store itself in a file it's trying to store itself in the directory structure which is something that it should not be done because the directory structure just holds file information not the file itself. And so it starts counting from the very end of the track itself and try to find three blocks there. Okay this is just the way of doing that it's looping from in the BAM so it loads the BAM you see the block zero here and then starts looping and looking for three sectors at the end of the file. Why it starts from the end of the track 18 because it's more likely to have them free. Commodore 64 this were not known to be to hold hundreds of files probably most of them had I don't know 10, 20 files. And so usually the last three blocks of the trachetin were actually not used at all. And so it's very likely to have them free. And so the virus it's trying just to check if these three blocks are free actually. And if not just try to move it and look for the one going through the beginning of the file. And it does it through this loop here. When it detects three sectors why three because the actually the code of the virus itself it's old it has been old in three sectors. It mark them as used into the bitmap. So it does not write the code again still but it just mark it mark the sector as used. Okay now the virus itself just found a way to okay it can stores its code on the disk but it's not sure yet if it can be reexecuted because actually the virus itself want to be executed in order to infect another system another disk. And so it starts another loop looking for PRG file. We said before that PRG files were the executable one and so it starts a loop to look for this kind of file. You can see here that it loads the first sector and then tries to compare for example you see that it's comparing the at the very end of the I don't know if I can point it yeah. There it compare the file type and it looks for the PRG one. When it found it it start the real infection phase. Until then it doesn't. So what happens is that okay I found a PRG file there and so I want to start the infection process. What does the infection process? It just get the very first pointer of the of the program of the PRG file and it makes it pointing to the track 18. So usually probably the pointer of the file is just pointing to another track not the track 18 because track 18 is not meant to be to holding some codes. And so it just moved this pointer to the track itself and in this way it just basically try to get be try to be reexecuted when the user just load the file. There is an additional check so the device also check if the file is already infected. So if it find that the PRG file is pointing already to track 18 which is basically impossible in a normal situation it just keep the file and okay it says okay probably it's already infected. So you can see that there is there are also error checkings and so nothing is left to the with two random things so it's really something that is well done in this case. So it's now time to infect the file. You the device itself it's just getting the track number for the file itself. It's replacing the track and sector number obviously. It replaced the values with the track and sector. Track will be 18 for sure. Sector will be the sector where it saves the three blocks. It replaced them so that the PRG file will point to that. And then it also makes the very last block of the of the virus itself pointing back again to the PRG file so that the execution of the PRG is kept and the user maybe does not realize that there was an infection. This is not this is not really working every time but it actually worked. So let's look up what actually the infection process is. So we had as we remember the on disk activity the loop waiting for on disk activity then okay when there is a disk activity track it in has three blocks. Yes. If yes it starts the infection process if not just exit. If the PRG file then if the three blocks are free and a PRG file is found it starts the infection process. If the PRG file is not found it does something like let's say plan B. It just renamed the disk to Bula Rules and it exit because okay it just not trying to do something harmful or doing something back to the system itself but just exit just renaming the disk itself with a new name. Okay I promised you that we were going through through the two versions of the virus basically the two versions were very similar. I don't know why there were two major release between them but okay the two versions are very similar the only difference between the two are the okay the loading of the version 8 it's a bit stiltier so you don't have the the flashing screen and it also hooks the safe command so hooking in common 64 you'll speed it trivial trivial to obtain because addresses for the routing are saved on 0300203FF so it's just a matter of replacing that addresses with a new one to redirect a command. In this case the version 8 is replacing the save vector with a reset vector so that if the user is typing save to save something just got the computer itself and then so everything is screened up but you still have at this point the virus is residing on the code of the sorry on the CPU of the 1541 device. Okay I published some tools because this exercise was done through several tools but I also built my own tools for doing these analysis I hope maybe you can find them useful also to do some other analysis about virus malware or maybe just other programs. This is the 010 template editor editor template which has been built to read and analyze the disk structure. As you can see you can analyze on the bottom side here the structure for example of the BAM of the directory showing up which is the bitmap of each blocks and so on. So it helped me to analyze what the virus was doing and it pretty neat to use for analyzing the mismages of the Commodore 64 itself. Then I created a couple of GIDRA scripts in order to mapping the code. As I said you the analyzer was the GIDRA analyzer was also the compiling but I mostly use assembly in this case and these scripts are just mapping for example all the kernel and ROM calls for Commodore 64 into the source of the assembly code just adding comments on what the code is doing so it allows you to streamline your analysis of the code if you apply these kind of scripts on your analysis for example and the same has been done for the 1541 ROM calls because 1541 had its additional ROM calls the MW common we saw, the U3 common we saw and so on. I'm also published the two database of the GIDRA database I created. These are two database everything is heavily commented as you can see here these are the complete analysis of the two virus sample you can open it with your GIDRA and have a look to it if you want they will be available on the GITAB as well. So just for reference if you want to have a look and let's jump to the conclusion so why I decided to do this talk today with you. Okay we are at the end and we saw that the fully functional malicious code can be put in 700 bytes. We saw that this was a virus that was completely functional with a lot of functions with everything done in the proper way replication persistence even some really nice things like moving itself on different devices and so on. So the techniques used by the virus were not new because they were used by legit software as well so they were not discovered by these viruses for sure but it was in any case interesting to complete this analysis because it was really helpful for me as a reverse engineer and I'll tell you also why. Okay as I said the scripting together with the fully commented GIDRA database are available on my GITAB and you can download them and have a look if you want and let's have a look on what we learned or what I learned and I hope you learned as well because that's the real core of the talk from my point of view. As I said I'm a reverse engineer and from a reverse engineer point of view what I learned or let's say recalled because sometimes it's just a matter of recalling things not really learning but sometimes you tend to forget some things. With this analysis that okay for example few assembly structure does not mean that we have few functionalities. We saw 700 bytes software doing a lot of things like replicating, writing, checking for errors which is not really something that you can give for done even if higher level program so that's something that you have to consider and that's really interesting for us as a reverse engineering so it does not mean that a small program is doing few things. Then the other important things that I'm sure I tend to forget and I think it's a gray area in the malware analysis nowadays it's that we don't have to forget external devices when we are looking at malicious software. In this case we saw that we had two CPUs running on two different devices of the computer itself. Right now think about how many chips you have in a modern computer. I'm sure that you can tell me that okay but these are not executing code or you cannot access directly, yeah true but you have device drivers accessing these kind of things and think about it, think about the thing that you may misuse a device driver in order to I don't know execute code, write code, store code somewhere where we are not expected, we don't expect to see it. We have a lot of additional things in our systems right now and so far from what I think is that this is a kind of a gray area it's not really explored from what regards the malicious software and so something we need to take into consideration. And then the first thing I learned and I would like also to pass to you it's that the assembly proficiency opens a lot of doors. I tend to see that assembly it's a bit, let's say I forgot the language so it's not teach it anymore, nobody is caring about it. I'm not saying here that you have to write your next word processor in assembly which is not the case obviously and probably you don't need to write anything in assembly in most of the case. But it's very important from my point of view that everybody working in security knows assembly and knows in a proper way because this really opens a lot of doors. From my point of view, for example in this kind of analysis I didn't know the 6502 architecture I learned in doing this analysis together with you this morning and the fact that I had knowledge of Intel assembly or ARM assembly really streamlined for me the analysis of this simple architecture. So that's something that we need to keep into consideration also when we think about studies of new people coming into security fields and so on. We don't have to forget that the assembly language it's very important for our purposes. And okay, so these are all the references for what I used and what I was speaking about today. I want to leave these slides some seconds so that everybody's accredited in the proper way. And okay, so I think that at the end of my presentation so I just want to say thank you to everyone here for staying with me for the entire presentation and if any question, maybe we have some minutes I don't know, five minutes I don't know if any of you have a question or something. Okay. I'm sorry. I'm not sure if you say the removal of the hook itself. The removal process is just done by the reset itself. So when you reset the memory everything is brought back to the original state. So the save it's just replaced with the correct address. So when you type save and you replace the vector the Commodore 64 has been reset but everything then it's bringing back to the original state. Thank you. Oh, yeah. Yeah, I think so. Let's say that, okay. It's not just a matter of this CPU obviously but okay, this is obviously a CPU that is still used so you can apply the same concept that we saw today probably not all this concept because some of the concepts we saw together were really specific to Commodore 64 architecture but all the rest of the things like the assembly code and so on it's exactly the same. Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, that's exactly the same. Okay, thank you so much. Thank you, really.


Top 10 mistakes to avoid in the classroom while teaching English abroad Teaching English abroad is an exciting career path that thousands of people embark on every year. The first step is usually a TEFL or TESOL certificate and then finding a job in a suitable location. Once you step into your own EFL classroom, you will then be able to use all the skills you learned during the course. However, every teacher makes mistakes every now and again, which is why we have summarized the top mistakes to avoid in the classroom while teaching English abroad to help you out. 1. Being the nice, fun teacher. Yes, teaching English should be fun, but if you lose control of your students and they don't see you as a respectable teacher, there won't be any learning. It's a much better strategy to set your standards from the start so you can have fun with your students down the road. Introduce a set of rules and stick to them and be sure to follow through with the consequences. Once you do that, your students will behave and it leaves more room for real fun time along the way. 2. Planning your lessons too quickly. Another common mistake, especially for new teachers, is to rush the planning stage of your lessons. One simple tip is to get together with your fellow teachers and see how they do their lesson planning when you start at a new school. Often, you will get training in lesson planning and a lot of schools already have set lesson plans for their teachers to use. If they don't, you can use the lesson plan templates you received during your TEFL certification course. 3. Using the same lesson plan for all levels. A lot of new teachers make this mistake because they think you can teach all levels of students in the same way. Start a new course with a level test to assess the student's level and then prepare your lesson plans accordingly. This does not mean you need to plan every single lesson from scratch. You can tweak a lesson plan and switch out activities to make it suitable for each level. 4. Talking too quickly or too slowly. As you have learned during your TEFL certification course, you really need to watch your speech when teaching English to speakers of other languages. Oftentimes, when a teacher really gets into a lesson, they speak in their natural voice, which can be difficult for students to follow, especially those of a lower level of English. At the same time, don't speak too slowly when teaching students of a higher level or they will get bored and you will lose their attention. 5. Thinking too short term. When starting a new class, many teachers just walk into the classroom and start teaching without a second plan. As a teacher, you need to think long term and plan out the entire year or semester and know exactly the goals and when you need to reach them. A curriculum is almost always necessary when teaching English abroad and many schools have their own set schedules that the teachers need to adhere to. Know exactly when the students need to take a test or an exam and plan your lessons accordingly. 6. Obsessing over correct grammar. You will have learned a lot about correcting errors in the EFL classroom during your TEFL certification course, so be sure to keep these tips in mind when you are actually in the classroom and teaching a lesson. Some teachers go ahead correcting every single mistake a student makes, especially regarding grammar. While you should definitely correct mistakes in written work, it's not recommended to be just as strict in conversational English. Fluency is more important than accuracy. 7. Seeing each student as the same. Just as you shouldn't use the same lesson plan for all of your classes, you also shouldn't teach every single student the same way. At the same time, you will know exactly where the strengths and weaknesses lie in every single student that you teach. Some students require more help with writing while others need more help with their reading skills. After a couple of lessons, you will know your students better and can tweak your teaching style to fit their needs. At the same time, you can give individual students different homework exercises and inform their parents of what needs to be improved. 8. Ignoring your students' goals. Every group of students has different needs and goals that need to be fulfilled by the teacher. Usually, you will know what the goal is before you start teaching them. For example, a debate class needs to know the proper phrases necessary to express a variety of opinions and a broad vocabulary of topics used in the debate class. The goals of this sort of class will be very different from a class of young learners who have only studied English for a short period of time. So be sure you know exactly what the students need and don't spend too much time on teaching them things they will not need. At the same time, make sure that they learn all they need to reach their goals. 9. Assuming you are the only teacher in the room. Over the years, I've learned so much from my own students while teaching English abroad and I've come to realize that the students are just as much a teacher as I am. Discussions about various topics are a great way to exchange ideas and learn something new about your adopted country and its culture. Allow your students to share information with you and you will create an interesting and meaningful EFL classroom. Taking the fun out of it. Incorporate fun activities into your lesson plans to create a fun learning environment. This will not only help your students pick up English quickly but also make it fun for you as the teacher. Teaching English is a fun and exciting job with so many great rewards. It's okay to share a joke here and there and to play games in the classroom as long as they are related to English learning of course. A happy teacher is a good teacher. Are you ready to teach English abroad? As a new teacher, it's especially important to recognize these mistakes and try your best to avoid them in the classroom while teaching English abroad. Of course, every teacher makes mistakes every now and then and that's okay. As long as you strive to continuously improve your teaching skills, you will definitely succeed in EFL teaching abroad. Apply now for your TEFL TESOL certification course and start teaching in a matter of months. Speak with an ITTT advisor today to put together your personal plan for teaching English abroad. Send us an email or call us toll free at 1-800-490-0531 to speak with an ITTT advisor today.


Mae'r ddysgu cyfrannu ac CRISP ac ydych chi'n rai'n ddysgu ein ddifonol yw Ydyn ni'n bod yn gweithio. Mae'n ddifonol gyda'r modau o'r ydych chi, mae'r hanes Rachell Kythau. Mae'n pethau o'r pethau i'r meddwl i'r Ydyn ni o'r Ysgol Blaenau'r Oxford Ysgol. Mae'r pethau o'r pethau o'r ysgol yw i'r unrhyw lle, i ni yn oed yn rhan o'r cyfrannu, a go ahead and give this conversation going. Then we will have an extraordinary panel discussion with companies that have really turned a coalition that has had a real ambition into a coalition which is actually acting and making a real difference. But from one of the great inspirations of this first mover coalition, please, John, the floor is yours. Thank you for your terrific stewardship in many respects and helping to guide us all of this, and thank you to the first movers who are here and those of you representing some of the first movers. I'm beginning every session that I engage in here by just trying to clarify something. There's a few questions out there. I am not retiring, folks. I want to make that clear. I am shifting my efforts to where I think they could be best used in an election year in the United States and facing the fact that the Congress is not going to, obviously, grab this by the baton the way you all are and the way we need. This is so critical, first of all.  There's nobody here who needs to be set up fully educated, but sometimes we all need to be reminded that we are dangerously close to the precipice of tipping points that we've been warned about on climate chaos that comes about because, as we know this past year, is by far the most turbulent in every country. There is every single respect. Heat, warming, the deforestation of those emissions, the amount of subsidies going to the very people that are creating the problems. You run the list and it really is a challenge. But, here's the but. You should feel good about the road we have traveled in a year or two years. When we stood up in Glasgow and we announced this First Movers Coalition, we had maybe 20-some companies or something. And we are now over a hundred and growing. And the question is, will we, as part of the mission, which is not just putting in orders for green products or creating partnerships within the framework of the FNC itself, but will we make the decisions globally and push a whole bunch more folks to join up and to be part of this effort? Because our problem is not that we don't know what to do. It's not that we don't, in fact, have, you know, certain solutions staring us in the face. Some of them are being implemented and deployed right now. It's that we're not doing any of what we need to do big enough and fast enough. And it is a challenge, major crisis with respect to our ability to be able to win this battle. Now, money. Money is critical to our ability to be able to do that. And, kudos. I mean, I cannot thank enough the CEOs of First Movers Coalition companies who made the decisions that they're going to be leaders.  And if you don't have to explain to them privately even, the people in families and otherwise who sometimes challenge the decision to spend a little more than you have to to change your bottom line. But it is only by making that decision that we're going to be in a place where we get to accelerate this transition fast enough. Now, we've tried to do our part. The reason, one of the reasons why I am comfortable saying I'm not going to lead our team into the next cop is because I believe we had an historic cop in Dubai. I believe that the fact that we got 195 nations to sign off on language that says we will transition away from fossil fuels is historic. And it's not a freestanding sentence. It's a sentence that is modified by the phrase, in keeping with the science, which means 1.5 degrees is our north star and we have to keep pushing in that direction. It also says accelerating in this decade and it also says in keeping with net zero by 2050, which means you have to meet a certain curve of reduction and be transparent and accountable in the public sector. So this is a major step forward. It's accompanied by other steps. It's accompanied by the fact that for the first time at a cop there was a major devoted day to methane. And China and the United States held a joint conference in which China has already now put out its national plan, which we worked on two years ago and we originally agreed to announce in Glasgow. And we all agreed that all greenhouse gases will now be part of the NDCs. Imagine that in the year 2023, methane wasn't even included in the NDCs of a whole host of countries. And if you add to what I just said, adaptation initiative and the way in which we're now going to move with respect to loss and damage where we created something that a lot of people thought was a showstopper, a cop killer, and something that was going to prevent us from ever getting progress. Well, guess what? We worked all summer, all through a series of meetings, five of them in the end, in order to be able to try to set ourselves up to get that done on the first day. So it didn't become a destructive and counter-forced everything else we needed to do. We won that battle. So we are now poised, folks, to really take this idea of a first mover coalition and run with it. And you saw in that video all the things that are able to be done now. So we are, I think, in the midst of one of the most powerful examples of what we can do on the demand side to be able to affect the marketplace. And the fact is that what we've accomplished is really amazing. We've amassed over 110 out of about 100 members, 110 specific purchasing agreements from almost 100 companies. We have taken together all of this effort by the FMC represents about $16 billion of commitments that are being made. It's the largest private demand signal for clean technologies in history. And we're already seeing this demand as creating catalytic consequences within the other technologies. And when you pair the necessary policy work that we've been doing on the supply side, the IRA, for instance, you have a combination that can change the marketplace much more rapidly than it would be otherwise. So what I'm really excited about is this entity, the FMC, is doing the innovative work in order to meet their 2030 purchasing agreements. It's happening. And the commitments that first may work companies have made are obviously fundamentally challenging. But they are commitments that will change the way that we procure our most basic goods, steel, aluminum, concrete, jet fuel, shipping, shipping industry. Together with the IMO that changed its rules this year and the shipping industry, Yara, thank you, Marysg, thank you, MSC, thank you, you stepped up. And now I am told that the entire shipping fleet will probably be turned over in the course of about 20 years to no carbon, zero carbon, low carbon sourcing. That's incredible when you think about where we were only two years ago. So this is a great example of the way in which the marketplace can act responsibly. It's truly the upside, best side if you will, of capitalism which brags that it has the ability to be able to allocate capital more effectively than any other methodology. Well, this is proof really in the pudding that you can be responsible in ways way beyond what the normal marketplace is willing to accept. There are almost 100 off-take agreements different from the commitments that are made with innovative suppliers and they are moving voluntary pledges to real, bankable contracts. These off-take agreements represent a coming together of governments, suppliers, buyers, financiers, and they do something very complicated and difficult, but they're doing it. And it's going to have an impact on the market. My bottom line is this. I am convinced now because of what is happening in the marketplace. Smart CEOs of the biggest companies in the world, Microsoft, Google, Apple, Salesforce, FedEx, Boeing, Ford, Mercedes, that's what I mean, automobile dealers, all through the food chain. We are seeing CEOs make the decision that they're committing their companies to maybe pay a little bit of a green premium, but in the end create a supply chain that is going to provide everybody the ability to be able to join up and enjoy the benefits here. So you're going to hear from a handful of our members today about how they are driving transformation through FMC commitments. It's absolutely critical that we accelerate. I am convinced beyond any doubt that because of the decisions being made in the marketplace now, you know as well as I do. Even if, you know, I don't want this obviously, but if you wound up with a different president who was opposed to climate crisis, I got news here. No one politician anywhere in the world can undo what is happening now. The marketplace is doing this. And the only issue for all of us is not whether or not we can get or will get to a low-carbon, low-carbon economy globally, we will. The only question is will we get there in time to meet the challenge of the scientists in order to avoid the worst consequences of this crisis? That is what is at stake. So I really look forward to hearing from our folks today who are going to lay out to everybody here the ways in which all can participate in this transformation. It's the biggest transformation in the economies of the world in all of human history. It's also the greatest business set of opportunities that we've ever known in all of human history. And smart people are seeing that opportunity and I think it's going to be the job creator and the energizer of our economies that are going to really transform the world over the course of these next months and years. So with that, please, let's get the panel and learn what everybody is up to. Thank you. Thank you. Excuse me, we need one more chair. Thank you very much Special Envoy Kerry-John, if I may, and thank you for just shifting role a little bit. We continue to need your vision and enthusiasm. So first move of coalition a couple of years ago in Glasgow started small and is now sending this extraordinary demand signal across all kinds of value chains in what used to be called hard to abate sectors. And so first of all, I'd like to go to one of the early government members of the first move of coalition to minister Tan Siling, second minister for trade industry. Singapore sits at the hub of global shipping of logistics, transportation, et cetera. We're going to hear from CEOs who are doing extraordinary work along their value chains. What more could, on the public side, on the government side, what more could governments do to respond now to the demand signal that we're beginning to create across the economy? Thank you. First and foremost, a very good morning to all of you. I always enjoy listening to special adviser, John's remarks and that sense of optimism that really sort of gives us the kind of gusto to move forward. I think that for us we were very, very excited with the FMC and the movements moving forward. We believe that fundamentally government is really and can really perform the role of a catalyst and an enabler for many of these initiatives and driving systems that you're going to start. And really in terms of the development of low carbon technologies and markets and how we can actually achieve partnership with the industry and also to see how we can enable and also channel market demand into areas where it's needed most. So, as I've said earlier on, beyond the catalyst, the government has to play the role of an enabler. So, one of the key things that we have done, and perhaps if we could share with you some of our experiences at the end of last year, we did an end-to-end RFP for ammonia, the development of low carbon ammonia solutions. And what we did was that the expressions of interest concluded in October and we will be issuing a close RFP, a request for a proposal to six short listed consortiums. And this, when it's done, we will be announcing something towards the end of this month. It would move Singapore another step closer to being one of the first countries in the world to test and to deploy a direct ammonia combustion power plant and to support the holistic assessment of ammonia bunkering for shipping. So, we are also working with multiple other ammonia suppliers, shipping lines, storage providers, technology providers and also bunker suppliers to ensure that we are able to scale up the required infrastructure to support and to cater for ammonia bunkering for both ocean-going ships and domestic harbour crafts. And obviously, we are developing procedures, standards and regulations for safe bunkering of ammonia. Now, for aviation, we set up an international centre for aviation innovation or ICAI just last week to facilitate the development and the adoption of technologies for the aviation sector, which focuses primarily on the Asia-Pacific region. So, we'll partner governments, industry, we'll partner our eyes to research institutes to undertake R&D projects in several new key areas, for instance, sustainable aviation, developing new concepts to minimise carbon footprint through optimising operations. So, we are also working with our partners, the US, Japan, to see how we can develop and implement aviation green lanes throughout the whole of Asia-Pacific. And this would then provide a pathway for accelerated emissions reductions through fostering value chain collaboration, ensuring credibility and also providing predictability and transparency to consumers. So, FMC, with your focus on private sector resource mobilisation, can work with us and with multiple governments, like-minded governments in developing low-carbon value chains and testbed solutions. And some of the government platforms in Singapore, for instance, like our MPA, which is the Maritime Port Authority Screen and Digital Shipping Corridors, they are root-based action plans. It can help to bring together a network of maritime and energy value chain stakeholders to exchange information to catalyse pilot trials and establish a supply chain of zero or near zero greenhouse gas emissions. Thank you. Thank you, thank you very much. So, we're going to go to rapid fire CEO segment of this panel now. And Hashimoto-san from Mitsui Oskai, it's really wonderful to be here. And I have to say that every now and again at Davos, you get a sort of a sign of how quickly things are moving. I think the shipping sector really over the last few years has moved very fast. So, we saw one of your incredible new prototype ships on the video at the beginning. You've been involved in advanced market commitments on carbon removals. You're involved in other innovations in the fuel stock as well. What do you need in order to see this transformation go even faster around the world? Thank you. Thank you, Rachel. Yes, since we joined the other FMC two years ago, we expanded so many activities and tried to accelerate the low-carbon and zero-carbon transportation of the shipping business. The complication is that the general shipping company, we are covering so many different kinds of shipping businesses. There are containers and bulkers and tankers and gas carriers, the ferry and the cruise businesses. And each segment has different requirements and natures. Then it became quite clear that there is no single solution to achieve the net zero. We definitely need to establish a combination of the different kinds of procedures to reduce our emissions for the time being. And in the long term, we definitely need to net zero. So that ammonia, LNG, methanol, hydrogen, battery, we couldn't delete any options because of the very wide variety of the 800, 900 vessels all over the world that they need a different solution. And we are trying to work with quite many industrial players, shipyards, engineering companies, large customers and charters, and also the quite important issue for us is the dialogue with the government and international entities. So we need to establish technical achievement, commercial achievement, and also the kind of the political framework. It's quite the gigantic effort we need. We already started and when we started it, we did not expect such a very big one. But the more and more that it became very clear that we cannot do it alone, we definitely need to set up a quite strong team that work together to achieve the various different targets in the 90s, sorry, 2020s and 30s and 40s. So for us that being the member of FMC is quite important to the milestone and we really want to accelerate our efforts to do the necessary actions. And also to try to organise quite many team members in a shipping sector to materialise our target. So it's really fascinating to see in this coalition of first movers, every aspect of the value chain being squeezed across the membership. So from switching out the fuel in the ports through to the composition of the actual vessels themselves to the fuel that the vessels are using, we start to see this. So now I think maybe come to you Dan, Dan Fisher, CEO of the Ball Corporation. So in all of those value chains the issues of recycling become very important. You're leading in the aluminium sector or aluminium as I used to say when I came up. I say that when I'm in London. So what's interesting is that you're using your advanced purchasing to sort of like pull things forward. So talk a little bit about the approach that you're taking and how you see the value chain relationships panning out. I think we're blessed within the FMC to have our largest customers and our largest suppliers. So we've got a common framework and a common language and a common goal. Aluminum is a lot simpler maybe than some of my panellists and the more recycled content and the green energies that used to fuel that, you can get to carbon neutral in a very pragmatic and efficient manner. And I think the special envoy Kerry made a comment and I think was the real challenge is always sitting in front of a board for public traded board. We're 15 billion dollars in revenue. We're a billion dollars of free cash flow signing a multi billion dollar off take agreement. That's that sort of betting that good will equal well for your shareholders over time. And we're very, very fortunate that our partners, Novelis and ourselves were able to sit down, take the best of today. In terms of carbon neutrality and circularity performance in the world and design in infrastructure that they're building the first multi billion dollar rolling mill in North America since the late 80s. It will be green energy. It will be 85% recycled content. But most important, I think in the manufacturing space, typically you're designing in the most efficient for today in the shortest payback period. That is not at all what we believe you need. We believe you need an innovation center that there will be to be determined innovation and engineering capabilities that will unlock future availability in a greener transportation pathway for our product. And so we subsidize that we're not part of the IRA. We don't have subsidies. So this is ball corporation paying a little bit more right now. We won't see the first world coil coming off those lines till 2028. So that's a very challenging dialogue obviously with your shareholders and your board to commit to that big of investment. But our belief is that it's a license to operate in the future and that will be the cheapest aluminum in the world at the time that that comes online. So we're incredibly excited, very thankful for our partners, very thankful for the First Rivers Coalition to put us together and help us see the light there. So we're excited to continue to tell the aluminum story and more to come. Thank you Dan. I think for those watching, there's a real power in this value chain collaboration. And for those policymakers and the people who have to sort of put in the frameworks in place, we've gone from well as no demand signal. I'm going to be jumping off a policy cliff to actually you've got a real proof of collaboration and what that can mean. And I think that some of the innovation around the advance purchasing, the advance to offtake agreements, give certainty to the policymakers and this public policy partnership. It's a bit of a cliff when you've got 14 year old twin girls and you haven't paid for college yet. Exactly. But we're just making the cliff a little shallower. So there you go. But now to Annabelle, the president CEO of Vattenfall. So Vattenfall, famous historically as an energy company, you're involved in value chain collaboration in aviation, cement and concrete, steel and trucking I think in this collaboration. And of course famously, I think you've probably got more headlines for the collaboration Volvo on fossil fuel free steel in the last year or so. But could you talk about again what you would need from the public policy side to respond and perhaps talk about how you're driving this kind of collaboration. Yeah, I'll be happy to thank you. Thank you. And I think first and foremost, it's important to conclude that the business of tomorrow will not be run on fossil fuels. And I think that is the direction that is probably clear for everybody in this room. But I think that if you haven't started to transform your business yet, it's really about time to think about how much can I lag behind without losing my competitiveness. And I think that is the starting point for us when we look at this from a business perspective. And I think that what is needed now is probably not so much policies or subsidies and I will come back to that. I think what is needed is that leaders in business but also in politics actually move. So I think that the move part of the First Movers Coalition is going to be even more important going forward. And we've already heard many great examples of that. I think that when it comes to Wattenfall, we set out maybe some eight years ago on a journey where we say that we want to enable fossil freedom. And that is our business strategy. And ever since then, we have been transforming our business in three tracks basically. Our own portfolio of assets, which we are working on continuously, everything that we purchase from our suppliers, but also everything that we provide to our customers and that they use. We are set out to be net zero by 2040 in all those goals, including the customer usage. And we are well on the way. And we are, by the way, also meeting our financial targets and have done all the way. And I think that is the trick here. When it comes to First Movers Coalition, we are one of the proud founders of the coalition. And we have committed so far to four sectors. It's steel, cement, aviation and trucking. And we do have initiatives going on in all of them. When it comes to steel, the one that's been most talked about is probably the hybrid project together with SSAB. There's also First Movers Coalition member, a steel company and also LKAB, a mining company, where we jointly built a power plant for producing fossil free steel in a process where we use green hydrogen made of fossil free energy. And the sort of climate or the carbon footprint is basically zero from that steel. It is up and producing and is now about to scale massively. The demand is clearly there. That is not the problem. And as you also mentioned, Volvo is one of the first off-takers of this steel. And we're also involved in aviation, so regarding sustainable aviation fuel, but also electric fuels together with a number of partners. We're also doing integrated development with our clients when it comes to fueling their transformation with fossil free energy together with BASF, for example. Or with Volvo also outside this sort of hybrid project. We have a number of projects going on where we simply build the energy that they need in order to make their transformation. I think that many of these bankable agreements mentioned within the coalition are extremely interesting and also a way of sort of fueling this transformation. Maybe just one recent example where I know that Amazon, who is the first movers coalition member, are buying trucks from Volvo, who is the first movers coalition member. Those trucks are electric and they are made out of fossil free steel produced by SSAB, who is the first movers coalition member in this hybrid plant where Wattenfall, who is the first movers coalition member, provided the green hydrogen and the electricity needed to produce that. And we clearly see the sort of business rationale in all these parts. So I think that this transformation is only in the beginning and there are a lot of business opportunities out there to grab, but we should also be clear that of course there are challenges. And there will be obstacles and there will be ups and downs, and that's why we are here. That's our job as business leaders to manage our businesses through that transformation and be successful also in the other end. And I think that first movers coalition is a great tool to do that in a business fashion. So is what you're all saying that there is a green premium, but that that's not an obstacle, that's something that can be cleared? I think that the green premium is often exaggerated because you have to put it in relation to other things. If you take the steel for example, the green premium in the beginning is estimated to be approximately 25%, but once the price for carbon emissions will increase, the relative difference between traditional steel and that will disappear. And I think if you translate that premium into what it means for an end consumer and you put that fossil free steel into a car that you and I would buy, the extra cost for the fossil free steel in that car is equivalent to two USB sockets that you put into the car. So I think it's doable. If the regulatory environment that is projected maintains itself, then it's not a premium. If you lapse those, it becomes a significant premium in a big risk in the future. So we just have to continue down the path to sustain what we've all laid out and what governments have laid out, and then it's not a premium. Now, and I think the best thing that governments and policymakers can make is not pouring subsidies into this, but rather de-risking the scaling of the technologies because the capital is there to fund it then. Well, let's go to the capital then. So, a beautiful segue there, thank you Anna. So to Carlos Torres, chairman of BBVA, one of the first European banks I think to lead on sustainability and a member of the first mover coalition. So you're financing across the economy. What do you see as exciting from a financial perspective, from a bankers perspective, and what would you like to see from the public policy in order to create this certainty going forward that would help? Thank you. What we see is very exciting and the stories we just heard really are building up an immense opportunity and we're here to finance, we're secondary actors, we're finance doing the emitting, we're not the ones that need to do the investment, but we're definitely the ones who can and are supporting companies like yourselves in carrying out the projects. Certainly the first mover coalition is helping closing the loop and de-risking the project so that they can be easily bankable, like Anna was saying, and that is all very exciting. But I would have a much more critical or complementary viewpoint from what you two just described as regards government policy. I think we're only scratching the surface. Secretary Kerry was mentioning earlier, we need to go a lot faster, we need to accelerate and we need to get from first movers to all movers. What I see is that current policy is really a challenge. It's really not helping eliminate the green premiums because there was a lot of ifs in what you described, so the carbon pricing and all. What I see is that there is excessive focus or maybe at times sole focus on the supply side as if the end user was not the ultimate reason why we are emitting. And if we want to move from well-meaning companies that have strategic goals and are forward-looking and our first movers, if we want to move from that to a widespread demand signal, we really need to change to a collective set of policies that are coherent, that are consistent, that get the job done. And we are far from that. Even at times we see how policymakers succumb to short-term pressures to isolate, which is crazy, isolate demand from the consequences of the supply side policies. And it not need to be antisocial to actually make consumers feel the signals. You can balance. And I think if we want not only to deploy faster the existing technologies, that makes sense, but also we want to have sufficient investment in developing and scaling the technologies that we need to solve many of the hard-to-solve problems, the hard-to-abate sectors, then we need consumers to feel the signal. And yes, we can compensate those that are most affected by the transition. That's very compatible, but we really need to, again, to act together on the demand side. And certainly carbon pricing is an essential piece of the framework. And we're far from carbon pricing to be widespread. There's just so much of emissions that are today not taken into account. So, again, our role is secondary. We're here to support. And we would love to see so much more happening if only we could get policy makers to adopt, to really bite the bullet. So can I just push you a little bit? I mean, I think that's a very succinct analysis of the sort of short-termism, long-termism, demand supply conundrum that we find ourselves in. But as a first mover coalition, a global first mover coalition, how can the private sector lean into those politicians who are simply looking at the polling data with a misinterpretation of what's actually going to serve their people better over the long run? Is there anything more that business can say? I mean, I don't want to use the word lobby, but how does the advocacy become effective? Well, laying out how inconsistent the current set of policies are and how... You can call it lobby. We're actually, as banks, not very effective at lobbying because everything we say is discounted a lot. And despite the fact that we are doing through our financing, we're having positive impact on society and really the underpinning of social progress and economic progress is the private investment, which is mostly financed through banks. Despite that being the reality, we've not heard much in the space. And maybe others and other FMC leaders could have more success. We certainly are trying to influence in Europe as much as we can. It's not all negative. Don't get me wrong. We have a lot of good things going and the carbon border adjustment mechanism, for example, is a good example, but we're just not doing enough. We just need to step it up. And it's a hard question we're asking. I don't know what the best way would be to influence policymakers to really get their act together for the long term. Maybe all of us collectively speaking out for this to happen. Minister, can I put you on the spot for 60 seconds? How do we get the government collaboration to do what is so obvious with the proof point of the First Movers Coalition? A few years ago, people were like, it's hard to abate sectors. We're never going to make any progress. And here we have tangible proof that there's collaboration along the value chain. And yet we haven't, on the government side, made as much international progress on pricing pollution and getting the kinds of collaboration necessary. What needs to happen? Well, I can't speak for all governments. I think at least in our region, we try our best to work with different governments, different partners on a set of interoperable taxonomy and standards. I think once we have a common platform where we have agreement in terms of how we look at, in terms of whether it is in the form of verifiable carbon credits, rules of origin in terms of your green hydrogen. And if we have, and of course, make sure that these standards then prevent green washing and all those other sort of untrustworthy type of transactions, I think it would be a very first, small, but very significant step, a giant leap for all of us. Having said that, the other part is really working with like-minded partners, for instance like the US. We're working very closely with Singapore in terms of the IPAF framework. We are going to look at the entire ASEAN regional grid to see how we could work on the feasibility study, both from the regulatory, the legal, and the social economic feasibility framework for the uplifting of about 650 million people living in ASEAN. So those are small steps, but actually each step is a very significant milestone. And I think we need to accelerate that. A lot of times you find that in terms of governments, continuity of the government of course is also very important. That consistency in terms of making sure the trust has been built can actually bring us a lot further. To your point about the carbon premium, we started imposing carbon tax last year. It's a ratchet up. I think we're one of the first countries in our region to do so. It's a very bold step, but we have committed to making sure that whatever premiums we collect from the carbon tax itself is plowed back into the development of renewable energy research into low carbon energy research and so on and so forth. So I'm going to wrap up now. Thank you so much. The takeaway from this, especially in a year where government continuity is on the ballot for more people than not on the planet, that it can be done. There's no doubt that we can build an economy that can operate at a low or zero carbon. There's no doubt that we can do that with smart public policy to make it equitable and fair. The question is, can we go faster to meet the science, as Envoy Kerry said? So, from Davos, thank you very much. First movers, ladies and gentlemen. Can I go that time? Yes. Sorry. Usually I'm so overstenderal, but I don't get it. Listening to this, I gotta tell you folks, you guys really are heroic. I mean that. And, Dan, I'll tell you, I'm confident that all corporations with Pepsi and Coca-Cola and their members, you guys made a profit. I won't tell everybody what it is. But the reality is you can do this and it's good business. But if we don't do it, we're going to pay much higher premiums, much higher price, everything will cost more, food chains, the economic food chain will be completely disrupted, there'll be chaos in the marketplace in a sense, whereas this is the orderly transition unfolding right for your eyes. And our goal is not to have everybody join the first movers coalition, but to have a sufficient number of people in the first movers coalition that everyone is a mover. And we want to put ourselves out of business in terms of first mover. So that's the goal. So thank you all very, very much.