We shall begin with today's class. What we are going to do is that we are going to continue a little bit on the device basics that we had started with on the first day. Because we want to understand how MOS devices actually operate and how logic can be constructed. Then after that we will look at a few of the parameters of logic design and then we will go over to specific logic design using TTL and CMOS circuits. There is a set of nodes that I have uploaded today to the model site for CMOS and NMOS logic design. Please notice that these nodes are much more detailed than what is expected of a basic electronic course. So, it is because we believe that teachers should be at least one step ahead of the students that the treatment in this as well as in my previous basic electronics nodes. The treatment is one step higher than what you expect the students to understand. Please exercise your choice in what you include in the lectures to the students themselves. That said let us now first of all review the things that we had done in the very first lecture. So, what we had done about semiconductors was that you have N type and P type semiconductors. It is made N type by donors and P type because you have added acceptors that donors are normally ionized at room temperature and because they have donated an electron they are positively charged. So, they become ions because they are fixed in space and they are positively charged and acceptors because they have accepted an electron become ions which are fixed in space and are negatively charged. In addition to that we have free electrons and holes. In many discussions on Moodle and through email we have seen what is the difference between a hole and a positively charged ion. So, the point is that the ion is an impurity atom it cannot move the positive charge is held by the atom and therefore, it is a static charge. In case of a hole also an electron has been taken away, but the location of the electron deficient atom changes because there is a transfer of electron from one atom to the next. As a result the atom which was earlier electron deficient is no more electron deficient and its neighbor from whom an electron has been taken now becomes electron deficient. So, therefore, the main difference between ions and holes is that the apparent the actual location of positive charge changes as electrons transfer and the location of the positive charge cannot change in case of an ion. So, now we have four types of charged objects in this there are positively charged donor ions, there are negatively charged acceptor ions, there are negatively charged free electrons and there are positively charged mobile holes. So, these are all the charges which are there inside a semiconductor we had also seen through numerical examples that in fact, the majority carriers are very much more numerous compared to minority carriers which makes it possible to ignore the charge from minority carriers under many circumstances, but we should be careful to make sure that we are operating in a condition where this is indeed true. We now want to look at the band diagram of these semiconductors I had mentioned this in response to various letters on moodle and also during the class if this is the energy level of the free electrons and that is called the conduction band. This is the energy level of those bound electrons which are in the outermost shell and can be easily transferred from one electron deficient one atom to an electron deficient atom and thus lead to hole transfer. So, that is called the balance band this is the least bound of the bound electrons and this is the band gap. We had also seen that these statistics of carriers is controlled by this equation which comes essentially from the equilibrium between the creation and inhalation of electrons and holes. So, we had seen that in equilibrium condition you always have the product of n and p to be the same what it really means is that therefore, the logarithmic value of the two sides leads to log n plus log p that is equal to constant it is indeed twice log n. Now, the point is that this equation provides a constraint on the number of electrons and holes you can specify one kind of carrier, but then the other kind of carrier is not free to attain any value its value is then fixed by this equation. So, there is indeed only one free variable and we can visualize this free variable by putting the constraint in this logarithmic plane as we have said. So, let us define a quantity called n by n i which is the normalized number of electrons to their concentration under intrinsic conditions. So, in that case this could be written as log of n by n i plus log of p by p i equal to log of 1 which is 0. So, these two being constant essentially what it means is that as electrons become more than n i holes actually become less than n i. Now, suppose I was to represent this log n and log p by some distances in that case what we are saying is that suppose I was to represent in the energy plane this concentration log of concentration of holes by this distance then the value of electrons is already fixed it is not free anymore. In that case provided I have chosen appropriate normalization constants in that case the number of electrons is always given by this. If you tell me that there are this many holes then it follows that there must be this many electrons. So, therefore, it is this level which determines the concentration of both electrons and holes what we are saying is that the concentration of electrons and holes are not two independent variables there is only one independent variable which simultaneously determines the concentration of electrons and concentration of holes because of the constraint provided by this equation. And that is graphically illustrated essentially by putting this energy level in the band gap and this energy level is called the Fermi level. Now, notice that the energy is given by minus q times a potential when you have a potential electrostatic potential multiplied by minus q and that gives the energy of the that gives the energy of an electron because the electron carries minus q charge. So, therefore, corresponding to E F there is a value of phi f the Fermi potential. If you multiply the Fermi potential by minus q then you will be able to plot it in this energy diagram because this is the diagram of energy. So, we can define a Fermi potential phi f and multiplied by minus q and that will then give us this phi f turns out to be k t by q this provides that normalization l n of p by n i this ratio. Now, in this essentially what we have done is we have shifted the 0 of this energy. So, let us calculate find out where the 0 of this energy lies. Suppose we have an intrinsic semiconductor in that case n is equal to n i and p equal to n i and in that case how much is this potential? We have p divided by n i which will give you 1 its natural log will be 0 and therefore, the Fermi potential is 0 and correspondingly the Fermi energy is 0. So, when electrons are equal to holes in an intrinsic condition then we know that these two distances will be equal because these distances are just proportional to logarithm of the concentrations of electrons and holes. So, therefore, the midway point of this band diagram is called the intrinsic Fermi level because when the semiconductor is intrinsic we are at 0 distance from this point by this formula. When the material is p type then this number is greater than 1 and we have a positive Fermi potential and therefore, by this formula a negative energy compared to the intrinsic level. That means the Fermi level will be found below this. On the other hand if p is less than n i as would happen for an n type semiconductor in that case Fermi potential will be negative and the corresponding Fermi energy will be positive and therefore, it will be found above this at some level. Now, all of this is repetition this is what we had done just to remind you I have just taken it up. We now want to consider the MOS structure with which we will be doing most of our electronics. So, consider a structure in which you have metal here and first let us not even go to MOS transistor. Let us go to the plane and familiar parallel plate capacitor which we have all done from school onwards. So, suppose you have two metal plates and with an insulator inside separating the two. We know that the capacitance of the parallel plate is given by the dielectric constant times the area of these plates divided by d where d is this distance in the insulator. Let us however, understand physically what this capacitance implies. Suppose I put some charge on this and let me plot this capacitance as a function of 1 by d and now what I am going to tell you is that the capacitance is actually not fundamentally dependent on d. It is fundamentally dependent on the distance between the charge that we place on one plate and the corresponding induced charge on the other plate. So, in fact, d should ideally be in the most general case the distance between the charge that you place and the induced charge that it creates. So, suppose you were to place some charge delta q on this and assume that this charge is plus what will happen to the lower plate. Well clearly a charge minus delta q is to be induced in the lower plate and negative charges will be attracted by this positive charge. So, there is a force of attraction between this positive charge and the induced negative charge which is here and as a result these carriers will try to come as close as possible to each other. As a result all of this plus delta q will be found crowding at the lower end of this metal and similarly the induced negative charge will all crowd around at the upper end of this metal plate because in this state the electrons and holes are positive and negative charge are as close as possible they cannot come any closer because this is an insulator and the charge carriers cannot enter the insulator. Therefore, the distance between the causing charge and the induced charge is exactly equal to the thickness of the insulator and it is for that reason that you have d here in this expression. Let us now generalize this structure and remove this lower plate and put a semiconductor here. For the sake of argument let us say that this insulator is the oxide of the semiconductor typically silicon and you have the semiconductor here and it is this structure which gains the name to the MOS transistor that is metal oxide semiconductor. Let us do the same experiment now and for the sake of argument assume that this semiconductor is p type dope to 10 to the power 16 per centimeter. These are numbers that we have taken earlier and we are familiar with it. Notice that the electron density in this case was about 2.25 into 10 to the power 4 because n i is 1.5 into 10 to the power 10. Now, given that if you put positive charge on this negative charge is required here and I will reproduce our earlier discussion and classify it according to charges. What is positively charged? Donors, donor ions are positively charged and holes are positively charged. What is negatively charged? Well, acceptor ions are negatively charged and electrons are negatively charged. If I have put some positive charge here then I need negative charge here and if I put some negative charge here then I need some positive charge in the semiconductor. Let us consider both these cases separately. First of all if you make the gate negative and put some negative charge on this metal then you need positive charge in this p type semiconductor and what is positive in the p type semiconductor? Well, there are no donor ion ions because this is p type we have put only acceptor ions here. There are no donor ions therefore, there is no positive charge available from ions. The only charge available is from holes and holes are mobile. As a result when I put negative charge here I have negative charge here, the charges here are mobile and they will do exactly the same thing that this metal parallel plate capacitor did that means the negative charge will come as close as possible to the insulator and the holes will come as close as possible to the surface of the semiconductor and they cannot come any closer. The holes cannot jump into the oxide, oxide is an insulator and the negative charge in the metal plate cannot come any closer because it is it cannot inject charges into the oxide. So, they come as close as they can and that is the same distance d here and as a result if my applied voltage is negative then on this plot the capacitance remains constant and is given by this same expression epsilon a by d. So, this is not very interesting this is the same as the metal parallel plate capacitor that we had learnt about. On the other hand suppose I was to put positive charge on the metal plate. So, now we are considering the case when you have positive charge on the metal plate. Now, if you have positive charge on the metal plate you require negative charge on the other side of the insulator and what is negative except the ions are negative and electrons are negative, but we already know that the number of electrons in a p type semiconductor is pitifully small, extremely small number of electrons exist in this. So, no considerable amount of charge can be provided by electrons. If you need negative charge the only way is to have acceptor ions there which will provide the charge. So, as a result what happens is that when you make this positive then holes which are in plenty in this p type semiconductor are now driven away from the surface and they leave the exposed ions here and it is the ions which are immobile which are fixed in their positions they provide the negative charge. So, as a result a slab of this electron is now devoid of holes and the exposed acceptor ions which are negatively charged as we had seen here they remain here. A very important difference is now taken place and that is that the answering charge to every incremental positive charge will have to go deeper and deeper into the semiconductor. If I put some more positive charge here the additional negative charge cannot come from this slab because all the ions are already accounted for. Now, new ions have to be exposed and as a result additional ions will have to be exposed from this region and therefore, the responding charge is further away from the causing charge and this will continue as I put more and more charge. So, as a result the capacitance is no more constant it starts reducing because the effective distance has become more. How long will this continue? Well the answer is that holes and electrons are not independent and as you drive away holes start reducing in number, but as holes reduce in number the number of electrons must come up. At some point it will so happen that the number of electrons which is going up now becomes as high as the holes were to begin with. That means, it is possible that the number of electrons now starts becoming 10 to the power 16 and then the concentration of holes has dropped to a few tens of thousands as it was the other way round in the beginning. If you now look the major negative charge can come from electrons because there is a plentiful number of electrons available. As holes have reduced electrons have increased and as electrons increase they can become the majority carriers in this and then their numbers will be of the order of 10 to the power 16 or what have you and the number of holes will be only 10 to the power 4. Since there are no holes left you cannot remove them to expose the extra ions and since there are plentiful electrons available. Now, the answering charge will be by way of electrons and not by way of extra ions and as a result the electrons which are mobile they will move to the surface and the original condition will now prevail that the causing charge which is here and the induced charge which is electrons is here and you are back to the original value of capacitance. So, essentially you reach a stage this is the voltage across the capacitor this is the capacitance and you reach a stage after which suddenly the capacitance will recover back to its parallel plate capacity. This is the characteristic at low frequency of MOS device. If on the other hand if you put and remove this charge very very quickly then there is no time for carriers to be generated and move and in that case the capacitance becomes constant and remains at this low value. So, this is the C at low frequency this is the C at high frequency in either case the total capacitance corresponds to this maximum width of the definition which is caused by this by holes being question. So, this is the MOS capacitor notice that even though this semiconductor is p type just the surface has lots and lots of electrons and therefore, it is almost like an n type semiconductor. This effect is called inversion and now what I am going to do is to put two n plus pockets on either side of this inversion and make an MOS transistor this terminal is now called the gate. Now, notice when this gate voltage is either negative or small enough positive then inversion has not occurred and I have an insulating silicon separating this n plus to n plus the rest of the silicon is p type and therefore, I have this back to back diodes n plus p and p n plus and irrespective of what polarity voltage I apply between these two terminals no current will flow because at least one of these diodes must be reverse back. So, as a result I shall not be successful in sending current through from one terminal to the other. However, once this voltage exceeds this voltage and which is called the turn on voltage at this point the surface of this p type semiconductor will turn electron rich and therefore, n type and now I have a continuous path of n type n plus n n plus from one terminal to the other and now current will flow. An interesting question now comes up let us say that I have put some voltage like let us say of the order of a volt on this gate and this is higher than the turn on voltage. Now, in that case if I am one volt above the turn on voltage then the amount of charge which is required from the inversion that is equal to C ox into one volt. So, I need this much charge from electron now the order of magnitude of C ox per unit area is of the order of 10 to the power minus 7 farads per centimeter square that means, if I put a volt above that turn on voltage then the amount of additional charge that I need from electrons is 10 to the power minus 7 coulomb per centimeter square. Now, how many electrons is that if I want 10 to the power minus 7 coulomb how many electrons is that well each electrons carries 1.6 into 10 to the power minus 19 negative charge this is indeed the value of q. So, therefore, to provide 10 to the power minus 7 coulomb I require 10 to the power minus 7 divided by 1.6 into 10 to the power minus 19 that is roughly 6 into 10 to the power 11 electrons per centimeter square. Now, what was the electron density the electron density was in the bulk of this semiconductor was of the order of 2.5 into 10 to the power 4 per centimeter cube. Now, if you assume 1 centimeter square area then how much volume of silicon will be required to find 6 into 10 to the power 11 electrons. So, you will have to go 6 into 10 to the power 11 this is the number of number of electrons that I want and in a depth of 1 centimeter I have 1 centimeter square area and a depth of 1 centimeter that is 1 centimeter cube and I have only 2.5 into 10 to the power 4 electrons in that volume. So, therefore, if I divide by this 10 to the power 4 which is roughly 2 into 10 to the power 7 centimeters that means my semiconductor will have to be 2 into 10 to the power 7 centimeters deep. Well, that is 2 into 10 to the power 5 meters which is 200 kilometers. Obviously, my semiconductor is not 200 kilometers deep 200 kilometers is from here to Pune nearly my semiconductor is not that deep and therefore, that many electrons are not easily available in this semiconductor. The question is where will these electrons come from and the answer is that you have applied a voltage to these 2 n plus pockets these are these are very rich in electrons you want 10 to the power 11 they will have 10 to the power 19 electrons. So, they come and volunteer quickly it says 10 to the power 11 electrons no big deal here they are that is just a small fraction of the number of electrons I have. So, those electrons are quickly provided by this n plus pocket. Now, if one of them is positive and the other is negative then the positive terminal is going is not going to give away electrons it likes electrons it attracts electrons that is not the one which is going to give these electrons. On the other hand the negative terminal repels electrons and that is the one which is going to say all right I have too many electrons take them and as a result the negative terminal is called the source it is the source of these carriers. And the other side as you inject these electrons keeps on taking them out as if it was a drain and hence the positive terminal is called a drain and now current flows. So, more and more carriers are injected by the source these are collected by the drain a steady current flows and as a result a concentration of electrons steady equilibrium concentration of electrons is established here which is equal to C ox times 1 volt which we have. So, this is what happens and you have current flow in this MOS transistor. So, I think I have now explained the basics of an MOS transistor there are interesting things which happen very much like the JFET. So, like the JFET saturates so does the MOSFET unfortunately we do not have time to do it in that detail the nodes that I have put down has the details and we will look at some of the aspects as we go along for logic design. So, this MOS transistor then has characteristics of this kind I have plotted the drain current as a function of drain voltage here and below some voltage like 1.0 here there is hardly any current flowing that is the turn on voltage. So, turn on voltage here might be 0.6 or 0.8 or there about for any voltage higher than that current flows and it increases with the drain voltage up to a point and then saturates this is the pinch off condition just like the JFET case that we had seen. So, in short first look at these V G value and for V G values below about 0.8 volts or so no current will flow at all. However, for any value above this value and let us take this one 2.5 volts we notice that initially the current increases with V D and then it reaches some saturation voltage and beyond that as you saw for pinch off case in JFET the MOS also pinches off and as a result we now have steady current which remains constant and this is called the saturation the transistor is set to be saturation. Be a little careful about this terminology by the way a bipolar transistor is considered to be in saturation in this curved region and is supposed to be in the active region here. The terminology for MOS is opposite the MOS is set to be saturated here and is set to be in the linear regime here. This difference is because bipolar transistors are current operated devices whereas MOS is the voltage operated device the output is current and here because the current is not changing anymore it is this region which is called the saturation. In case of a bipolar transistor you are using it as a switch to reduce the voltage and when it reaches this region you say it cannot reduce the voltage because of current flow anymore and therefore, that is called the saturation region. So, be very careful there is a difference of absolutely opposite convention for MOS device as opposed to bipolar transistor this region is called the saturation region for MOS transistor and this region is called the linear region because the current initially starts quasi linearly here. Now, the characteristics for this are given by this the first equation says that if the gate source voltage is less than v t then irrespective of anything else the current is 0. If the gate source voltage is greater than v t and this drain source voltage is less than v g minus v t then we are in the quasi linear regime and the current is given by this equation which is a function of v d s. However, once you once the drain source voltage exceeds this value you are in saturation the current becomes constant and independent of the drain source voltage and as a result the current is then given by k v g s minus v t whole squared by 2 it is not a function of v d s anymore and therefore, as plotted as a function of v d s it shows up as flat it still depend on v g s minus v t of course. So, the current is different for different values of v g s even in this linear regime, but it is independent of v d s. So, this is the transistor that we are going to use in our design equations. Please notice that this is an extremely simple model the real transistors are complicated beast and particularly so for modern short channel transistors. Those of you who are interested in devices might want to look up some modeling books or some solid state electronics books to see how more complicated models are developed for transistors, but for us for basic electronics this model is adequate and this is the one that we will be using. When the channel is short then actually the current does not quite become saturated and then it increases sort of linearly in this region and this is like the early voltage for a bipolar transistor. So, the corresponding effect because of channel shortening is there for the MOSFET also and there are equations corresponding to that they are written here in your notes, but they we shall not be using these more complicated equations most. So, now let us go to a somewhat generic discussion of logic. In digital design we want the output to be either 0 or 1 and we do not care what is the exact value of the voltage when it is in 0 logic state nor do we care exactly for the voltage. If it is high enough it is 1, if it is low enough it is 0 and we are never concerned in the detailed value of this voltage. So, how do we ensure that? Well we have we use special electronics in which the transition from low voltage to high voltage is very quick. So, that the electronics does not spend any time in that in between region where we may have a doubt whether it is low or high. In short we are talking of essentially in the ideal case two switches these switches are controlled by some input and we take the output from here. This is the supply voltage and as for bipolar transistors it used to be called V c c the fixed voltage connected towards the collector. This is because it is connected towards the drain side of an n channel transistor this is called V d d in case of MOS logic. Let us say this is positive. Now suppose you want the output to be 1, what should be the state of these two switches? Notice that the upper switch shorts the output to V d d therefore, if you want the output to be 1 that is what you want you want the output to be close to V d d. In that case if the output should be 1 or high we are using positive true logic here then the upper switch should be on. At the same time we have to ensure that the lower switch is off because at if at any time if both switches are on in that case we will be shorting V d d to ground and our power supply will have to provide infinite current our switches will burn out. So, in no case should both switches be on. So, therefore the lower switch should be off. If we want the output to be 0 or low then obviously the lower switch should be on because we want to connect the output to ground and again by the same argument the upper switch should be off because if that is on then there will be a short all the way from V d d down to ground. So, therefore for output equal to 0 or low the upper switch must be off and the lower switch that means exactly one of the switches should be on at any given time and exactly one of the switches should be off at any given time. That means we should never have both switches on never have both switches off if both are on then as we had discussed earlier there will be a dead short from V d d to ground and that we do not want. On the other hand if both switches are off then this output is floating and it could acquire any voltage and there is nothing to put it pull it high or low. So, that is also an improper condition under this and therefore we need to have at least one of the switches and exactly one of the switches to be on. And as a result ideally what we would like is that whatever turns this switch on automatically also turns this switch off and similarly whatever turns this switch on should automatically turn this switch off and this is something which is provided by the MOS transistor that we have just learned. Let us look at it we learnt the NMOS transistor which was made in a p type semiconductor and if the source is grounded if this metal is positive then this acts as a switch and current flows therefore it is on. At the same time if this is negative or 0 below V t in that case this looks like an n plus p p n plus diode and therefore it can never conduct because at least one of these diodes will be reversed by it. So, therefore if this voltage is less than V t then this switch is off and if this is positive more than V t then this switch is on. But we could have constructed the counter part of this transistor we could have constructed an MOS transistor in which this semiconductor is n type and I put p plus type of pockets here. We have an oxide or an insulator here and we put metal in reality this metal is very often poly silicon and not really a metal and that has technological reasons for it. In this case when will this conduct? Now notice that for conduction to take place even though this semiconductor is n type I must invert it to p type by attracting holes to the top and then I will have conduction p plus p p plus. But when will holes be conducted to the surface? Only if the metal is negative with respect to this right. So, the source should now be positive after all it has to provide holes. So, the source should be positive the drain should be on the negative side and with respect to the source the gate must be negative. So, now we have the happy combination the same input namely a high voltage which turns this guy on will turn this guy off and a negative voltage will turn this guy on and this guy off. This is precisely what we were looking for in logic design and therefore, we can construct an inverter. This inverter will have a p channel transistor on top and n channel transistor at the bottom and now I can use the same input to convert the switch from on to off off to on and take my output from here. And let us see what happens in this case? Notice that V d d is positive therefore, the upper end is positive the lower end is negative. So, which is the source which is the drain for the n channel transistor? The more negative end was the source of electrons the more positive end drains electrons by pulling them. Therefore, the source for the n channel is here the drain is here. On the other hand for p channel we must source holes and only the positive terminal can source holes. Therefore, this is the source and this is the drain. So, in short the 2 drains are shorted together and the output is taken from the junction of the 2 drains. The n channel source goes to the to ground and the p channel source goes to V d d and the input is applied to the gate. Now, if the input is towards the ground then this guy turns off, but the gate is largely negative with respect to the source which is at V d d. Therefore, this guy turns on and the output becomes high. At the same time if the input is low then for a low input meaning towards ground that is what we have seen that this guy is on this is off output is high. If the input is high then this transistor turns on and this transistor turns off because this is high and therefore, there is not enough negative voltage here and this being high is enough to turn this on. Therefore, the output is connected to ground and this connected from V d d and therefore, the output becomes low. Therefore, this circuit is called an inverter. When the input is high the output is low because this transistor is on, this is off. When the input is low this transistor is off that transistor is on and as a result the output is high. So, the output is in an opposite state to that of the input and therefore, this is called an inverter. It converts 1 to 0, 0 to 1. Let us look at the transfer characteristics of this and as an inset I will draw the circuit that I had. By the way for a p channel transistor I will use this symbol which has a bubble here which shows that if it is negative then it will turn on. Without the bubble the same symbol means an n channel transistor and the equivalent of this is that there is this acts as a switch. The other transistor also acts as a switch and this switch is on when the input is negative, this switch is on when the input is positive and there is a quick transition from high to low as we go. So, if you look at the characteristics what happens is the following. As I start from low voltages though this is I am plotting output voltage versus input voltage. Remember the transistor characteristics are that the input voltage has to be at least a v t positive or negative with respect to the source for conduction to take place. As I apply input and start increasing the input in this particular case till I reach v t n till I reach v t n the n channel transistor is off the voltage is less positive compared to its threshold voltage. At the same time compared to v d d since this voltage is quite low at this point there is a large negative bias on this p channel transistor and therefore, this transistor is on and as a result the output is equal to v d d. If I go beyond this point then the n channel transistor starts turning on. As a result it draws current and because both transistors are now on it acts as a potential divider and you get a voltage which is half way between v d d and ground that means the output starts decreasing towards ground.  The p channel transistor now turns off and now it is high enough for this to be fully on and as a result the lower transistor is connected the upper one is not and as a result the terminal becomes the output becomes 0. So, we have transfer characteristics of this kind. We now must define how high is high enough and how low is low enough. So, we will look at it qualitatively in this lecture detailed quantitative work is there in the lecture notes that I have uploaded and we shall now go over to that set of slide to see exactly what happens. So, this is the transistor, this is the stage that we had just talked about. You have the p channel transistor on top, you have the n channel transistor on the bottom and then you have a capacitive load and this is the input voltage and you can see that you will get characteristics like this.  So, this is that region where the n MOS is off and p MOS is on till we reach the v t of that and till that time the output voltage will remain v d d. After that the n MOS is saturated it is in saturation because the output is high and its drain is high the p MOS is in its linear regime and the output starts dropping. Finally, both will be saturated then as the voltage reduces n MOS will become linear p MOS will be saturated and finally, you will reach a situation at which n MOS is on and p MOS is off and you will reach 0 volt. Now, the way to solve is that notice that the v d s of the p channel transistor the v d s of this p channel transistor and the v d s of this n channel transistor must add up to v d d. Therefore, v d s for n channel transistor v d s is nothing but v output because this is this is the voltage between the drain and the source this is output. On the other hand for the p channel transistor v d s is this which is v d d minus v out. Similarly, v g s the gate source voltage remember this is the source.  Therefore, the mod value of v g s remember it is negative this is equal to v d d minus v in.  So, if we put these two equal then we will get the value of v out by solving that equation because these two currents must be equal they are connected in series across v d d and ground. Therefore, same current should flow through the two in a steady state condition and by equating these two currents the only unknown is then v out and we can evaluate the value of v out and if we now plot it then we will get quantitatively this curve. So, essentially taking in all these regions the value of i d for the two transistors and putting it equal you will get all sorts of solutions and I am going to you can read the details later, but I am going to skip the quantitative part of that and come to this consideration of noise margin. In a real case there is going to be noise and it should not happen that a level which is low because of the presence of noise is considered high for a short time. Therefore, the definition of the low level and the high level should be sufficiently apart. So, that even in the presence of noise the low level should not pretend to be a high level nor should a high level pretend to be a low level because of the noise. Therefore, we have we now have to design the levels and these have to be defined separately for input and output that means the output high level should be much greater than the value which is considered high by input. So, that even if there is noise the reduced possibly reduced value of this voltage is still higher than the input high value. Therefore, the output high should be greater than the input high. Similarly, the output low should be lower than the value which is considered low at the input and these differences are called the low noise margin and the high noise margin. That means this is the amount by which my output is better than my input. So, that it gives me robustness against noise. So, if my output is high even though some noise may pull it down it would still remain high compared to what is considered high at the input of the next stage. Similarly, if my output is low it may be pulled high by noise, but it would still remain low enough that it is considered low by the next stage even in the presence of noise. So, this is the requirement for robustness.


Okay, now that we've got some of those formalities out of the way, we'll go ahead and get started. So my name is Beth Zabalski, I'm the director of admissions at the Ford School. And I'm really happy to have a chance to talk with you guys today. I have some of my colleagues on the call as well, so I'm going to give them a chance to say hello. You've obviously already met Trish, who's kind of our right-handed admissions person, so you want to say hi, Trish? Hi, everyone. Nice to see you. My name is Trish Shire, and I am the recruiting and PBI coordinator at the Ford School. Nice to see you. Amy. Hi, all. I am Amy Flanagan, so I'm the BA program coordinator and basically do all the advising of the current Ford students. Thank you. Hello. Is Avery here? Hello. Okay. Hi. Could I speak to Frank? Did you have a question? All right. Camille, do you want to say hi? Yeah. Hi, everyone. My name is Camille. I'm a senior in the Ford School, studying public policy, but my focus area is in social justice, intersectionality and public policy. I, along with Jonah, am one of the peer advisors for the Ford School this year. So Jonah and I are available if you have any questions about the program. I want to get a student perspective, but we also help out some of the current students on all the different questions that they may have about the Ford School. We definitely encourage you to apply and ask us any questions you have. Thanks, Camille. And Jonah. Hi, everybody. My name is Jonah Jacobs. I'm a senior studying public policy at the Ford School. My focus area is international conflict and cooperation. And as Camille said, we're the VA peer advisors and here to answer any questions you have about the program, what it's like to be in Ford.  Thanks, you guys appreciate it. So I'm going to go ahead and have a short PowerPoint. I'm sure that you guys are probably as sick as I am looking at PowerPoints right now, but I'm going to share my screen with you really quickly. Just to go over some information. And hopefully I will find it quickly. We should have pulled it up sooner. Sorry, you guys. And one second, let me just, I promise I will not take very long to find this. Well, I could be lying that delay. All right, so I'm sure you mostly know the basics about the VA program, right? It's an upper division program. You join us in that you apply in winter semester of your sophomore year. And then join us for your junior and senior years of the program. It's a, it's a small program. So we have an entering class of about 80 students is very much intended to be a liberal arts program. We don't, we don't view it as a pre professional program, but a liberal arts program. So you would take the same, you know, similar distributions to what you would if you were in a major in Alice in a. We really want you to take classes across of your social sciences. But within that we're trying really hard to talk to students about not just theory and problems, but also potential solutions and how you evaluate both the problems and their solutions. You'll see the core coursework includes classes and econ political science and stats. But within that you have the opportunity through the focus area and through your electives to tailor the degree to your policy area of interest. You already heard me say the other two bullets on the slide. So the the BA program was launched in 2007. And we really launched the prop that the undergraduate program for a couple of different reasons. I mentioned the interdisciplinary approach so policy problems do not fit neatly into academic disciplines right so any public problem that you're dealing with is not solely a sociological problem right or an economic problem but it has overlaps in applications across those different social sciences, but you need to understand the social sciences and the theories, including those to to come up with really good solutions to public problems. So I'm assuming that the distributions are pretty much the same as an else in a because econ 101 and 102 are prerequisites for our program, those get counted a little bit differently. But stats 250 will still take care of your qr requirement. We do have the same fourth term proficiency in foreign language as an Allison a, and, and the, as I mentioned the distribution credits. So this is a list of our required courses mentioned that they would be across social sciences right so 320 is a more political science influence class right talking about political institutions and politics. The 330 classes are microeconomics class econ 101 is a prereq for that stats 250. For those of you that might be interested in taking you're welcome to take that before you come to forward but you don't have to. So that's something you can take once you arrive. We require values and ethics class so we have a variety of different topics within values and ethics that students can take but you do need to take a class related to values and ethics. We have an applied learning seminar so that's a class that you take in the fall semester of junior year, looking at a particular policy topic and the whole classes together for that. So this is the 479 class, which is a version of program evaluation. You take a policy seminar, each of your two years so one as a junior and one as a senior and we have a variety of different. You'll see some of those topics a little bit later in the slide show. So we try to allow students to take the policy seminar that would be most aligned with their interests and you guys and you and our students fill out a survey to sort of rank those. And then six additional elective classes within the Ford school and a focus area that we'll talk about a little bit more. We do often hear students say well can I do you know with with all these requirements and stuff can I do study abroad can I do a study away term we very much encourage that. We'll see the last, you know, last winter this winter have been a little challenging in that arena, but hopefully we'll, we'll get back to normal before too much longer I hope. So certainly spending time that the winter semester junior is probably the time the majority of students take that study abroad term. So we put in students who've done Michigan or Washington, some do it before they come to Ford but others do after they are students at Ford so certainly that is, it is something that we encourage you to incorporate if you're interested. So the policy seminars so those are really small classes we try to cap those at about 20 students on a particular policy issue taught by a faculty member within the Ford school really intended to be in an in depth look at a particular policy topic. Allowing your students to apply a variety of different skills that they've learned along the way so many of the classes have visiting, you know, guest lecturers and that sort of thing policymakers. Some kind of final paper. So trying to really give you that in depth experience with that policy so. So here's a list of the policy seminars for the last couple of years. You can see that we try to cover a range of both internationally focused and more domestically focused topics. Unfortunately, because of the capacity within the policy centers were only able to allow students to take one as a junior and one as a senior but hopefully there's there's a seminar that that speaks to your interest somewhere along the way. And these are some of the policy electives that have been offered this past year. So you can see there's quite an array of those as well. Some that are more skills based right this data class, the Excel class others that are more topical. So, trying to give students the opportunity to bring those classes into both their focus area or just into their electives. So the focus area that I keep referring to what does that mean. So I kind of think of the focus area as maybe a major within a major which sounds a little cliche but really it's an opportunity for you to learn more in depth about a topic that's of interest to you. You'll see in a minute when we look at some of the listings some some are relatively broadly defined others are really quite narrowly defined so it's it's kind of up to you. And how you couch that. And I'm going to, I'm going to ask Camille and Jonah to jump in here in just a second because they work really closely with the students on this particular area. But it's really intended to help you develop. As the slide says depth and breadth of knowledge in a particular area, you can incorporate an Alison a minor as part of the focus area so Camille and Jonah do you want to, you know, talk both about your focus area and it's sort of about how you work with students around that. Camille you want to kick us off. Sure. So like I mentioned earlier my focus area is social justice intersectionality and public policy. So I wanted to look at the ways in which public policy affects people of different identities. So whether that be through education criminal justice. So I wanted to look at the areas of policy environment. And so that's sort of how I designed my focus area. And so my four courses come from political science, public policy and sociology. So it's a really sort of wide variety of classes that I get to take. I don't know if you remember about yours but basically the way that we advise students is just to take a general topic that you're interested in within public policy. It can be the policy of a specific region, or a specific type of policy like healthcare policy, or the way policy interacts with another area like the media. So you can really make it whatever you're interested in and it's a really great way to explore courses outside of the Ford school as well. So if you're like interested in things outside of public policy but you're still sort of wanting to major in public policy the focus area is a great way to sort of like kill two birds with one stone. I could echo everything Camille said the focus area is one of my favorite parts of the, the BA program because it really allows you to take initiative on your academic experience and pursue an area of public policy that you're interested in as an academic discipline or if it is goes beyond that and, you know, interacts with your postgraduate plans and professional or your continuing graduate school. And so my focus area as I said earlier is international conflict and cooperation, which is a pretty broad area but really will allowed me to kind of explore my interest in like global geopolitics, which is a lot of courses concerning but the rest of the university also offers, you know, a wide variety of classes that support that so I'm kind of a history nerd to and so I got to include a history course about war and Greek and Roman civilization into my focus area, which is, you know, not exactly what you would normally find in like a public policy curriculum but because it gets to, as Beth said talk about the depth and breadth of knowledge and an area of interest, you know the focus area really allows you to to explore that and see what the rest of the university has to offer. And like Camille said, most of our advice to students creating their focus areas is to err on the side of a general area of policy interest that, once you've defined you can kind of explore through a variety of unique and specific lenses that creates just a very, very unique academic experience for you. So here's an example of some of the various focus areas that we've seen from students over the over the years you can kind of see for yourself that, you know, some of them urban policy right a pretty broadly defined topic, as opposed to maybe urban policy and human rights in the Middle East right so you do have that flexibility. And there's it's it's a it's a process right so Camille and Jonah held a session for our junior class. Last month that talked them through starting the focus area of proposal process. We were interviewed by faculty on our BA program committee so you get lots of feedback along the way and, you know, it's kind of a living document right because, you know, not all classes are always offered when you know I mean some semesters they might not offer the classes that you were hoping for so, but it's stuff it's it's a pretty integral part I think of the BA program as as Jonah and Camille have said. So what do you do with a BA and public policy. That's probably you know I mean that's, that's the question that we hear a lot. I think the answer is, you know, in many ways, a lot of the same things you would do with a major and many other areas of the university right so you're getting this really terrific liberal arts education. You definitely have to go a lot of different places. You definitely have a good percentage of students that go on to graduate education, either, you know, straight out of undergraduate or after a couple of years of work experience so, you know, law school policy degree public health, all popular paths for our graduates. We've definitely seen every year. A handful of students that have gone on to a program like teacher America or America for where they have the opportunity to put some of those policy skills that they've learned an undergraduate to work. But you know consulting has become really quite popular I think with our grads. We have programs public sector consulting but can be more broadly defined. And those obviously for those with more of an international interest something like teaching English abroad or a piece for something like that so really a wide array of different paths we do have a career closer at the Ford School Gail Tien who works very closely with our students puts together a newsletter our students have access to the board careers database of job and internship opportunities so providing good support for our students and both, you know, if you want to do an intern internships are not a required component of the program, but many of our students will do those between junior and senior year, but also obviously for those that are looking for jobs after graduation. So lots of good resources for that. So why might you decide to choose that pursue the BA program so we talked a lot about that they're liberal arts degrees. But the way most Ellis and a major structure you're looking really in depth at a particular discipline whereas we're trying to look across discipline so so a little bit different approach. We do very much value developing the analytical skills within our students so thinking about ways to sort of measure both the, you know, the solutions that you're proposing and how effective they've been. Our faculty are very interdisciplinary nature many of our faculty members have joint appointments. You can see with a wide variety of schools and colleges across campus, as well as our what we call professors practice so folks that have been you know coming to school to teach after a career, a distinguished career doing something else. I mentioned that I mentioned the career services of Dizer so our Office of Student and Academic Services is very well prepared to support our students. I'll let Amy say a little bit about what the work she does with students, but you know we mentioned our peer advisors. We're getting center at the Ford school that is only for Ford school students for faculty members who make you can make individual appointments with them to what help you want papers resumes etc so GSIs in our pool classes so we try to provide really a well rounded set of support services so that so our students can thrive in our environment. It's a small school right so I mentioned that we admit about 80 students per class so I don't. At any one point we have about 160 undergraduate students, our master's program is about 250 so by University of Michigan standards we're really quite a small place. So I think that does help our students develop a little different set of relationships with each other and with their faculty members. We have a lot of research centers at the Ford school and a variety of ways for our students to come involved in those. We've had just a terrific slate of speakers this fall and I expect that will continue into the winter. Some of them brought in by the school generally some by some of our research centers so and almost all of our speakers are open to students across campus so I would encourage you to take a look at those and see if there's any questions that you'd be interested in listening to. But our students oftentimes, at least in normal days have a chance to meet with those, those faculty, those speakers when they come to campus student organization so you know so it's a pretty thriving student community I think while all. Right that's our home base right there on the corner of Hill Street, Street and State Street that all of our classes are offered there. There's a lab spaces for study that sort of thing so it's a pretty convenient location. I mentioned some of the guest speakers so this is a listing just from this fall, this, this, this the past couple of months so you can see really a wide array of topics. You know, our dean is co chair of the democracy and debate semester this fall semester so you can definitely see a bent toward that kind of a speaker but pretty interesting group of folks, we do have all school events. So, again, a really wonderful community to be part of. So why might somebody choose not to be in the fourth school. So I, you know, I get a lot of questions so we do not allow students to double majors so students in the fourth school are, you know, public policy majors, many of our students minor. Some students do more than one minor, but, but we don't allow double majors. Some students really are, they really want to do that honor species and that's not something that we can support an RBA program so that might be a reason. Or, you know, you're really interested in a PhD program in history, for example, right so you might want to stay in your history major so. So some of the reasons that you know some of the things to consider as you think about whether or not it's a program that you want to apply to the admissions. So the deadline to apply is to have a word first, the application is up now. It's pretty straightforward, we have three short essays and I'll show you that just a little bit. But, but pretty pretty straightforward application process. We do try to balance both academics and extracurriculars. Recognizing the extracurriculars in this current environment can be challenging. Right, that's going to be broadly defined and I know, you know, with grace in the winter semester coming becoming past bail and that you may have concerns about that. We're going to work with students around all of that stuff because we know those are issues that are completely outside of your control. So the prerequisites are listed here I had mentioned you found 101 and 102 one other social science some of you may have taken pub call 201, although probably not because I think it's meeting at this time. So, but there's, you know, any of the social science classes that meet distribution, and then a recent ethnicity course and the prerequisites have to be done before you matriculate into the program in the fall. And that's going to be done before the application deadline, and we try to get decisions out of the students. We usually are successful getting them out in March but certainly by the beginning of April. So I mentioned the application, the, the bottom of the slide here are the essays that we asked you to write so we asked you to write a short essay about working with diverse an essay about sort of how this major would align with your academic and career interests. And then we asked you to talk about a policy issue that you find interesting. That, you know, there's not a particular set of policy issues that we asked you to write about so it could be something that's really important to you personally. It could be something that you've written on for another class you feel well versed in. There's, there's not really a right answer about what policy topic to choose for that. But we do ask you to it's intended to be, it's not intended to be an opinion piece right it's intended to be an analytical piece. So while you're certainly welcome to have a stance on how policy issues should be handled. It's also important to recognize folks on the other side, if you will, so spending some time thinking about the counter arguments to whatever you want. And one other thing that I'll mention that we do ask you for a resume. The resume does not have to be the same resume that you would submit for a job right you can definitely spend some time. You can definitely use some space to talk about your strict curriculars. If it goes up over to a couple of pages that's perfectly fine. So feel free to be a little more expansive and the information you include include on your resume than you might in some other circumstances. So that's the admissions process generally Trish Amy meal Jonah anything that you'd like to any advice or information that you'd like to throw in before we go to questions. So I will just mention on the application side, you know Beth said that patients do February 1 we don't do rolling admissions. So if you are very eager and you want to get it in this week, that's great. But it's not going to get reviewed until after the application deadline. So there's really no huge benefit to you other than how we piece of mind and getting it done. But you know, we we typically offer a form of like working with current students we're still kind of fleshing out what that's going to look like for this year, especially with the semester in January starting a little later. But so basically my point is that you don't have to get applications submitted as early as possible so as long as it's in by the February 1 deadline, you're all set. So this slide gives you some ways to to have to reach out to us if you have questions after this information session. Our website was recently redone so hopefully it's informational for you and you may be able you're able to find information easily. I mentioned our peer advisors you're welcome to make appointments to talk with them. Both Trish and I have appointment links on our calendar so if you go to the website and you go to the undergraduate admissions page you can you can find links to those calendars. And you're always welcome to send an email to our fspp dash admissions mailbox and will will respond to those inquiries as well so lots of different ways to connect with us. So with that, I'm going to stop sharing my screen. And.


I was about to say tomorrow, how you do something is how you do everything. Do you feel me? Okay, listen, you can ask your question. Hey, everybody, listen, will you get the life you want if you don't have the courage to go get it? No, you know what I see? I see a lot of people out there hiding under rocks thinking they're gonna be successful, okay?   You're gonna have to believe in yourself when no one else will, and you're gonna have to never quit again. But also, you're gonna have to stick to the freaking plan that you started, which December 31st, I'm asking a question, what was the goal that you set for yourself? Some of you right now, December 31st, you said, hey, I'm gonna be committed to getting in shape. I'm gonna be committed to making this the most money I ever made last year, more than what I made last year. Guys, you know what I see? I see so many people out there who want something but that won't pay the price to go get it. And I'm just telling you when I say this, dreams come with the price. Everybody knows that, okay?  We all wear the bracelets. It says dreams come with the price.  And it says 365 committed, all right? It doesn't say 325, 300, it's 365. We put in the work and we're willing to do what others won't do. Can I ask you a question? Are you guys entrepreneurs? Entrepreneurs create, they create, okay? They're not fakers, they're makers, they're creating. Can I ask you a question? Your life last year, you knew what it looked like, right? You knew the results that you got that you got from the life that you had last year. How's this year looking? Hey guys, what's up? It's Andy. Hey, I wanted to stop the video real quick and show you I just released my brand new book called The Book of Deadly Scripps. You wanna know how to overcome any objection in the world? You wanna know how to literally pick up the phone and every single time you do, create a hot end market buyer who wants to buy a vehicle.  I don't have this book for sale on the website. If you'll shoot me a text, I'll send you the link so you can buy it. Let's crush it and kill it. This book will change your life. It just got released. Let's get back to the video. And I'm not asking you like, is it going okay? But did you decide to double your money? Triple your money? Triple your lifestyle? Triple your life? Triple the way that you looked at yourself? All these skills, these things that you said you were gonna learn this year? Are you on track? I mean, listen, there's a lot of you in here that are nodding with me and you're not on track. Here's what I wanna tell you. This is crystal clear. Tomorrow, I'm gonna tell you exactly what to do. I'm gonna tell you exactly how to do it. And if you will listen to me, those of you in this room that will listen to me, you will get everything you want in life and more. Guaranteed. I'm grateful that you're here. I'm grateful. But if I had no one else around me, I'm still taking over the world. I don't need other people around me to take over the world for me to take over the world, but it's nice to have somebody to follow who's crazy, who makes other people leaders, who shows them away, who what he preaches, he takes his own advice. That's our company. Our company, we've done the craziest ever out there. And guess what? We didn't ask for any loans. We didn't ask for nothing. We're all self-made, okay? But we've studied the people in life who've gotten what they wanted. We've studied them. And guess what? I don't want clout on social media and all that. I wanna be real.   Like truly? You know, think about it, man. That's what really is starting to bother me. I'm 42 years old and I'm thinking about my three kids, my wife and my team. And I'm thinking about all these years that I played small. All these freaking years, man. And guess what? I'm not doing it anymore. I'm not doing it.  I'm not gonna act like I'm winning when I'm not. It's not okay.  I'm not gonna tell other people to do something I'm not doing. I'm gonna tell you right now. Our company is growing faster in any other company in the world. I don't need to tell you that. I know what's happening. I know the stats. I know the numbers. And I am telling you tomorrow I'm gonna tell you how to do it. And if you will bury your ego, bury your pride and you will say, you know what? So you're telling me, if I do this and if I really like tie down this schedule, if I really run days like this that are non-negotiable to anything else and I really do that, you're telling me if I do all these things that I can have whatever I want, absolutely, 100% you sure can. But I'm gonna tell you this. Some of you on the way out here, you came out here and you had one person or hundreds of people say something like, man, why are you going to do that? Listen to me.  Guess what? You don't speak to them anymore. They're out of your life. That's how fast we make choices around here. Winners make hard decisions.  Don't make decisions, which is why they never become anybody, okay? It is time for some of you in here to start making some hard decisions about your health, right? Like physically, like about who you're around on the daily. Look, I'd rather be alone. I'd rather have nobody around me in my life and be on a mission and know that I'm on the right path than to try to please someone else. I don't need to explain to anyone else what I'm trying to do. Do you guys need to explain to anybody? Then why are you explaining yourself to other people?  Listen to me. If you're gonna make it, you're crazy. You're going to have to be crazy. Crystal, clear, crazy. And when people say you're crazy, good. That's a compliment. You know you're on the right path.   Okay, look man, I've saved a lot of you guys. Okay, but I'm telling you this.  Do you follow Bradley? Guys, it's Andy Elliott right here at my comfort room in Scottsdale, Arizona. We are putting on the event of the year. June 4th, entrepreneurs, salespeople, closers, business owners, you wanna build a sales team and learn how to close anybody, anytime, any place, anywhere, this is gonna be the event. And by the way, Bradley isn't gonna be here like a speaker at most speaking events. He's personally gonna be training from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Everything you need to know to triple your income this year. And by the way, this is an event that ain't gonna happen again.  We only got 350 seats, so the spots are gonna go out fast. Shoot me a text message right now,<PHONE_NUMBER>. You don't wanna miss this event, shoot a text message right now to<PHONE_NUMBER>. Let's kill it, baby, let's go.


Now, thank you for being here. Thank you, Martin. Thank you, Thomas, for the invitation to the session. And my presentation entitled Hidden Stairways at the Food of the Himalaya will present results from geophysical surveys and excavations carried out last year in the Popchika Valley in Bhutan. The main aim of this Swiss-Butanese project, or Bhutanese Swiss project, is capacity building in this small kingdom and the institutionalization of archeology in Bhutan. It's done by education of several people and involvement in the archeological research and also in practical training. So the project was initiated by Kama Vizir from Bhutan and it's in cooperation with ETA Zürich and a team guided by Philippe de la Casa and financed by the Swiss Lichtenstein Foundation for Archeological Research abroad. Small introduction into the location or the Kingdom of Bhutan is located in between China and in the north and India in the south. It's a similar size like Switzerland about 80,000 square kilometers but much less dense populated with less than one million people. And so it was my first time in Bhutan last year and when I came by plane to the capital, Timbu, I saw this mountain ridge from the plane and it's here in the northern part of Bhutan and it's called Ganga Pinsum and it's about more than 7,500 meters high and interestingly, it's the highest unclimbed mountains in the world and the reason for that is because mountaineering, it's not allowed in Bhutan. There are several hiking tracks but there's no alpinism as we know from other areas. And the reason for that of course is because the mountains are sacred and holy places. So the research was done in the Popchika Valley, it's located here in between central and western Bhutan in about 3,000 meters high. Here's a picture from the Popchika Valley itself. It's named after a famous monastery located within this valley and you see here in this area, it's a wet marshland and to refer to your presentation with a mountain so if you are standing here, you are looking a lot of mountains but not that high elevated or not that impressive from Tibet, I guess. Okay, first step was in archeological perspective done by the Bhutanese Swiss team over several years. It ends up in this map of historical sites. It's a Popchika Valley, it's about 15 kilometers long running north-south, here in the north there's a pass. This point here, it's a famous monastery I mentioned, it's located on a hilltop. You have several tributaries running from the east into this valley and here this pointed are several archeological finds. In total, there were 93 find spot mapped and among them there were 49 so-called burial mounds or artificial mounds which could refer to burials. Among other elements like terraces, artificial hills and so on. Most prominent, for example, is this one M1 near to the famous Gangtian Monastery and M49 near to the junction of this small stream into the main valley. Okay, so regarding the burial mounds, there's not that much known yet about the mounds in Bhutan. So referring to far as the north to Tibet, so I found this sketches about the shape and the dimension about burial mounds in Tibet. It was a scientific work from a team of Austria. You see there could be rounds, there could be rectangular in shape. But what is clear for the mountain or for the burial mounds in Bhutan, that they are endangered. For example, the Mount M49, it looks like this now. So it's a cutted mound as seen in the aerial pictures from 2011 and five years before, it was still existing at one of the bigger mounds in this valley. So there's a clear demand for research as well and for protecting the cultural heritage. Okay, the research approach last year was first, goes there and started geophysical perspective to get information about, or more information about this mound on an undistructed way. Six mounds were chosen for this geophysical surveys. Here's a map. There's a Mount M1 near to the monastery. One, another Mount M3, or here M1 is this picture. It's a isolated single one, but near to stone structures nearby and near to the monastery. Then another mount on the western edge of the valley. And a group of mounds located here in the southeastern area. For example, the big Mount M49 I already mentioned. Another Mount M31, which is much smaller, but also with a capped surface. You will see here next to this mound, a small pit discovered on site. And so also this mount could be located in a row. This, for example, is a group of three mounds or with prayer flags, one next to each other. We selected the center one for geophysical surveys. And the sixth one is also one of a bigger group located in a fenced area near to a nunnery cluster. So I will come back to results or select this three mounds to show you the main results of the geophysics. Okay, how to survey a mound geophysically. There are a lot of methods available. If you look for near surface features, mainly magnetometry issues. If you go into greater depths, examples from Greek, using seismics or gravity. If you have cavities like a new range, we choose two complementary methods, GPR and resistivity to mammography. GPR maybe you know from the recent excavations done in Norway. So there's a nice ship is in a burial. That's, yeah, the pictures are derived from GPR surveys. So very brief introduction into this methodology. So we used to, of course we have to think, okay, we go to Bhutan for one week. What can we carry? We use the single antenna. There's a survey wheels or a system with a certain frequency more focused on depths instead of high resolution. We'll always think about this beforehand. And yeah, the survey itself runs on parallel profiles. Here's one section of a profile. You get reflections here for example on the bedrock. If you put it onto the topography you have to measure and have several assumption about the velocity of the electromagnetic waves you get for example this cross section with a bedrock and here you see it clearly seen that this artificial mound is erected on a more or less solid bedrock and within you get reflections, diffractions from different features, mainly stone features. Okay, so complementary method. We applied ERT as much more effort because you have to put electrodes into the ground to get a current flow in the subsurface and so you measure the potential difference and then you can derive the resistivity distribution. It's always three dimensional. That's what that pictures should point out. Here that's a model you can derive if you make several measurements on parallel profiles and the main difference to GPR is that you can get a greater depth of penetration here visible. That's a three up to four meters achieved on Mount 31 for example. Okay, so that's where the two methods we applied in different ways. We had only six days for six months. I will show you results from three of these months. First, it's a single located Mount M1. The lower left picture showed the results of the topography measurements we did. Here you see these lines. Here that's the highest point, that's the valley. And as you can see, that's it's more or less some rectangular shape can be expected. With the GPS, we additionally measure the stones visible at the surface. Here it's more or less a scattered distribution in this picture, but in details. For example, the stones here are clearly visible as corner stones of a foundation. Here's a GPR, in this case we carried out in two directions. So the orange dots are the interpretation for a certain time depth. So that's this below the surface and one meter. You see it's more or less scattered, so less clear image in this case. We carried out some resistivity survey here. I have one section running diagonal around this mount. So that's the resistivity distribution. So there are high resistivity here, probably because of topography effects, but I won't refer to a sequence of low and medium resistivity visible in the sections. So mount 31, the center one in a row of three. We have clear indications of rectangular features. That's for depths of one meter. And if we sum up for several depths, we see that it's continuous in several depths. This rectangular linear features up to 1.6 meters. So also here we have a rectangular structure. And then came to mount 31. Here also we have clear linear structures below the surface in the depths about one meter, showing an X-shaped feature of about five by six meters. The pit nearby was not excavated, but cleaned during the first campaign in spring 2018 and derived in also some charcoal to get in date, which is a pre-Buddhist times. Okay, and then half a year later, the team from Christian Bader and colleagues started an excavation, so Salamount 31 was chosen for this, so it was already endangered. And so they excavated this. The results will be published soon. Here's some first impressions. So they reveal the X-shaped feature. Interestingly, it was open, so set of rectangular stones. And if we compare it to the geophysical surveys, we can say, okay, we clearly derive the main features, but also on the edge of this mount, there were some hidden steps. We did not see clearly in the GPR results. The reason for that is that we did only survey in one direction on this mount. And this could be to think for future service, you should be invest more time and work in two directions to gain all the information for the subsurface structures. Okay, so to sum up, we did a geophysical survey on six of, in total, more than 49 mounts, which give a good idea about the subsurface structures. We used two complementary geophysical survey methods. And four of these mounts, year 131, 133, and 136, they clearly point to rectangular structures. And the excavation at Mount 31 confirms these results. And to sum up, they are showing rectangular structure, probably platforms erected on a natural ground. And we conclude from the geophysical results and the excavation, that there are very likely no burials below this structure. And also on the big cap mount, 49, we see a leak that is erected on a bedrock. Main features are destroyed and there's no bigger structure below. Yeah, that's a final result. The intention was to show the different perspective if you use natural science to get answers for your archaeological questions, I hope. Thank you.


Alrighty, let's watch this first here gonna exercise for a step and walk. Okay, cool Now I'm checking your mail and you got a question about your foot roll. I'm just see what you did here. I Think that's only fine the way you have it here You had in your drawing like a further rotation Peel off type of thing it all kind of depends. I think what you have and it's not here Bring this in quickly this type of thing. I Think what do you have in your drawing works both ways, you know, you can have something where you only go this far. I Think you wouldn't go Less like to me this feels fine because it's a bigger step the way you have it in your drawing where it's almost kind of Like this and then you take the foot off that can work if you do maybe a side step or or like a smaller step It really all depends on the amount of movement. I think once you're walking and it's a bit more work. I Think what I'm looking at here. It works pretty well. I think if you're going just for mechanics There's a little bit of a feel of you're going up With a little bit of a settle a little bit down and then we are slightly locked I see some movement, but I think for you as an exercise. It will be good to To get away from the whole to static holds Since I think that's what we had in your in the previous class I think that's something you've you've been struggling with is just the locks and I think it's I would Practice and the character goes up like this to have a bit of a moving hold this way So not to go up and settle but you're going up and then hold Going this way like you don't settle and then do moving hold the other way So you go up with a slight hold body wise slight hold and it's really tiny It's a it's something you need to practice where it's not a lock and it's not a drift It's just that moving hold in between And the same thing here You have an upper arc that's fine in the head what I would do and that's something else That you've had and you preview the shots is where things are moving a bit too separately. I would love for this to be I Like that you have a slight move over it the head turn affects this to some degree But I think I will go a bit further in terms of this is a pose and then this is a pose in Terms of affecting the rest a bit more. So when you have this you can see how the lower neck is fairly stiff And this is just a bit of a back and forth. So what I would do is you can have that upper arc But then imagine that the neck will move forward a bit Right. It has a bit of a forward translate or in this case make sure it's a nice rotation And then you'll have a little bit of a Slump in the shoulder a little bit of a raise in the shoulder And this will move over just a little bit just a bit more of an adjustment so that you get away or out of your Your previous habits that I've noticed in the classes we had together where it's always separate and Then it locks. I think moving holds and giving bigger post changes throughout the body I think it will be a good exercise for you The other thing when I'm looking at this here, it feels like this this Like all of that is moving at the same time, which is another thing that we need to work on It's just having you get out of the pose to pose Method there where it's good for that's what I'm planning on doing But you can do something where well if he's that concentrated like the body's towards us and he's that concentrated You can say well, maybe I'm really focusing on this. So when I turn I'm going to move Maybe the shoulders first the upper body section first where the hands almost drag and the arms drag a bit more and Then you start swinging your arms and then you take that step You can also have you know a change in this or maybe a gesture or Flattening I was like whatever you want to do, but I would look at a Body part is going to lead the action as this is an exercise I'm not super picky in terms of what will lead just to get you out of the feeling of Not just separate body parts are moving Go beyond the pose to pose and then something is moving and stopping to not have a completely locked I think these are the priorities for this workshop. I would say then when you do this I think we're a bit early on the hips because right now the weight is on here as You move over here. We will be flat this feels more balanced Then as you are going over here, that's when we will hit the highest point because all the weight is there So I think we're on this a bit too soon raising the hip side here And I think when I look at this it feels like the hips are I don't know if it's straight like I see a quite an extension here Almost was like you want to rotate that hip in Y a bit more So you can see like this but cheek would be here. You can almost feel, you know he'll buck right here and So we feel the Y rotation here in the hips and then watch out on that turn There's a bit too much of a I feel like a sudden speed up through there and then a sudden Slow down. It's not a it's not a full stop But it feels like you're going somewhere and then we're accelerating and then we're really slowing down for a moment And I would smooth that out It's just it's a small acceleration go up. Yes, it will accelerate a little bit because you're dropping But then you can see how you suddenly have that over extension and then sudden pop in the knee So that's gonna be all altered by the route. I would just work on the route first But I will give this probably a foot roll. That's a bit sooner So you don't have a full extension there But again your hip rotation is gonna change the bend as well and then I would smooth that out So you don't have that sudden drop and some stop here But I think you're you're up and down is okay If I look at like this is your passing And this is so you do have your up and down and Y the other thing that Feels a bit stiff is that even though I see rotation in the chest Once you're done with our rotation, right? You're here and It feels like you're rotating too soon It feels like you're leading with the chest versus the arm is swinging and is going to take the chest with it So it feels like we're hitting that rotation too soon and now you're stopping I feel like we're stuck now in this rotation throughout Actually throughout the rest of the shot, which gives this also a bit of a mechanical feel and then don't forget on your Down here you would have a little bit of a drag in the head I will go up a bit boom impact that rotate down a bit Down drag here on the up and then as you go down here again, it's off-screen though It would rotate up again. I think these are to me the major points so far that I would hit that makes sense and I'm looking mostly at mechanics and stuff and this is okay breaking into it You could also potentially bring it out and just work on full on clean silhouette, but I'm not To me it feels more like having worked with you before is that the mechanics are always the issue where it's like I said The separation just to sum it up separation Not full stops and getting out of the post-to-posts on top of this all the nitty gritty of mechanics on the as well But I think it's good as a an exercise to choose a sidestep and walk all those You know things where I can sit down and getting up and all those things are a really good idea. All right. Hope that helps Thanks. All right, there's an email you can sign up you can start whenever you want You can submit whatever you want you get 16 submissions either way a like and subscribe would be awesome. All right. Thank you


What's going on everyone? Sam here with late sports cards ripping one box a 22 a panini immaculate WWE hobby for Scott in It's good luck here Scott. Let's do it man. WWE. I'm That's fun man. Tom Jones is so good. It's it's It's unfair really. All right, we've got a British Bulldog base 19 of 65 British Bulldog Dude is yoked nice one there First hit is gonna be a JD McDonough 67 out of 99 that is the superstar worn slash uses a material I would wait until tomorrow probably you see I think we might have some in stock on drip Cuz Kenzie is ripping Personals in the morning So I don't know if you can really do that if you could say like hey rip these on drip I don't know. I mean I guess theoretically you could I just don't know if that's like I don't know if I'm gonna get in Trouble for that. That's the one thing we've got Charlotte flair that is 68 of 99 Nice one there on the superstar worn slash use material. Yeah, I just I just don't want to get in trouble to be honest You see I just went there. We've got a 70 out of 99 is Eva Nice one there 70 out of 99 We've got a Damian priest that is 56 out of 99 But I really Damian priest memorabilia auto and nice one here on the end We've got one of 49 marks of greatness on card Corrigade congrats on that one there Scott. That's awesome dude marks of greatness Corrigade There you go. That will do it for your break there Scott. Thanks again as always for the support buddy We'll get those right out to you


These quotes from the CEO of Taglet Birthright will shock you. Welcome back to day five of our series, Boycott Birthright and Other Fruit Trips to Israel, where we've been following the birthright trip going on right now and exposing the propaganda behind each day. I can't believe it's day five and we're already halfway through this series, but I feel like we're kind of becoming pros at this now, and if we see Israeli propaganda, we'll at least know something is wrong. You guys know the drill by now. What we do is we see what birthright goers are up to today by looking at the itinerary from the Taglet Birthright website, and then we kind of expose the propaganda behind it by seeing what they left out, what they lied about, talking about the policy and experience in general. And we will do that really quickly in just a sec, but I wanted to use this halfway point as a reminder that birthright is a strategic tool that Israel uses in order to further its political interests. And what better way to relay that to you than by quotes from the CEO of Taglet Birthright himself, Gidi Mark. But first let's do a speed round of today's itinerary. I want to talk about the picture they used. It's a dish called Shekshuka, and Shekshuka is like Hamas in that it's one of those dishes that Israel really tries to claim as its own, but let's take a step back and think about it for a second here. If you settled in Israel in 1948, from say like anywhere in Europe, you couldn't have invented a dish that Palestinians have been eating for generations, but I think that one's obvious, so let's just move on. Next we see that birthright goers are given the opportunity to peruse Jerusalem, and they say the choice is yours. If you've seen yesterday's video, then you know that this is kind of ironic because Palestinians don't have the same choice. And if you haven't seen it, go check it out to learn about the movement restrictions on Palestinians. Okay, finally, I just want to point out how in this last sentence they mentioned that this street has some of the best shawarma, falafel, and pizza in all of Israel. And I just think it's funny that they had to follow up shawarma and falafel with pizza, because that's probably what people going on birthright are more used to eating. But that's just a joke, guys, okay? I can have a little fun with this. Let's get into the real topic of this video, and it's the quotes by this man here, Gidi Mark. He's the CEO of Birthright Israel. So something that I see a lot is people wanting to take free trips to Israel because they want to travel, and traveling is expensive, and they think that they won't fall for the propaganda, and you know they say free Palestine, but they think that they can separate themselves from the harm of birthright. But I'm here to tell you guys that that is not possible because birthright is built into the structure of the colonization of Palestine. And when I show you these quotes, it's going to make it really clear. This is the article I'm going to be pulling these quotes from in case you want to check it out. I'm including all the full quotes here, and I encourage you to read them in their entirety so that you can see how blatant the players in the occupation of Palestine are in their goal. And talking about the itinerary, he says, making an itinerary that provides a strategic, long-term, and effective response to the challenges of anti-Semitic and anti-Israel attacks. When talking about birthright tours, he says that they're one of the most significant tools for systemically confronting anti-Semitic organizations, BDS supporters, and others which work to slander Israel. In talking about people who go on birthright, he says, these youths return to their countries as impassioned and important ambassadors for Israel. He talks about it being a pivotal point in their lives, and that they have become focal points for the support of Israel. The goal of birthright from the mouth of the CEO is to create lifetime ambassadors for Israel in every space possible to combat anti-Israel slander. The goal of birthright is to manipulate those that go on the trip to become lifetime defenders of the apartheid state of Israel and to shut down Palestinians organizing for their liberation. One of the targets for these ambassadors are BDS supporters. We see this impact now with anti-BDS legislation being passed in some states, including Arkansas. All this is to say that birthright doesn't just add to the occupation of Palestine, but rather it was born out of that colonial structure and therefore creates and maintains the structures that perpetuate it. So you as an individual can't go on birthright and separate yourself from the structural harm that it causes. And that's why the only thing to do is to boycott birthright and all free trips to Israel. Support BDS and Palestinian liberation by simply refusing to go on the trip. And of course follow along the series we still have five more days of the birthright trip to go and on June 15th at 6 30 p.m. central we're going to have a webinar on the harmful effects of birthright if you're curious to learn more.


So college really was something that I always wanted to do, but really was not in the cards for me. I grew up in an abusive and drug and alcohol addicted household. Moving into my 20s, they weren't much better. Fast forward, I found myself a single mother with my children looking back at me, seemingly to say, go mom, go, do something. And at that point I made a promise to them that not only was I going to go to school, I was going to graduate before my oldest graduated high school because it was not cool to be in college with mom. I walked into a registration event and I'm not exaggerating when I say I walked up to the table and I said, I want to go to school and I don't know what to do. And the woman at the table literally got up and came alongside me and walked me from station to station to station and seemingly came alongside and helped carry that load. I think there's a lot of things that you're not sure about and it's scary and I recognize that. But when you go and you get their common theme from all of the technical colleges is the helpfulness and the accessibility and really the financial access that it affords to everybody. For a mom who never thought that any of these experiences would ever be possible, no words that I can express how much all of this means to me. To my daughters, Ariana, Morgan and Emma for always encouraging me and saying, go mom, go. I'm going to keep going not only for myself but also for you. Thank you.


So the gift is one of my fundamental lenses through which I understand the world, and through which I understand human beings. So I can look at you, Paul, and I can shift my attention and see you as a bearer of sacred gifts. The more I immerse myself in that perception, the more I invoke those gifts, because many of us go through life never really being seen that way. And it's not because our fellow companions here are malicious or bad or ignorant, but we live in a system that blinds us to each other's true divine nature. So when somebody actually sees you and you have that feeling of being seen in your divinity, that is a powerful call to step into that divinity. And in that moment, you don't need any kind of willpower, you don't need any kind of shaming, you don't need any kind of bribery to become who you are. Because you're held in that reality. That is how we can, that's what we can do for each other. And to even recognize with some gentleness that this is not something to like fulfill your potential to break through the glass ceiling. That's not something that you can or have to achieve through your own willpower. We are inter-beings and our becoming is a function of relationship. So, yeah, like we can accept help and accept that we are not alone here. And it's not all up to each one of us individually. And there's more paradox underneath that. It's not like you do nothing, but your capacity, your will, your discipline even, is called into action by the way that others see us. Like where does courage come from? Where does kindness come from? I personally find it, I find myself being a lot braver when people are seeing me as brave. I find myself a lot kinder when people are seeing me as kind. This is the collective story that we can hold for the world. And the more intently that we hold that story, the more the world steps into that and makes it real. Very inspiring. So how do we help encourage each other to be able to offer that to another human being? I mean, as you were saying earlier, this is something Ben does naturally. That's why the film is a success. He knows and sees you and this allowed that all to pour out of you and he structured the film and so forth so that those gifts are there to be seen. And then we're all sharing those gifts. How do we help each other? How do we help each other in a day to day basis? Yeah, so this is a how question that you're asking, but it's, but the real question is not a how question. It's, it's sometimes when we say, how do I, how do I, how do I, that is like this screen over top your knowledge that you already know how you already know what to do. So what I really hear in the, how do I do this for others? How do I encourage them is a yearning to be that and to do that. And so I would give attention to the sincerity of that, of that watching, like your, your generosity, your kindness, your goodwill toward your fellow human being. And that in itself is the invitation is the encouragement that you're asking about. And as you own that, you will find yourself acting from that with great skill in situations where no one even told you how. Yeah. Yeah, so like, don't make it too hard.