We're back. It's still the breakfast in Plarsive Africa and of course it's set for a first major conversation. Have you seen the few accused around maybe in your city? For those of us in Lagos, we're experiencing it and it's affecting not just the price of petrol and the price of transportation also affecting the flow of traffic. Well, petrol's kesti hit different parts of Nigeria. On Tuesday, forcing mortars to spend hours on ours at filling stations while battling to get the product. Black marketers are also having a field day. Some are selling a liter of petrol at between 300 to 400 naira in many parts of the country. See, I think that's what they do when it gets to this type of scarcity. Many motorists have been forced to patronize these black marketers as the unplatable alternative was to wait for hours in a queue at filling stations. I made long queues and waiting for hours in Lagos. Some filling stations sold a liter of premium motor spirit we're hearing for as much as 200 naira per liter as against the approved price of 180 to 185 naira to the liter. Transportation costs have also, like I said earlier, gone up in response to the fuel scarcity and parts of the country. Petrol marketers in response to this situation have said that there has been a low petrol supply by the Nigerian National Petroleum Company limited is what they're saying. For some years now the NNPC has been the sole importer of petroleum products into the country. What exactly is going on? I'm glad to say we have joining us to discuss this current fuel scarcity, one of those marketers. He happens to be the National Public Relations Officer of the Independent National Petroleum Markters Association of Nigeria. Chief Chinadu Ukadike, nice to have you on the breakfast this morning. Yeah, thank you very much and good morning to you guys. Let's see the pool in the eye. What is going on? Why are we having the queues returning to filling stations? There are two factors, one is secondary. Why the other one is primary? The primary aspect of the freshcast seal and the other three refineries, they are not refining. For the past two years or three years now they have been obsolete and they are currently undergoing terrible maintenance according to the minister who promised us a few months ago that the refineries will be revamped and the refineries will be thrown at the end of March or April which will produce 70% of petroleum products. But all this we are still very dependent on the protection of petroleum products from outside the country and whatever is the standard influence of importation will definitely affect the domestic price of petroleum products in Nigeria. So that is the problem we are facing. One is secondary, the other one is primary. The primary aspect of it is that we are now importing petroleum products from different foreign countries and that made Nigeria not dependent on petroleum products. So whatever the international market states, whatever the dollar trend is, that is what we will combat in Meira. Although the federal government says they are subsidizing the importation of petroleum product and the billions of dollars and billions of dollars we use to subsidize petroleum products. So how long? That is the social refinery itself. The birth cannot go on good. So many men enough just a few dollars is really affecting the market. All right. So just to get you right, what you're saying chief Ukadike is that the normal thing which we've been having for years, it's the same thing. Even when the fuel was available and we're buying at the regular price from you guys, the marketers. You're saying that that is what is causing the scarcity right now, that the refineries are not working and Nigeria is importing, but the refineries are not working last week, last month. We had fear. Yes, that is what I'm saying. Since we are heavily depending on the potential of petroleum product, whatever that is elapsis or whatever that showcase the supply chain from the international community will definitely affect Nigeria. We are globally aware that for a very long time, almost 2-3 months, marketers who have split through PFI, their products to be supplied by NMPC have not gotten it because there is no other person to take from. They are higher, they are better person for a very long time. They are just waiting for NMPC to give them way ahead or schedule them to load. Those who are pricing in June, July, August, they are still on queue.  We are not going to speak for the poor owners. We also want to tell you that reliably, that some of them have split since July, August, September. They have not gotten the product. We are not going to get the product and send it to their depots, which are located along the river line, that we cannot go with our close to grand buy. That is why you see from the dry side of Nigeria, which is a part of this country. They are almost driving towards the western and the southern part of the country. They are not going to get the product because they are not going to get the produce. The private depot owners can be able to pick their funds from. So that they can be fed from the vessels. The pipeline are no longer working. They are lost to our pipelines. So we cannot be able to pump the product to the pipeline. So you see that the chain of distribution is becoming more tougher, thicker, heavier and even more reasonable. Because the country was designed that after refining, finish refining through their system, that products will be sent to the north without even trucking. So that marketers or transporters can be able to within their depot locality there, take petroleum products within three hours behind the station of this nation. Now in Lagos, you see dreadlocks of tanker drivers moving from Lagos to Kaduna Kano, Abuja. And they cut off in Lokocha. Some of them spent four or five days, six days, before they flood the center. Some of them use alternative routes. Those alternative routes cost marketers a huge amount of money to be able to ensure that their product and the personas and their equipment is safe. So you see that there are variables that are causing some of this little drift in the chain of distribution. So you're saying that the NNPC has failed to supply the market? Yes, they slat from the sufficient period. Because NNPCs normally have two to three months sufficient period. So that if there is any delay in chain of distribution, they will use this problem for the sufficient period to be able to mark up the market until they get supply. This time around, the team has looked at it. And you see how Majira is simply preparing a powering build vehicles, generators, and all of them in the drone product. So there is nothing they can do. It has to show by itself that the generator that is moving up and everything is breathing is that this economy is almost flat breathing. All right, when we look at the supply chain, you just said you don't wait for the product to get finished before you make an order for fresh stock. You actually make the order even when the product is at halfway stage before it gets finished, which is what you're saying that these people pay for the thing before it comes. So why is the NNPC unable to fulfill its obligations or duty as so officially the sole importer of the product? Is there a reason for this? Because this product is being subsidized and the government is trying to as much as possible not to allow corruption to be driven by this SSI. And that is why the government is doing the same by themselves, by themselves, and by the people of Nigeria. When they were doing the lease back, kwee buy back and all the rest of them, there were a lot of corruption and the NNPC and the government decided that they would be so important, they would give contracts to importers to bring this product for them so that they can be able to streamline the exchange of dollar and the international market. So that those who are doing this road profit here, only from exchange of dollar too. So NNPC is just trying to be very, very careful on how they manage the resources and how they manage the transactions. Okay, but what's the reason? This is an excuse that was liberated that anybody who infuses it can be able to import, can go and import. You understand me on the prior market. And most of them are finally so difficult because passing dollar from CBN is becoming very difficult. But 30 days after sales also is another big problem. In fact, the business of importation of petroleum products in Nigeria can be easily done by NNPC management and the federal government themselves because of the intricacies of this false transfer during. So having said, given us the reason why the federal government decided to make NNPCL the sole importer, I want to tell us why is the NNPC unable to supply stock? Well, you know, we have traditionally experienced the last kind. They were also telling me that the problem in Ukraine, the one Ukraine affected the international trade zone and affected the late sum of the ships that were supposed to be battered in Nigeria have paid for battered vessels and they couldn't come. Whereupon we also have this excuse that we imported excessive ethanol in the market and thereby their importers failed them by bringing in products that are not satisfactory but are not satisfied with the PMS. And that one Nigeria has also suffered with the vehicles but nobody else I'm talking to you has been held responsible for these actions and inventions. And today again we are also hearing that because of the lack of moda vessel that progress cannot be able to be found in some of the private land farms. At the end of the day Nigeria has received so far a lot of opportunities and profiteering match and serve also taking these little opportunities to smite to the bank. So you see that is a problem where people don't take responsibilities. We will not be able to sit down here to say that this is the cost or I don't know because some of LFDCs say we interpret the importers but with the importers they decided not to continue to supply them. So I can not appropriately say that because I am not part of that process but sometimes we speculate as marketers too. So you are saying probably it could be an issue of cash flow that has affected a few of the flow. Yes, transaction issues. Alright, maybe government is broken can't pay for the fuel. I will not primarily agree on that. I would also recommend this but I also mean that there is a hiccup in transaction flow and maybe I don't know which one each other. I don't know what the transaction is all about but we know that the moda vessels are the ones to come before to sustain this efficiency period of LFDC. It's not that it's not where that will be found. Market has overpaid in June-July and it's getting to August-October. I have not gotten the approval just recently that I read on the news today that LFDC has at least 160 trucks to Lagos. Is that imaginable? One has three trucks to Lagos so what happened to others of the nation that feeds from Lagos because I know even Potapotia feed from Lagos Kalu, Kaduna, Gumbola they feed from Lagos. So is that one of the six trucks to Lagos Lagos but the police they offer those who come to Lagos to come and take approval from Lagos because Apapa is very health the various tax funds situated and most market are just to preach this excess of scarcity via PFEF drive from Potapot drive from Gumbola drive from Gumbola or Patata Contro to go to Lagos to buy and buy this product and come and sell that to Lagos in fellow zone so also also go to Wari Kalaba deliverant previews to buy petroleum products So when I don't know where is news that LFDC has released one round for six trucks of PMS for Lagos is is that news we asked but then it was on it was after curation last month the NMPC limited came out to tell Nigerians they came out to say that the the country would not experience petroskecity in December and beyond you know if they say December and beyond I will take it that they are even saying no we're not even talking about October, November because that one is not even is not even an issue but of course we're used to the perennial or we wear used to the perennial ember month especially December scarcity and they said this was through their chief financial officer miso umar ajia umar ajia you know said in Abuja last month that they have arrangements to ensure as you get supply for December and beyond this was when they appeared before an ad hoc committee of the House of Representatives on fuel subsidy regime in Nigeria what are your thoughts on on the words and what the NNPC is saying to the public to the national assembly to the media to even you guys in the industry and what the real situation is on ground like we have seen play out now yeah I think there is a lot of real organization in the NNPC PPMC you are aware that recently that NNPC was incorporated as a limited liability companies and they are also going to buy infelization or a brand and restart a jazzy and I also seen that these are some of the administrative bottlenecks that have caused this little scarcity that were just expiating and that because maybe there is a new management on board there is new policies there is new innovations there are new checks and balance it and address of them and there are kind of recommendations in the NNPC management reshuffle and some of the top managers of NNPC as they remove transfer just because of this new restructuring of the NNPC and making it incorporated so that they will be profit oriented so I also believe that that speech was made when NNPC was not incorporated and now that the NNPC has been incorporated I think a lot of things need to be changed and they also need to reaffirm because I also believe that this if you go to the NNPC which is new we granted NNPC with the repranded logo we will be able to give Nigerian the granted delivery of petroleum product and see to leave that Nigerians that suffer like this so I will not be able to avoid tenacity or a statement that was made when NNPC was not a brand where everything was not removed for 100 NNPC was not a limited liability company now there is a limited liability company we are spreading policy statements from them we are spreading re-transfiguration we are spreading trans-transfiguration you know the re-transfiguration of the entire system we will be able to give Nigeria peta service Chief Fukadike how much are you selling petu per liter and your colleagues in your part of the country today because we don't have that mandate to force them to sell so if you go to a tank farm and they are able to say sorry well if you want to put a man in business you need to buy and put a little bit much and they are able to continue to serve the country because I want to go let's say say and tell you that the independent marketing is a little pretty but because we are service-oriented we are almost like medical doctors because we are service-oriented and we will continue to operate our affiliation even sometimes at the loss so you are saying your members are selling as hard as $119 in Pohakot in places like Yes, it's not it depends on what you buy we put a little margin even how much is I am reviewed by the state government okay chief I am going somewhere so in places like Adda, George we have a lot of petrol stations in places like East West Road Abar Road in places like but I got township Atiliri you are all selling at $190 and you are saying this because you are buying it at $183 ordinarily what is the profit margin you normally would have how much were you getting we have as the X depo price attribution says $2,000 says $1990 $1980 and then besides we are giving impendent magic magic pass margin more than $10 or $119 so this year this year sorry chief this year what is the X depo price being normally now normally as I am talking to you know we are buying from the positive depo $184 or $185 no no no I am saying you said you buy between $183 $185 but this year before now normally what should the X depo price be as the X depo price supposed to be $164 PPMZ as the X depo price supposed to be $167.5 but I am looking at this year we are selling at $170 $175.7 because I am talking to you now let us be selling at $177.5 okay so if you if you so it means that you are making just about if you are buying at $183 and selling at $190 though I hear in some parts of what I call they are selling at $200 you know I have my sources I hear some parts of what I call they are selling as much as $200 $210 it means you are making just about $7 Naira profit gain because because we want to remain in business we are not even enough just because we want to because only a drone of this so to power or $35,000 $40,000 is almost over something thousand so so you pay your staffs you pay agency fees and all the rest of them why not even making anything so so for your members who are who are your members who are selling independent marketer make money when products are available not when they are scarce so your members who are selling at $200 and $210 in Podhakot what will you do to them like you say sometimes I will not agree with you that our members are selling up to $290 per liter because I also live in Podhakot I have driven around this when I have not seen any finistation that their price is $200 the least I have seen is one night but I also want to also let you know that for adventure you see that you may be a 30 marketer because some traders may not be able to go to the tank farm to go and dump that which amount of money dump almost a million Naira to make $200,000 Naira not those business drives like that in this country what business drives like that even if you cannot be able to invest $10,000 Naira we know this kind of risk and you make $300,000, $200,000 Naira after a month okay is not business at all all right so we enjoy when the wind that is a free flow petroleum product at the depot we cannot do turnover now if you say finistali this one you say you get another one you need to make your route and service your equipment and the rest of them before you start again okay Chief Fichiridu Kadike we will have to live like that I wish we had more time so we could really go into why the depo owners are increasing their costs when they didn't buy higher from NNPC they are old stock should they be increasing what they are charging from you but we have to live like that thank you so much for your time it's all right no problem it's the thank you very much I'm always there to provide concrete and valuable informations all right Chief Fichiridu Kadike national publicity sexual public relations officer rather of the independent petroleum market as association of Nigeria we'll be right back with more discussions on the breakfast stay with us


If you remember this answer in the future, you'll always be able to catch yourself when you're giving a socialized false response based on what you have learned to be the right thing. It's not about anything being the right thing, it's about you sensing yourself, self-realization. That leads to the realization of the other. In the recent time, I realized that often my actions come from a posture where I'm focused on me and not on the other. When that was brought to my attention, I think each time I realized, yes, of course, I immediately grasped it, but just a couple of days ago, I felt that there is a resistance within and I reflected a bit and suddenly I had the question, could it be that my initial saying, yes, I want to change that actually came more from my societal upbringing? That I was taught, it's not good to be selfish. So if anyone ever points that out, my immediate reaction would be, yes, yes, I'm going to change that. I also realized, I don't really understand why I need to change that. Could you give guidance because now I'm a bit confused? I think it's very interesting what you have realized that it could be from this moral upbringing of being charitable and being kind to others and so on, but without any real basis for why that should be the case. It's always and always something which is a result of a self-realization process. And when there is no self-realization process, which is the case in most cases with religion because you follow a given set of rules, what happens then is that the experience of tuning into the other or bothering about the other or caring about the other is not there. It's simply a response. It's a socialized response. It's a moralistic, guilt-ridden response behavior rather than that it's born out of the experience of tuning in. The more you tune into yourself, the more you actually go in, go in, go in. The more you feel that oneness with the other and the more you feel that oneness with the other, the more you're also sensitive about the other. So it's not caring about the other but much more sensing the other. That is what the whole thing is about. And when you sense the other, your environment becomes less and less troublesome to you. It just does. It becomes less troublesome. You sense, let's say your boss at work, what's the result going to be? It's going to be less of a atmosphere of strife around you at work. You sense how your children are feeling in a given moment. What that means is that you'll have children that are less troublesome. So when you respond with a moral religious approach to the whole thing, it has the opposite result because the other one feels that there is no real sensing behind your response. Which is why the spiritual journey of going inward, of actually tuning in to the source of your being is very valuable. It allows you to tune into the other and therefore allows you to reduce the suffering in your life and to increase the joy. So it's in your own interest to do that and not to do that as a socialized response but to do that as a result of feeling yourself.  You know, you can just try it now actually. Just take a moment and just try to sort of quiet, quiet, quiet everything down, you know. Everyone in this satsang can do that actually. Just take a moment, you can close your eyes and just quiet, quiet all your opinions and ideas and desires and wishes and hopes and just quiet everything down for a moment and just try to feel the core, just a solid core you'll feel your breathing also, suddenly it becomes very real, you become aware of it. And now in that state of quiet, as you sense yourself, you'll just open your eyes, you'll just be more sensing of everyone around you. And it's not a response which is socialized. It's an experience-based response to everything around you. An action actually towards everything around you, not even a response but an action. An action of sensing the other. That's the difference. And now you'll see, if you remember this answer in the future, you'll always be able to catch yourself when you're giving a socialized false response based on what you have learned to be the right thing. It's not about anything being the right thing, it's about you sensing yourself, self-realization. That leads to the realization of the other.  Because they are tuned into themselves. It's very fascinating to observe how that just switches around, it just switches within a very short time. And you're not anymore than a victim of the socialization process which is pushed through by religion, which is pushed through by greedy capital, all of those things.  The true boss of the situation, which means you become the big lover. Just love everyone because you love yourself and love meaning, a tuning in, a oneness with an understanding of the self, the source, the truth, the core.


Hello, this is Waylon Chao and welcome to this series on forming contracts. This video is part E on consideration. Remember there are three essential elements to form a contract. We will focus on the exchange of consideration. These are our dear friends, Sonia and Ahmed. Sonia has made an offer to sell her laptop for $700 to Ahmed. Ahmed has accepted. He says, yes, sure. I'll take it for $700. So the exchange of consideration here was Sonia gave a promise to Ahmed to give ownership of her Apple laptop to Ahmed and Ahmed in exchange promised to pay $700 to Sonia. So there is a valid exchange of consideration here. Now if if there is a lack of an exchange of consideration, if only one party is making a promise or providing consideration, then that exchange of consideration requirement is not met. It's considered to be a gratuitous or one-sided promise which is void for lack of consideration unless it is under seal and we'll talk further about the significance of a seal later on in this video. Let's try to understand what is consideration, especially the legal meaning of consideration which is very different than the general meaning of the same word. Consideration can be either giving or promising to give a benefit to someone else. So that benefit can be provided to the other party to the contract or to another person, a third party. Consideration can also be suffering or promising to suffer a detriment to yourself. So if you're offering to give up smoking in exchange for someone paying you $1,000, giving up smoking is suffering a detriment and is considered to be valid consideration. Consideration has to have value. Now that is value that the law considers to be valuable. That includes obviously money, goods, land or services, but it does not include love and affection or good feelings. The law does not consider those things to be valuable. Consideration does not need to be adequate. Whatever parties decide to exchange can be is enough to satisfy the exchange of consideration. A deal does not have to be considered fair. To illustrate this there is something called the peppercorn theory. So if I owned a horse and I wanted to sell it to you and you offered to provide me as payment for the horse, one tiny little peppercorn, and if I was foolish enough to agree to that, then that deal would satisfy the requirement of an exchange of consideration. Even though the value of that peppercorn is minuscule, it's far less than the economic value of the horse. But the fact that the peppercorn has some value is enough to satisfy the requirement of consideration. Hello again, Sonia and Ahmed. So Ahmed saying, oh man, my laptop broke and I can't afford to buy another one. Sonia says, I'm going to get a new laptop in a few days. Once I get it, I'll give you my old one. Ahmed says, that would be awesome. Thank you so much. A few days later, Sonia says to Ahmed, hey, Ahmed, it's time to give my old laptop to my little brother. Sorry about that. So let's think about why there is no contract between Sonia and Ahmed and also think about how the deal between Sonia and Ahmed may have been changed so that there was a binding contract between Sonia and Ahmed. With regard to the first question, why there is no contract between Sonia and Ahmed. So although Ahmed did accept Sonia's offer of the laptop, there was no exchange of consideration. Ahmed did not provide any consideration in exchange for Sonia's promise of the laptop. Therefore, a contract was not formed. With regard to the second question about how the deal between Sonia and Ahmed may have been changed so that there was a binding contract. If Ahmed had provided any amount of consideration, for example, a promise to pay even just $1, there would have been a binding contract because there would have been an exchange of consideration. Alternatively, if Sonia had put her promise in writing and signed it under seal, there would have been a binding contract. Pass consideration is value given before a contract was contemplated. Pass consideration cannot be used to support a contract. If an agreement is formed but it does not mention the price, a court may find an implied promise to pay a reasonable price instead of finding a lack of consideration due to past consideration. So back to Sonia and Ahmed. Ahmed is saying again that his laptop broke and he can't afford to buy another one. Sonia says, I'm going to get a new laptop in a few days. Since you helped me so much this semester to pass this course, I'll give you my old laptop. Ahmed says, that would be awesome. Thank you so much. So Sonia has given a promise to give ownership of her Apple laptop to Ahmed. And Ahmed has given this past consideration of helping Sonia pass the course. So this is assistance and help that Ahmed has already provided in the past before there was any contemplation, any discussion about the laptop, about giving the laptop to Ahmed. So that consideration given by Ahmed is past consideration. Therefore it's not valid consideration. So therefore there is no exchange of consideration in this scenario. Let's look at the issue of whether a pre-existing obligation can be used as consideration for a new contract. So if one party is already obligated to do something or to deliver something under a previous contract, can that obligation under the previous contract be used as consideration for a brand new contract? The summary of the law on this is on this chart. We'll look at each type of pre-existing obligation in further detail in the context of the leading cases on this issue. The first type of pre-existing obligation is a pre-existing contractual obligation owed to a third party. So for example, I will do for you what I already promised to do for someone else. So that is considered to be consideration for a new contract because that pre-existing or old obligation is considered to be a new benefit for the other party under the new contract. The second type of pre-existing obligation is where the obligation is owed to the same party. In other words, I'll perform our existing contract if you pay me $500 extra. With that type of pre-existing obligation, it is not considered to be consideration for the new contract because there is no new benefit being given to the other party. The leading decision on pre-existing contractual obligations owed to a third party is the case of Pao An and Lao Yi Long, or I call it the Food Chip case because it involves a corporation by that name. The plaintiff in the Food Chip case had entered into an agreement with Food Chip Corp for the purchase of shares. So the consideration exchange there was that Food Chip shares would be sold by the corporation to the plaintiff in exchange for the payment of a certain price for the shares and also a promise not to resell those shares or not to resell more than 60% of those shares within a year. Now, another agreement that the plaintiff entered into was an indemnification agreement with the majority shareholders of Food Chip Corp. So this is the agreement that was called into question as to whether or not it was a valid contract. Under that indemnification agreement, the majority shareholders of the defendants had promised to indemnify for any losses that the plaintiff may suffer. So if the price of those shares had gone down below a certain level, the majority shareholders would have compensated the plaintiff for that loss under that promise. In exchange for that promise, the consideration provided by the plaintiff to the majority shareholders was a promise not to resell more than 60% of the shares within the year. So it was the exact same promise that the plaintiff had made to Food Chip Corporation under the other agreement, the agreement for the purchase of the shares. So the issue was, is that promise not to resell more than 60% within a year made to the majority shareholders? Is that considered to be valid consideration? Because it was a preexisting contractual obligation that the plaintiff already had to someone else, which was the corporation. And the court there found that that promise was valid consideration, that this previous promise is a new benefit for the majority shareholders under the indemnification agreement, and therefore it is valid consideration. The leading decision involving preexisting contractual obligation owed to the same party is the case of Gilbert Steele and University Construction, which is a decision of the Ontario Court of Appeal. In that case, we have two agreements, and they both involve the same parties. One party, the first party, which is the plaintiff, is Gilbert Steele, and the second party is University Construction. Gilbert Steele was a supplier of Steele for construction, and University Construction was the general contractor. So agreement number one between these two parties involved a promise by University Construction to pay a set price for the supply of Steele by Gilbert Steele. So Gilbert Steele had promised to supply several shipments of Steele at that set price. Now, after a few shipments had been made, the world price of Steele had gone up. So Gilbert Steele went back to University Construction and told them about the increase in the price of Steele to see if University Construction would be willing to pay a higher price for the remaining shipments of Steele. So that led to agreement number two between Gilbert Steele and University Construction. Under agreement number two, University Construction had agreed to pay an additional amount for the Steele. And that additional amount was for Gilbert Steele to supply the remaining shipments as per the original agreement number one. The court found that that promise to supply the remaining shipments under agreement number two was not valid consideration because that promise had already been made under agreement number one and that University Construction did not receive any new benefit from that promise to supply the remaining shipments. And therefore, that second contract, agreement number two, is void for lack of consideration. Situation involving a promise to forgive debt also involves an issue regarding consideration. For example, if you owe me $500 and you tell me that you will have a lot of difficulty paying me back since you lost your job, and I agree to forgive your debt if you pay me $200, then that is a promise to discharge debt upon part payment. The legal problem there is that the promise to discharge debt is unenforceable because no new consideration is being provided by the debtor. So in effect, I am discharging $300 of your debt in exchange for nothing from you. So there is no exchange of consideration. Now the solution to that legal problem is one of three possible solutions. If the situation occurs in Ontario, there is a piece of legislation called the Ontario Mercantile Law Amendment Act which says that you can't have a valid contract to accept part payment to fully discharge a debt obligation even though there is no new consideration. So that legislation essentially changes the common law position that there is no agreement. So the legislation overrides the common law position. Now for other provinces in Canada that don't have the equipment of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, there the other way of making a promise to discharge debt, an enforceable contract is to make that promise under seal and we'll talk about a seal on the next slide. And a third way of getting around this problem is to have the debtor promise to provide some kind of new benefit in exchange for the forgiveness of the debt. So if you promise to pay me $200 and I'll forgive you the remaining $300, but in addition, you promise to pay me that $200 sooner than the usual deadline, than the required deadline, then you are giving me a new benefit which is the benefit of early payment and there is an exchange of consideration which makes it into an enforceable contract. So we know that a one-sided promise where one party is making a promise to the other and the other party is not giving anything in exchange, a one-sided promise lacks an exchange of consideration and therefore is not an enforceable contract. Those one-sided promises can be made into enforceable contracts by one of two ways even though there is no exchange of consideration. The first way is by using a seal and the second way is under the legal doctrine of promissory estoppel, which by the way is not covered in this course so you're not responsible for that so we won't talk about that any further. Now what is this seal? A seal is a special mark on a written contract to indicate a party's intention to be bound by the terms of the contract. So what it would involve is simply the person who's making that one-sided promise put that in writing and sign it and put a special red sticker on it so I call it a magic sticker. So the effect of that magic sticker is to make that one-sided promise into a legally binding contract.


In this video, we examine the historical and present-day significance of the law of conservation of mass. In the 18th century, scientists thought that when things burn, a substance called phlogiston came out of them. Then, experiments in closed vessels where substances could be accurately weighed began to help early scientists, such as Lavoisier, understand that when things burn, oxygen is added. He realized that matter could be changed but not destroyed. In 1789, he established the law of conservation of mass. In chemical reactions, no matter is lost or gained. These experiments on combining weights also showed that elements always combined in fixed ratios, the law of definite proportions and constant composition. And they led Dalton to publish his atomic theory in 1808. Modern chemistry had started. By mid-19th century, only half the elements had been discovered but enough to enable Mendeleev to produce his famous periodic table. That was in 1869. Chemical equations began to be written as we now know them from about this time. For example, the burning of magnesium. Ah, this needs balancing. When we balance an equation, we are simply obeying the law of conservation of mass. All the atoms in the reactants must be accounted for in the products. It's easy to see this if we draw out the atoms, rearranging themselves to form the products. You can see clearly that no atoms are gained or lost during a reaction, so the mass is conserved. Here is another example. A reaction you'll see every time you use a gas cooker which uses natural gas. But is this reaction balanced? Pause the video and count the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side. It is easy to count if we draw out the molecules as models. Carbon, one each side. Oxygen, two to start with, but now three. Hydrogen, four to start with, but now only two. To balance the hydrogens, we need to add two more hydrogens on the right. To do this, we add another water molecule. Pause and count. Is it balanced now? Well, the carbon and the hydrogen balance, but we have four oxygens in the product, but only two in the reactants. So we add another oxygen molecule to the reactants. Now we have conserved mass. In summary, the law of conservation of mass is simply saying that during chemical change there is no loss or gain of atoms. It is for this reason that we always balance chemical equations. Until you are really familiar with using formulae, it's easier to draw out the molecules as models to enable you to account for all the atoms.


US Navy's Carrier Strike Group 1, participates in trilateral exercise. Ships from the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, the Republic of Korea Navy, and the US Navy's Carrier Strike Group, CSG-1, transit together during a trilateral exercise. The exercise allowed maritime forces from Japan, Republic of Korea, and US to train, together to enhance coordination on maritime domain awareness, and other shared security interests. CSG-1 is deployed to the US 7th Fleet Area of Operations in support of a free and open Indo-Pacific region.


But then you can ground, which is share your perspective and stay, sit there and say, like, hey, look, you know what I value is being better for myself. I value martial arts. I value it because it disciplines my mind and all these reasons.  And I guess a better question, here's the challenge, rather than ask you, what is your value? Like, how do you live your life that reflects your beliefs? Now, she may or may not answer that question because it's still deep. But either way, guess what? Your identity is the most important thing here. Your technique is a slave to your identity, to the types of women that you want, and then feeds back into it. Kind of makes sense? Yeah? Oh, just kind of. Does it really make sense? Hey, we've got to move on because we're running out of time. They only give me 55 minutes. Plenty of time. Hi. Yes, sir? I've been thinking like recently, when you get to a good stage of pickup, you've met a lot of beautiful women, you've dated them, seduced them. And I've got to a stage where I find myself walking down the street. And I'll use the excuse that I've met more beautiful women than that one to not go over and speak to her. Have you ever been in that kind of position? Why do you need to approach somebody? Like, see, this is the thing.  You have to approach, right? So if I say this, whoops, so I say self-expression. I turn it into that. So let's say like opening. Anyway, I'm putting myself out there as a form of self-expression. Now guess what happens? I have some experience with women, man. I've dated really hot women. You know what? I'll tell you this. I value connection.  I value intimacy. And I've had that with hot women, but I've also had the complete negation of those things with the most attractive women that I've had relationships with. Or even if they're just quick fly-by-night relationships. And what happens is when I express myself, especially if I need attention, if I'm chasing something, I want to validate something, guess what happens that self-expression? Through experience of interacting with women, I achieve this. Self-exploration. That means I explore who I am, man.  I change as a freaking human being, man. It's beautiful. But I learn about what I'm insecure about, what makes me angry, what makes me jealous, what makes me sad, all that sort of stuff. And through self-exploration, then I can find this other thing, self-acceptance. Now, you might be thinking, jeez, this is way too internal. Guess what, man?  And you're going to have to look at it and internalize it and learn to accept it and guess what happens. And this is actually interesting, man. One of my good friends. In fact, one of the coolest guys that I talked to, he actually said this. He said, man, and I'll tell you who it is afterwards.  I've been the best in the world. But if you don't learn how to get what you like, get the life that you love to get a real life, then it's pointless. You are on the same field as that person who can't approach a woman. Like, why have you done it? In fact, you're worse because you haven't grown. You haven't let this thing influence you. That guy's name is Eric Vonsito, aka Hypnotica, and definitely an awesome dude.  When I was coming up with this process, I always felt bad that people wouldn't get what I mean by that. But dude, going up and approaching women, she's hot.  But she's like, hot chick, what does that mean? You know, what does that mean? If you are only looking at a woman for her physical traits, don't get me wrong, you absolutely should, man. Follow your urges.  But if you're only looking at those things, then you're not looking at yourself. You're disrespecting the potential of what you could have with any woman. You're disrespecting the potential of what you really value. I'm actually, I'm not coming down on you in any way. I'm just saying, open your mind to the possibilities of so much more. So don't beat yourself up if you don't approach a girl.  I think the best ways to connect are sexually and emotionally. Sexually can happen very quick, and it can happen very raw. And I would say learn some techniques towards that, or learn some techniques to build bridges with people emotionally, and those are the things that stick, man. Routine, entertainment, all that stuff, that almost conflicts with emotion and sex. We can't be in that state of being. It gets entertainment, it gets attention, but I would focus on what it is you really want, what validates you, what makes you feel like you're the best possible man you can be. What makes me feel that I have an amazing sense of sexuality, an amazing window of what women are noticing. I got to put that stuff out there. I got to assert myself in that way. Awesome. Thank you. Yeah, cool? Yes. Cool. All right. Hi. Oftentimes, I use alcohol as an anchoring game. How do you overcome that? Well, I stopped drinking. I'll tell you this, dude. This is a funny story. So it's so funny because I'm out of date. When I started in pickup, I didn't drink. And so I was pretty good. I was pretty tenacious. And the two guys that I would go out with, who are somewhat legendary, is Captain Jack. And still to this day, man, I've never seen anybody do what he did. In fact, I'm in contact with it. We're talking about a bunch of stuff. But I mean, he would go up to a girl, passively talk to her for 15 minutes, and he would leave her there. It was so clean. It was so unreal. It was unreal. And then there was Sin, who was this really aggressive, do this, this, this, that. You get laid. And he still kind of promotes that message. But they were like, man, you don't drink. And I'm like, dude, when I drink, I'm crazy. Then I started to drink. And then I went nuts. I could open better. I could be crazier, do more brazen things. But I couldn't get that level of intimacy as well. Now, I'm not saying you can't. Some people totally can. But for me, it like conflicted with that. The thing is that we had this competition way back when.  But you know what?  Like we had a lay competition, all that sort of stuff. And it was like highly publicized. And that's kind of how I became known about stuff. But man, it's a tough thing. You're the person who's going to have to decide where or when that stops. But I think the window to that, again, when you're going through that triangle, it's like, look at your identity, man. What do you like? One of the best questions anybody can ask themselves is, what am I attracted to? What am I attracted to physically? What am I attracted to emotionally? What am I attracted to morally?  Then what's attractive about me? What do I want a girl to notice?


In this presentation we will take a look at overhead costs. In a prior presentation we looked at the cost flow of inventories starting with the raw materials as it flows through to finished goods and is finally sold and recorded as an expense. Support accounting instruction by clicking the link below giving you a free month membership to all of the content on our website broken out by category further broken out by course. Each course then organized in a logical reasonable fashion making it much more easy to find what you need than can be done on a YouTube page. We also include added resources such as Excel practice problems, PDF files and more like QuickBooks backup files when applicable. So once again click the link below for a free month membership to our website and all the content on it. In the format of cost of goods sold within that process within the recording of inventory we note that there's three main parts we have the direct materials we've got the direct labor and then the overhead the overhead we saw that was going to have the actual overhead that will accumulate upward and then we're going to apply out the overhead to the department. So the idea of the overhead then is this area that we don't know which department to apply them to therefore we put something into overhead and then we apply it out to the appropriate location based on some type of estimate in this presentation will consider some of the items that would be increasing or the actual costs of overhead the overhead that would then increase and we apply that overhead out based on an estimate. So note that the amount that we apply out will not match the actual overhead per se and therefore this process will probably result in an under or over applied overhead amount that we'll have to process out and we'll discuss how to do that in a future presentation here. We're concentrating on the actual manufacturing overhead. When considering the accounting for overhead there's a few steps we want to keep in mind. The first is that we're going to set up a predetermined overhead rate. The predetermined overhead rate will typically be based on prior performance or on the last time period the last month and then account for any adjustments in order to get the current predetermined overhead rate. We're going to use that rate to be able to apply the overhead out to the proper location to the proper department. We'll actually do the predetermined overhead rate last so we can see what kind of things would be in overhead so that we can determine how we would then calculate the predetermined overhead rate and then we're going to record actual overhead. So we'll actually enter the overhead or the overhead that will be incurred throughout the month. This is not an estimate. We don't have to estimate what the actual overhead is. The reason we need to put it in the overhead and not to a particular process is because it's not because we don't know what the overhead amount is. We're going to have that actual amount but we don't know which process to apply it to and there might be some timing issues as well as to when we should apply them out. And then we're going to apply the estimated overhead to the process. So we're going to use some type of rate to apply out the estimated overhead to the proper process. So the actual overhead will typically differ from the estimated overhead. And again, part of that might be due to timing. In other words, we have it set up here so we're going to have all the actual overhead calculated and then apply out the estimate. And that might not happen exactly in that order, which is the reason we need the estimate in the first place. We might use the estimate in the first place and therefore be able. We won't have an exact matchup between the actual overhead incurred and the estimated overhead. And then we're going to have the adjust the over or under applied overhead. So at the end of this process, we could have overhead that was either under or over applied. We'll have to do something with that because we want to make sure that it's all applied out so we can go through this process again in the next time period. So what we're going to do is we're going to set up the predetermined overhead rate. The predetermined overhead rate will help us to apply the overhead to the appropriate department as we go through. We're going to record the actual overhead that we incur during the time period. We'll discuss here what those components will be. And then we're going to apply out, of course, to the proper department based on our predetermined overhead rate, which is an estimate. These two will not be the same and therefore we'll have an over or under applied amount and we'll have to adjust for that and that'll be the final step. Here we'll be considering what kind of things are going to be included in overhead. So we could have in factory overhead anything that you see in a book problem that has depreciate has factory in it. Mainly if we can't apply it directly to the department will typically be in overhead. So factory depreciation, for example, if it's for the full factory and we don't we can't apply it out directly to the department. We're just going to dump it into overhead and then apply to department using the predetermined overhead rate. And it might look something like this. We're going to debit the factory overhead and we're going to credit the accumulated depreciation. So note this is very similar to a depreciation journal entry we would normally have. You might have just memorized this journal entry for depreciation debit depreciation expense and credit accumulated depreciation. Now this is going to be different because we're not the depreciation is not expensed in that time period. It's being used to create inventory. That's why we're putting it into overhead, which will eventually go into the working process and into inventory, which we will expense but in the format of cost of goods sold, not in the format of depreciation. So this will then increase the overhead. So overhead will go up from zero up in a debit to 50 with this debit up top accumulated depreciation. Then credit balance contra asset count was that 50 goes up by 50 to 100. There's the 100. Here's the equipment. It's it's going down in a book value method because the contra account is going up. And so that is the difference between those two would then be the book value. And then we've got the factory overhead, the factory overhead now at our 50. Next item, factory utilities. So we might have utilities. Again, utilities, we've probably memorized a utilities journal entry to be utilities expense, and credit cash or something like that. But in this case, it's utilities on the factory where we make inventory. And therefore we're not going to expense the utilities as utilities expense, but put it into the inventory in the form of factory overhead, which will then be part of a finished goods inventory, which we will expense in the form of cost of goods sold eventually at the point of sale. And then the other side, we're going to put into accounts payable. We haven't yet paid it in this case. Accounts payable going up factory overhead then increasing by the 28,000 from 50 plus the 28 to the 78. Here it is here. So that's this 20,000 we're posting out to the GL. And then the 28 for the accounts payable increasing. It was at 965 by the 28 to 993. So there's going to be our 993 on the trial balance. You'll note that the bucket of factory overhead is pretty random. We got some random stuff here. So now we've got utilities. We had depreciation. And next item is going to be indirect materials. When we consider materials, note that a lot of the materials we take, we will know which department it goes to. And therefore we'll apply that out to the department. We'll apply it out to whatever work in process department it should go to, whether in this case it'd be A or B. But we would apply that out to the work in process. It's the indirect materials that we don't know where it should go. Right. We don't know which department it should go to. If it's indirect. So if it's indirect, small materials possibly, therefore we're going to dump that once again into factory overhead. So factory overhead then debit increased by the 68. And the raw materials would decrease by the 68. So we're decreasing the raw materials, putting it into the factory overhead. If we took a look at the GL accounts, then we have our factory overhead. It's going to go up by the 68 to 146. So here's our 146 now. And then the raw materials are going to go down from the 153.5 by the 68 to the 85.5. And so the 85.5 is here. We took it out of one inventory, put it into another, not directly into work in process. We couldn't put it there. We don't know which job it or which process to go to. And therefore put it into factory overhead, which we will then apply out using some format of estimate. Labor is the same way. If we have labor and we know where it's going to go, we can then put it right to the work in process. If we know which department to put it to, we can debit work in process and credit the factory payroll. Note when we consider wages, we're typically thinking of processing payroll. We're thinking about kind of, this is a payroll process. We're not getting into any kind of payroll taxes or that kind of complicated stuff. But just note that this would be on the most basic level to pay payroll. We would debit payroll expense normally and credit cash to pay payroll.  But that would be the normal journal entry. We hear instead of debiting the expense, once again, we're going to be putting it into the inventory. If we knew which department it should go to, we can put it directly into the work in process. That's going to be the direct labor. Indirect labor, what we're concentrating on here, means we don't know which department to put it into. We're paying people that might be working in both departments and therefore we're going to put it into the factory overhead. So rather than expenses, no matter which way it goes, whether it be direct or indirect, it's kind of like running payroll. We're processing the payroll journal entry, but instead of expensing it at that point in time, we're capitalizing it at inventory in one way or the other, either in work in process or factory overhead. The other side being cash or in this case, usually in these problems, they're going to put it into a payable account because note what the payable account does. It allows us not to have a description and still know kind of what this journal entry is doing. If I just put cash down here, then I won't know really just by the looking at the journal entry that what this was for. If I say it's a payable that we haven't paid yet, then even without a description, I could say, oh, well, that looks like it's went into overhead because it's indirect labor just by the accounts that are going to be affected here. So if we look at the GL then, we were at 146 for the factory overhead. It's going to go up by 790 to 936. So here's the 936 in factory overhead. Payroll was at 780,000. It went up by 790 to 1,570. So those are payroll. There's our liability. So these are just a few items that can be in factory overhead. Notice that there could be a lot of different things in there and typically it's going to be anything that's basically on the factory that again, we couldn't apply to a particular process. Once we have this into the factory overhead, you can see we have this debit balance here. We want it eventually to go to work in process. So we're going to have to do that in some way. We'll do it with an estimate. The estimate won't use exactly this number. It's going to be based on estimates basically on prior year estimates with some kind of format for us to apply it out based on an estimate. And therefore, when we do apply it out, it's probably not going to be exact. And if it's not, we'll have an over or under applied amount which we'll have to adjust out. So those are going to be the steps we need to do going forward with relation to the factory overhead.


Hello everyone, I'm Catherine Pulizzi from Rutgers University and I'd like first to extend thanks to the Barnes for offering sanctuary to this symposium when it was in danger of losing a home. So I also want to thank all of the graduate students who have presented so far, such an impressive group of papers, really professional. So thank you for that and I'm very delighted to introduce my advisor, Jeff Freeman, who earned his master's degree at Hunter College and is at present an advanced PhD student in the graduate department at Rutgers. Now for Jeff's day job. So since 2015 he's been working at the Metropolitan Museum and there he contributed as Keith Christensen's assistant to the exhibition Valente de Boulogne Beyond Caravaggio. And then subsequently, more recently he contributed to the catalog and worked with Carmen Bombeck on the Michelangelo drawings show. He has since moved on to become research associate to Denise Allen in the Department of European Sculpture and Decorative Arts. Jeff is also enthusiastic about contemporary art and he's written essays and reviews about various artists and for the exhibition of Jeff Coons, the painter and the sculptor held in Frankfurt in 2012. He was the curatorial assistant and he contributed an essay to the catalog. Jeff's paper this afternoon, now for something very different, a drives from research for his dissertation entitled Site Specificity, Christian Archaeology and Naturalism in Roman Walter pieces about 1600 to 1630 which he will be defending next month. So please join me in welcoming Jeff. Hi everyone. Thank you Catherine and of course I'll repeat everyone's thanks to all the great organizers Martha and Aliya. I know how much work went into this so I thank you all and to all the universities involved. My fellow graduate student presenters, I've heard things all day that I think will dovetail nicely with mine so that was exciting. To remove the work is to destroy it. So Richard Sarah declined during a public hearing concerning the removal of his 120 foot long steel sculpture Tilted Ark installed in Foley Federal Plaza in downtown Manhattan in 1981. Tilted Ark was eventually removed and separated into three plates of steel. Today it sits in a storage facility in Maryland. The work has never been displayed again. The artist saw its status as an artwork so intrinsically dependent on its original intended site. Writers including Miwan Kwan and TJ Demos have considered the controversy surrounding Sarah's Tilted Ark as the defining moment for site specificity in contemporary art positing that the phenomenon was the reaction to the commodification of mobile artworks seen in interchangeable gallery and museum spaces. Within this theorization they also allowed for a plurality of different types of site specific art. For example, memorials, land art, performance, and installation art. And I'll leave site conditioned art to Robert Irwin and Michael. What of the early modern period, though much of Italian Renaissance and Baroque art is site specific, whether a Spalliera panel made for a marital bed chamber, a portrait bus sculpted for a tomb, or perhaps most saliently, as in my study, an altarpiece produced for a specific altar. The concept has been little considered. Perhaps it seems to inherently self-evident, even totological. What is a wall fresco if not inextricably tied to its support? The most famous and original interrogator of early modern site specificity was Leo Steinberg, who in his inimitable way wrote a series of case studies, all examining a site's role in an artist's formal and iconographic choices. In Steinberg's earliest and most well-known example, the 1959 article Observations in the Trazi Chapel, he considers the design of Caravaggio's two lateral paintings in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. Arguing that the unusual compositions and lighting were conceived in relation to the viewer's oblique and changing approach. My research concerns a related but ultimately different arena of early modern site specificity, one responsive to the unique conditions in Rome around 1600. A number of factors in the second half of the 16th century led to feverish interest in Rome's sacred topography, its holy sites, its relics, its early history. This is what we speak of when we discuss an early Christian revival in early modern Rome, a revival inspired by the rediscovery of the catacombs in 1578, the restoration of early Christian edifices, the publication of revised martyrologies, the influx of pilgrims to the city's holy sites for the jubilee years and more. The relation between the early Christian revival and the artwork produced in this period has been the subject of a number of art historical studies over the last 30 years, though there is much left to learn. In my dissertation, I consider the site specificity of a number of altarpaintings depicting early Christian saints, works intended for a holy site, a tomb, a well, the sewers associated with that figure. Each of the altarpieces in my case studies has been dislocated from its original site in some way, whether through destruction, dispersion or seclusion. My method to recover the works' original context combines the close study of surviving artworks, including drawings and prints, and of contemporary written material, like pilgrimage manuals, artistic guidebooks and martyrologies. I propose that holy sites in Rome could drive specific iconographical and artistic choices in ways heretofore unappreciated, arguing for a holy site specificity in early modern art. Cigolese now lost burial of St. Paul of 1609 to 13 for the church of San Paolo for Lemura provides a paradigmatic example. Installed on the high altar of one of the most important basilicas in all of Rome, Cigolese altarpiece must have been one of the most spectacular and influential landmarks of painting at the beginning of the 17th century. And it would have been, this is a view down the nave, it would have been behind the Siborium of Arnauforticambia which marked St. Paul's tomb and behind that. Cigolese altarpiece would have been 23 feet tall and 12 feet wide and likely painted on slate. Installed above the saint's tomb, the monumental painting enshrined one of the holiest sites in all of Christendom. Despite its prominence, the artist's original invention and achievement at San Paolo have not been here to for sufficiently recognized. And this is really the only print that survives that where you can make out what the composition eventually looked like. It's by Giovanni Maggi from his engravings for the nine churches in Rome. The works impact both in its day and for the history of art was severely compromised by several factors. The work was left unfinished at the artist's death in 1613. Subsequently, humidity left the painting in a ruinous state by the early 19th century. The paintings whereabouts have been unknown since the tragic fire that ravaged the church in 1823. I hold out hope that the work sits in a storeroom somewhere, albeit in a ruined state like Sarah's Tilted Ark. Ludovico Cardi, known as Cigoli after the town of his birth, was one of the most in demand painters and architects of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Though extremely important to early Tuscan and Roman Baroque painting, the artist has received relatively little attention, particularly in English language scholarship compared to his contemporaries, Caravaggio or Nibali Karachi. And I have to cite an important 2014 dissertation by Lisa Borla at the University of Pennsylvania as one of the few recent studies of the artist in English or any language. Cigoli is perhaps today best known for his friendship with Galileo and his realistic depiction of a cratered moon studied through a telescope for his fresco of the Immaculate Conception in the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. The Florentine artist spent the last years of his life in that city receiving several important commissions, including an altar piece for St. Peter's Basilica. Cigoli was bestowed the commission for the high altar of San Paolo sometime between the spring of 1606 and the fall of 1607. The painting remained unfinished, but in situ at the artist's death in 1613. The Church of San Paolo for Elemura or St. Paul's outside the walls was believed to have been built over the spot where Paul's tomb was located. And this is what it looks like today, which is mostly reconstructed after the 1823 fire. Though its location outside of the city center makes it off the beaten path for today's tourists, San Paolo was one of the four ancient Basilicas of Rome, the city's second largest church following St. Peter's and one of the seven major pilgrimage churches. The hundreds of thousands of pilgrims in undating Rome, especially during the Jubilee year of 1625, would have included St. Paul's tomb on their itinerary where they would have had the opportunity to meditate on Paul's entombment in front of Chigoli's recently installed painting. In art, the burial of St. Paul was almost never depicted, even within cycles devoted to the saint's life. The lack of iconographical precedence cannot be overemphasized with regards to Chigoli's painting. The extant preparatory drawings for the altarpiece of San Paolo demonstrate how Chigoli was driven to conceive of the scene from scratch and that the artist carefully considered the figures to include the narrative moments to feature and the specificities of the setting. And there's about 14 drawings that survive. Here's the sampling. Most of them are in the Uffizi. These are all from the Uffizi. In studies of 1979 and 1984, Miles Chappell provided the fundamental analysis of the preparatory drawings for the burial of St. Paul Altarpiece. He has identified 14 extant sheets for the altarpiece design. Drawings that offer an abundance of valuable information otherwise lost. Across his various drawings, Chigoli developed two different compositions simultaneously. An important precedent for Chigoli in developing the burial iconography must have been Raphael's entombment of about 1508 for the Church of San Francesco al Prato in Perugia, a figure group in one of the surviving drawings by Chigoli. Appears to be an adapted quick study from Raphael's altarpiece, which Chigoli further developed in two more compositions. In this sheet, which did not ultimately become the final design, Chigoli drew the Roman nobo woman Lucina presiding over the burial of the Apostle in her vina along via Ostienza, as recounted in the early acts of the Apostle, as well as early modern guidebooks and martyrologies. A reference to Paul's tomb, the open grave itself, would have been a novel feature of the painting, one to which Chigoli paid close attention. In the same sheet, he laid down a uniform area of brown wash and then carefully used parallel hatching to delineate the back wall of the grave. In this section of the drawing, Chigoli was working out one of the most fundamental issues of such burial scenes, how to represent where the body will end up. He seems to have considered Caravaggio's entombment for a centimria in Vallicella from just a few years earlier, but with an important change. Though Caravaggio's Christ is being lowered into the tomb symbolically represented outside the picture by the actual altar itself, Chigoli depicts the actual open grave in which Paul will be lowered, the very earth on which the viewer stands in San Paolo. And about 10 years later, Graccino would innovatively employ the open grave device in his St. Petronella altarpiece for St. Peter's. And that's here, and there are these amazing big hands reaching out from someone in the earth, either lowering or rising her body, depending what you think is going on. Previously overlooked in discussions of the preparatory drawings or background details in the middle register of the design that demonstrate how carefully Chigoli considered the particular location of San Paolo in inventing his site-specific painting. The details of Rome's topography were carefully ideated and depicted, and established the remoteness of San Paolo vis-à-vis Rome's center. So on the upper left of the same sheet we've been studying, Chigoli portrayed via Ostienza a diagonal road emanating from the middle of the composition to the upper left. And then here's an aerial view of Rome. So here's the church of San Paolo today, here's where the high altar is and where the altarpiece would have been, and then here's via Ostienza here. Chigoli did this mostly by using the white of the paper in reserve to suggest the road, the same with some brown wash for the path and a sketchy outline and ink for the path's contours. In Chigoli's designs for his altarpiece, via Ostienza leads to a number of important monuments. From left these include, here's the Tiber, St. Paul's, here's the Pyramid of Caiacestius, there's the Porto San Paolo somewhere, there's a column there, and especially look for the, I'll show you a few more drawings, but look for the Pyramid across them, and then on the road to via Ostienza you see the Pyramid here, so the white triangle. So that's kind of a nice side-by-side. So these elements occur across, yeah, various drawings, including the more hastily executed compositional sketches on the verso of one sheet, a drawing in which Chigoli worked out the lower portion of the composition, and the final squared modello. Allowing for a degree of artistic license, these topographical features were carefully placed by Chigoli to correspond with the viewer's orientation toward the high altar while standing before the painting. The fact that Chigoli carried over these details across his various preparatory drawings shows how instrumental the specifics of the site were for his new pictorial invention. Returning again to the sheet we see that Chigoli included as a subsidiary scene in the background, the separation of Peter and Paul on via Ostienza. The separation was a popular legend with sixth-century roots in which Peter and Paul were led outside the city walls and shared a final moment together before being separated and led to their respective executions. In the late 16th century a small chapel was built on the spot along via Ostienza. Recent research by Barbara Wish emphasized the importance of the sacred site for early modern Rome and Pauline iconography. From 1562 on, the Archie Confraternita della Santissima Trinita de Pellegrini erected a small chapel on the site dedicated to the theme of the separation of Peter and Paul, richly decorated by some of the leading artists in 16th-century Rome. Though the chapel was demolished in 1910, it was once a prominent stop along the pilgrimage route to the Church of San Paolo. In 1984, Miles Chapel published this study in the Metropolitan Museum of Art as a late preparatory study by Chigoli for the figure of St. Paul in the Altarpiece, and the drawing is currently on view at the Met until the end of this month. So go see it. The drawing in blue wash with white heightening features Paul's body on the recto and the figure of Lutina on the verso. The sheet bears here a 17th-century inscription attributing it to Jacopo Vignale, whose name is also repeated on the mount. And here I propose that the inscription is correct, that the drawing is not a preparatory study by Chigoli, but instead a ricordo by the younger Florentine artist Jacopo Vignale, a record or memory of the now lost painting. There are several reasons to believe the work is a copy, not executed after a living model or dead model. And I thank Carmen Baumbach for her insightful discussions around this drawing. So some reasons I think it's a copy. The figure is composed in reserve, as though excerpted from a larger design. So I mean, these hands kind of just come out of nowhere at exactly the corner of the drawing instead of the drawing kind of emanating out from the center. And then also, you know, if you look, for example, at how this hand grasps the drapery, it looks like the two parts were drawn separately and not like there's actual weight in that hand or a pressing in type of effect. Instead, the drawing, the studies bear closer resemblance to similar works attributed to Vignale, many of which feature the drier diagonal white hatch marks and the highlights, as in this drawing in the Louvre, seen here at the right. Vignale was recorded in Rome in 1625 and may have made additional earlier trips there. Chigoli's altarpiece would have been over a little decade old and an important pilgrimage site for the younger Tuscan artist. So let's remember that St. Paul was decapitated. Though the squared modello in the Uffizi here on the right does not include the detail of Paul's body being reattached to his head, the surviving prints confirm that Chigoli's high altarpiece made sure to include this detail. And it is important to consider this change. Of course, the burial of a decapitated body may have been seen as inappropriate or in decorous. At the least, it may have provided an awkward and ungainly solution to this new iconography Chigoli was presenting. And one might compare the decapitated saint as depicted by Spadarino and his St. Peter's altarpiece of 1625, which is a, you know, amazing painting and strange and weird, but I don't know if it's fully successful. So what is this, you know, reattribution have to do with site specificity. The depiction of the reunification of the head could also reference early histories of Paul's relics and holy sites within the basilica. In a 1595 guidebook to Rome, the church of San Paolo is described as being built on this place where Paul's head was miraculously refound. And since 1330, the church had contained an altar that commemorated the spot where the head of St. Paul had been rediscovered. Presented here for the first time in connection to Chigoli's painting, a 1620 German guidebook to Rome offers valuable insight into how the central action of the scene was interpreted. In it, the tourist Hermann Boving wrote, the painting on the high altar shows how St. Paul's head, since it miraculously had been found in the church, had been laid to his holy body by the holy Pope Cornelius and Luciana the widow. The passage confirms that one of the key events depicted in the painting was indeed the reunification of Paul's head and body. In the upper left of the metropolitan sheet, a pair of hands delicately holds Paul's head to his neck. Focusing on one of the most significant details of the altarpiece, Vignale forcefully drew the line of Paul's decapitation. The drawing in the Met is therefore an invaluable record of the lost altarpiece's final appearance. A key piece of evidence describing Chigoli's remarkable site specific invention. Thank you.


Hi and welcome to the session. I am Shashini and I am going to help you with the following question. Question is, check whether the first polynomial is a factor of second polynomial by dividing the second polynomial by the first polynomial. First polynomial is x cube minus 3x plus 1 and second polynomial is x raise to the power 5 minus 4x cube plus x square plus 3x plus 1. First of all, we should know that the first polynomial is a factor of second polynomial if on dividing the second polynomial by the first polynomial the remainder is 0. This is the key idea to solve this question. Let us start with the solution now. We know dividend is equal to x raise to the power 5 minus 4x cube plus x square plus 3x plus 1 and our divisor is equal to x cube minus 3x plus 1. Let us start the division now. We can see first term of the dividend is x raise to the power 5 so we will multiply x cube with x square to get x raise to the power 5. Now multiplying x square with the divisor we get x raise to the power 5 minus 3x cube plus x square. Now subtracting the light terms and rewriting the rest of the terms of the dividend we get minus x cube 3x plus 1. Now our first term is minus x cube so we will multiply the divisor with minus 1 to get the desired term. Multiply the divisor with minus 1 we get minus x cube minus 1. Now subtracting the light terms we get the remainder equal to since the remainder is not equal to 0 we get x1 is not a factor of x raise to the power 5 minus 4x cube plus x plus 1. Our quotient is equal to x square minus 1. Reminder is since remainder is not equal to 0 so x cube minus 3x plus 1 is not a factor of x raise to the power 5 minus 4x cube plus x square plus 3x plus 1. So our final answer is no understood the session good