Today we get to really go into deep time. If you remember, we built mountains, we turned them down, we're trying to read history, and we're trying to put events in order. And the last time we got as far as being able to say, this one is younger and this one's older. And now we want to put numbers on things. How old is this? What can we do with this? And so to do that, we're going to go through a series of things to try to get ages. The age of the earth. To do that, we get to go someplace really fun. Way out in eastern Nevada in Great Basin is Miller Peak. There's nobody goes there. If you ever get a chance, it's in the middle of nowhere, but if you ever get a chance to go to Great Basin, you've got to do it. The real draw at Great Basin is actually a cave. It's layman caves, and layman caves is the most beautifully decorated cave. It has all these helectites. If you look in the middle picture here, you'll find that it's what they call helectites. Helectite come from the Greek for helix. And so you get these things that just grow in all sorts of crazy directions like that, and you get just beautiful, beautiful decorations in this cave. Things like this. The shields are apparently only known in this cave. It's not quite clear why, but these sort of structures that you see in the left-hand picture are unique to the layman, or very nearly so. The ones on the right, you'll see in a lot of caves, but they're prettier in layman. So if you ever get the chance to go out to Great Basin, you've got to do it. You'll have stories to tell everyone. One of the things in Great Basin, though, is up on top of Wheeler Peak, the glacier is gone now. It's a huge glacier, but up on top there are bristle cone pine trees.   And in fact, the oldest tree that's ever been known so far was cut on top of Wheeler Peak before it became a national park. It would be 5,000 years old now. The people that did that just walked out and cut a tree. They did not say, let's look at every tree that's out here and find the oldest one. So there's almost certainly older trees up there. It was 5,000 years old. It was living with this little strand of bark that was running up the side of the tree. The sand blasting and the ice blasting and the winds and the hideous winners had taken the bark off all the way around and set this little strand in the leaf. And that was keeping this thing alive. It was an amazing, amazing place. Now, if you get a 5,000-year-old tree, you can count the annual layers in the tree and you know it's 5,000 years old. But next to this tree, there's a lot of dead wood.  It's sort of cold and high and miserable. And so you can play a game of cross-dating. A tree that is happy grows a big, wide ring some year. And so a happy tree is making big, wide rings, as I'm indicating on the slide there. And an unhappy tree is making a skinny ring. Now, in a place like the Great Basin on top of Wheeler Peak there, an unhappy tree is probably a cold one. Big volcano erupts, it blocks the sun, it gets cold, the tree doesn't grow very well. And so you have a bad year or two or three. You get this pattern of good years and bad years. And so if you look at your tree and then you look at the wood next door, you can start mashing up the pattern between good years and bad years. And by cross-dating, you can get a longer record than is possible from just one tree. You can find old wood in a variety of places. You find it just dead sitting next to the tree. You find it in Native American sites. When they use lumber in their construction, logs in the construction house, they're old wood. And so you can work from that. If you go to Mesa Verde in the upper right there, there's a little yellow arrow pointing to a tree that was used in construction at Mesa Verde. Tremendous park as well. Completely worth your while to visit. You go to Mesa Verde and you look. You can see in the museum where they caught a tree so you can look at it. You can see in the ruins themselves where you can see the tree rings and you can look at the good years and bad years. You'll also find in many of the logs where little samples have been taken out for tree ring dating. And this is a little plug put into one of the beams in one of the houses at Mesa Verde, and that sample has been taken out and it's used for tree ring reconstructions. Now, the oldest tree in 5,000 years, there is wood next to it that goes back over 8,000 years. The longest tree ring record now is about 12,000 years. And it's actually oak trees and pine trees that are buried up in river deposits in Germany. And an immense, immense amount of effort goes into getting those things. But one can actually count annual layers. And if you are counting annual layers in trees, the oldest tree is about 5,000 years, but the oldest wood, using cross dating, matching overlaps, getting overlap from various trees, you can now go back to about 12,000 years. That's just in trees. We're not down into rocks yet. We're not into anything old. We're just in trees. You may know that there are a few places where wakes also get annual layers. Most lakes do not have annual layers. If you've got worms growing around in the mud, they stir it up and there's no annual layer. But there are a few places where there isn't much oxygen. The lake may freeze in the winter and little bits of clay sift down. And then it falls in the summer and sand washes in and it makes a layer and so you'll get a layer of sand and clay and sand and clay in one per year. And so there are a few lakes that do have annual layers, not all, and a few lakes that are annual and the longest one so far is about 40,000 years. It's a lake in Japan that is... And you can just imagine how difficult it is to count 40,000 years. They do a lot of checking to make sure it's right. I'm going to show you some pictures that work that I was involved with counting ice core layers. And so I'd like to take you to Greenland. There are some ice cores that are annually layered as well. This is a picture of the edge of the Greenland ice sheet. This is a picture of me slightly younger. We had been working for a while and we hadn't had a shower for a few weeks and so we finally got to clean off. And so I've actually been there behind me is snow and ice. There's actually an Antarctic picture but I've drilled at both poles. And so this is a picture from Greenland. It's a wonderful day in Greenland as you might imagine. They take us up in the plains and they leave us up there and come back in six weeks to get us. So in fact, these newspapers, the USA Today over here, is a month old at this point. It is actually perfectly functional. It does the job. Now, you may know that this is a good day in Greenland. This is a bad day in Greenland. The wind does blow, the snow does go, and it's a little bit different up there sometimes. Where we are, we're two miles up. The ice is two miles thick. It is 200 miles to the nearest rock and we're sitting up there trying to do science, as you can see here. Actually, this is a Fourth of July festival and Eric Soltzman is in the snow trap over here and this is a world famous scientist, Tater Grittis, who's hitting the volleyball there and this is pretty stride laundry. And so, all the comforts of home. Now, what we were doing up there was studying snow and ice. And here's a picture. I'm the gent down here with no shirt on and right next to me there is John Fitzpatrick of the United States Geological Survey, a wonderful scientist. And you'll notice what we've done is we've dug two holes in the snow. One hole over here that we're going to leave open and one will shine into it. And one hole over here that we're going to put boards on top of and make a lift. Now, if we put boards on top of the one over here and the sun shines in the other one, it will shine through this little wall in between and you're going to be able to see the layers in the snow. So, let's do that. And here's a picture of that. It's just a little bit taller than I am here. And you'll notice that there's layers. One comes in and it puts down snow and it comes in and it puts down more snow. So we see layers. And you'll also notice down a little bit there about so far down is more previous summer. So right in here are layers that were cooked by the sun. We have watched this happen. We have monitored it from space. We've monitored it on the surface. We've done all sorts of things. When the sun shines it doesn't get up to freezing. It's still colder than that. But it does change the snow and the light layer. Some storm came through and it sculpted the surface down here and then it gets a deposit and then it gets cooked by the sun and then another storm and another one. And then winter comes and there isn't any cooking by the sun in the winter because there's no sun in the winter. And so you get a unique signal the sun did this. And below that is the next summer down and below that right at the bottom it's getting pretty dark and below that there's another summer and below that there's another one and another one and another one and another one. So we do this. Now let's build an ice core. Big drill you paid for it. Your parents paid for it.  And there's Catherine from Alaska sitting on top of the drill. This is a big science. In the under snow laboratory we had this giant lab cut in the snow. You've got an astroturf on the floor so that you don't wear out the snow and the walls are snow and the ceiling actually was boards.  And you take the ice core down there and you slice the top off the ice which is going on right here from Bill Timble of the University of New Hampshire and there's an ice core. And there they sit. These are from 1547 meters down so that's about a mile down and you take it and you slice it and you look at it and here's Kurt Toppe who was from Penn State now he's a professor at Berkeley and Kurt is looking at it. And if you look at the core lo and behold those sun-cooked layers made big bubbles and the big bubbles make it look dark in this and you look on its side so you'll see the layering in the core is still there and the blue bands are the summers so this is a summer and this is a summer and so we have come down and we can still see these and we can still count them. Now let's go back over here for a minute. I just told you that we know what we're doing but why should you believe me what we have to do is we have to check if I tell you that that's an annual layer I better do more than just telling you that I got to show you something and so we did several things I counted and Kurt counted and Demi's counted and Tony Gao counted we recounted I went to a Fraser and Denver the National Ice Core Lab and I repeated a half a mile just to see that if I got the right answer we used different techniques in the chemistry there are layers in the electrical properties as well in the appearance and so we do we count in various ways and we count at various times we don't cheat we don't tell each other the answer until after we've done it various times by various people okay this is a big undertaking because the thing is two miles long there's a whole ice core and there's a lot of layers this is a serious effort to do this and then we check ourselves as far back as we can we look for time markers and this is probably the most important thing year 1783 there's a big volcano called Waki erupting in Iceland it's a disaster in Iceland it's blocking the sun it's putting out poisonous gases it's killing things it was a very unpleasant thing Benjamin Franklin is representing the young United States he is over in Paris as our ambassador and he notices the blue fogs that are blowing in and he says there's a volcano erupting somewhere if we know what we're talking about Greenland is right next to Iceland you should see the deposits from that big volcano in the snow in Greenland now different volcanoes have different chemical compositions so you can go and look for the acids from the volcano you can cut out that piece of ice you can filter it you can look for tiny pieces of volcanic glass you can analyze those with a scanning electron micro probe and you can ask is this the same composition as Waki if we find pieces of the Waki eruption and the layer that we date to the age of Waki we know what we're talking about and if we don't we don't know what we're talking about and so we look for time markers such as the chemically fingerprinted fallout of historically dated volcanoes so how about that the chemically fingerprinted fallout of historically dated volcanoes we also can find atomic bomb fallout we can see when the no lead gasoline came in when the lead falls we can see a whole bunch of things like that and when we do this what we find is as far back as history goes we're good if I tell you it's 100 years it's 99 or it's 100 or it's 101 I may have made an error it could even be 98 or 102 but it basically works that way once we get older than that we sort of start comparing to the lake people and the trearing people to see if we match them we counted about 110,000 years in the ice core now clearly once we get older than recorded history we can't directly check this but like I say older than history older than written history we end up comparing to do we see the same signal of climate change as they see in the tree rings as they see in the lakes so older than written history we compare the other records all of this works and so far the ice core that we did in central Greenland is the oldest one that's been done and it's the ice gave 110,000 years now there's more ice below that but it got messed up you remember that mountain buildings sometimes bend things well the glaciers flowing and the bottom is bumpy it's like pancake batter flowing over a waffle iron and so the bottom is messed up but there's still more ice down there so we didn't actually clean out all the ice we got to 110,000 years to that so annual layer counting goes way past recorded history and annual layer counting matches recorded history as far back as we can see my friend Cooney Holm as a professor at Cornell works all these archeological sites around the Middle East and up through the classical Greece and they actually help in the archeology because they see in the tree rings that they can date these sites and it works and so what we find is to start with is that annual layers go way past written history and it's still ice it's still fine, it's still trees there's no huge things you go back into an ice age but other than that there's nothing weird going on and there's very, very high confidence that this is correct and we're still in the mud and the lakes we're still in the trees we haven't gotten down to the rocks yet this is all in the sediment discuss on top so this is on top of the rocks so now let's look a little deeper and to do that let's go back to the pictures we're going to look at Grand Canyon and then we're going to walk out of the canyon the canyon is incomparable you just got to go to the canyon someday it's just inconceivable that the thing is as big and as beautiful and as wonderful as it is this is a satellite image looking down on it technically they count it as being 277 miles long the width is a few miles it's not the longest canyon it's not the deepest it's not the widest there's lots of other, Zion is deep the black canyon that doesn't sit as steeper and you can just go right over the edge of that one and a half a mile down but the canyon just taken together is just about as good as it gets the N and S in this picture are pointing to the North Rim and the South Rim and that's where most visitors go most visitors drive into the South Rim and then they walk down one place or another they often end up going right down here some visitors get to the North Rim and that's a huge amount that nobody ever gets to we had the good fortune to take our costs there the cost students got us safely to the bottom and back when we went down we finished the hike by moonlight headlamp and you can see all our cause hikers over there on the left and you can see various people on the way back out some filmers and pros and what have you this was just a wonderful, wonderful undertaking we had the path down you'll see on the left to have a few switchbacks in places and on the right is actually my cousin cutting up, he actually did not get himself in that situation but I have seen people in that situation there's every year they have to get helicopters down in the canyon to get people out who really did look like Chuck does there and couldn't make it it gets hot down there, it's a long walk the wildlife is surprisingly diverse in the canyon there's a lot of stuff down there for a long time the native peoples they have reintroduced the California condor you can watch those suckers California condors are great they're sort of an anachronism they belong in a world with woolly mammoths and lots of big things that can die so there's lots to eat we don't have woolly mammoths anymore but they're hanging on and they introduce this flock of condors in the canyon and they're going so this is good if you're hiking you can watch them soaring if you go down to the river you see rocks and the rocks are just beautiful but the rocks are being eroded they're being cut, the river is working on it, the river is active the river carved this canyon it started that much a year it makes you a canyon and that river man when it's flowing and it's got mud in it, it can cut so you get things such as this it's really beautiful now we're going to talk about history and we're going to walk out of the canyon here and so I've named all the things you're not going to have to memorize the names of every one of these Leo Canyon aficionados know these, they're old friends you go down and the great sandstone cliff of the Coconino and down to the beautiful hold of the red wall and the cave sitting in the bottom of that and down to the deep inner canyon old friends and if you've actually walked the canyon you come back and you really know them in a fundamental way so what we're going to do is we're going to stop at the bottom and we're going to look at pictures of this as we come walking out what we've got to do bottom metamorphic rocks think Rocky Mountain, think what Sridhar was showing you here are pictures right along the river you can see the river right at the bottom there the little bit of green the rocks, the pink actually were melted, they're granites the black around them are just the nicest these rocks are from the heart of a mountain range they have been hot they have been toothpasteed they have flowed and squeezed and bent and all along the river you look up at the heart of an old mountain range and it's cold now obviously but it was hot it was down there and everywhere you go along most of the river you'll see these old toothpasteed rocks they've been very way deep they started life as sediments sedimentary composition but they've been very way deep they've been heated, squeezed, run around all sorts of changes those rocks in this picture are down at the lower left I'm sort of scribbling on them that's the heart of the old mountain range above that the blue line marks an erosion surface and so these hot rocks to the surface they were weathered they were eroded you can find rust down in the rocks that is most at the top and then decreases as you go down and so you can see that these things were at the surface the way the metamorphic rocks are in Rocky Mountain now they were eroded on top so you have to take sediment, you have to bury it you heat it, cook it, then you have to bring it up erode it and then on top of that there are more sediments very old sediments we'll have a look at these in a little bit but there are more sediments on top of that and in places there's a lot more sediments as we'll see in a minute and then those sediments are broken by fault and this yellow line on the side is actually an earthquake fault this particular one is a shoved together, pushed together thrust fault and you can see where it bent the rocks so it actually was dragging the rocks with it as it went those layers are out there and you follow that fault and up here some place there's an erosion surface an unconformity and the fault doesn't go through that so you're starting to put together a picture here of an old mountain range brought to the surface eroded more sediment put on the top a fault breaks it and then it's eroded again up there to make another unconformity and that's the story that the rocks start to get complicated already the sediments on top of the old mountain range are thick in fact there's two miles of those sediments and how do you get two miles well they've sort of been dropped in death valley type fault blocks and there's been some push together but mostly pull apart fault things what I want you to do for a moment is go over to the magenta arrow on the far right here and I'm going to circle the starting point and these are the sediments we're talking about now go down and measure the thickness of the sediment so you go down and you go down and you go down there's a pretty pile of sediment there that's the river way at the bottom that would take you some hours to walk when you get down here almost to the river just follow a layer so I want you to follow a layer along and after you get tired of following that layer along so go down to the river again you're going through more sediment and then follow another layer along and then you're going to go down to the river and just keep doing that out of the picture and if you do all of that and add all the pink layers together for the thickness of the sediment it's two miles so there's an old mountain range the top is eroded and then you sort of put more sediment on top and you drop it down in bases you get two miles of this sediment on top and then on top of that up where these yellow things are it's eroded, it's cut off there's an unconformity an erosional surface there and then on top of that we're going to find more stuff now in that little sediment on top if you go in in places you will find little ripple marks the current came along and it made little ripples and you can see the little ripples and you'll find little sand dunes where the sediment has been brought along and then it's been cut off in the top and then something else has worked on it so in those that mild rocks on top you'll find all these interesting things that speak of time you will find burrows over here on the left above my finger you'll see where something has crawled through the mud it's changed the conditions just a little bit and you see a burrow lots of things crawl through the mud they're either hiding so no one eats them or else they're eating the poop and other stuff so it's in the mud and so everywhere you go in the marine settings you find things crawling through mud and they leave trackways and you can see the trackways and there's lots and lots and lots and lots and lots and lots of these in the mud and it takes time to let something crawl through the mud you'll find mud cracks this is a block that is from the Kyvab limestone that has turned upside down and fell off the cliff and you can see where the fill had gone down into the mud cracks this one over here on the right is down in the bright angels shale and you can see the cracking that happened and the mud cracks that have happened again, if you make mud cracks you sort of have to give it time to dry out the crack and it pulls down in that two miles of sediment and you don't find many fossils but once you find there's just these algal map deposits you go down to the creek and you'll find there's scuzz on a rock and a flood a little bit of mud will settle on the scuzz the algal map and then the algae grow up through it and down at the creek the snails eat it but in a world without snails we don't find any snails down at the bottom in a world without snails and that's built up and so you see these giant algal map deposits down there but not much else as you go farther to younger rocks then you start finding trilobites like this trilobite tail that I'm scribbling over and you find beautiful snails and other sorts of things that ate the algal mass so as you come up through the canyon you start seeing these changes in who lived where you might remember last time we were looking at this picture of the cliff the wall of the canyon that was sort of like the modern Nile there's flood plain deposits on the bottom and in those you'll find footprints you'll find fern fossils and other things there's a giant sand dune deposit on top in that you'll find tracts of blizzards and other things and a place where the mud dried out and then the sand fell down in the crack heading way down here like this sand dune over here sand dune marched across another one came over the top up and then marched down and so on if we go and look in that big sandstone on top what do we find we find trackways where reptiles have gone walking along these are believed to be millipedes over here something has certainly walked through and you'll find a layer with tracts and then another layer of tracts and another layer of tracts and another layer of tracts and there has to be time to cross those layers to make the cracks you go a little farther up and you find these beautiful trackways this one is in a little museum at the top of the canyon and this is an old historical photograph that was taken along the hermit trail but you can see that somebody's been here and many times somebody has been there this is in the hermit shale that flood plain deposit like the Nile and you find these beautiful ferns that are sitting there and the ferns have to grow fall down deep and then another layer will have more and another layer will have more and another layer will have more and on and on and on and so what I hope that you're starting to see is that there's a lot of time there a lot of time there and so what I want you out of and I will try to very briefly summarize it here you go down in the bottom and what do you find you find the heart of an old mountain range and the thing is just beat up and broken and bent and cooked and so on and so this is the old mountain range and then the old mountain range was eroded and so we'll try some other color in here like this they sort of an erosion surface that cut across the old mountain range and sitting on top of that there are a whole bunch of layers of rock and those layers of rock have very few fossils in them and they're mostly the algal mat deposits but they're sort of sitting down there at an angle and if you add up all the thicknesses go this way and that way and this way and that way there are about two miles of sediment with algal mats and not much else there are volcano fallouts there's little salt crystal paths there's little ripples there's mud cracks there are algal mats down there but there isn't much in the way of other fossils and then above that there's another erosion surface above that these erosion surfaces by the way have a name they're called unconformities and so there is an unconformity there's a time gap an erosion surface technically an unconformity can also include non-deposition and just sat there and did nothing for a while but usually it's an erosion surface and there's another unconformity right there so this is really getting complicated and then on top of that there's another mile of sediment to the rim so there's one mile of sediment up to the rim and in that mile of sediment going up to the rim so the fossils change going up there are actually many unconformities in that there are many unconformities in the pile there are some really cool places where streams actually come down into a surface and then a flood came in and it put little deposits in the stream channels and you can see these things you have cracks you have mud cracks you have all sorts of things on the way up you go from being sand dunes to being lakes to be all sorts of different environments up there when you get up that mile if you went up the north rim you will look and the rocks will slant away from you and they slant down to just under Zion and then there's another mile of rocks up through Zion and they slant down under Bryce and you're up through Bryce and then they go under something else and then on top of that are the Native American sites on top of that are old trees and so above this is Zion and above that is Arches and above that is Bryce and above that are Mesa Verde's people the geologists worked really hard to figure this out it is not easy the geologists looked at this and they said wow this is just amazing I can't believe everything I can see here I can't believe how well I can tell this story and then they said okay how long people can count annual layers they get a few tens of thousands of years that's nothing the river is carving how long to carve this canyon millions of years and then they said we know how fast mud piles up in the ocean how long to make two miles of mud and then to tip it and then to erode it and then put more on top and so the early geologists tried very hard to come up with estimates of this and so what we can say is that when the early geologists looked at this they said whoa this is old they said we just can't we see this it makes sense we recognize the tracks there's no magic in getting a critter to walk across a sand dune but you have to have time for the critter to walk across a sand dune and then there's another layer and another critter and then the river came in and then the ocean and then sand dunes were back and they said whoa this sucker is really old and then they did something they called uniformitarian calculations big fancy word notice uniform in there uniformitarian calculations they said let's say that things in the past sort of happened at the same rate they do today because we recognize the mud cracks we recognize the fossils we recognize the tracks we see what's going on there's nothing catastrophic in this it's normal and they said at the rates that things happen today they can make what we see and what they ended up with is about 100 million years to make the rocks and the about there is really fuzzy could it be 50 million sure could it be 200 million sure that's a fuzzy state and then they also said but we need time to erode there's all those unconformities those erosion surfaces so it's plus the time to erode and they said we can't that mess at the bottom is that's been toothpaste in the heart of a mountain rage there's more time there but we don't know how much so they needed plus the time for the oldest rocks they're all messed up technical term okay and that is starting to get to be deep time the little item of written history the much longer scam of annual layers remember still up on top we find archaeology in the mud we don't find archaeology in the rocks and so now we're looking at something that's really looking very old this doesn't quite get us where we want to be yet because while this gives you the great age it doesn't really put numbers on that 100 million plus plus is still pretty fuzzy and so what you find is that today most of dating is done in a third way and so most dating today most ages of rocks come from radiometric or radioactive techniques so we have to briefly mention a word for this and it's from these radioactive techniques they are described in more detail in the textbook and then there's additional enrichment material that may prove to be helpful that goes into even more painful detail of how you derive this and why nobody is pulling your leg when they say they can do this what you know is that there aren't types of atoms that break down all the atoms are sitting there wobbling and sometimes they fall apart and so that's called radioactivity and so some atoms break down and we have a name for that we call that radioactivity and it is sort of a statistical thing you wiggle and wobble long enough and eventually you break and if you're really stable you just can't fall apart easily it takes you a long time before one wiggle breaks you and if you're really unstable you fall apart immediately and so the rate at which one breaks down really is a fundamental of physics it's how stable or unstable that particular thing is and so the rate is basically controlled by fundamental physics now what do I mean by control by fundamental physics what that means is that you cannot glibly suggest oh, didn't they decay at a different rate in the past but just to make that happen you have to change the time since the control of the world and to make that happen either the sun blew up or it never burned there is not much room to tweak these sorts of things to leave a world that we would recognize and so the decay rate is not something there's lots of people say oh maybe in the past it ran at a different rate well that is sort of the same as saying maybe in the past the sun didn't work and the sun blew up because the fundamental physics do not allow the decay rate to be changing so the decay rate can't change and it can't change because first of all this business of fundamental physics it is just it is very easy, it is very glib to say oh things ran differently in the past but that has implications the other way that it can't change is to use common sense now if you go and look at these tree-ring records if you go and look at ice core records if you go and look at light statimates we can date events using radioactivity and we can compare to the annual lives and we agree and so radioactive dating agrees with the annual lives wherever we can check it it works very well it agrees with the uniformitarian calculations it says yeah it is pretty pretty old there in addition uniform calculations and there are many different radioactive clocks we can use potassium argon we can use parenbiodivium and the different clocks agree with each other so various radioactive clocks agree so it gets really really hard now you gotta be a little bit smart you gotta be a little bit smart if you search the web long enough you'll find the 5,000 year old living claim if you find something that only eats really old things it never eats anything that's alive today it only eats dead stuff it'll look dead and there are certain places there are seafloor communities that are living on oil seats and the oil has been down there a long time and if you go ask in that seafloor community it looks oiled because it's eating nothing but old stuff so you gotta be just a little smart when you use these things and if you're really really stupid you might screw up but basically it works there is an example in the text that might possibly be worth looking at the example in the text is done with potassium and argon and that one happens to be probably the easiest one potassium 40 is a radioactive thing it happens to be very common in basically all volcanic and metamorphic and all other sedimentary rocks there's a lot of potassium in there potassium is very common in the world it is common and it happens to occur in minerals it's solid when the potassium breaks down it takes about 1.3 billion years for half of it to break down and it changes to a gas so it's changing to argon 40 which is a gas now why does that matter when a lava flow comes out on the surface the gas escapes it starts with some potassium and no argon as the argon is formed by the breakdown you can see the change in the relation of potassium to argon and so you can figure out how long it's been there so because argon 40 is a gas a lava flow starts with potassium but no argon and so then you can look at the ratio of the two and it gives you a clock now you do not have to wait a half-life to measure the half-life if you're worried about that the enrichment goes into great detail on how this works and so on so you can look at that it is perhaps just a little step aside most of the radioactive stuff in the planet was included in the planet when the planet formed and so most of the earth's radioactivity was included when the planet formed it came from outer space it came from explosion of stars and so it's included when the planet formed a little bit of the radioactivity is made by breakdown of that so it's just a daughter thing so you break down from one radioactivity to another one before you get something stable so a little bit comes from breakdown of these a little more is made by cosmic rays you get zap it damages something and it may make something radioactive and a little bit is made by humans in giant accelerator labs but that's about it so naturally those are the sources of radioactivity because of this the planet is actually very slowly running down because we're slowly running out of the radioactivity that was included when the planet formed so the planet is slowly losing its energy source for plate tectonics because remember as the radioactivity is the heat source that drives the convection cells that drives the volcanoes and the subduction and so on as the radioactivity runs out now I wouldn't lose any sleep over this you'd sort of have to wait a billion years before you'd even notice this is a very slow process so it's sort of a billion years to notice but the fastest estimate is that the planet is about 4.6 billion years old and so that's time that there's been little changes and things probably put a little faster way back in the pre-Cambrian than they do now so the planet is estimated to be about 4.6 billion years old 4.55 something in that neighborhood based on radioactivity and that actually is consistent with everything else and again this is science and I hope you've seen just a little bit of the evidence that goes into it it's not received truth we're not getting this from somebody who was bringing our error passing us a particular document this is science what I hope you've seen is that just by counting annual layers in the muds in the ice in the trees that we go older than all of recorded history we see things we recognize environments we recognize trackways we recognize erosion surfaces we recognize it all makes sense it's not catastrophes it's normal processes acting over deep time we see hundreds of millions of years or more when you then turn on your radioactive clocks you can put numbers on that and those numbers really are very very old and they are the most glorious stage for the most glorious drama that you can imagine and so we're going to look a little bit more at the drama that has been brought on this stage over the millennia next time


Have you ever wondered how the birth order affects your personality? In this side-to-go video we will present correlational findings between one's birth order and personality. We will consider three different situations. Let's assume that there are three children in the family, the firstborn, the middleborn and the lastborn. Research shows that the birth order may have impact not only on our personality but also our intelligence or even how religious we are. Let's see what psychologists discovered recently about influence of the birth order. This is John. John is the firstborn child. He has a sister. Her name is Amy. She is the middleborn. John and Amy have a little brother. His name is Max and he is the lastborn in this family. Research shows that the firstborn children have better results in IQ tests and have better grades at school than the other siblings. They are also better leaders. The eldest children tend to be more conscientious and achieve higher goals. What about middleborn children? They are likely to be more open to fantasy and less religious. They were rated higher in impulsivity and less conscientious. Researchers discovered that the middleborn children generally have more problems with cell discipline and achieve less than the first than the lastborn children. The lastborn children are generally more tender-minded, altruistic and warm in nature. Additionally, they were rated higher in trust, compliance with the rules and straight-forwardness. Hey, and what about an only child? When parents have only one child, they can put more time, effort and resources into bringing up their daughter or son. Thus, they will have a higher life satisfaction. Remember that there are debates in this area. Some studies find no significant difference due to birth order. The evidence are all correlational and generalized. It may not apply to everyone. So what do you think? How does the birth order affected you and your friends? Let us know in comments below. Thank you for watching. For more Psy2Go videos, subscribe our channel. This video was made by visualizemyids.com


Okay, welcome everybody to this CSDMS webinar today. It's gonna be a unique one. This is a follow-up webinar to the ESPIN Summer Institutes. This was like Earth Surface Process Modeling Summer Institute that we had in August this year. And it's good to see like so many familiar faces of the participants that are back here together. But it's also a moment to share with the larger CSDMS community what went on in this summer institute where we spent a bunch of time on like training and tutorials and presentations out of the community on surface process modeling, but also on programming and on like best programming practices and collaborative work when you're developing software. And then that summer institute ended with projects that were done by different teams. And so what you're gonna see today is the products of like about one and a half days or so of like a team of eager grad students and early career folk who had some programming experience from the days before using the tools of CSDMS or the land lab suite and like how they work that into like something that's hopefully useful to other people too as a teaching resource or as an example or tutorial. So we had a Slack channel during the ESPIN period and I know that people had like worked quite a bit like afterwards still on perfectionizing their projects and like work collaboratively on like making this like a presentation that's worthwhile for other people in the community. So I'm quite pleased to see that there's a lot more people than just the ESPIN folk who are doing a little reunion today because this is gonna be useful for other people maybe for teaching or for learning about these tools. I wanted to quickly thank Nicole, Mark Piper and Benjamin Camphords, Nicole Gasperini for being here today too. They were like the main instructors in this ESPIN summary institute. And so it's nice to see that they're like here to listen again and find out what's were like last improvements that these teams did. The first team that we'll be presenting will be represented by Brooke Hunter. She's at the University of Oregon and I'm assuming that you can pull up your slides, Brooke. Yeah, I can do that. And her team has been working on exploring the effects of rainstorm sequences on a river hydrograph. Okay, can you hear me and see a screen? Yes. Okay, perfect. So, yeah, I'm Brooke Hunter. I'm at the University of Oregon and I'll be presenting our group's project today on exploring the effects of rainstorm sequences on a river hydrograph. In addition to myself, a little zoom thing is in the way. In addition to myself, other people who are part of this team are Celia, Lisa, Tianu and Yuval who are shown there at the bottom. So for our final project, we created an educational Jupiter notebook. It combines three land lab components, the precipitation distribution, the soil infiltration green amped and the overland flow component to explore how rainfall intensity and storm sequences and hydraulic conductivity affect hydrographs and cumulative infiltration over a 30 day period. This difficulty is aimed at like undergraduate courses, intro level, there's minimal like no coding experience needed to run this notebook. And that wasn't run for us because like for a lot of undergrads like coding and math can be kind of very daunting. And so we wanted to provide like a low risk opportunity to get exposure to coding and get some experience with Python. And then, but there are also like opportunities where you assign the questions we have and students can go back and change the code and rerun it and kind of expand upon those Python skills as well. So some learning objectives we have in this notebook. We introduced the concepts of rainfall intensity and storm sequences as well as hydraulic conductivity and then asked questions to the students to investigate how these like changing these variables affect stage water level and cumulative infiltration over time. In addition to these topical learning objectives we also ask or have some Python skills that can be learned in the notebook. They can see how three land lab components can be integrated in a single notebook. They can see how to create a topographic elevation grid from an ASCII file and see how to create Matlab plotlet or create plots with Matplotlet and use like CSV data and Panda data frames. So prior to running any of the code students will be stepped through a conceptual model of what the code does. So before seeing just like huge chunks of code they can see what it is visually doing. And so then rather than focus on the code during this presentation I'm just gonna step through that conceptual model and explain what land lab components we use and why and then show some of the final plots that students will use to ask or to answer questions, provide example questions and potential opportunities for like expansion upon this notebook. So first the students will import an ASCII file and set up some boundary conditions for this Hugo catchment and then they'll visualize that catchment in the notebook as well. And then they're going to use the precipitation distribution component in land lab to generate rainfall time series. And so we provide a storm parameter CSV file that has two different storm series types. So scenario one has high intensity short storms and scenario two has lower intensity and longer storms. The way that this notebook is set up if students modify the CSV they can change the parameters and create different storm scenarios and they can additionally like add scenarios if they want to have more than two scenarios run through this model. So the precipitation distribution component will provide a surface water depth for each time step from the rainfall and then you can feed that value into the soil infiltration green amp component in land lab. And here is where students can play with the hydraulic conductivity values. And so we have this K vector that there's a K value for each scenario. And so here's one opportunity where students can kind of change code a little bit there. I do want to note that our infiltration depth here is cumulative over time. We don't have a evapotranspiration or any like subsurface flow component here. So that is just continually going down into an infinite soil depth there. So then after the infiltration stuff has occurred that surface water then is fed into the overland flow component which will route flow over the landscape. And so that surface water depth in each cell is actually a function of two inputs. So the rainfall and flow from up slope and then two outputs the infiltration and then the flow down slope over the time series. And so the fact that this infiltration is just cumulative over the entire time series that is like one place where a student if they got really into this could try to incorporate an evapotranspiration piece to expand upon this notebook. And in addition, so correcting all these variables we can also look at how stage water level changes at the outlet of the catchment over the entire time series. So here are some of what the final plots would look like in the notebook. We have rainfall intensity in black on the top here and then that stage water level in blue over the time series. And on the bottom we have the stage water level and then that cumulative infiltration value. And it also counts the number of storms that you see during it. And then the mean storm depth as well as the peak water level here and just the hydraulic conductivity variable that you use. So some assignment questions I could be easily asked in this notebook without changing any of the code would be how does the hydrograph response differ between a high versus low intensity rainfall scenario? So for scenario one, students would see that higher rainfall intensities you have higher or greater responses in the stage water level. And this may seem like a pretty simple question but for like an introductory course that the student has never had any exposure to these concepts before it's a really good leading question. And then you can start to ask more complex questions like describe the decay of the stage water level height after the storm has stopped. Does it stop like abruptly or gradually and then try to get those students to think about like why there is this gradual response in the hydrograph. So yeah, neither of those questions would require any modification to the code but then you can also ask questions about hydraulic conductivity which would require changing some stuff. So you can ask students to require a rerun the notebook and make sure your rainfall time series are the same, so provide the same parameters and then change your hydraulic conductivity values and then ask them to compare and contrast the final plots. And so asking like what effect does increasing the K value have on the hydrograph? What about the cumulative infiltration? So they can start thinking about how infiltration rates and sort of properties might affect those catchment river responses to storms. As a conclusion, we created an educational notebook for introductory courses that will be publicly available soon. We haven't totally finished that part yet but it introduces concepts of rainfall intensity, soil infiltration, hydraulic conductivity, hydrographs and because it does require a little manipulation to the code it provides like a low risk chance for students who have never looked at Python code before to kind of get some experience and see what it looks like but then there are also opportunities to expand the notebook and like make challenge questions for students who do get really into the coding part of it. And I can take any questions for some time for that. Thank you, Brook. That's a really good overview and it's quite impressive to see how much you developed it again towards like students and like giving them like opportunities and sort of like laying out like how people could use this which is a big step from where it was last time. We're opening it up for a question and people can just, I think people can unmute themselves. Maybe type your question in a chat if you can't unmute yourself. Brook, I have a question. This is Greg. So this is really impressive, super cool. I can immediately see a million different ways you could use this in a classroom. One thing I was wondering about is how easy is it in your notebook if you wanted to swap in a different DEM? So for example, if students had hydrograph data from some nearby watershed, could they explore that instead or is there a way to build that in? So this is actually something I was talking about with one of my committee members because I kind of showed them LandLab. They're an ecology and they hadn't heard of it before. And I haven't tried to do it but I imagine it wouldn't be like terribly difficult to do. They were more interested in the evapotransportation part in comparing how like soil infiltration and like soil moisture values might compare to like a real life catchment. But I feel like it could be pretty easy to swap in the DEM. I haven't tried it but... And then compare those to like real values could be really interesting. Can I ask a quick question? Yeah, please. So this is gonna call great job team. I'm super excited. And I just have a question. So you have these beautiful sequences that create beautiful hydrographs. Did you have to work really hard to like figure out what sequences you were gonna use? Like how much tuning did you do to get those really nice illustrative results? So like of the storm parameters. So I have to thank you for a lot of that work. He spent a lot of time trying to pick parameters that were representative of somewhat like realistic. I think for the scenario one thinking of kind of like intense like desert really storms where they have like these like bursts of rain. And so he did spend quite a bit of time trying to make it look realistic. And then I spent a bit of time trying to find some like soil infiltration parameters that made things look somewhat realistic. I think Albert are you have a question too? Yeah, I have a question. First of all, excellent presentation. That was very nice and great group work I think. So when you presented the rain events and the discharge that followed kind of those rain events, they were laying on top exactly almost. And is that because you got a really small basin? So it's very reactive. When you've got a precipitation event it's almost immediately shows up at the outlet of the river or is there something else going on? So that's something I was looking at as well. My guess would be that it's a small catchment. I don't know, Celia might have an idea as well she's also on this call here. But I think it's just because it's a small catchment. Maybe there's something in the code that we could like see if there's something going on. But I think it's just because it's just a very quick response in a small area. Thank you, Brooke. That was a great talk. We're gonna move to team two. They are very large team. And they worked on like fluvial geomorphology and different components of like fluvial geomorphology and Rachel Bosch of the University of Cincinnati is gonna present their teamwork. Thanks for that great introduction, Irina. Let me share this right to the beginning. Can you all see that? Yes. Okay, great, thanks. So I am presenting for team two today which is the really big team. Sheldie, Josie, Eric, Francois, Hima, Vinnie, Edwin, Mochit and myself were this team. So we took on a pretty big question. We wanted to couple different types of grids within Land Lab at different scales to explore some fluvial geomorphology questions.  And so we did a lot of work collaborating and learning about Git and GitHub and the whole process of continuous version control and it was a very interesting introduction. So here is the conceptual model for our simulation. We have three different types of grids that we're looking at here. We have a large-scale rectilinear grid representing our upland catchment. We simulate storm events on the upland catchment, gather those in and feed them to a network type grid which is the vector channel network that you see going across the upland catchment with nodes along it. So there's our network grid and then we transport sediment along the network grid and we take the results from the network grid and pass them to a finer downstream floodplain where we simulate the infiltration from that storm event. So here are the learning objectives that we addressed with our simulation and we have two sets of learning objectives. The one is the software engineering and the other is the fluvial geomorphology problems. So our software engineering objectives are all within Python and we built this in an Egyptian notebook and so here we're looking at coupling different types of grids, the rectilinear grid with a network grid and we take a moment to point out that that is a novel contribution to the land lab ecosystem, that type of coupling. Did not yet exist. And then communicating the output between these types of grids and then we coupled existing land lab components on that coupled grid framework. And we use that to address our fluvial geomorphology objectives. So here we're looking at the effects of rainfall intensity, rainfall distribution, sediment supply and then the infiltration properties downstream. So this is just kind of a brief overview on how we did that first step of grid coupling. We used the same sample catchment DEM that you saw Brooke present in for team one. And from that we extracted the channel network and then laid a network grid along that channel network identified the nodes and made sure that it was all communicating smoothly. We then took that output and fed it down to this finer grid in the low lands where we were able to adjust for the cross sectional topography of the floodplain as well as variable hydrologic conductivity within the floodplain and then these are also parameters that students could change within the code in order to explore questions. So here's just one example of that kind of parameter exploration. So learners can do this within the code changing things directly or we can have things like this slider where students don't have to have a lot of coding experience and they could change for instance this threshold which controls the density of channel generation when you extract the network grid from that upstream Raspard grid. And here are the results when you run the whole simulation we have rainfall in the upland and it transports down through that network grid. Oh, I went too fast. Sorry about that. And then you can see the sediment transport and the histogram as sediment is moved downstream and then the results from the upland grid feed into the floodplain grid and you can see the inundation of the floodplain on the right. So we were able to accomplish that goal of coupling these different types and sizes of grids. And so I wanted to share with you kind of the next steps we have in mind. This is still a work in progress. We've been communicating since the end of ESPN and having Zoom meetings and we're continuing to work on the automation of linking that upland catchment to the lowland floodplain. We're working on different types of visualization including that sediment transport. And notice we didn't have a video showing the sediment parcels moving downstream. We're still working on that. We have the beginnings of questions to deliver this as a lab and we're continuing to develop those as well as building a tutorial to help other people who might want to couple a raster network, sorry, a raster grid to a network grid. And so here is the link to our GitHub repository if anyone would like to go and see what we've been up to. And hopefully we have a few minutes for questions. I'm gonna stop sharing and hand over question fielding to my teammates. Go for it with questions. It looks like everybody can just unmute themselves and ask questions if they want to. Excellent, Rachel. Oh and credit to Shelby for the artwork which is amazing. Can I ask you a question? I will just monopolize all the time if you let me. So this is really cool and it's really interesting that you were able to couple things that had never been coupled before. So I'm guessing that took some massaging. So when you made your notebook is this more like designed for developers so that they can use, I don't know who to look, they can use these or is your notebook more geared towards students? I think it might be geared more towards, I'm thinking of graduate students who are thinking of using, trying to couple components that maybe use different grid types but there could be grid types other than the ones that we choose that could be helpful, this knowledge. And Shelby and Hima have been working for a while trying to figure out how to do this. It's not a simple thing. Yeah, we were hoping to maybe make that grid coupling between the raster and the network, sort of an importable module. It's sort of at an awkward place in between where it's all in the notebook but it could be packaged into a Python script. I've got a quick question if I could. This is really, really impressive. It's super, super cool. I'm curious, what were you using to get grains to transport into that river network? Like which of the modules, probably up there at some point, I just missed it but which one did you use to get that hill slope diffusion into the river network and decide grain sizes and everything? So the network sediment transporter is the component doing the heavy lifting of getting the sediment through. We actually don't have communication between the evolution of the hill slopes. That would be advanced. Currently the coupling happens from the overland flow sends water levels to the network sediment transporter and that feeds a sheer stress that then mobilizes the existing. We prescribe a sediment thickness and that has a grain size distribution to it. And it's a Lagrangian transporter that moves parcels down. So that's why you're seeing the full distribution at the output. Cool, thank you. Awesome. I love that there's lively discussion but I'm also keeping on time a little bit. So like please type your questions in the chat and like maybe the team can like field those questions back and forth while we move to the next team. Rachel Allen will be presenting and this team worked on Lagrangian particle transport through a tidal estuary. Hi, thanks. Let's get this up. Share, screen, full screen. Great, can you guys see this? Yes, we can. Awesome, thank you. Let me make this go away. Okay, fantastic. Thank you so much. We were project team three and we were working on Lagrangian particle transport through a tidal estuary. So we used three different tools for doing this. The first one was based in LandLab. It was a tidal flow component that was built based on a course, Coast Morpho 2D model. The second was a random grid generator, GS tools. And then the third was a particle tracking component, Dorado, that Jay, one of my teammates actually wrote. So we had a lot of inside knowledge here. So the overview of what I'm gonna talk about today is or the outline of what I'm gonna talk about today is an overview of these modeling tools and then go through the Jupyter Notebook that we set up to walk somebody through actually using these and then some examples from like the kinds of things that you could test with what we set up. All right, so that first model, the tidal flow component is built based on this Coast Morpho 2D model, which is in a paper by Moriarty and Mershid in 2018. So that model is a 2D model for morphological evolution of a tidal inlet. And it's built with a simplified version of the full Navier-Stokes equations and it ignores unsettiness, infection, spatial variation in the water level. And so by making all those assumptions, they can solve for velocity based on an assumed form for the temporal variation of the water surface. And when you do that, you're gonna get column two in this figure here. But like through tidal inlets, inertia can still be important. And so you can do a momentum correction by, and you compute that by balancing bed friction with the inertia term alone. And when you do that and add that on top, you get column three. And so with that full momentum correction, the Coast Morpho 2D model matches up pretty well with full Navier-Stokes solvers like Delf3D, which is column one here. So that's the tidal component. This model is partially integrated to LandLab. The tidal model flow model functions. It's not yet a core LandLab component. So you have to do some separate insulation. But sediment transport and morphology is not yet included. And so the thing that I'm presenting is actually just one of the pieces that our group worked on. Another was trying to get some of the morphological components into the tidal model. So I'm not gonna talk about it, but there is information on it if you're interested. All right, so that was one of the components. The second is GS tools. And this allows you to create a random field with specific properties. So you can use like a Gaussian model and give it a length scale, and it'll give you the size of vegetated and un-vegetated patches. So that's like what I've got in the top right here. You've got other model options like exponential or return. I don't even know how to say that. You can also do things like specify anisotropy and rotation, and when you do that, you get something that looks like this. And then the third was the particle tracking component. And so this simulates the transport of passive particles in a flow field in a Lagrangian fashion. That was built by Jay. And so we combine these pieces and that allows us to do particle tracking through a random field in tidal flows. All right, so here's the Jupyter notebook. The first thing you gotta do is install some basic libraries. And then we're gonna set a number of parameters that are needed for this model. And in particular, I want you to note the roughnesses. And so the low roughness will be the channel regions and the high roughness is the vegetated regions. Then we generate a random field. So this is the GS tools component. And so when we set the length scale to 20 here, that gives us a vegetated region in yellow and a channel region in blue that we can then use to spit into the model. Then we take that random field generated by GS tools and turn it into a grid for land lab. And so there's a little bit of conversion here. And here is where we set the roughnesses between just the zeros and ones that the GS tools spits out and actually assign a roughness value. And so then when we've got the land lab component for the tidal flow calculator, we instantiate it and run it. And then finally, once we've got the land lab model up and running, we add the particles and run them. And so then we can run this through a number of time steps in order to look at the output. And so the visualizations for this, we can look at the velocity magnitude on the ebb tide and flood tide, as well as how the particles are moving through the system. And so I'm gonna show you a couple examples of this and I wanna just call out the roughnesses and then the length scale as well as a couple other parameters. And so I just did a couple examples to show you how it looks. And so for this one, I varied the length scale between different runs. Oh, and so flow is allowed through the bottom and the top boundaries and the left and the right boundaries are solid walls here. And so our tidal flow is moving up and down here. And so the blue regions, like I said, our channels, the yellow regions are vegetated. And after 50 tidal cycles, the particles move from the blue location where they started to the red location at the end of this period. And so you can see when we allow the length scale to increase, we've got more dispersion through the same time period with the same forcing. Something else you could try with it is varying the roughnesses. And so that one that I just showed you is here down in the lower right, if you move above it, we've decreased the roughness in the vegetated region. So like thinner plants, as we move over to the left, ooh, as we move over to the left, there's a lower roughness in the channel region. So that's saying like it's a smoother channel. And then down at the bottom is a smoother channel but the same roughness in the vegetated regions. And you can see here that when you just try these runs, actually allowing a smoother channel will allow for more dispersion, but changing the roughness between less rough, less vegetated, or more vegetated doesn't actually change dispersion. So it's really tied to how rough the channel is, which is kind of a nice test. And then one more example is allowing anisotropy to vary. So in this first region, there's no anisotropy. We've just got a length scale of 10. In this region, we've now added some anisotropy. So there's a length scale of 10 in one direction and three in the other. And then here we're allowing some rotation. So we've changed the direction of the anisotropy to pi over nine here, or pi over two in the bottom right. And so that rotation angle defines the direction of dispersion. You can see it's sort of north-south directed in this first figure, sort of along the diagonal in this figure. And here it's a little more evenly spread but almost along that direction of rotation. So with this model, you could look at things like the impact of oil spills or like seed and larval dispersal or fine like non-settling sediment transport. You'd think about how the vegetation scale impacts particle spread. Like what's the role of vegetation density? You could think about region connectivity. So what parts of an estuary are easily connected or not at all connected? And if you wanna do any of this, all our stuff is on GitHub for our coastal team. So it's got the repository and the documentation. That's everything I got. Thank you, Rachel, for a really impressive set of simulations and like new capabilities that are like generated by this team. I'm gonna open it up for one question and then have other questions in the chat to give the last two teams a little bit more time to like get their stories out to you. Hopefully there's a person who wants to like chime in with one question. I see a question from Christian in the chat about do the particles have inertia and gravity? They don't have gravity, they're passive particles. I think they also don't have inertia. They're going along with the flow. So I think it's just like Lagrangian tracking of the particles rather than Eulerian. But Jay who built this could really talk more about it. And I think you can probably get in touch with him. Thank you, Rachel. I'm hoping that you guys keep monitoring the chat a little bit. I see there's a few different... Oh, Greg still has a question. But we'll move on to the project team four. It goes to a completely different scale of geology and time. Gustav Palisgard Olsen will be presenting. He's at Arhus University. So like phoned in from Europe or zoomed in from Europe. And their topic is using landlabs to model tectonic activities in the landscape evolution model. Yep. So I'll see if I can make this work. Okay, so I have a couple of screens. Does it seems to work? Yeah, we're seeing in direct. Okay, cool. Yeah, so my name is Gustav. And I'm a PhD student at the University of... At Ols University in Denmark. And the co-authors for this project was Liang Xiuhe and Krishian, Xiaoni Hu, Eyal Marder and myself. And our project was called using landlabs to model tectonic activities in a landscape evolution model. So, yeah. So our overall goal was really not to answer a specific research question was more to, from the beginning to create a tutorial for undergraduate students. So we're looking at how to model different simple tectonic activities in a landscape using landlab and how to analyze some key geomorphological features with landlab tools. And like a basic outline of this tutorial goes through these four sections. So we started out with creating a kind of a basic landscape evolution model which we use in the other sections.  And in the third section, we add faulting and different pathological domains to the model. And then in the last section, we use some of the built-in terrain analysis tools. We have in landlab to analyze a uplift event and also using the same basic model. So in the first section, we have a model setup where we have a 20 kilometer by 20 kilometer grid. We just start out with a random landscape. Then we use the, we use steam power, stream power erosion for the fluvial incision. And then we have just regular old diffusion erosion for the rest of the landscape. And then we have close boundaries in the West, East and North. And then we run them all through time. So this is an image of how it looks in 300,000 years. And to the right is just an image of sediment discharge or average erosion during this time where we see the nick points migrating reaching the drainage headwaters and then slowly eroding to stay in state. So that's the kind of basic setup for the rest of the sections. Yeah, and then we go have the students investigate lithospheric air flexure. So a very simple setup where the student gets to place a point load on the topography from before from the basic model and see the subsidence in the system. So it's a very basic 2D elastic model. And then we go into the third section. Here we add faulting to the same model. And also we have two different lithological domains with different rotability. So we can see, oh, so you can see in this image where we run the model for 100,000 years, we see kind of a slanted line here, a tilted line. So that's the fault. So it starts somewhere up here and then it migrates south. And then we also have this very clear change in lithology or rotability. It's also, I mean, maybe slightly visible over here. Not really good. So when the model runs, we see the fault propagating and then also there's a low line created down here. And then the student gets to look at these through the different terrain analysis tools or the use of these terrain analysis tools like a CHI index, Deepness Index is kind of explained in this section. And then in the next section they get to play around with that themselves. So here we have a, again, the basic model. So it's run for these 300,000 years. Then we have chosen just some channel we're looking at. And then a spontaneous uplift of 50 meters happens and we run the model until it reaches steady state. So the student gets to look at different stuff like CHI index, Deepness Index, some channel slope drainage area plots to kind of analyze the evolution of the landscape through time. So we see here, it's very simple, nick point migration. So it starts with a steady state and then through some different time slices we see here in the CHI index, it's a nick point migrating through the system. And then after 200,000 years or so, we have, again, just a steady state landscape. So that was kind of how we built this tutorial. And then we of course have the students write a little bit of code themselves or kind of modifying the existing code and also analyze some of the, some plots of some of these CHI index, Deepness Index graphs and also create some of them themselves. And then in the end, the meaning of the exercises that they can themselves try to create some scenario, a tectonic scenario, and then just copy some of the things from the different sections and try to create their own model and analyze it themselves. Yeah, so I guess thank you. Thank you Gustav. I can certainly see faculty being excited about having this as a tutorial that they can tap into or TAs who are like using these to do things with people. Is there a question for Gustav and the team that works on tectonics? I have a little question. So I agree. This is all very nice and excellent teaching materials. So thanks a lot to all of you. Gustav, if you plot sediment discharge, is that actual sediment discharge measured at an outlet or is it average erosion over the catchment? Yeah, it was just average erosion really. So we have a couple of different plots and we're getting the students to plot them. But yeah, it's really just average erosion. Yeah. We'll take, if somebody has an additional question, they can type it in a chat and we'll leave it to the team members who are here to like help answer those questions. And we'll move to the last team that is a small team. And it's Zenming Wu we'll be presenting on land geomorphology evolution over continuous permafrost region. So a bit more specific to the Arctic applications or Tibetan plateau applications. Yeah, can you see my screen? Yes, we can. Okay, thank you. You can, yeah, excellent. Yeah, thank you. That's great. So this is the last presentation. It's made by Fen and Mei. So it's, we have very small team just to us. So this is about the permafrost erosion over a very small catchment by coupling Q-Model and the diffusion model. So this is overview of what we have done. So the key point here is to, to do some permafrost erosion projection by applying Q-Model and the diffusion model. So we made a Jupy notebook, but we still didn't upload it to the GitHub response. We're sorry. This is the main contribution of we have done. It's, we made the Q-Model to be a 2D model. The previous example is only one day. I will explain it later. So this is the whole process chain of the coupling of Q-Model and the diffusion model. Let me give a brief introduction about the starting area. So we selected a very small catchment in the non-CBRI where it's underlaid by, sorry, where it's underlaid by continuous permafrost. We can see the, we can see it from the left figure and the right figure shows the top graphic details of the starting area. So this is the flow chart of the Q-Model application. So we need to get the active layer thickness first because an active layer thickness is one of key characteristics of the permafrost. It can be used to indicate the state of permafrost. To run the Q-Model, we need temperature, amplitude of temperature and the snow depth and other some information. So here we used the one climate station in the starting area to interplot all other informations of temperature and amplitude temperature, the snow depth of the each pixel. So we know previous Q-Model example only use one set of parameter over the whole area. But in this study, we assume the starting area as a roster so which is made by many, many pixels. Then the active layer thickness of each pixel is calculated by applying Q-Model with specific input parameters. So this is after we get the active layer thickness by applying the Q-Model. So then we need to input them into the diffusion model. But the main problem here is we need to think how much of soil is erudible over the permafrost region. So the left figure is the structure of the permafrost. We can see the top layer is active layer and the middle one is permafrost which is now which is generous frozen and quite stable. And so here we take, we take, so in the active layer is regarded as erudible. So after solve this problem, we need to think about Dm which is which is a necessary parameter for the diffusion model to get the slope information. So we also need other, sorry, so we also need other information to run the diffusion model such as sorry, generation and diffusivity. Okay, this is the result of active layer estimation of this small catchment. So we can see the over the high end code region in the east part of the study error. We can see the quite shallow active layer and in the south this area is lower warm and quite flat. So we can see the quite deep active layer estimation. So after we get the active layer thickness, then we put them into the diffusion model. So we get the error map of the study error so this one is the error map. And if you look at the river back of this error map, we can see the sedimentation in the rear beds. Okay, we also did some further investigation about the effect of vegetative coverage or the error rate. So we can see the left two figures is about the vegetation coverage from Google map not 80s and the 2020. And the red error is in the error map, we can see the change of the error rate. And this is the simple analysis about the active layer thickness and aspect. But to be honest, there's no correlation between them. And the active layer thickness, we estimate in this study area is more than one meter. And this is also a simple analysis of error rate and aspect. But we can see statistically the slope error with aspect between zero to 50 degrees shows a slight accumulation. So this is our conclusions. The first one is POMPRA study rate error estimation process with 2D Q-mode and the diffusion model was built. And also in the future, if you want to use those two couple of models, you can consider to use the multi-process tail in Python. It's because this 2D Q-mode we built is quite computation consuming. It's very slow for the 2D calculation. And the third one is you can input more accurate parameters. For example, temperature and the snow depth to you to get accurate result. The temperature data and the snow depth data we used here is only from one climate station, station which is not accurate. So which may bias the real result we get. So thanks for your listening. And if you've got any question about all this presentation, please contact us. Thank you guys. Thank you, Xenming. I wanted to compliment the two of you. You are like the smallest team of our, of our all our teams in the Espen summary institutes for like making actually like a real new contribution to this set of modeling by making everything spatially variable and starting to test that against the real case. So like you are like maybe too modest for, in your presentation about your accomplishments. I'm opening it up for a question or two. Hey, Irina. Yes. I have a slightly broader question. Yes, go for it. And this is kind of coming from ignorance. Is there a place, a journal, where these could be published? There is a journal of educational open source resources. Oh, right. Isn't that like hope? Yeah, right. It's like Josh, but then it's for educational too. Right, Jose or something, yeah. Yeah. So maybe. Yeah. I mean, or at the very least like when, when everyone's finished, you know, we should make sure that everyone has a DOI on their repository so that, you know, all the Espenites can take credit for their work and have a sightable reference. Yeah, and I also want to emphasize to everyone, like make sure you, like if we build this into the CSDMS Wiki website, that we have your names on there because it's an educational resource that you build and you can point to it. And if you, if somebody asks you ever like, oh, what did you ever work on teaching material or whatever, then you can say like, well, here it is. And it's being used by a larger community. But that DOI idea is a good idea. And I can definitely send to everyone the link to that journal site. It's new, and yeah, I don't have much experience with it. So I can't vouch for it or anything, but it might be a good idea to scope out. Espenite. Josie is saying we should be, like all of you are Espenites now. Well, Mark used the term. I just think it's more than anything. Okay. Are there any last more general comments that people wanted to make? I wanna keep to time because I know like many of you like have like zooms back to back to back. I see some really complimentary comments. Amazing work. People are very impressed. And that's true for like our entire instructor team too. It really made a big jump still between us finishing up in August and now a few weeks later, a few not even a couple months, but like a few months. Yeah, I just wanna acknowledge that we had a really intense six days of teaching, but still the products I think went way beyond those days of teaching. So there was a lot of work and learning on their own. So this is really inspiring. I think for what our community can and should be doing. Cool. With that, I'm gonna conclude. I wanted to thank the teams for all the work that they put in. I wanted to thank the presenters explicitly for stepping up and being the voice for their teams. And I wanted to thank everybody who's like listening in and we're like hopeful that this is either an inspiration to you to like partake in Espen in the next year or it's an inspiration to use some of these tools or it is a resource that you can pull from and using classes or in teaching moments that you have yourselves. So thank you everyone. We were quite a number of people here.


Hello friends welcome back to another episode here on the channel for anyone new to the channel My name is Lee also known as Osiris and in today's episode We're gonna be covering all of the details for the brand new max raid event that is running over this coming weekend So we're currently in January We are in the midst of the January max raids But today is a special day because normally mid month what they do is they change the dens and create a special event Where we've got an opportunity to get a shiny and that's what we're gonna be covering in today's episode And it's based all around the Chinese New Year that will be coming on the 12th of February I believe which is gonna be the year of the ox, so it's very fitting So we are in the game right now. We'll come back to this in a minute We'll jump over to Cerebi because we can see right now We've got the max raid event den that is running for January that I was just referring to you've got Jagana max Duralidon and Gigantamax Snorlax are the two big ones in the den this month But if we hop over to the event for today at our trusty source at Cerebi The link will be down in the description as well. You can see this week ends a special max raid event den They'll be running from January the 22nd, which is today until January the 24th Which will be Sunday and that is normally around midnight Respectively where your time zone is when that event will end and it will revert back to the January den With the G max Duralidon and G max Snorlax until the end of the month on the 1st of February When we'll get a new update and new Pokemon will spawn in the special event den So you can see we'll just cover as we normally do what we've got today. So the the one star raids Taurus, Bufalent and Miltank. So it's gonna be a common theme throughout. There you one star raids There's no real special items that you're gonna be getting here Just your generic ones your Dynamax candies and other bits And then again the two stars are exactly the same three stars are exactly the same Four stars are exactly the same you are getting different items for the different level of stars And if anyone new to the dens, obviously the collecting the gym badges where you get the access to the higher ranked dens So if you've got all eight gym badges, you're gonna have access to four five star raids If you've got very few gym badges, you're probably only gonna have one or two if you're at the beginning of your game So you can you can work that out. So there the four star but getting down To the five star raids is where this den starts to get very interesting So we've got the canto Taurus here And you can catch that it's 32% spawn rate and then next to it You can see we've got another canto Taurus and this is gonna be the shiny exclusive square shiny Pokemon for this den Which has a 2% chance which is the normal rate for these shinies spawning in these events But you're gonna be able to get this nice kind of puke green kind of color Taurus or off green colors Taurus probably offended a few of you out there So I do apologize, but yeah This nice shiny Taurus a square shiny as well Which is really nice and one of the rarer shiny variants is available But it is gonna be difficult to get 2% chance And then you've got the bouffalant and the miltamp making up the rest of it items again aren't very spectacular This is for Pokemon sword and as you can imagine the event is exactly the same for Pokemon sword As Pokemon shield there is no variations between games So you're gonna have the same opportunity to catch the same Pokemon same star rating in the dens throughout sword and shield So these are what you're gonna have access to this weekend I know a lot of you probably are big fans of some of these Pokemon here So it's a nice opportunity to catch them especially the miltank the bouffalant and Definitely this Taurus is gonna be what everyone is going for so let's jump back over into our game And once we're here, so I'm in drapled grove, but I'll show you on the map where it is for anyone new and Right here in the wild air in the galore galore area the main game. There are two dens Next to each other I just find this very easy to run between these dens drop a wishing piece until I get the the den the Event then they'll always be in a red den. You can see I've got a senchino here It is part of the January den So what we need to do to update the game to allow us to get the The event dens this weekend just come into your menu screen your mystery gift and then come down to get a wild area news I know we've been around this barbecue a few times before but it's always good for those new people Coming into sword and shield so they understand you'll connect connect to the internet It'll do the update and you'll get this sign and then once you come back into the den Eventually when the game decides it wants to load you should see there we go We've got the event then for this weekend. So there's a mill tank right now once you've got this den The idea is probably if you're hunting like a lot of you will be the shiny tourists What you want to do is use the data skip glitch to try and just cycle through this den until you get to that five star Taurus because the five star Taurus is the only one that can be shiny So they're the ones you want to be going for so we'll go through it again Just for those new people don't need to be actually online for this So I'm just gonna quit out of this for a minute. So just make sure that you're um, you're offline When you're coming into this we are You hit invite others once you're in the den then you hit your home menu you come down to your system settings Down to system down to date and time make sure you synchronize clock is off via the internet So this one's off come down your date and time skip forward one day click, okay? Come back into the game quit out of the den And this will trick the game to things 24 hours of pasta It'll take you to the next frame in the den and there you go The Pokemon changes so you can go through the den like this until you get to that five star Taurus I'll just quickly show you once again. This is a nice easy way to do it and it is a bit of a grind I will say that you know the past events where we've had Pikachu we've had will load other things like that very difficult to kind of grind and It just takes a little bit of patience just going from five star tours to five star Taurus What you can do is see there's a three star there what you can do when you get to the five star Taurus is just save in front of the den Check the den see if it's shiny if it's not restart the game come back into it and then just start Skipping to the next Taurus That is five star and then just repeat that process of saving going into the den and checking it and then if it is So there we go you see so I can just explain to you now We've got a five star Taurus what we want to do is just save our game Just make it making sure just making sure so if it's not a shiny we can just reset come back and start the the process again and We're not gonna invite others to this one. We're just checking the den we've saved it We're all good fingers crossed it is the shiny that would be an amazing start to the day honestly But it doesn't often happen when I'm doing the videos, so not too sure now no chance here That 2% is too too low for us in this one, but that wraps up the the update for us. That's all the information I don't think there's very too much more to explain I've kind of done the day skip glitch to show you how you can get through and Maybe find this Taurus a little bit easier But it's a nice event to celebrate the Chinese New Year like I say that will be coming into effect on the 12th of February so not too long away It's a very exciting time of especially in the Pokemon universe as well We've got lots going on for the 25th anniversary and we'll have lots more videos to come with this obviously We'll have our next den update on the 1st of February so do stay tuned for that and Anyone hunting this Taurus of the weekend I wish you all the best luck in Catching the shiny and if you do manage to get it. Let me know down in the comment section below I'd love to hear how successful a lot of you will be over this weekend And if you are hunting it or not and also what are you looking forward to for the February den update? Because there's still got lots of stuff that could come out so it could be exciting But we'll see anyway friends have a great rest of your day I'll catch you all for another episode very soon and till then take care. Bye. Bye