In our most recent episode, Movie Krate, we talked about all sorts of different tips and techniques that filmmakers and editors use to make movie fight scenes so much cooler than they have any business being. And to highlight this concept, we're going to take one scene from Cobra Kai from season one, and it's the school lunchroom scene, and we're going to take a look at the cinematics versus the realism at play. Now it goes without saying this is going to have some spoiler alerts. If you have not watched Cobra Kai on either YouTube Premium or on Netflix yet, pause this episode, go watch the show a thousand times because it's that awesome, and then come back and join the discussion because we will be giving away some minor plot elements, so if you don't want to be spoiled, then please go check it now. If you don't care, then let's move on. I thought that this was a really good scene to start with, mainly because even though it's halfway through the first season, it's a pivotal moment. You know, this is a moment that kind of cements and sets the dynamic for these characters going forward, so I thought this was the appropriate place to start. Now, we're assuming you know who characters are if you've continued watching this, but up at this point, we've seen our main character Miguel be impacted by the bullies a couple of times. In the first episode, he's getting his butt kicked by them in the parking lot. Johnny comes to the rescue and saves them. Later at the Halloween dance, we see Miguel has learned just enough karate to get himself into trouble, and he faces off with Kyler again, delivers a beautiful front kick, and it works, but then he realizes very quickly he's in over his head, and then the whole scenario does not end very well for him. So at this point of the show, we're halfway through the show, and Kyler keeps getting the best of Miguel. And this goes back to our most recent episode, we talked about the different hierarchy in the movie scene when it comes to a fight, where the realism itself, the actual realistic nature of the fighting, is actually on the bottom totem of the priority list. Number one is the narrative setting. You know, this is a narrative piece to tell the story, so every scene has to move the story forward. So there's some sort of story telling, some sort of character development. The story has to move forward. That's number one priority. Two, then we have the choreography, which is the actual fight that they choose. You know, it's got to look cool, it has to be engaging, and it's got to be creative, it's got to be different enough. So that's the choreography that goes into it to make it more of a spectacle. Then there's the presentation and intended effect. And that means what do the filmmakers want the viewers to feel after watching the scene? Do they want the feel triumphant? Do they want the viewers to be angry, upset, happy, you know, terrified, suspense, you know, that comes into play too. So you've got your narrative structure. So moving the drama forward, you have the choreography and making it creative and look good. You've got your presentation and the effect you want on the audience. Once you've met those, then it's about making it as realistic as possible within those confines. And that's usually the priority of how things are set in an action film. And all of that plays into this scene right here, this lunchroom scene. We're halfway through season one. This is a milestone scene. How this plays out affects the path of the show from this point forward. So you have your narrative structure right there. We also see some choreography. We're going to get back to that part in a minute, but we're going to see some moves that we saw Miguel training. So that choreography is in place. As far as the intention, this is definitely a root for the underdog moment. This is definitely we want to feel triumphant and that's our takeaway when we walk away from the scene. After that, the realism is actually pretty low, but nobody cares because the scene itself was just cool enough and it actually impacted enough to move the show forward. So what's interesting though is when the scene starts, it actually appears like it's going to be a Samantha versus Kyler moment. We know Samantha has training. We know she can take Kyler. They already kind of shows the glimpse that she knows how to handle him. Kyler's pushing her buttons and actually Samantha takes a stance. It looks like she's about to unleash. So it's like, okay, this is going to be satisfying.  Is he going to succeed? So I thought it was interesting how they shifted the tone from one that quickly switched over to Miguel. This is Miguel's defining moment. This is where I feel is the most realistic of the scene. The shoves and the intimidation is real. Miguel's kind of getting his bearing. You know, he's had no success up to this point. And then Kyler throws a punch and Miguel immediately does a defensive tactic and captures it. And of course if he pauses and delivers a cool line saying it's not lame as karate, it's Cobra Kai, then delivers a counter strike. Okay, total Hollywood right there. You don't stop in the middle of the fight.  That's pretty unrealistic. It was pretty badass in the moment, but right off the bat, that's not a realistic part of a real fight. But what happens from that point on, I really like this is my favorite part of the fight. Kyler's reaction is rage. He's bewildered for a second, grabs Miguel and just starts throwing him around the tables. And for anyone who's seen a real high school fight in a lunch room, that's pretty much what it is. You know, wild swings, grabbing and choking, throwing each other into the tables. And it's frantic and Miguel looks panicked. And for the moment you can relate, if you've ever been into a fight, you've got that moment of, okay, this is on, this is happening. You try to find your first bearing and you see the moment it clicks. When Kyler pulls him off the table the second time and puts him in that chulk hold, Miguel immediately recognizes his position because we've had some foreshadowing of Johnny teaching them different techniques. He recognizes his position and he goes right into action and actually delivers another blow to Kyler, which is extremely satisfying to watch. And what I find realistic about it is, again, that panic and that franticness, it feels raw. That is authentic. And even his counterattack and the kick and the way Kyler falls off the side, it's a little sloppy and kind of awkward. But again, also realistic. It's not move. Yes, you know, he's not doing a Chuck Norris move. It's a gangly teenager, you know, trying to defend himself having just learned after a couple of weeks. Now he has to succeed because failure is going to be worse this time. And then we're cheering along with them, especially when Alicia stands up, she goes, no mercy. It's on. We're excited. We are now automatically rooting for the underdog. And here's where it gets a little silly. Here's where the Hollywood, Hollywood dough comes in. First, he exhibits his spidey sense with that punch coming in. He drops down and we're going to call him the big dumb guy because that's what Johnny called him. Big dumb guy comes in for punch and Miguel drops and sweeps and takes him right down. A couple of minor problems with this, and these are very nitpicky problems, is continuity.  But when you cut to the lower shot, you see both of his hands are down. So he's not in swing position and his lead leg is different. Okay, it's an editing continuity error, but it's very, very minor. Then Miguel does a sweep. And in my opinion, that sweep was just way too easy.    So yes, I am nitpicking here when you go frame by frame. When you play it back, it's good enough, you get by with it. It still adds to the scene in the moment, but nitpicking, you can see there's a couple of little movie magic tidbits happening in there. And here's where they kind of dip into briefly the whole, well, you're going to attack, and you're going to attack the whole one at a time, multiple attackers that you see a lot in movies that's not that realistic. It's only brief here. I won't even forgive it, but he gets attacked from behind. He goes into that chokehold. He delivers a hammer fist to the guy's groin. Okay, good. Bys himself a couple seconds. That could legitimately be a technique. And then he delivers a solid front kick to the next guy. And we've already seen him deliver a front kick. So if you work to land that, totally believable that that kid will fly back and maybe by himself a few more seconds. And then he turns, spins, does that beautiful cresting kick, knocking the next guy out. The only thing though is, again, camera angles, because later in the show, you see an alternate angle from a cell phone. When Miguel did the turn spin kick, he was nowhere near landing that strike. So that's that part I was talking about where certain camera angles can help sell strikes better than others, that you have to frame things in a certain way to make it look like things connect. So that was a little sloppy later that they showed the other angle, but it's actually kind of fun to see the difference in the two, how much of a difference a slight angle change can make. Now I do feel that the scene has a pretty good use of environmental space. And if you go back to the Karate Kid movies, most of the fights are in big open areas, and with some exceptions, but most of the times they're on a big open mat in the tournament or in a big open room. Cobra Kai, there's a lot more environmental usage. You know, they fight in the bar, they fight in a school hallway, they fight in an apartment, they fight in the school lunchroom. You see a lot of different environments in which the actors are playing off of, and there's a good example of that here. Miguel is using the tables. He is putting obstacles between himself and his attackers, and he's using his space as part of the fight. And that really makes the fight that much more interesting, because the moves themselves aren't that impressive, but it's this whole, the way he's reading the situation that we're invested in, and the way he's trying to scramble to get away and protect himself is what we're invested in, and using the environment in such a way, I think, was a very effective way to do that. I'm not a fan of the chair knocking the guy down. At best, you know, pushing a chair like that is a good quick delay, but I don't think anyone's gonna go creaning over it like that.  Miguel picks up the food tray, plastic food tray, not very aerodynamic, not very heavy, and he's knocking guys out with it. He's hitting people, he's blocking with it, he's striking with it. I understand what they're going with, that he's grabbing a tool that's at his disposal. I just wish they would have chosen something better, like a book or a bag, something with more substance, because you're not going to do a whole lot of damage with that tray. Maybe if you used it once, but it was like his primary weapon, and he's like, kneeing guys and knocking them out over the head. I have a hard time believing he's going to knock somebody out or even knock somebody down, hitting them with that kind of a tray. That's just my opinion.  So I think it succeeded in highlighting that. I just, my nitpick is in the choice of object. I just don't think that was as effective, and that kind of pulled me out a little bit. So after knocking the guys around a little bit, Miguel's wrapping it up. He's trying to escape.  No problem with that.   He's taken all four of them out. He is lunchroom hero. He stands up and there's this triumphant moment. He has now gained new respect in the school. He has now attracted the eye of the girl that he likes. His friends who doubted him are now seeing the value of self-defense in karate. So this was a pretty big moment for Miguel. The fighting was kind of weak in itself. If you break down individual moves, it was pretty weak, but the overall presentation, the way they frame the angles, the way they edit it, the timing, his use of space, the music pumps you up, the characters' excitement all wrapped up, adds up to a scene that's pretty pivotal, and it's a tentpole scene and the very important scene in the series because it really affects a lot of things going forward. And I also like that it stretches far enough to the point where it indicates Johnny a little bit because we saw Johnny working with Miguel on a variety of techniques and one of them was at chokeholds. So when we see it being applied in real life here, it kind of cements the bond between him and Johnny. Johnny taught him well and we see that. And when you see a little bit of a foreshadow like that and haven't paid off later, I find that very satisfying. And that happened in the original Karate Kid film too. In the tournament between Daniel and Johnny, Daniel's moves are pretty basic. He's pretty much punched, front kick, round kick for the most part, but there's that one moment where he pulls out that nice leg lock takedown and does that backfist of Johnny's head for a sweet point. It seems pretty advanced for Daniel, way more advanced than the other stuff he's done, but we got to see the moment where Daniel saw that was first exposed to it when he was goofing around with Miyagi and Miyagi did it to him. It was such a subtle moment earlier that when we see him break it out later, dramatically speaking, and his audience engagement, it's that much more satisfying.  They drop little hints and they pay off later. So the whole position recognition of Miguel in that chokehold and slithering out and doing that counter strike was beautifully done. I think it was a very impactful moment in the series. So that was just one fun example to show how there's little tricks that you can do to make action scenes much better because you don't always have the greatest martial starters or actors that have martial arts skills. So sometimes you have to cheat a little bit and I find it impressive different tactics that you can use to make actors and make the scenes look better and come across better than they would have in real life. And that's part of the fun of movie magic. And if you guys like this episode, if you kind of like this concept of breaking down movie scenes, please by all means suggest more below because maybe we can do more of these if there's specific scenes that you either want to break down, you want to hear explained or you don't know how it was something was done and you want it to be discussion. You know, I value all your input. So please leave those comments down below and also be sure to check out our past episode where we talked about movie karate if you haven't already, where we go a little bit more in depth of the different camera work and a different editing work that can help amplify these scenes. So this is kind of a partner companion piece with that. So if you haven't checked it out already, please go take a look. And thank you so much for watching and look forward to your feedback and we'll see you next week.


This class I gave a topic of the Curse of Economic Nationalism and I actually taught an online Mises Academy course a couple years ago on this topic since I've written a good bit about it. But some of you who have read some of my writings know that one of the things I try to do is study economic history and then draw lessons for today from history. It's not unique with me, of course. The old saying, those who fail to learn the lessons of history are doomed to repeat its failures is probably thousands of years old, that idea. And so that's what I'm doing here. This is particularly relevant, I think, because the topic economic nationalism, well, what the heck is it, first of all? But this is an article from the Breitbart website, which is the main pro-Trump website, I think, in the world, probably. His right-hand man, Steve Bannon, was the ran it until he joined the government. And this is an article, but there's a guy who writes for them by a pseudonym named Virgil. I guess he thinks pretty highly of himself. That's his picture there on the lower left-hand side. And this one says, this is about a speech that President Trump made in Kentucky a couple of months ago. I think it was in March. And it said, Trump connects to the taproot of American economic and nationalism with Henry Clay's American system. Henry Clay was from Kentucky. He ran a slave plantation that grew hemp in Kentucky. He was known as the Prince of Hemp in his time. And he once said, and he became the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Senator, Secretary of War, quite the big shot in American politics in 19th century. And he once said that the reason he got into politics was that he wanted to impose protectionist tariffs on foreign hemp. And he wanted to get the taxpayers to pay for roads and canals so he could ship his hemp to the markets in the East. And so he was an honest politician. I'm working on a book on him. Gary North has been bugged me for years because I wrote a book on Hamilton. And then Abe Lincoln is sort of the political son of Hamilton. But in the middle there is Henry Clay. He's sort of the connecting link ideologically between the two of them. And so here's President Trump saying that his agenda is economic nationalism. And they're writing about it in Breitbart. I sent a book proposal to a Regnery not too long ago to write a book about this. And they turned me down. They said it wouldn't have the popular appeal of my last book, but it's the whole Trump agenda. So they apparently thought the whole Trump agenda would not have any appeal to the public for this. So I'm going to publish it elsewhere anyway. But this article, what it says about this, I'll read a few things about it. The 45th president, Trump, name checked Clay no less than seven times in his speech and used the phrase American system three times. So his speech writers, probably Bannon knew all about this stuff. Trumpism says is in fact an agenda deeply informed by the best traditions of American history. It was the American system that built up this country giving us widespread prosperity and also crucially the material muscle we needed to win the wars we had to fight. I know when's the last time we won a war anyway. What wars are they talking? The Civil War? I don't know. The factories envisioned by Clay were truly the arsenals of democracy. I don't think he ever envisioned factories. And then he says it's fair to say that the American system was the dominant economic school of thought in the U.S. until the 1970s. Then over the next few decades, it was disastrously pulled down. And today we see the consequences all around us. And that's all false, by the way, and I'll explain why. And so this American system, what is it? I mentioned it briefly in my other talk yesterday. The phrase was actually coined by Alexander Hamilton. And I described it yesterday in my talk. I'll repeat this quote again from Murray Rothbard because he really nailed it when he studied early America. And he first ran across this American system language by reading Hamilton. And here's what Murray Rothbard said in his book The Mystery of Banking. Hamilton and his political compatriots were up to. They wanted, quote, quoting Murray Rothbard, to reimpose in the new United States a system of mercantilism and big government similar to that in Great Britain, against which the colonists had rebelled. The object was to have a strong central government, particularly a strong president or king as chief executive, built up by high taxes and heavy public debt. The strong government was to impose high tariffs to subsidize domestic manufacturers, develop a big Navy to open up and subsidize foreign markets for American exports, and launch a massive system of internal public works. In short, the United States was to have a British system without Great Britain. And this was called mercantilism at the time. And a rough definition of mercantilism is a set of policies that benefits producers at the expense of consumers. Protectionism would be a perfect example of mercantilism. And if you've ever studied the history of economic thought, as I did, I had three courses in it in graduate school. And, you know, mercantilism was, you know, it's something, one of the more foolish ideas in the whole history of economic thought, but it's a synonym for the American system. And so when you see articles like this, you know, like in the Breitbart claiming that the Trump economic policy will bring us back to the glory days of mercantilism, it's like 18th century corruption is what we want. And so Hamilton's, so that was Hamilton's American system was protectionist tariffs, what we today call corporate welfare for road building, canal building, eventually it became railroad building in the U.S., and a national bank, a national bank to provide cheap credit for politically connected businesses and to inflate the economy. And also a big public debt. Hamilton's original American system, a large public debt. And to persuade people of this, you know, mercantilism, the people who defended mercantilism in England and other parts of Europe, they had to hire publicists for this. They had to bamboozle the public into thinking that special interest policies that rip off the public for the benefit of a small group were really in the best interest of the public. They had to pull the wool over the people's eyes, and they did that in various ways. And in America, one of the masters of that was Hamilton himself. And one of the techniques he used, which was not original with him, is to describe all these policies as in the public interest. And he used the public interest in many ways. There's a political scientist named Cecilia Kenyon, who wrote an article once in the American Political Science Review called The Conservative Rousseau. I think it's about Hamilton, the conservative Rousseau, or the Rousseau of the Right. That's what it was, the Rousseau of the Right. And in it she put together a big long list of the various synonyms that Hamilton used in his writings for the public interest. And in various writings where he tried to convince people that, say, protectionist tariffs or the granting of a monopoly to a particular politically connected business were really in the public interest to do that. And I'll read you some of the language he used in his actual writings. The public good, the public interest, the public will, public safety, the public welfare, the public felicity, the public happiness, the general good, the general interest, the common interest, the national interest, the national happiness, the welfare of the community, the true interest of the community, the permanent welfare of society, the good of the whole community, common interest of humanity. And so if you get ripped off by paying two or three times the price for the next pair of shoes you have to buy, that's for the good of humanity according to the mercantilists. And you know, if you repeat language like that enough, a lot of people will believe it. And so that's one of the oldest tricks in the book. And it comes from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the French philosopher. He argued that there is such a thing as the public will, but only a small elite knows what this will is. And they therefore have the right to oppose that will on everybody. And so in many ways the Hamilton and his cronies were, they were the real Jacobins in American politics, not the Jeffersonians. And so the Bank of the United States story, that was the linchpin of economic nationalism as a national bank to fund this. And we did get a national bank. Hamilton succeeded and that was the first plank of the American system. And here's what Rothbard said about the Bank of the United States in his book, History of Money and Banking in the United States. As soon as it was created, 1791, the Bank of the United States promptly fulfilled its inflationary potential by issuing millions of dollars in paper money and demand deposits, pyramiding on top of two million dollars in species, gold and silver. The bank invested heavily in loans to the United States government. In addition to two million dollars invested in the assumption of pre-existing long-term debt assumed by the new federal government, the bank engaged in massive temporary lending to the government, which reached 6.2 million by 1796. The result of the outpouring of credit and paper money by the new bank of the United States was an increase in prices of 72% in five years. So it created pretty much massive price inflation immediately as soon as we created it. And as I said in my talk yesterday, the first bank of the United States had a 20-year charter and it created so much inflation and economic stability and corruption that it was not renewed after 20 years. But then the War of 1812 came and they renewed it again. And in January of 1817 it went back into business and it promptly created the Panic of 1819, which of course Rothbard has written about pretty extensively. It was his doctoral dissertation on the Panic of 1819. So it was quite the calamity. Keep in mind these are the things that the advocates of economic nationalism are saying, this is what we need. We need to have this today. We need to bring this back today. And so the bank was resurrected and it was killed again by Andrew Jackson in the late 1820s, early 30s. And I mentioned yesterday some of the statements Jackson made in vetoing the bank and I didn't tell you all of them. But here's one description that Andrew Jackson said about this bank of the United States. He called it a monster, a hydro-headed monster equipped with horns, hoofs and a tail so dangerous that it impaired the morals of our people, corrupted our statesmen and threatened our liberty. He brought up members of Congress, bought up members of Congress by the dozen, subverted the electoral process and sought to destroy our Republican institutions. That's a pretty good reason for vetoing the rechartering of the bank, I would think. And so you don't hear politicians talk like that anymore, unfortunately, about the Fed. So this is a precursor of the Fed that he's condemning with this kind of language. And John Marshall was a protege of Hamilton's. He worshipped Hamilton. A lot of John Marshall's legal opinions were literally verbatim of some of Hamilton's writings, literally word for word in some of them. And when John Marshall issued the opinion, his opinion, personal opinion, that the bank of the United States was constitutional, well, back in those days in America, not everyone thought of the Supreme Court as black-robed deities, as the voices of God. And they didn't always pay attention to it. They pretty much said, OK, thanks for your opinion, I'll get lost sometimes. And here's Jackson's version of that. He says, to this conclusion, that is the conclusion that the bank of the United States is constitutional, I cannot assent Congress and a president as well as the court must each for itself be guided by its own opinion of the Constitution. So he's saying, we have three branches of government, not one, let alone just you, Mr. Marshall, who are you. It is as much the duty of the House of Representatives, of the Senate, of the President, to decide upon the constitutionality of any bill or resolution which may be presented. The opinion of the judges has no more authority over Congress than the opinion of Congress has over the judges. And on that point, the President is independent of both. The authority of the Supreme Court must not therefore be permitted to control the Congress or the executive, but to have only such influence as a force of their reasoning may deserve. And so back in those days, it was assumed by a lot of people that, yeah, we have three branches of government in the United States, and five government lawyers with lifetime tenure should not be responsible for defining everybody's liberties in the country. In fact, the old Jeffersonians warned that if that day ever come, we'd all live under a tyranny. And of course, we've had that system in this country for at least 150 years now, as far as that goes. And so they did destroy the bank, and it went out of business, and we didn't have another central bank until 1913. But we had something also insidious in the 1860s, the National Currency Acts, which I'll talk about in a little bit. The second plank of Hamilton's American system was crony capitalism. Well, today we call crony capitalism. There's a great free book downstairs on crony capitalism that you should pick up. It's a very interesting topic. And Hamilton wrote this famous series of reports to the government, very long winter reports. One was called The Report on Manufacturers, where he made the case for what we today call crony capitalism. In those days they called it internal improvement subsidies, a euphemism for crony, for mercantilism, basically. And here's where he made the famous infant industries argument that he said this. Some new industries, they're infants, and they need support by the government. They can't compete against the British or the French or the Spaniards who have already developed industries and various things. And for a long time, for some cases for decades, so they need help, they need to be subsidized. And of course the standard response by most economists is that the history of this is that the infants never grow up. Once you put them on the dole, they're always on the dole. The steel industry, for example, has been subsidized with protectionist tariffs and other forms of protection from competition from the very beginning, from the early 19th century, from its inception.  And one of the first things the Bush administration did was to put 35% tariffs on steel. And so it's still an infant industry, 35% tariffs. This was the George W. Bush administration.  And of course, while Hamilton was saying that, there were American industries, especially shipping, that were growing like crazy and doing very well without any subsidies whatsoever, and were overtaking some of the European industries in terms of competition, in terms of global competition. And so they were proving him wrong as he wrote this thing. But this has been a case that has been made to this day. You can still hear examples of this as far as that goes. He made the case for the free rider problem. He articulated a free rider problem to justify government subsidies to build roads and canals, and that was later used to build for railroads. And again, at the same time, private corporations were building thousands of miles of private roads in America in the first decade or two of the 19th century. And while he was making this argument, this was all going on. And he had to know that, I think, anyway. And Hamilton also a part of this was the idea that the government should choose which industries to subsidize and which not to subsidize. Picking winners and losers in the language of gambling, I guess, is what you would call here. And the basic problem that always exists with this is there's a public choice problem, and then there's a knowledge problem to use the language of Hayek, the knowledge problem. Because, of course, how can politicians who have no financial stake in a particular, the growth of a particular industry be relied upon to pick which industries should be subsidized and which should not? It's one thing for investors to put their money behind what they think is a promising new industry because if they guess wrong, they personally lose their money. If they're right, they make a profit. So you've got the incentives in the right place anyway. It doesn't guarantee they're always going to be right, but that's the right incentive. Whereas with government, when you have politicians doing this, if they're wrong, it's no sweat off their back. There's no penalty at all for being wrong because it's not your money. And if you're right, well, you don't really win out and you don't get anything, an exceptional income yourself anyway. If you're right, you just get campaign contributions from the subsidized businesses or industries, and that's about it. And so that's one problem with that. And then the public choice problem, of course, is that if you put politicians in charge of subsidizing what they think are the industries of the future, the industries what will determine how they spend the money is politics. It's how it will earn them the most votes and campaign contributions. And that's not necessarily the same as the industries that will serve the consumer the best as far as that goes. And when I talk about this with students, I ask them if the U.S. government were to start massively subsidizing the computer industry back in the 1970s at the beginning of the computer revolution, you know, there'd be personal computer revolution anyway. And it had some options of who to subsidize. IBM, so you could give money to IBM, that would be a safe place to put money. Choice number two would be the computer company that exists in the Congressional District of the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee. That's another company, or a bunch of bearded long-haired 20-somethings tinkering with computers in Bill Gates' father's garage in California. Who do you think the U.S. Congress would give the subsidies to? These are the people who founded Microsoft in Bill Gates' father's garage. And that money would go to IBM and the company owned by the, that's in cahoots with the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee. And if you want to see something funny, by the way, Google picture of Microsoft founders. You'll see a picture of Bill Gates. It looks like the cast of the movie Revenge of the Nerds. And Bill Gates looks like he's about five years old in the picture. But I use that in a classroom to talk about how competition is always pervasive when people are going and even mighty IBM was toppled by these guys.  It's a funny looking picture. I think it is anyway. Although all of our faculty here probably look just like that at the same time around that time. And so that's a problem, there's always been a problem with that. And if you read the report on manufacturers, one of the interesting aspects about this is that the historians typically say that it was Jefferson who was sort of the economic ignoramus. Hamilton's nemesis. He was in favor of agriculture.  And what does he know about industry? But that's unequivocally untrue. It was Jefferson who was very widely educated in economics. One of the names up here, I don't know if it's in this room or downstairs is Turgo. He's right there. He's right in front of me. Turgo is right there. He was French physiocrats, free market precursors to the Austrian school. And he was the leader of that. He was also the French finance minister. And he was a personal friend of Thomas Jefferson's. If you were to walk into Monticello this afternoon, it's Jefferson's home in Virginia.  He's right there. Jefferson himself put there. And he translated into English his writings, his free market economics writings. Hamilton on the other hand, he knew nothing about his biographer, Ron Cherno, writes that when he got the job as Treasury Secretary, George Washington told him, I didn't know you knew anything about finance. We never talked about finance. And so he read a dictionary. He read a dictionary of economics that Senator Timothy Pickering had given him to sort of learn some of the lingo of economics. And then he wrote a big long letter to the richest man in America, Robert Morris, who hired him as his sort of political plant in the administration of George Washington to help get the Bank of the United States started and things like that. But it was Hamilton who was the ignoramus on economics. And if you read his report on manufacturers, if you read the Wealth of Nations or understood the ideas in Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations published in 1776, there's no evidence of it in there at all because he sort of thought, he had this idea that economic development could not take place unless it was guided by a very visible hand such as his hand. And so he didn't buy into that at all. That's how we can make all these arguments, the infant industry arguments and so forth. And on trade, he was especially bad on trade. That was a third plank of the American system, protectionism, tariffs. And some of the arguments that he makes in this report were that he said that trade barriers, such as high tariffs, will actually cause lower prices to consumers. So we should block off all imports. And he said, because if we do that, then the internal competition will become more intense. The American businesses competing with each other become more intense and prices will fall. Well, that's contrary to all world history for one thing. It's not logical if the competitive pressure is lessened, you're going to have less price cutting and not more. He also made the argument that transportation costs are a waste. Therefore, we should prohibit anything that has to be shipped from England or France or anywhere. Like that if we can make it here, we should only allow imports of things which we cannot grow or make here, like coffee. If we can't grow coffee in America, then we can import coffee. But otherwise, nothing because transportation costs are a waste. And that sort of contradicts the idea that the founders put into place when they advocated the Commerce Clause of the Constitution where they gave the federal government the right to regulate interstate commerce because the history books tell you that one of the things they talked about was they wanted to encourage free trade between the states. But of course, that involves transportation costs. If you ship something from Alabama to Georgia, so should we ban that? It's totally a flat contradiction. Another thing he said, he just ignored the effect on consumers. This was a classic mercantilist polemic, the report on manufacturers, because almost 100% ignores the effects on consumers of the higher prices that would be caused by all of this. And he also advocated a banning, a legal banning of exports of goods that could be used in manufacturing by foreigners. So if the British are making a certain type of textiles in competition with American textile manufacturers or clothing manufacturers, we should not ship cotton to England if they can use the cotton to make textile goods and ship them to the United States, he said. And of course, what that would do is that just American businesses would just lose up to foreign businesses who would ship those things to England that they could use to make these products. It's sort of like the futility of sanctions that we sometimes impose. Or the Cuban embargo, the embargo on Cuba of American traders, whether dozens of other countries around the world are free to trade with Cuba. And so all that does is deprive American businesses and Cuban consumers with things that they could have bought from American businesses. But they can buy the same things or get the same things from other countries. And so these are things, though, that these arguments for protection have been repeated endlessly over the decades. Abraham Lincoln made all the exact same arguments for protection. He was, as I said, he was the political son of Hamilton who carried forth the mantle of the American system and his system in his administration. And he especially repeated many times the argument about transportation costs. We shouldn't allow any imports in because the transportation costs will add a cost to the good. And of course, that's not even necessarily true all the time because of competition. If somebody in another country can produce something 50% cheaper than Americans can, so what? There's a tiny transportation cost involved. They'll sell it cheaper than the American company can over here. And so you go through this and Henry Clay became the carrier of the flame after Hamilton died in a duel with Aaron Burr. I got an applause yesterday when I said that, when Aaron Burr shot him dead and some of those students. And I told the story of Gary North once told me that he once started an Aaron Burr Society and they made baseball caps and it said, not soon enough on the back of the cup.  And so he carried this mantle through. It had no success. President after president vetoed internal improvement subsidies. The Bank of the United States was destroyed and America had pretty much free trade by the eve of the American Civil War. The average tariff rate was 15%, one five in the late 1850s. And that's the closest to free trade the United States ever was in the 19th century right on the eve of the Civil War. And then when the Republicans came in, they immediately increased the average tariff rate from 15% to 45%. And it remained at 45%, 50% or even higher until the income tax was enacted in the year 1913. So the ascendancy of the Republican Party first with Lincoln and then with the whole cast of criminals after him. The protectionism was the trade policy of the United States, very high tariff rates. And so when Lincoln himself decided to run for political office, he made speeches proclaiming that Henry Clay was, he called him the bow ideal of a statesman and he once said that all of his ideas, Lincoln's all of his ideas about politics came from Henry Clay. And here's what he said when he first ran for political office is Abe Lincoln. He said, I presume you all know who I am. I am humble Abraham Lincoln. You know a politician is lying when he calls himself humble, no matter who it is. You also know he's lying when he says this. I'm continuing with the quote, I have been solicited by many friends to become a candidate for the legislature.  I am in favor of a national bank in favor of the internal improvement system and a high protective tariff period. That's what Abraham Lincoln said was his why he was getting into politics. So he was the wig party at the time was the party of the wealthy and the politically connected of the north of New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, the railroad corporations, the banking industry. That was the wig party of the north. There were southern wigs that were somewhat different, but those were the northern wigs and that's who Abe Lincoln hooked in with is connected himself with these people. And a few more aspect quotations here. As to what Henry Clay was all about and Lincoln just slavishly praising Henry Clay and saying, I'm just like him. I want to run for political office to carry forward Henry Clay's agenda, which was Hamilton's agenda. There's a book by Edgar Lee Masters on Lincoln called Lincoln the Man. Edgar Lee Masters was Clarence Darrow's law partner, famous the monkeys, scopes monkey trial monkey case in the 19th early 20th century and which H. L. Lincoln reported on very hilariously. And he was a famous playwright also, but he wrote this about Clay in this book. He said Henry Clay was the champion of that political system, which doles favors to the strong in order to win and keep their adherence to the government. His system offered shelter to devious schemes and corrupt enterprises. He was the beloved son, figuratively speaking of course, of Alexander Hamilton with his corrupt funding schemes, his superstitions concerning the advantage of a public debt and the people taxed to make profits for enterprises that cannot stand alone. His example and his doctrines led to the creation of a party that had no platform to announce because its principles were plunder and nothing else.  Don't announce it if that's what you're about. And so that's what we're into when we get the Hamilton-Clay-Lincoln-American system cemented into place finally during the American Civil War. And we had some trial runs of this in America in the 1830s and 1840s where state governments started funding internal improvements. And this was the first big push in the direction of actually achieving this American system and it turned out to be such a debacle all over the United States that by the time you get to the American Civil War, 1861, every state except for Massachusetts had amended its constitution to prohibit the use of tax dollars to go to any corporation for any reason because they had all had such horrible experiences with money going to corporations to build roads and things. And I'll give you one example. This is Abraham Lincoln's personal secretaries in the White House, George Nicolay and John Hay. After his death they wrote a book about Lincoln and in it they described what happened when Lincoln was the leader of the Whig Party in the Illinois legislature and he got 11 million dollars allocated to build roads and canals in Illinois. He thought they could turn Illinois into New York. He wanted it to be the Empire State of the Midwest. And here's what Nicolay and Hay said. The market was glutted with Illinois bonds, one banker and one broker after another to whose bonds they had been recklessly confided in New York and London failed or made away with the proceeds of the sales. The system had utterly failed. There was nothing to do but repeal it, stop work on the visionary roads and endeavor to invent some means of paying the enormous debt. And they go on to write that not a single road or canal was completed. They spent all that money, some of it was stolen. It was this one big inefficient mess. What else would you expect by giving politicians a pile of money to spend? They're not experts in road building and that's what happened in state after state. And so it became quite the debacle. And Lincoln was personally responsible for this. This was the 1830s, but they never gave up on this. By the time when he gets to 1840, my favorite president in all American history, and Lou Rockwells, William Henry Harrison was elected president, he's our favorite because he died in one month in office after one month in office. He died of pneumonia, so he couldn't have done much damage. So he has to be the best, highly ranked, most highly ranked president. All these rankings of presidents. I don't see how he couldn't be number one in all of them, no matter what. But he died and then a member of the Whig party was vice president, John Tyler. And so Henry Clay thought he was in high cotton as they say down south. They're finally going to ram through protectionist tariffs, a national bank in corporate welfare gone wild. It turns out John Tyler was a Jeffersonian and he vetoed everything.  They burned him in effigy in front of the White House and they had no success. He vetoed everything, protectionist tariffs, corporate welfare, and so forth. And so this is why, by the way, if you read the book, Recarving Rushmore by Ivan Elans. It's a good book that ranks American presidents on the basis of how faithful they were into enforcing the Constitution in a way that would limit government. That's his criterion. It's not who kills the most people and spends the most money. That's the history profession. That's their criterion. And guess who came out number one in the book, Recarving Rushmore? Well, not my favorite, William Henry Harrison, but John Tyler, who of course hardly anyone has ever heard of, but he turned out to be number one. So that didn't go on. But once Lincoln came in and the main opposition was always from the south, southerners, and so once they seceded, well then the cost, if you will, of secession was to America, one of the costs was, well the Republican Party now had a monopoly in the government and they put all this through. The National Currency Acts and the Legal Tender Acts created and nationalized the money supply. The protectionist tariff rate went to 45 or 50% and stayed that way for 60 years and they started massively subsidizing the railroads. And that of course led to one of the most famous cases of political corruption, the Crédit Mabillier scandal of the grant administrations, which is also inevitable. They didn't want to learn anything about this. There was a name of a company, Crédit Mabillier Company. And in my writings, I write about, there was a man named James J. Hill. Has anybody heard of James J. Hill? You've heard of James Hill. You've read my book. Well the government massively subsidized the railroads. This is an interesting story. There's a book called Lincoln and the Railroads. It was written in the early 20th century but reprinted. I have a copy of it and it talks about how in 1857, Abe Lincoln was offered the job of General Counsel of the New York Central Railroad because he was a famous wealthy railroad lobbyist and attorney at the time from representing all the Midwest, Chicago railroad companies. And he turned it down because he had just invested in land in Council Bluffs, Iowa, of all places.  And when he became president, one of the first things he did, even though the war was on, the Battle of First Manassas was being fought, he called Congress back not to discuss the Battle of First Manassas, which his army lost, but to get the Pacific Railroad bill going, to start subsidizing the building of a railroad to California from the American Midwest. That was the priority. After all, he was a railroad lawyer, he was a railroad attorney and a lobbyist. The railroad corporations got him elected along with the banking, the bankers and the manufacturers, the protectionists of the North. That's what politicians do. You get an office, you got to pay back the people who put you there. That's why you're there. And in this law, he made sure that the president got the right to decide where they would start building the Transcontinental Railroad. Anybody want to guess where they started building the Transcontinental Railroad? The Eastern Terminus, Council Bluffs, Iowa. Just, of course, to this day, it's called Lincoln's Hill, that part of Council Bluffs, Iowa. That's why he turned down this big-time job. The General Counsel of the New York Central offered him by a rastus corning. He was apparently made a killing there. If you knew where to go to Springfield, Illinois this afternoon, Abe Lincoln's home and visit his home. It's a museum now. It's on a part of town that's called Old Aristocracy Row. His house is the biggest house in Old Aristocracy Row. Where he lived before he became president. He lived there. So that's what some things never change, do they? It's pretty much the same as today if you look at the Goldman Sachs guy who becomes Treasury Secretary. He lives in the biggest house in Manhattan or wherever, something like that. But James J. Hill in the 1870s built a transcontinental, the Great Northern, without a penny in government aid and proved that it was not necessary. Investors capitalized the whole thing. He paid the Indians for rights of way across their land with livestock, money, whatever they could trade for. He found the shortest route across the country. Whereas the government subsidized railroads was all political. So here you have, I'll draw you on my quick map of the United States or Thanksgiving turkey, one after the other. Let's say they started here. Here's Council Bluffs over there. James J. Hill, you know, he's a capitalist and he has private investors who are investing in this. He has to make money, he has to minimize his costs and maximize his traffic. So he found the shortest route through the Rocky Mountains to the West Coast. Something like that, like that. And he became the most profitable, the most efficiently built and the most profitable railroad, the Great Northern. The government, here's the government railroads, theirs look more like this. Because of the politics of it, because every member of Congress, even the representatives from the territories that were not yet Congress, said you'll get our support but you have to run a line to our town or else no vote from me. And so they had to run all these lines all over the place and go hundreds of miles for maybe one person to ride the train every six months because that's the cost of getting my vote. And then when they built it, you read the book by Burton Folsom on entrepreneurs versus the state. They did things like they built railroad tracks on the top of ice packs in the Rockies in the early winter when it was still not so cold that you couldn't work and they built the tracks. Then springtime came and the ice melted and the tracks would just collapse but that was all good because they had a per mile subsidy from the government. So the more miles of track you build, the more profit you make. And so who cares if the tracks collapse in the spring? It's all good for me. But a real capitalist like James J. Hill would never think of doing anything like that. And so of course this was a later version of the disasters at the state level that I described earlier. They did the same kind of thing. That's the incentives that governments have when you put them in charge of building something. That's what bureaucracies do. And then finally we had the National Currency Acts. And I want to read you a few things about the importance of the National Currency Acts which is the other plank of the American system. I want to read you what some of the advocates of these things were saying. Here's what Senator John Sherman, who was the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee during the Lincoln years, said. He was the brother of General Sherman from Ohio. And when they passed the National Currency Acts, he was praising it. He's saying this. He said our purpose, he says, is quote, to nationalize as much as possible even the currency so as to make men love their country before their states. All private interests, all local interests, all banking interests, the interests of individuals, everything should be subordinate now to the interests of the government. And that's what Senator John Sherman, the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee said was the purpose of nationalizing the money supply in America. A Democrat who was an opponent of this named Lazarus Powell took the opposite position. He's a Kentucky Democrat. And he says this. The result of this course of banking legislation is utterly to destroy all the rights of the states. It is asserting a power which if carried out to its logical result would enable the National Congress to destroy every institution of the states and cause all power to be consolidated and concentrated here in Washington. And so the Republicans would hear that and say, yeah, right on. That's exactly. That's what we want. That's the whole purpose of all of this. And so if you fast forward even further in my book on Hamilton called Hamilton's Curse, one of the chapters is called the Hamiltonian Revolution of 1913 when we got the Fed, the Income Tax and the 17th Amendment at the same time. The 17th Amendment called for the direct election of senators. Well, the importance of the Income Tax and the Fed is that the central government now has unlimited money. If they have a conscription law, when Abe Lincoln was president, they couldn't afford to run down the runaways, the people who went AWOL from the military. They just didn't have the money to hire all the police to go chase them down. But when you have an Income Tax and the ability to print money like a Fed, you can afford anything. If some guy in Iraq leaves the army, you could hunt him down. You could have 100 people to go hunt him down in Iraq, let alone the mountains of Pennsylvania, which is where a lot of the Union Army soldiers hit out after they abandoned the army. And so that's what they're talking about. They understood that the central government would become, have monopolistic power and many orders of magnitude, more power than it previously had if it could get its claws on all that money that a nationalizing the currency would do, even without a Fed or even without a central bank. They were very happy about this. And so that's why I started out talking about this article in Breitbart praising the American system. And if you read the whole article, this was in March of this year. They claimed that it's a bad thing that we abandoned this thing, but I think the opposite is true. When my book on Hamilton came out, my random house was my publisher, and they wrote a great press release. They have really talented people who work for a company like that. And it's very persuasive that Hamilton was sort of the evil genius who's responsible for the crash of oh age. Because after all the Fed, Ben Bernanke himself once called him the founding father of Central Banking in America. And so they brought me on the Morning Joe television show and sat me down next to Patrick J Buchanan. And the first thing Buchanan says to me is Alexander Hamilton is my hero. And so I knew it was going to be a bad day after that. So they pretty much shouted me down. But I did sell books because they put my book on the TV screen and sold some books. And there were four people kind of shouting at me. And I just sat there saying, what's the use? But I had in my mind, I'm going to get the last word. And I did. Right before they went to the commercial, they kind of shut up and they said, OK, let's give them 10 seconds to respond to all this. And all I could think of saying was that at least Aaron Burr had a good reason for shooting someone unlike Dick Cheney. And that was the end. That's the only thing. It's on YouTube as you can look it up. It's kind of a force. But that's all. I guess our time is up. And that's it for now.


Welcome back to the metrology lecture series. Now, we will start module 12 lecture number 8. In this lecture, we will be covering the following topics. We will continue the discussion on the optical system design in which we will be studying lens assembly, measuring and aligning of lenses, cementing and bonding of lenses in which we will cover the manual cementing of lenses as well as automated bonding of lenses and then how to mount the mirrors in the optical systems and then we will discuss about some complex opto-mechanical assemblies and finally, we will be discussing about testing and certification services connected with the metrology. Now, we will start the discussion on lens assembly, we can see here an optical assembly. So, this assembly consists of two play seven lenses, lens 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 lenses. Seven lenses is plano concave lens and lens number 3 is also plano concave lens. Now, lenses 1 to 4, they form sub-assembly number 1. So, I can observe here this is the barrel, it is a split barrel you can see here. So, this portion is sub-assembly number 1, it consists of 4 lenses and you can see the retainer rings and here also we have retainer ring to retain the lens and then between the two retainer rings we have shim plates for adjusting the axial alignment of lenses. Now, sub-assembly number 2 consists of again three lenses, lens number 5, 6 and 7. So, these three lenses are assembled in another split barrel. So, this is the second barrel in which these three lenses are mounted and now you can observe in sub-assembly number 2 we have stray light baffle, interior stray light baffle which will reduce the stray light inside the barrel and since the stray light is reduced the contrast of the image will increase. Now, we can see the sub-assembly number 3 consists of the electronic circuitry these CCDs attached to the mosaic plate that we can observe here and also we can observe focal plane electronic circuit boats. Now, all the three sub-assemblies are assembled using appropriate mechanical fasteners. Now, we will see the measuring and aligning of lenses. Now, when the different lenses are assembled in the barrel, now we have to align them properly so that the optical axis of all the lenses aligned with the barrel axis so that we get a quality image. We can see an assembly of lens here which is properly mounted, aligned and mounted. We can see the barrel body here and we have placed the double convex lens in its seat. Now, we can measure the alignment by rotating the lens we can measure whether there is any wobbling so that for measuring the wobbling we can either use a mechanical measurement system or optical measurement system. A dial indicator is a simple mechanical measuring unit we can use the feeler gauge also for measuring the alignment and wobble. So we should have a rotating lens system normally mounted on the ear bearing so that the out of plane moment is reduced. So we have to slowly rotate the rotating lens system and the measurement system will measure the wobble and if there is any wobble we have to adjust lens saturation either by tilting or shifting the lens as we can see here. We can tilt the lens or we can shift the barrel otherwise we can shift the lens and tilt the barrel for aligning the lenses with the barrel. Once they are aligned we have to apply the polymer and we should fix the lenses in the place. Now, we can see the measurement and alignment of the lenses on the lens rotation device. So this is the barrel mounted on the rotation device which is mounted on ear bearing. So we have to rotate this cell and you can see here now in the first picture the optical axis of the lens C1 C2 the line joining C1 C2 is the optical axis of the lens that we have to determine using the measurement device. And then we have this is the mechanical axis of the barrel now there is some misalignment. So we have to adjust the mount or cell mount is aligned to the optical axis lens we have to tilt the mount so that the axis of the mount coincides with the optical axis and then we have to machine the edge of the mount edge of the mount is machined so that it coincides with the optical axis. Now you can see in the third picture with the optical axis of the lens is coinciding with the mount axis. So this measurement and alignment either we can do manually or we can always use some automatic aligning machines which uses the software for measurement of centering error and for alignment purpose. Now you can see a set of pictures here. So in picture A we have this is the axis of rotation this is the cell and this is the seat for lens and lens is placed the seat and then after proper alignment that is either by shifting the lens or by tilting the lens we have to see that optical axis of the lens coincides with the cell axis and then after adjustment after centering we have to apply the adhesive UV adhesive can be used so that the lens is fixed in its seat. Now the for adjustment we can always use a PGO actuator for tilting and shifting of the lens. So we can then picture C and PGO we can see how the alignment is carried out using the PGO actuator once the lens is centered we have to apply the adhesive so that it is fixed to the cell body. Now we can always use a lens alignment software. So if we use automatic centering and bonding machines it uses a software for measurement of centering error and for adjusting the for eliminating the error for adjusting the lenses. I can see the video display which shows the centering error we can always measure the radius of lens thickness of lens and then we can calculate software will calculate what is the amount of centering error and then alignment is carried out so that centering error becomes zero. Now sometimes two or three lenses are bonded together to make a doublet or triplet. Now we should understand why this bonding of lenses is required. So now we know that chromatic operation is a sort of error that happens in optical system. If we use a single lens as shown here this lens will split the white light into its component colors. We can see here red light is focused at a longer distance from the lens surface and blue light is refracted more and it is focused at a little distance from the lens. So because of this the chromatic operation occurs and the image will not be sharp. So to eliminate this chromatic operation two or three lenses are bonded together and now we can see in this picture two lenses are cemented or bonded together. Now in this case white light it enters the first lens and again they are refracted in the second lens and finally the components different components of white light they are focused at the same focal point and then we get a very sharp image. So to eliminate chromatic operation cementing of lenses is needed. So different adhesives are available in the market polyester, epoxy, acrylate and puritine based adhesives are available, ultraviolet, visible light curable and thermal curing adhesives are also developed for bonding the optical elements. So curing is possible in a few seconds. So the cement should be optically clear with excellent light transmission capability and the shrinkage of the cement should be very-very less in order to prevent stresses in the lenses. Now let us understand the manual cementing of lenses we can see in this picture we have set of lenses, two lenses are there which ought to be cemented and they are placed in a lens holder and then we have an arrangement, a rotation arrangement which rotates the lenses and this rotation arrangement is placed on a bearing for precise rotation of the lenses. The cementing of two to three lenses to a doublet or triplet is a very hard process, time consuming and cumbersome process. It requires an accurate rotation device whose axis serves as a reference axis, a sample or lens holder is needed which must be very accurate and precisely aligned to the reference axis. Now we should align the lens holder until the axis that means we have to place the first lens in the lens holder and we have to rotate the lens holder and we have to align the holder, lens holder until the axis of the bottom lens coincides with the rotation reference axis that means by tilting or shifting of this bottom lens we have to make sure that the axis of first lens coincides with the axis of reference axis and then we have to place the second lens which is to be cemented, before placing we have to apply, we have to apply the cement on the surface of the first lens and it should be spread properly and then the upper lens is placed and again it should be tilted and shifted so that the optical axis of the second lens coincides with the optical axis of first lens and we should see that the combined axis of the doublet coincides with the reference axis so that way we have to manually adjust the lenses, the shifting and tilting of lenses we should make and finally we should we will get a doublet or triplet so this is a very time consuming process and it largely depends on operator skill. Now in order to make the cementing easy and effective automated bonding systems are developed these systems automatic bonding systems accurately measure the position of the center of curvature of the lenses to be cemented relative to a reference rotation axis. So this process takes 1 or 2 seconds and the accurate measurement is possible with sub micron accuracy. The measured data is transferred to an automatic alignment device which is equipped with appropriate lens manipulators such as Bejo actuators. So these you can in the diagram you can see the Bejo actuators. These actuators shift and tilt the lenses so that the optical axis of lenses coincides with rotation axis. The upper lens is aligned to the bottom lens with an accuracy of 1 micron and then cement is applied and then second lens is placed. The doublet axis that means axis of the two lenses is aligned with the reference axis again it takes a few 1 or 2 seconds and they are now let us discuss about automated bonding of lenses. The automated bonding systems accurately measure the positions of the centers of curvature of the lenses relative to a reference rotation axis. So they can measure the positions in 1 or 2 seconds with sub micron accuracy. So in this diagram we can see the arrangement of automated bonding system. The measurement data is transferred to an automatic alignment device equipped with appropriate lens manipulators such as Bejo actuators. So you can see the arrangement here. So the two lenses are placed on a rotation device which is mounted on a bearing. So the lenses are rotated and the optical axis of the lenses are determined and by using these manipulators the lenses are shifted and tilted so that the optical axis of lenses coincide with the rotation reference axis. The alignment of lenses is carried out to an accuracy of 1 micron and cement is applied and cured. The complete cycle including measurement, alignment, bonding and curing takes place in less than 10 seconds. Now I can see a close view of a bonding station with three actuators. We can see here we have one actuator here, the second actuator here and the third actuator here. By using three actuators normally Bejo actuators the lenses can be moved in XY plane and then they can also be tilted so that the axis of lenses coincides with rotation axis. So in this view we can see an arrangement for rotating the lenses. This is the stage, rotating the stage on which the lenses are placed and this is the motor to rotate the rotation device. Now the position of lenses is determined by using electronic auto columnators. So the lenses are rotated through 360 degree once around the reference axis and then center of curvature of lens surfaces are determined with respect to the axis of rotation and these data are transferred to a software. The software will calculate what is the amount of saturation error and signals are sent to the lens manipulators and lenses are adjusted to optical axis cemented and cured. So you can see the arrangement of auto columnator and this is the lens rotation device and this is the lens placed on the lens rotation device and this is the axis of rotation. Also sensors are provided to determine the shift and inclination of cell. So if necessary the cell is also shifted and tilted for aligning the rotation axis or the cell axis with lens axis. So here we can see a lens alignment and cementing station. The alignment of lenses takes as little as four seconds with a centering accuracy of 2 micro meters. Now we will start the discussion on complex optomechanical systems. Optomechanical design is a sub-discipline of optical engineering in which optical elements such as lenses, mirrors and prisms are integrated into mechanical structures such as cells, housings, tosses etc. so has to form an optical instrument. So the designing of optical instrument needs a co-operative efforts from different team members, members from lens designers, optical engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical and electronic engineers and software engineers. The input from the various experts in fabrication, assembly, alignment and testing as well as input from specialists on light sources, detectors, focal plane arrays, electronic systems and distal signal processing is very essential to build an optomechanical instrument. When we want to design an optical instrument we have to consider the manufacturing aspects and design for manufacturing and assembly and design for maintenance of the instrument and also we should consider the ergonomical aspect so that the instrument becomes easy to handle and then we shall also see aesthetic aspects and it should be compact so that it can be made portable. So when we consider all these aspects the system becomes very complex. Now in the case of optical instrument design it starts with a need statement for a particular instrument and it undergoes designing the undergoes with several phases such as feasibility study. So we should see whether it is really economically and practically feasible. We should see the preliminary design in which we fix the broader dimensions and then we should go for the detailed design of individual components. We should plan for production, distribution, consumption and finally we should plan for the retirement of the instrument. So along this way the team should consider the operational and survival environments that is the working conditions such as temperature, humidity, contamination whether there are any chances of vibration shock and is it necessary to seal the instrument so such things one should consider. So knowledge of the cost, projected cost of fabricating the device and how to maintain what is the maintenance cost that also we should consider. What is the total life cycle cost of the instrument we should properly assess and proper choices in instrument configuration, materials and dimensional tolerances are very essential to control the cost of the instrument and then we should always use the intuition and experience with unknowns verified through analysis and testing and team members must make proper decisions in the five basic design categories such as materials aspect, what is the material of optical system, what are the materials used for the structure, mechanical structure and then structural design aspect and then how to mount the lenses, the lens to mount interfaces and then the mountings for prisms and mirrors and how to assemble and how to align the instrument so in these basic areas team membership properly decide. Now we will discuss about the material decisions. So we should select the material based on density because that tends to reduce the total weight of the instrument. We should select the material of barrel and lenses with this weight and then another important thing is we should match the coefficient of thermal expansion of materials used in the mechanical and optical parts to minimize the differential expansion or contraction due to temperature changes. So in this diagram we can see how the lens behaves at different temperatures. At 20 degree centigrade the focal point is at this place and due to the rise in temperature, when the temperature rises to 80 degree centigrade there is deformation of the lens and the focal point moves nearer to the lens. So because of this the image becomes blurred. So the selection of optical materials and mechanical materials is very very important to have clear image at different temperatures and we should heat treat all the metal parts to maximize their dimensional stability and we should always use adhesive and sealants with low outgassing properties for vacuum applications and choosing elastomers is also very important. We should always choose elastomers with minimal coefficient of thermal expansion and low shrinkage during curing because the shrinkage is more that will lead to internal stresses in the lenses. And then the structural design aspect is our important thing in designing the optomechanical systems. The design should be very much stable enough to control the effect of gravity and other external forces such as shocks and thermal effects and then the structure must constrain the optics such that they are not damaged or irreversibly moved when they are exposed to extreme in environment conditions such as extreme temperatures and very high shocks etc. And to minimize the effects of temperature changes we should make this structure to be passively or actively a thermal that means structure should become insensitive to temperature such a design should be used. And we can see here one example of how we can make the structure passive a thermalization. So this diagram shows cell the barrel mechanical structure with lens the top of of the picture is not made passive thermalization that is normal structure. So due to say we can see two working temperatures 20 degree and 80 degree centigrade. So when the temperature rises there is expansion of lenses and structure because that lens moves towards left in the left direction and then image becomes blurred. Now how we can make this passive a thermalization we can see here there is a spacer the length and material of the spacer are so chosen that they attain the system attains the spacer attains thermal expansion equal and opposite to the combined effect of the lenses and housing over the temperature range. Now when the temperature increase you can see the structure the passive a thermalization structure has an external cell and inside there is inner cell and then there is a spacer and the lens is mounted on the inner cell when the temperature rises the spacer expands in the opposite direction. So the spacer pushes the inner cell back to the right position this spacer pushes the inner cell back to the right position. So the effect of thermal expansion or contraction is nullified. So this way we can make the structure passive a thermalization. So this needs extra mechanical complexity that means we have to provide a inner cell and then spacer. So this results in a bigger and heavier and more costly solution than simple mount. Now we should always select a proper lens material for a thermalization that means normally germanium, zinc, selenide and zinc sulphide can be used to maximize performance without excessively tight tolerances or dimensions. We can design a carefully optimized number of mechanical adjustments into the instrument and design structure should have maximum stiffness within the weight and packaging constraints to reduce deflection from external forces such as gravity. And we should always isolate the supported optical components from mechanical response effects under vibration conditions. Proper lens to mount interfaces should be used while assembling lenses in the barrel. For best results we should design the metal reference surfaces to interface with most accurately polished surfaces. We can observe here that this is the optical surface and this is another optical surface which are made more accurately than the rim of the lens. So we should use the optical surface for mounting purpose and provision should be made for pre-loading the lenses. Lenses should be pre-loaded axially for the maximum expected acceleration loads at extreme anticipated temperatures. There are chances that pre-load changes with temperature so this point also should be considered. And always we should avoid over pre-loading since it will cause the contact stress. Lens to mount interfaces should be designed for low axial contact stress and we should use appropriate arrangement for interface of retainer ring with the lens. Conical metal surface can be used to touch convex lens surface tangentially as shown here or we can use convex toroidal interfaces to touch concave lens surface as shown here and we can use flat metal surfaces to interface with flat surface and the lenses as shown in this picture. And mounting of mirrors and prisms is also very important when we design the optical system, optometallic system. Flat pads touching flat surfaces of the optic must be lapped co-planar prior to assembly proper lapping should be made so that contact is good. We should use the hinge type mounds using multiple levers and arrays of pneumatic and hydraulic chargers to support large mirrors. Multiple point support should be used to support the localized portion of the mirrors weight at the support points. We should support larger mirrors at multiple points around their rims and their backs to minimize the gravitational distortion. That means the mirror should be support large mirror should be supported at multiple points on the surface and also support should be given at rims. You can see the different arrangement mounting arrangements for mirrors angle mirror mounts. So we have adjusting screw for adjusting the angle of mirror the gimbal mounting is also possible. Micrometers are provided for finer adjustment of the angle of mirror and here you can see the kinematic mirror mounts. So this is the actuator screw by rotating this the angle of the mirror can be changed. Now this picture shows the hindle mount. Now multiple support points are available. We can see the triangular plates. Each triangular plate has three supporting points. So large mirrors can be supported by using the hindle mount as shown here. You can see a photographic view of the hindle mount. So tetrahedrons are there made of iron to have the lighter structure. So here we can see spring clip mounted flat mirror assembly. You can see the co-planar support pads here. So depending upon the size of the mirror multiple supporting can be made and this is a 45 degree mirror adapter and this is a kinematic mirror mount. So you can see the actuator for adjusting the inclination. We can also have a smart structure to support very big mirrors. So you can see here supporting points. So active damping can be used to support the mirror big mirrors. And we should use appropriate prism holders. You can see the prism mounted on a flat surface and there is a vertical pillar and there is a clamp. We can see the weakened clamp here made of scratch resistant delrin material. So because of this the damage to the prism is prevented using this screw. We can clamp the prism properly and we can also have rotary prism mount which allows smooth manual 360-degree rotation of the prism by operating this rotary device. We can change the inclination. The fifth important design decision is about assembly and alignment of optics inside the mechanical structure. We should clean all the parts, all optical parts and mechanical parts thoroughly and then we should carry out the assembly process in a very clean and dry environment. We should always use approved lubricants and we should apply them very carefully to avoid contamination. And for multiple lens assemblies we should rotate the lenses and make adjustments so that axis of lenses coincides with cell axis. We can always go for a manual lens assembly process or we can use automated alignment stations if necessary. And then the adjustment should be logged after the optics are aligned by means of mechanical clamping or epoxy pinning or laser welding or by soldering so that the position of optics is fixed. So we should seal the optical instruments after the assembly is forward to protect optics from moisture and particulates. We can always purge the instrument with dry nitrogen or helium. Now let us see some complex up-to-mechanical assemblies. So we have optical microscope. The external appearance of the optical microscope is shown here. So we have the mechanical structure, the C-shaped structure which supports all the other optical elements. We have a stage on which a workpiece to be inspected can be placed. We have various screws for adjustment, for focusing of the workpiece. And then we have a turret, objective lens turret. So different objective lenses are provided on the turret. So depending upon the application we can select appropriate objective lens with required magnification. And then we have eyepiece sub-assembly and then there is a camera attachment. So this is photo camera attachment. And then we have another sub-assembly that is light source sub-assembly. We have a light source for surface elimination and we have another light source for contour elimination. Now all these sub-assemblies are carefully aligned and assembled. And then each sub-assembly is mounted on this C-shaped body by taking proper care so that we can have accurate image of the workpiece and we can inspect the workpiece easily. Now we have another optomechanical assembly here. This is a power focaling microscopic objective. Now power focaling, it refers to the objectives that can be changed with minimal or no refocusing. Now power focaling objectives allows us to adjust each objective lens to remain in relative focus with other objective lenses when switching from one magnification to the other magnification. We can see here we have a turret assembly on which multiple objective sub-assemblies are mounted. So if we have power focaling microscopic objective, so when we change the objective to get a different magnification, we do not have to do the refocusing. Here we can see a very complex nature of the mechanical structure. We have the knurled surface on the structure that we can see here this is knurled surface. And then we have the main barrel in which lens assembly is mounted. And then we have power focality adjustment sleeve. By adjusting this sleeve we can make the objective power focaling. And then we can see the lens assembly here we have doublets and we have another doublet and we have connex surface lens here. And then we have a centering screw for coma removal in the assembly by operating this we can remove the coma. And then we have a spacer here. So this spacer is selected to remove spherical aberration in the assembly that means properly spacer is chosen to remove aberration. And then we can see a power focality lock nut after adjusting the sleeve to have proper focusing. This lock nut is used to lock the sleeve in its position. Now alignment accuracy of this objective is 5 micron and then 5 micron alignment accuracy is possible. Now we have another eyepiece of a military telescope. We can see the cemented lenses lens doublets lens doublets all the three are lens doublets. They are properly aligned optical axes are aligned and then they are cemented and then they are placed in the mechanical structure. The unique feature of this design is use of rubber bellow that is static and dynamic seal is accomplished with a rubber bellow here and the tube is sealed to prevent air entry. So in this precision optical assembly we can see precision lens mounting. You can see the arrangement how the lenses are mounted and the mounting of precisely machined lenses in the lens mounts. And then we can also see the electrical drives for making adjustment in optical elements and mechanical elements. And in this we can see lithography projection lens system. We can see very complex nature of the lens assembly. Some lenses are cemented and some individual lenses are mounted in the mechanical structure. We can see the planocon base, planocon cave and other types of lenses properly aligned axially as well as radially. We can make the electronic circuits with very precise features and features sizes of as small as 250 nanometers can be made with this lithography projection lens assembly. And we have another important system here. This is extreme ultraviolet lithography system EUV lithography system. So this lithography system is an advanced technology for making microprocessors a hundred times more powerful. So this system helps to develop a microchip with etched circuit lines smaller than 0.1 micrometer in width. In other manufacturing methods line widths of greater than 180 nanometers are possible. Whereas in this system the circuit line width can be as low as 100 nanometer or even lesser than 100 nanometer. You can see here in these pictures we have lines, circuit lines which are smaller than 100 nanometer. Here it is 31 nanometer, 29 nanometer line width, 28 nanometer line widths are possible with this sophisticated system. A microprocessor made with this technology is a hundred times more powerful than microprocessor made by other methods. Memory chips would be able to store 1000 times more information if they are made by this technology. We can see a very complex nature of optomechanical system here. Now let us discuss on testing and certification services. Many organizations are available throughout the world offering testing and certification services related to metrology. They test the various components precision components traceable to NIST standards and they are also offering the calibration services. They calibrate various metrological instruments according to international standards and they shoot calibration certificates. So one such organization is JIGO testing and JIGO Corporation offering testing and certification services. Throughout the world they have many centers with testing facilities. JIGO Corporation specializes in optical metrological systems. JIGO's metrology systems are based on optical interferometry measuring displacement, surface figure and optical wave friendly. State of the art equipment for testing the following parameters are available with JIGO. Roughness measurement of precision surfaces, air bearing surface geometry of magnetic heads, optical components and systems such as flats, spears and prisms can be tested. Reflective and anti-reflective coating facility and testing facility, surface angle measurement and an absolute calibration of spears and flats as well as large aperture planar surfaces is possible with the testing facility available with JIGO. Now here we can see JIGO's 3D optical surface profiler. They have different facilities, 3D optical surface measurement facility based on white light interferometer systems offering the fast non-contact high precision 3D metrology of surface features. So different surface profilers are produced and used by JIGO for testing purpose with different configurations like bench type configuration, workstation configuration and portable configuration. These profilers have surface topography repeatability of 3.5 nanometers and 0.15 nanometers and 0.018 nanometers such a fine repeatability these instruments have and they have XY stage automated XY stage fixed to the profilers and then vertical scan speed varies from 15 micrometer per second up to 96 micrometer per second. Based on the customer's application demands, testing and calibration services are offered selecting appropriate profilers. All these profilers are non-contact profilers. So these profilers can be directly mounted on work pieces. Since they use non-contact technology there is no risk of heart damage. Operation in virtually any environment without the need for vibration isolation is possible. Another important organization offering testing and certification services is Central Manufacturing Technology Institute situated at McEluru. The metrology laboratory attached to CMTI is accredited by the National Accreditation Board for Laboratories and is equipped with precision calibrating equipment in precisely controlled environmental conditions. Services offered by this laboratory are mentioned here. Calibration of gauges and measuring instruments with traceability to international standards and then dimensional form and surface finish measurements of components. Supply of high precision grade granite surface plates and straight edges. Calibration and supply of reference masters like precision spears, roughness masters and master cylinders. The CMTI has very good nanometrology facilities. They have con focal microscopy for 3D imaging and surface topology studies. They have flatness interferometer which can be used for calibration of optical flats and measurement of radius of curvature of optical lenses. A ultra precision coordinate measuring machine is available with CMTI which can be used for dimensional measurements of very complex micro components and also for tactile and optical proving system. A gauge block interferometry is also available with CMTI which can be used for calibration of slip gauges to accuracy of 20 nanometers. CMTI has an optical profiler which can be used to study the dynamic behavior of MEMS devices and to study the surface measuring surface roughness at nanoscale study of coating film thickness and study of wear on inserts. They have plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition system which can be used to deposit thin films of carbon nanotubes and graphene on surfaces and for the application of coatings for tool inserts. And then they have very good characterization facilities such as spectroscopic ellipsometer which can be used to measure the coating thickness in the range of 1 nanometer to 10 micrometer and it can be used to measure the refractive index of the coated surface and then there is a Raman microscope which can be used for identification of materials and phases. Field emission scanning electron microscopy is also available with CMTI with a resolution of 1.1 nanometer and this can be used for high resolution imaging and microstructural studies. Atomic force microscope is also available which can be used for surface morphological studies and to measure the electric and magnetic properties of materials and for the measurement of surface roughness at nanoscale. X-ray diffractometer is also available which can be used for identification of material, identification of structure of material and for measurement of residual stresses. Nano indenter is also available which can be used to measure the fracture toughness, friction coefficient, Young's modulus of materials, hardness of materials, crack propagation and thin film testing. Now let us summarize the module 12 lecture number 8. In this lecture we discussed about lens assembly, measuring and aligning of lenses in optical systems, cementing and bonding of lenses, automated bonding of lenses and then how to move mirror in optomechanical systems and then we discussed about some of the complex optomechanical assemblies like lithography systems and then we also discussed about testing and certification services offered by many organizations throughout the world related to the metrology. With this we will stop this lecture. Thank you.