have been working together and we have seen that some of the difficulties or the goals were the same and others were different so my part of the project was to take from this pool of qualitative interviews that we have done all together and focus on the construction of the body on dating apps and also the effects that these might have on the body image of the users when I arrived to the project I came in a bit later I asked to have gay men also in the sample so we could compare not only the presentation of men and women but also within men that we could compare gay men and heterosexual men why? Because research in body image shows that gay men have much lower body image than straight men and the levels of gay men the levels of dissatisfaction the levels of preoccupation and worries about their body were closely to the level were close to the levels of women which traditionally in body image research in the 90s for example research was focused on women because of their particularities because the beauty cannons of our society because all of the pressures that those beauty cannons have put on women they had always lower satisfaction and lower body image when I found through reading articles that gay men were similar in levels of body image to women and not to straight men then I thought that this was going to be my research that I wanted to dig more into that so I wanted to see how male users constructed and self presented their image on dating apps but also how the images on dating apps were having an effect on their body image so we asked all 40 men both straight and gay women in body in case you don't know in body image the areas of concern in our body for men and women are different the three big areas that we have seen in research for men are muscularity and then height and then weight so we asked directly about those three to all the men but also we asked about the pictures of men and women and also about the process of choosing their own pictures for their profile if they were hiding any parts of the body if they were showing off other parts of the body etc so this is more or less my objectives or my goals and we can discuss a bit of the results later but I'm going to let them speak too so in the same line I didn't use the pool of interviews I went to the content analysis of the profile pictures of 200 profiles we selected 100 profiles of straight men on Tinder and another 100 profiles of gay men on Tinder so we created two fake profiles one of a woman looking for men and another one of men looking for other men we explore exactly very similar to Arnau's study but in this case it was more a quantitative study rather than a qualitative study we were trying to explore which were the strategies of self presentation of these men of the straight ones and the gay ones in their profile apps and we were also trying to compare both strategies we were rather looking for body image concerns in this case detected in the literature that the three main concerns on men in our case were very different but were varying from straight men to gay men straight men are more worried about height they really are concerned about being higher or taller than women and women are also looking for men who are taller than themselves and the height was something that we were clearly looking as a defined factor on their profiles weight could be another one also on muscularity we could find it out on the visual images that we were analyzing in the gay profiles again these three but we were wondering which kind of masculinity we were gonna find when we were looking for or analyzing those profiles in this case we were also paying attention close attention to the actions that they were developing during those profile pictures because we thought that maybe there were some cultural factors that were defining these both sexualities and these two ways of self presentation as a strategy to meet their desire one for example one of our hypothesis where was that straight men were gonna include some kind of pictures doing sports but not any sports some sports for example related to climb to the mountain to risk sports things like that outdoor sports mainly yeah on the other side we thought that maybe our hypothesis was that more gym close sports pictures could appear in the gay profiles we also were comparing how do they portray muscularity that was something that we were really wondering because as far as we know and in the literature as far as we have read the portrayal of hegemonic masculinity is very connected very close connected to muscularity showing off muscular so that was also one of our most important variables what else do I want to tell you well findings maybe we we come back later not to compare a little bit what we found no and if it's in line with each other I actually wanted to jump in on something that you said because the most validated scale for body image in men includes those three things muscularity, height and weight seems to be a bit heterocentric after doing our research because for example height it's not something that worries gay men a lot they don't have to be taller or lower than their partner in a gay relationship there's always going to be one that is tall and one that is shorter doesn't have to go in a certain way or else it doesn't work so very short users express concern like I wish I was higher but it was not a requirement whereas straight users are very concerned this is something that they put on their profile this is something that they take into account when taking a picture and they say that women filter the profiles that they see through age and height so if you are not a certain height you won't even appear to women that are as tall as you for example which to me shows that those quantitative scales in body image are very much for the mainstream public but maybe sometimes obscure or forget the particularities of minority men on the other side the last variable sorry before you summarize your research Rafa thank you was class or economic status economic status appear to be a very important variable on the pictures and the analysis of the profiles we saw it wasn't only a variable that appear distinguishing one profile or another but rather I think it became a factor to choose partners so we really think we discuss in between us how to codify the pictures the profile pictures and for example something very obvious for us where Luxury cars boats automobiles many many of the transportations were showing like for example driving their own boats driving Ferraris or really expensive cars maybe those cars weren't them but we also codify the type of dress they were wearing if they were showing brands brands like really that we know no brands we were trying to find a sign that they were showing of a status to the image the status so that was one of the variables we really pay attention to because well in the conclusion then we will discuss that for us Tinder is how did we define it like social social net that takes into account that too much people actually it's something that is a network that doesn't that match us throughout our status like it helps it's based the algorithm somehow to match that variable so it's not just random and I want to keep the conversation going because no no no but it's perfect and if anyone has a question like we we actually wanted to make you come closer and kind of more like hippie style why don't you let me introduce my I would have the three researchers and then we can open this absolutely sorry I didn't express myself properly I wanted to say that the theory of the social schemas that exactly explains this phenomenon because it defines these platforms like socio-economical divide and it proves this hypothesis let me just introduce the third research the third research is slightly different from the two previous ones because it focuses on one specific user's profile which has to do with the kind of relationships that they have in this case we have focus on open relationships so our main purpose of the study was to explore a little bit or understand this connection between the use of the dating apps and how they manage their open relationships with questions like how they use the apps how they manage their visibility or how they present themselves in the apps how they express the use of these apps with their partners with their main partners or to other people outside of the couple and also how they make it visible that they have a partner when they are having a conversation with a third person we have also explored the age variable comparing younger users with older users to see if there were differences between those two groups of users and it has been based on the interviews as well it's a qualitative research and I think that's enough for the moment and then we will start to explore different variables and different topics sorry I didn't mention we focus on gay couples exclusively our participants were male adults younger and older adults homosexual gay people and with the requisite that we will be currently in an open relationship users of the dating apps it actually would have been I think when we were talking about the sample it would have been much more difficult to find so many open non monogamous relationships among heterosexual users which is not such a common thing plus one of the things that I found in the interviews is how important the affordances of the apps were which I knew but maybe I didn't realize how much that was going to impact the different ways of using the apps so for example on gay apps you have the option of establishing open relationship and in some of them to differentiate between open relationship and polyamorous relationship it's gotten very sophisticated and it's included in the options that you can show on the app whereas I doubt that the heterosexual dating apps or the dating apps that the heterosexual publics use have those incorporated already in the app you can for sure write it on your text but it's not like the app already knows that that's going to happen I wanted to go to Pila's question how do you find the markers of class in the profile and I think what's curious in this table or listening to what Olaz was saying is the wonders of mix methods right she's looking for markers of social status on the profiles whereas I never asked about social status or class and it appears constantly and repeatedly on the interviews so one of the things that we find in the body image study is that older heterosexual men feel more comfortable with their body because on dating apps because they don't use their body to find partners and they explained oh no I don't show I don't take my shirt off I show my car I show my trip to Bahamas I have never far away island that it's easily recognizable as an exotic place to go or I talk in my description about my job if they have if they are doctors or they are entrepreneurs for example so without asking about that and asking about their body they explained to you that I'm not really concerned about the body because I use these other things in my profile to attract possible partners and they all tell us that they do that because women don't like men who show off their body so much they see men showing their muscularity and shirtless men as whether young that's what young users do or as people that are trying to match with a certain type of women that also is very fit and has a very canonical body and they see them like as a separate pool of possible matches like I would never match with one of those people and they are looking for each other right so in my status what I show is my car markers of class let me connect it to the because it's interesting because in your case the goal of the connection is to find a long-term relationship where in my research which is focused on the open relationships the final goal is to have a sexual encounter so this idea is totally different because the exposure of the body is very relevant in this case because the final goal is to have sex so they don't care about the tree, they don't care about the status they don't care about the body which is very interesting and it allows us to compare in terms of where is your final goal to have a long-term relationship a short one night stand and this is having an effect on the way they present themselves in the dating apps in our case was exactly the same as you we saw and connecting with the idea that Carlos explained before the more aspects you disclose about yourself in a profile the closer you get into a relationship it's like you are opening a part of your life the more you describe your profile the more you disclose about yourself the more you share your life the more you are looking for a long-term relationship in terms of establishing a long-term contact with someone we found that the greatest number of our profiles were very detailed described they had one word like I love Shushi or things like that okay they didn't go into detail at all but they rather took the time to put at least 3-4-5 pictures in which they could describe their body what they like to do in terms of sports but branding their body more than branding their lives so in this case we also agree with Rafa's study more than with our nausea strategy or what he found in body image but it's true that there is not a variable that came out here that is young and old people I have to say that I was talking about heterosexual users when I go to gay users nudity, objectification showing the body it becomes a completely different game not only because the app allows you to share nudes and sexy pictures unlike Tinder where they have to go to WhatsApp or Instagram to do the sexting part it is already in the app but the users report that it's not only in the app that it's part of this gay culture there's a lot of mention to the gay culture and the gay world and how much pressure on the body of the users and on sexualizing yourself those spaces and communities have there is also something interesting in what you say which is the different use of the apps because according to these results they were expressing how they were using Tinder at the beginning when they were trying to find their main couple long term relationship and they were using it in a different way and then when they already have a couple to open the relationship to have other sexual partners they were closing the Tinder app because that was for the long term relationships and then they were moving to Grindr to find sexual encounters so it's more sexual explicit it's more practices of the sexting in fact this idea of the sexting is very interesting as well in this recess because they were including this sexting thing the the routines that they have to to what to say as a step before meeting the person I mean sexting as a part of I don't remember if it was you Carlos that you were explaining the steps in the conversation so they jump directly to the last part of the they avoid all the steps because the final goal is to find I mean they have very clear in their minds what is their goal and sex so they jump all the steps to the it's not only that they jump they feel pressured to get there in order to get the date a lot of them comment on I have to send my naked picture if I want to get the date so it's kind of a felt like a requirement on their body mm-hmm and of course the relationship do you see much resistance to that in people who talk about the beauty of the apps trying to break the claim so they find you have to do something you don't there's a lot of research and I'm sure people like to learn from them is this that I am I was wondering if you have any questions about sexual behavior? There was one issue that we had in mind, this binary... Were you my reviewer? The article that we sent, it actually got rejected, and one of the comments was that the sexuality was very binary. No, no, but it's a huge question. For us, it was a matter of sampling. When we were deciding the sample, one of the things that we decided is that they needed to identify as heterosexual or gay. So we did not give them the chance to be somewhere in between. People that were bisexual, for example, were not interviewed. So we haven't seen those nuances because we didn't let them in. It was a matter of being practical with our sample and being able to use the same sample for different projects and extracting different things from the interview. So we were very strategic. But it's true that probably if we let people define themselves, all these terms become a lot more blurry. For example, in body image research, we see more and more these men having sex with men, for example, which is a much better indicator to identify than gay because it opens up the door to people who don't identify as gay, but they use grinder, which is what we're looking for, right?  That's their job, but they don't identify. So they didn't reach that particular audience and, of course, for HIV projects, they wanted to reach the ones that actually were having more contact and more dangerous sex, for example. So they had to change the terminology to men who have sex with men. So we could have gone in that direction, but it's a matter of sampling. So if we further the research, I would certainly like to see how, for example, non-binary people or bisexual men feel, and if this compares to gay men or not in the apps, because we coexist. Clearly, clearly. Especially when we are doing a research on masculinities. I mean, that is the key concept. And when we go to literature and we review the literature, there is no single article that doesn't have other non-binary identities into account when describing masculinity, because the nuances of the masculinity definition are there. Just to finish one question. You are talking about the use we did about this binary system. It was because a strategy to do the sampling, but it's also part of the dating apps. I mean, the dating apps also define the profiles according to this binary system. So we were also using... Ah, you have said, okay, sorry. The way you are allowed to... Tinder is more strict on this.  You had a question, Pile? I'm not in a position. It has a privilege, not to use the word as such, but as if they have economic capital, they have cultural capital, but they don't need... Nobody. To use. To establish a relationship with a woman. In this case, I want to focus on masculinity. I should get in touch, but I should come back because masculinity is shown in the case of homosexuality or in a sexuality position. And instead, it's last week, I have no time to read, but I know that you have to publish a book that is useful to you, link order and social policies that have published many of my and must go in this and the neoliberal project, which is central in this. Now, this is a new trend between Barbara, Elon Musk, and this is a new trend that I have to appeal in the social media with a strong muscularity. Not sexual muscularity, but a strong muscularity to a goal in the image that men were soft and not interested in their bodies. So I think it's probably interesting to compare that now they have capital, cultural capital, and strong models of their bodies and it could be different from young, heterosexual, gay presentations. I'm not sure... You already found it. We can see José María Adnar, for example, here in Spain, José María Adnar, he got ripped, the ex-president of Spain. He got ripped and he started to appear in magazines with six-pack and... Yeah, and he was tiny, skinny, old, ugly, you know? Yeah, he was always kind of hot. Totally. It has to do with the demonic muscularity, of course. Which connects with another variable that we need to discuss, that is power relationships. And the call for papers for tonight, midnight, youth dating apps and power relationships. And that's here where it connects with the call for papers. Yeah, and probably the best finding or the finding that we like the most about the body image research in Pilar.  And we found the term homo-masculinity.  So in the research in mobile dating apps, they're saying that it's kind of a compensation for masking. They call the process of masking, of presenting as very masculine and demanding of their partners to be more masculine. And there's this issue of demand. What we found, and I'm getting to the great finding, I think, is that while gay men feel this absolute pressure to conform to certain ideal of body, they also feel great pressure to not become old because youth is a variable that crosses here. So we see that young gay users, despite all the pressure, they report feeling much better with their bodies and having many more options whereas the older users, gay users, are very depressed with their bodies. They are feeling super bad. The levels of satisfaction with their body that they report are awful. They say that young users ask them for money, but not on the app, like during the date. So in a sneaky way, they get stolen. They get stolen. They get discarded for their age.  When we look at the straight or the heterosexual group, the opposite happens. Young users talk about their body and are concerned about their body and hide parts of their body in their profiles and they tell you, I don't like this. I don't like that. I don't like my height. I don't like my muscularity. Oh, I will never post a picture of myself without the t-shirt. They also minimize the importance of those pictures and we have read that it's a way of avoiding failure in other research because they say, oh, yeah, pictures. Oh, I don't know. I chose some from Instagram. So they play it very casual and when you get to the older heterosexual men, they are very fine with their body because they have that status, which I think it links with the privilege to, but it's very interesting to see how they go the opposite way, right? The older you get, the more confident or the less confident, depending on your sexuality. Could be.   Yeah, that's for sure. They call it to the back. I agree, but I agree partially, Pilar, because I think one of the central points in this process of power and the gaze is not only what's valuable to me is who is looking at me. And women don't sexualize heterosexual men in the same way that gay men sexualize each other. So the fact that some feel better with their body it's also because they don't compare with each other and they don't feel the male gaze.  Women don't want me to show off this or that.  Yeah, totally. But it's heterosexual.  I agree. In the straight, in the straight, straight masculine, it is the future. I agree. I think first of all, I wanted to say something. I think first of all, I wanted to say something. It is about it. It is about it. It's a performance about the stereotypes with gay people and it talks about secure masculinity, which is very, like, a lot with what you're doing, saying, you're used to Rubik's. So you want to share with the character. Yes, please. In the end, apparently for me, when it comes to dimension, at least, there's always this aware of what it means to be masculine, even though you're not masculine at all.  So if it helps to you, I can share with you. I mean, it's not going to make it to the article that we have to turn today, but for real. But it's interesting. But it's true that we were discussing about security, no? Yeah. Either older users are more secure proof or show more security on the profiles than younger users. But then also, when you think about the meaning, I understand it, it's not just that you are saying this, you're also at the same time sustaining this performance with this character. Sure. It's a double meaning. Mm-hmm. That's why we talk about performing masculine anything, no? That is a good interaction. Dialogue. Yeah. I actually wanted to know, because I haven't been there for Dr. Bararra's presentation, but since it came up, the thing about, in the interviews, it comes up a lot that the way how you present in the dating app is signaling other people the type of encounter you want to have.  And I know that your research touches very much on that. So I don't know if what we were talking about resonated with because I have missed your presentations and the idea of asking the alpias. Okay. So the point of in that study of what it would be for is it is possible to find long-term relationship in apps like in the city of Rostavito. Rostavito. It's also with the idea that the social image of those apps is that they are only produced in natural sex. Okay. So the good form is that people that are used to dating apps are equally open to long-term relationships. And as an expert would you say that if you look at the way that people present on their profiles maybe we can see like more investment into long-term relationship. Like for example the text they use or the pictures they use could that signal different Everything is important. Yeah. On dating apps they even doesn't include a single photo a single pic about themselves. You can and the problem you could do in that kind of things is conditional probably on your sexual orientation and also conditional on your final goals. If you are specific of going or aspiring to a long-term relationship a problem this kind of photos or those kind of profiles would be better received in a heterosexual or in a heterosexual name in comparison with a heterosexual name. As you have said this kind of you are the expert on that in this apps everything is informative sometimes I don't in a book even the lack between what you write the other or the other person responds everything is important silence absolutely absolutely In relation with the idea of muscularity one of the states that was most used in the era of internalization of the standards of belief expectations is a lack of interest around versions and in the third version the authors decided to use a dimension about muscularity because they saw that there was a growing trend about muscularity because before that the idea of internalization of the standards was made as you said for views for woman ideas ago we are trying to forget the name and the trend of men's muscularity and we saw that research not only on dating apps but on all media and it looks horrible for gay men because all the media directed to gay men have impossible canonical bodies that add pressure and we read that but then when you read the interviews without asking about that it also comes up very often right when you go to a circuit party and you see who is in the poster or who is in the flyer that they give you so it's in the app they are in a grid of users so this was another of the differences that we saw heterosexual men on Tinder they say do you want to see other men and they're like nope only women so they only see women and swipe left swipe right they don't have to confront their body and compare it with another man's body gay dating apps have a grid of bodies of little squares you see all of them some of them include you as the first one on the grid because you are the one that is closest to yourself in that moment so you can even see yourself as part of the grid and check your own profile so the way that the app is constructed is already comparing men with other men and they were saying in the apps I see all those spectacular bodies because those who have the investment on their bodies they're going to show their body on the app because that's their sexual capital and then I go to the street and I go to a party and I see those bodies on the posters and I open a gay magazine and I see those bodies and I watch the new Netflix whatever and I see those bodies so it looks like the only way of existing as a gay person is accommodating to those very muscular bodies according to our interviews they feel sometimes surrounded by the future and now this has to do with the concept what was the concept homo-masculinity homo-masculinity has to do with this idea of how the gay culture or gay users have adopted the traditional and hegemonic masculinities into the way they present themselves so even if they are gay people and they are looking for gay people they have adopted those traditional stereotypes and roles within their community and also into their desire and the way they present themselves to attract partners the the gay yes the male gay absolutely there's one article called the gay male gays that we read for the article that it's really which proves that there is a mirror to explore the difference between the gay culture present in this topic that is less gay yeah totally absolutely research it was once I don't know I went that women expect from themselves the slimmer body have higher pressure about the body that should be the day to get in comparison with what men prefer mm-hmm mm-hmm but expect mm-hmm so for me the question is in the age of gay men you have asked how you feel about your body yes what is impact people really expecting to find environment you really want to be such a bushular person what is the that that's a very interesting question and we we ask them about other users and how they what they seek in other users and how those other users make them feel mm-hmm one of the things that came up which is kind of funny but not funny at all mm-hmm I think it's very good for future research is mm-hmm those users say okay yeah those bodies are great right so in the interviews you can see how they protect themselves when they start talking about because they are desirable and they admit yeah I love muscular bodies but and then this bot leads to different comments one they are like a cult they spend so many hours in the gym they don't have a life I would not want to invest that many hours so protection so yeah they claim to be healthy but they are taking drugs steroids they're they're getting injections they're getting protein they're so they're modifying their body with maybe not so healthy products so these healthy and healthy I think it's a very good future research third they say they are superficial they are dumb this is what appears also in straight men they tell us it's something but we have seen it in gay men so when we ask okay so do you like muscular guys they say yes but it's very often hedged with a bot let me put some distance here I think my hypothesis when I read that is they know that it's very superficial to just like somebody because of their body but at the same time there's this tension of I feel attracted to the thing that counts but it kind of is so they try to protect themselves and distance themselves from that thinking it's a hate law reaction and now it's interesting because you were explaining this idea of the superficiality as a negative element but in the case of my research they were using it as a positive issue as a positive thing in the terms that they are eliminating from this fleeting process all the all the steps all the elements that are superfluous are not are irrelevant to their final goal or the final aim which is sexual intercourse sexual intercourse so they were finding this superficiality as a as a as a positive element in this sense which is interesting as well understand sexuality not desire what do you think about that about what desire to just to satisfy my own yeah very much totally totally I'm a consumer consumerist I don't want to invest in this the thing I don't want to invest in time exactly but you know why because in this case within this particular profile of users which is gay male users having an open relationship of course they have necessities in the sense of sentimental necessities or what to say emotional emotional necessities but they are covered by the main couple so they are this part is already covered so they use the other necessities I mean they use the apps to cover the other necessities which is just sexual necessity so this is something that they also mentioned how we don't need to flirt we don't need to establish a small talk a small talk or a social relation with the other one because I don't need that I already have that with my main partner yeah but I understand what Pilar is saying but I think there is a common playground that is the market dating apps are created as exactly the things where people go to consume you are consuming the other people but the other person is also consuming you so this is it's a consumer logic and this is something that both parts agree within this agreement or relationship that they are having so it's kind of mutual and it links with what Vitor was explaining from your article the way that these men by un-choosing instead of rejecting they are saying oh it's my choice right it's something that I do it's nothing against you so I don't have responsibility towards your feelings or your emotions and I feel it's a cup out in this case too no I have my emotional needs covered so I'm being very honest I'm not here for the emotional part I just want sex so if you have emotions that's your thing because I already told you that I only want sex did we have a hand? yes no no come on just thinking about the second phase you did say we were talking about research and we focused on the exchange of pictures because as a woman I have made no research just my own research with friends and it's like do you as girls do you ask for pictures you never ask for a picture of that you mean a sexual picture or sexual pictures or a part of the ones in the profile again when we go upon the conversation it's something that you have touched on I myself make that association because that's the reason why I just so I was wondering if you have touched on what happened to you actually we haven't elaborate on this topic but in the first results of the part of the interviews that we're researching mainly on sexting on the ads we saw this phenomenon phenomenon called sex spreading which is exactly this not the fear of people exchanging pictures and then those pictures being spread away of that arrangement in between two people so that was a risk of doing sexting and obviously a preoccupation like a worry for people who used to take playing to these practices whether if you ask whether it is extended or normal to ask for more pictures I don't know in the gay world in the results of body image we didn't consider we have those questions in the interview and there's a sexting article coming up also and they talk specifically about that I've been really immersed in the interviews and I can I remember the interviews where they talk about again affordances like for example WhatsApp Snapchat Instagram allow you to send a picture that disappears so a lot of those users were saying I go to those other networks because I can share pictures but also because it's a safe way of sharing them so it's kind of like finding ways of coping with that mechanism but we were not bringing it together with body image issues which now that you mention it sounds very interesting super interesting no because she's just putting on the table one of the biggest fears especially on women because all these not on gay men all this idea of of of sexualization of of of of of sexualization of of sexualization of in gay men and straight men I haven't really read the interviews that we have with women because my project was focused on masculinity so I'm not very familiar with the data but comparison between straight men and gay men straight men still fear the pictures gay men are like I have pictures but I also have an album and like the second version of the album and I can open it to other users and they can see all the pictures at once but that's directly linked also to the app. Grinder lets you compose your album, you can open it and one day you can say close it to everyone and it closes back. Scruff which is another very popular app for gay men doesn't allow anyone to take captures of your picture it's it's locked you can't do it with your phone the only way is taking another phone and taking a picture of the phone but which could work yes it loses quality and also you have to really want to capture that picture and also you have five seconds right so quick so the gay apps I think are in the know that a lot of sexy pictures are going on they have a lot of moderation of pictures but they also offer possibilities for being safer in sharing those pictures that concept of being so extended yeah make it less desired to be censored no and self-censored I don't know which is the key concept here but I think it's so extended that sex spreading is not a problem for they also develop ways of protecting those even even if the apps have created the those affordances to protect the users but I'm sure they also exactly they also create their own ways of protecting the sex taking pictures only of body parts which are not identifiable you could not identify the person yes maybe I don't know that the one they say is no face no I have pictures of my face so these are ways exactly they are never the same picture so I can send one they are separated so you are creating ways to protect your identity when you want to do 16 or what is the word could be nice intersection to attention to in straight users the thing is that men don't show fear because they are not asked for this type of pictures and we need to think that men straight men on apps have a power privilege I mean they are on I thought about how to protect exactly they don't let you know let you share if you want to share pictures you need to go to an opera you don't even have the affordance no you start the content and then you move to a different they force you they force you yeah I agree it's not a very good way of protecting people neither I agree that is not the best more efficient way of protecting pictures yeah but I I kind of understand that we were looking for that patriarchal technology no theory that is true but they also I ask myself why a straight apps or a terrible apps haven't in my opinion developed so many mechanisms to protect identity as the ones you are describing yeah but I think that's a measure of harassment against harassment it's not a measure against sex spreading spreading pictures you know here we are talking about image capture yeah sorry one Ramon maybe yeah it's a good hypothesis yeah makes sense that it has to do with age because it's younger users the ones that say oh I go to what's up to send pictures or I go to Instagram in covid there is another element that we're not taking into account I was in Morocco recently there all the profiles there were without a picture and they were using this afford us that sending this picture which is just five seconds to show their identity this is a way to protect themselves because of gender because of the country is illegal to be so this is also a way to protect a minority which is us exactly super interesting this at the same time you start seeing in some profiles people that say no disappearing pictures yeah if you don't have a picture and you send me a disappearing picture I don't trust you there's something wrong with you because I want you to be out and I want you to show your face and I want to remember who you are among my conversations so that could be also a new trend to look at well I think we need to start closing the table yeah it's I was gonna say it's almost four so if we want to have a break Carlos what do you think the schedule said until four and a break from four to four fifteen thank you so much for collaborating in our discussions this is better than we had in my good afternoon so my talk will deal with social differentiation the use in the management of Tinder chat conversations so so it will go back maybe to some of the earlier talks and interaction so so I've got to focus as Carlos and Elizabeth and and and will about this chat conversations in the use of Tinder which I think have been less studied than profile design and selection somehow and the particular problem I want I want to look at is something which I think has been understudied which is the fact that in most studies people were studying users with a high cultural capital because I think the reason for that is very difficult to study users with lower education and lower cultural capital because they don't like to be recruited for studies they difficult to get them to talk so so so it's quite difficult but that's what that's the question I want to address because I think that in most studies which study users with high higher education capital such as students younger than professional etc etc then you miss the fact that maybe significant differences in the way these people manage manage Tinder conversation and you tend to think to get together to get the wrong thought that Tinder use is quite homogeneous somehow across social stratification and I try to show it's not the case so what we did was to recruit a sample of 20 Tinder users in Paris balancing men and women by a snowball method that's the first sample we recruited and we realized that because of a snowball methods we get mostly young urban professionals living in Paris and so to try to counterbalance that particular bias in our sample we deliberately recruited 20 non affluent less educated Tinder users outside of Paris Center so I've been the suburbs of the province and the criteria we use if we didn't want anybody with more than two years after college somehow in terms of the data collection we use a mixed method approach interviews screen captures no curves as chat conversations for people who would agree to give us conversations and we've been doing some kind of microanalysis of online discourse and a bit of conversation analysis because as you'll see I think you can't really do conversation analysis that kind of thing because these things are not really conversations or in a very limited sense actually so I think so to get a general general feel about these these conversations and picking back on earlier talks the strange things about assuming these are conversations these would be personal conversations between strangers which is a very particular thing because because strangers don't have personal conversations so so there can difficulty there which reflect on one of the two threats in tender conversation the first threat is not being able to find conversation topics because if you deal with strangers well you don't have many ideas about topics for conversations but since you want to have a personal interaction you need topics and also topics that you have to find that particular that you cannot get too personal that you've got to be personal enough for something to build so there's a kind of tension the kind of topic to topic you can find and the second threat in tender conversation been mentioned before thing by Carlos in particular is ghosting of course this possibility that of exit brutal exit in conversation should always hanging the background of the experience of these users so these are the two things that that users have to manage in tender conversation and they're finding ways to manage that and one of the way ways that they're trying to manage that is a particular organization in which messages or successive messages are made of responses to previous messages but also new questions projecting answers so in many cases you don't get you've got a single single message single contribution so these are not turns in the sense of conversations analysis I think these are we should call that contributions which are made of several interactional moves answers new questions and something else and and these contribution they can be made in a single extended message or in several shorter messages but both formats are used and these contributions there are almost always made of an answer to previous contribution and a new question that projects another contribution and so for users I think that they're trying to harness the power of what conversation is goes adjacent pay organization by both being responsive to all your contributions but also by asking you question strongly projecting an answer in a sense trying to to mattress the conversation against the risk of ghosting somehow and this organization is really something that we find in all our samples both a higher educated and the lower educated so it's really something which is very central and I think it's one of the way users are managing this threat of ghosting somehow and and this is the main way in which I think this conversation but I mean conditionally this is relevant to the study of these things it's because of this adjacent pay organization for the rest I don't think it's really conversation in the sequential sense of conversation analysis okay so first I look at the higher education sample to try to give you a sense of how they work that so it's mostly young than professional Parisian Bobo's in a French French colloquial talk and how they use written literacy in that chat conversations so here you've got a typical one so let's start at the third message did you take a lot of work this time I think she that's me I mean I'm is a woman so she finished your contribution but did you take a lot of work this time and you get better answer on the next day me not yes and no I do not have a fit job so I do a bit what I want I've gone to X and in burgundy tuition I've been going for ages what are you doing in Paris so you get first you get that sense of answering the previous contribution and asking a new question and you get that all for example the second point I'd like to make is that did you work a lot this summer this is a single yes and no question I could very well answer yes to that yes I was already some but this is not what it does it does provide what we could consider a very elaborate answer to that simple questions he say much more than yes I work a lot this summer he says that I didn't fix jobs a little bit of what I want I've gone to X in burgundy tuition I've been going for ages and so on so this is not what cars are supposed to say exclusion which was not really required by the sequential organization of these messages but it also provides an opportunity for the woman to pick on that to ask a new question and so how much the answer she's exactly picked on the X in burgundy it's an excellent or examples you have some you some family around there so you see she picks on that self-disclosure to introduce a new line of questioning and a new topic so you get a kind of collaboration in providing elaborate answers but this closes some aspects required and offering opportunities to the recipient to pick on that to introduce a new line of questions and keep a conversation going and this is very record and so after she answers what are you doing in Paris and project manager in my home design sector put black and red different colors here to mark different lines of questions different topics you see that moving that organization is not only that you have question answers answer and questions but it's also multi-topical because of this elaborate answers this new light of questions many of the contribution are not only made of answer questions but answer and question will pick up different topic so it's multi-topical as well and this goes on and goes on so it's the rich in terms of conversation and I would like to argue that this way of doing things which I could provide all this sample of Persian users what we're basically the same way would argue this that the need for elaborate answers is something which is not which is encoded in written literacy you get multiple closers prepositions and if that you get elaboration of all involved some some personal information in narrative form you provide affordances for further talk and so this is something which character of written literacy and responses that are just to the point are noticeable a little example here so someone which the woman Pauline she said what are you doing now and John the guy say I'm working in communication I don't this as a master pro and she said that again she clearly expects more a response just to the point I'm working in communications not enough so there's really really a normative orientation to our provision of elaborate answers really one of these rules that Carlos spoke about an expectation that answers should be elaborate because if you provide a bright answer you display that you're playing the game of self-disclosure opportunity for further talk and keeping the conversation going somehow so it's a kind of involvement display in keeping that kind of tinder chat conversation going and multi-topicality is also characteristic of that and with the peculiarity I think this is something which related to to to to literature written literacy and I've tried to use Gris's maxims for describing the norms of our conversation and if we take this as a kind of template for what is what is a world conversation about then this chat conversation they violates Gris's maximum of economy let's say that responses should be to the point this is not the case here responses are deliberately elaborate and the expected of elaborate so it's clearly a move away from morality in that sense and the format in which this is done is imbued written literacy and written skills you get deconstructed the contextualized description and narratives with minimal use of the ethics you get multiple clauses and propositions in the contributions you get multi-topicality of contributions which is a feature of written letters not ordinary conversation you're not supposed to address three or four topics in a ton of talk usually because this violates another Gris's maximum Gris's maximum relevance so all these practices are re-embedded into written literacy and it's also related to the way these users are using chat conversations they're using this chat conversation even if they're very short some of them are very short before you get the uninvitation to meet but they use this conversation as an enemy itself as where something happens where people display their skill in managing these communicative registers the effort to provide self-disclosure through topic elaboration and the orientation to constructing common ground so that by doing this I think participants display that all these all this kind of involvement and the engagement into keeping the conversation the chat conversation rolling and so for users when it manage such written skills for written flirting and share such an orientation the success of such conversations appears a prerequisite for subsequent encounter when you look now at what uses the lower cultural capital do well it's very different and from the way I've been shaping my argument you can you can expect that because I insisted on written literacy and of course written literacy is something associated to education and of course people with lower cultural capital won this play the same kind of written skills that give their conversation a very different flavor but there are some similarity as well this is a typical conversation from these users again I could have several examples of that throughout my sample. So I think K is the guy, C is the woman. So it's up, hi, hi, how do you find new? You live around the world? Yes, I'm fine, thank you. Paris 13th. Okay, you live alone? Yes, we were kept in the house and you? Me alone. Okay, you didn't live for how many days? Okay, he, yes, all July, new. No, don't live this year. Okay, what do you do for a living? Say it's new. It feels different. Obviously it feels different. It's very short messages, very short contributions, very much, very much to the point, questions and answers are short and to the point mostly single clauses, no narratives, no propositions, elaborations are rare and minimal. I think the only real elaboration here is when she says she's going to cut in the house. So you still have, however, you still have the answer question format, though at some point it breaks that in most of the case you still have contributions that may have an answer and a new question. But because this contribution are short into a point, the way it appears, it's mostly reciprocal questions and you, I'm living there and you, I'm working in that domain and you, so it's kind of a bare burden or get, for good, I say she needs some sequences with reciprocal questions. Because of that, contributions are very much monotopical. There's not much room to develop multiple topics because they're very to the elaboration to introduce new lines of questions. And it gives a kind of formulaic, predictable character to be seen in the chat beginning, to give this structure where you get a lot of reciprocal questions, high, high, where do you live, here, and you, what do you do, I do that, and you, and so on and so forth. So extremely different in terms of the kind of feel this conversation provide with respect to be, to be, to be, to be, to be higher education. And I would argue that these conversations are much more oriented toward orality, actually, because they fit Grice's maximum economy. You get a strong orientation toward geological orality, toward the minimization of all these devices, which are associated to written literacy, but also prevent, somehow, the possibility of gradual self-disclosure and common ground building for kind of written flirting that we saw with the higher education sample. And I think we have to understand that for these people, the team that chat conversation plays a very different role. It's not a place for self-disclosure and building common ground for written flirting. It's a place to start to exchange information, and if it fits, to move away from the Tinder chat as soon as possible. So I think it was mentioned before that you cannot exchange images in Tinder. So very fast, we want to exchange images and they propose to move to other platforms, Snapchat, Snapchat in particular, or to exchange mobile phone to get out of Tinder, because we are not using these chat conversations to, for the kind of written flirting leading to an encounter that we saw, for example, in Elisabeth's data. It's not the way they use it. So in that sense, you see that it's very different the way these people are using Tinder. There's no reason to think that dating is, for this application, mobile dating application, is homogenous across social structure. So to summarize, I've showed you very different types of Tinder conversations, and I'm hesitant to call them conversations. We have different legacy registers, aspects and role, and we've chosen to be very sensitive to social stratification, and in particular cultural capital. And I think that this may be a contribution to our understanding of how this dating application can contribute or reinforce the homophily of dating, because, of course, if you have a different register for interaction and conversation, then it will tend to favor the matching of people with similar written skills, and therefore with similar cultural capital, and in that way can reinforce homophily in online romantic encounters, because they're very, I don't have a clear example of that, because I don't have, but you can imagine that a higher education woman would be reluctant to engage into the kind of conversation that I showed with a higher, lower educated male, which interacts in this way, because he doesn't play the same game on Tinder as she is. Thank you. So, you mentioned these faster than usual other apps to make a more natural speech of those users with lower cultural capital, and you said also that people tend to prefer other people with a similar cultural capital. They are attracted to other people, and I was thinking, how much of that pairing is also done by the algorithm on Tinder, which I would have if we know that it also depends on how many matches you get, any type of matches you get, it also gets shown a certain type of people over the other. So, how much is that the user's feeling of, I don't know, of versatility with the way the other person speaks? How much is that the other woman knows you about some pairs you have now? I think you're right. It's an interesting question. I can't answer two. If I can understand some kind of your point, and you're right, there might be something of a sort already going on in the way the algorithm is doing the pairings, but that I don't see. So, this is probably part of the story, and I don't have access to that. What I've been trying to show is once you get the match, then you get all of these phenomena related to written skills which may reinforce a movie that you write to point that this may start before. And if I may allow, that brings me to a question I wanted to ask you, organic interface design, which is, I tend to enlarge the notion of interface to the algorithm itself, because somehow users, they realize it's not an algorithm. They don't know how it works. It's very vague, but it's part of the experience and it's part of the design. So, I was wondering how far you would like to extend the notion of interface to issues such as the algorithm or the way the application uses locations. So, this is a bit vague for users, but they have a sense of that. Everyone of us knows, we thought it's plain that the algorithm is a working background. It's something not rational, but we are like dancing with the algorithm every time we, it's part of the, not positive, but something ludical to go there. How many likes did I get? And if I give him or her a like in Facebook, there will be more visibility of these people to me. And always you are marketing, it's like exchange, symbolic, not capital. But in Jindar, it's very opaque, rather opaque how it works. Like I said. I think users still feel. You can always feel the algorithm because it is driving everything there. In Jindar, as far as I know, for women, in the case of heterosexual, for women, it's always free. They have an open visibility. But if you are a man, more than 40 years, it tends not to show in your image to the women, and you have to pay. This is because gold and platinum, but in principle, you have the impression when you in Jindar that it's a mix of people there, that the algorithm is not very new. We can see young people, old people from different social backgrounds. I'm not so sure of the algorithm first. Well, I now want to know what it is that is scientific. So I was asking if you have read the Jindar article, but then you said that users that get a lot of matches, for example, the attention we show on the work. And users that get a lot of matches with a particular segment of the population are shown more to that level. In my personal experience, I have never used Jindar, but on Jindar and Scrub, I know that there's very different algorithms working. So for example, the algorithm on Scrub, I think, is very, very good, because on the first phase, they show you users from all around the world, and they are perfect to my taste, most of the time, by the type of guy that I would look at, maybe from the thumbnail. Or maybe this one person, two years ago, said, move to you on the app, so it re-emerges again. And then I know that I'm being shown to them in very particular moments, because when I put down the phone, so after navigating on the app for a while, you put down the phone, and I'll say, you get a notification because it's something across the world, to which your probably your time has seen you and has said, moved to you. So I was waiting for you to not leave the phone and continue your browsing. So I know that on the regular, I think this happened so much, but on Scrub, I know that the algorithm works very well with certain people, because of them, about this, because of the use that I have throughout the phone and so on. So I know that it's something in the shadows and probably very difficult to theorize about, because we don't have access to it, but I was wondering what they were causing that, because it's something that really haunts me. It goes beyond that, you know, how long it was at. Yeah, I only look at that from the user's perspective, but I think it's a lot of, there's a lot of opacity, of course, users don't know, but many users in interviews, they had a feeling that something was working behind the scenes of the algorithms, because, as you said, because they were not shown to some persons or shown others, and I think something that seemed to dig into more, that kind of vague experience they have of being confronted to algorithm choices or affordances somehow, because it's both opaque, but they feel it, somehow it's not completely opaque. I think it's difficult, but I think it's something we should do more. It shows up in our interview still. They express, especially on a straight user, they express, I've seen the different iterations of the sentence that says, well, yeah, at the beginning I got a lot more matches, but then it goes down, because yeah, doesn't show you, so they are aware of their presence and that yeah, this means something to the users. Yeah. I have a question on the interface, as you mentioned about the response, but you can actually, super sorry for some of the things that you consider to have. Yeah. Because if you vote, I'm not going to say it like this, but you can reject an act, and you can also super like something. Oh, yeah, super. The super likes. Yeah. Sometimes when you are browsing, no, this is a super like, no? It's a super like, so it's like after an hour or so. You should pay. What? You should pay. I'm the way and I used to be. Then? What? I didn't. I can tell you I didn't use it. The super like. But you received it. Yeah, this is a super like or something like that. I see. It's a super like. But it's not the kind to start with the general usage. Yeah. Yeah. So men have to pay. I'm kind of super like. And there is a little bit of, there is a little bit of like, so what do you write and what do you make of it? And during the day or the summer, during the period of time, you cannot like more than a swipe right. This is something that we got in the interviews as well. Yeah. You can mention that. Men have to pay. Women have to pay. For super like. For super like. And then, women can like swipe right as many men as they like. Yes. But men are living in the mountains. Yeah. But like or swiping right is easier. Does anyone know very much? There are more men living in the mountains. It's not a strategy. But I have two or three women. Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. Exactly.  Um, a woman who'll be the lighting bem s It's very interesting to think about that in a sense of someone, I can't remember the name, is talking about a more shown-out capitalism, in which mind the capitalism has the power to construct a new relationship, a very useful relationship, based on, it's just funny. I know, and the use of this positive psychology to, at the end, to use the old as something to my own pleasure, to my own desire, through this positive environment, and the use of emotions, just to say, and humor. For me, it's not very funny, because it's a kind of modification, like a kind of marketing strategy, to go to every day, to the platform, to get notifications, and it's a mix between a game and a survey. Survey, where you are thinking about the possibilities, the matches, calculating if you can win or not win, betting for some, and it gets you occupied. I think with all the research that older women were afraid about, if they thought, why do you do that? I'm not very sure, but young women are more prone to... Yes, it's different, age is very important here, like everyone is saying, young people is like a game, for older people, it's a funny game. When I asked, they are to show me, anyone in as much as had a bias, while in my offline life, betting for the people that I can win, happy it is. But it's easier to find someone that has no dependency in university, in comparison, normally when we are talking, all those elements that you have said will emerge. But at least, perhaps, we will react on that. Why, otherwise, there is basically no way, no wrap in our lives. I think homophily is a classical sociological problem, so homophily in romantic relationship construction, way before applications, how you meet people, as you say, in real life, in those contexts, and how that may reproduce in some way social certification. So it's a very old social problem. I think with dating app, it provides a new ground for asking these questions. So, do this dating app reinforce or minimize homophily? There's been a discourse, and I think that goes a bit around what you're saying, that because the application gives access to a lot of profiles, they might provide more opportunities for people to meet other people outside their usual social sphere or usual social relationships. I don't know if it's true, but my point is that you have two different things in Tinder. You have profile selection and matching, which is one thing, and I can't answer that question because I didn't study profile matching. What I'm saying is whatever happens in profile matching, after profile matching, you get into these conversations, and then when you get into this conversation, you have a strong linguistic phenomenon that forces homophily, but that's what I'm saying. So I cannot say how it works globally. I'm just saying that when you get to profile matching, whether it's reinforced or minimized homophily, then you get into these written literacy skills that I've been described, which discriminate strongly between people with higher education and lower education. But just what I'm saying, I can't say more, actually. So just to be precise. Just one of the things that we have to talk about for ceiling, she was from a sleep-grown woman that was looking backwards, so the message was, you don't see my face, but I'm grown, and you would see a half of the progress of her body. So do you think that that is consuming? Yes, it's consuming because you don't speak a bit but she's promoting her body. It's not a contradiction, it's that you can't be ostentious. And at the same time, conceal, hide your face. Sometimes you hide, sometimes you find in the, when you look for women, a black image, but you can read a university book for our own, and this is an attribute. It's something, someone who has educated at the university, is a cultural attribute. But concealment is not, I don't, in this research, I cannot say the motivation, why concealment happens. But for me, when I was doing this study, I traveled to Canary Islands to a smaller town, and this phenomenon was greater. You go to the small towns, concealment, it happens more than in a great city, because there's a pressure. And I suppose I speculate that women are more, feel more this pressure, social pressure, to show their bodies and their face, than men. But this is only speculation. Umbara susulara. Umbara susulara, the tradition of Umbara susulara. Yes. In an interview, and Denmark's saying that they actually made, look at the behavior when we check, and that that goes into the algorithm. Really? So, we check with each other, making part of the algorithm. That's interesting. That was what he said. No, it's very interesting. I couldn't trace everything about what we do. So, we might analyze the conversations as well. So, it's just whether or not, in these types of sequences, typical of specific types of projects, for example, with the suing and in this nation, so that different types of sequences may be typical or more frequent in certain types of sequences. So, that's how certain types of social action. Or, with the rest of the platform, if you're related to what we're talking about, what other things? I'm not sure I'll really respond to your question, but for this reciprocal thing, what was striking to me that you get often in these exchanges between users with low capital against this, I'm doing this and you, which is very basic of the organization. In my data, at least with the higher capital users, you get this and you question that, in a particular, say, question environment, at the beginning, actually. Because at the beginning, it's topical, they don't have much resources for topicality. So, I found this in the other sample, mostly in beginnings, and not afterwards. I don't know if it's corresponding to the kind of experience you have, or that there's something like that. Talk about the actions that may be... Yeah, absolutely. So, yeah, he calls for a final grain description. I would agree here. There's something about, from the fact that they are, the strangers who still wouldn't talk about personal issues, but that doesn't make it impossible to have a conversation because in this, you can go to... When you go to an event, where you're supposed to talk to a potential enemy, that's kind of the same thing, that you talk to strangers and you ask them about children and whatever. So, it's not like it's impossible to have a conversation with strangers. But I think it's more about the timing and the resources used to interact that makes it different. No, I never said it was impossible to have a discussion between strangers, of course. The point is that when you're interacting with strangers, you've got much less resources for topic initiations. And there were studies in conversation analysis that showed that people, strangers were meeting in public places where the initiated conversations was mostly based on the immediate context, which is what they were sharing and where we found resources for conversation, for instance. So, the point is that when you interact with strangers, you have limited resource. And, for example, in the Tinder case, when you post immediately after the match, you have auto-curricular resources. You have a resource of a profile, which are very often used as an initiation conversation. Also, the details of a match, the timing of a match or the way the match was done, so at the beginning, you clearly see that people have limited resources, but as the conversation develops, because of these elaborate answers, they get more and more resources for topic initiation. So, I was not saying that it's impossible between strangers to have more limited resources at the beginning to initiate a conversation and keep our conversation going. So, that was the point. There is plenty of research in relationship that suggests that we look for similar numbers. So, we expect our partners or partners to be to be similar to ourselves, which tells us why they just speak. So, for example, when I look for a partner, I would expect her not to be too religious, for example, because I'm not religious. So, when I look for someone, I expect her to be more or less similar to me, because we share more things, we have perhaps more things to share. So, of course, that's a way as well of projecting ourselves on to others and of course, as well, I would say, this kind of self-defense, because otherwise, they're actually different from others. Maybe we might feel threatened somehow. Going back to your presentation, I hope it was very interesting as well how people from different backgrounds, and especially different levels of education, perhaps, they communicate with each other as well, when they interact with each other. It's very interesting to find each other. And you related that as well to cultural, capital, but the whole surprise that, you know, literacy wasn't a part as well of the hindrance of different levels of literacy.  So, I don't know if you could explain why you referred only exclusively to cultural, capital, perhaps, but in particular... Literacy. Why you refer to literacy? Yes. Because what I tried to show is how the kind of written flirting that we observe with a young Parisian professional is very much embedded into written practices and not conversational ones, except for the question and answer format. And so, of course, then it becomes unsurprising, as you said. But once you understand that this kind of written flirting is embedded in written literacy, requires written skills, then it becomes not very surprising that people who don't have that kind of written skills would behave differently. But what I think is just... It's a bit new to me, it was a bit new to me with the low education level. It's not that they don't play that game, but that they really use their conversation in a very different way. It's very important for... they are much more oriented to our reality and it's very important for them to move out of this chat conversation as soon as possible, to be able to exchange images or to be able to talk directly. And so, you get really two very different orientations to a pattern. Of course, all these things are locked together somehow, so you're not surprised about that. But once you understand that literacy is important to see that kind of difference, and maybe I insisted on cultural capital because I think, for example, economic capital would be irrelevant because in our central Parisian urban professional you get people with low economic revenues and people who don't have jobs or intermittent jobs but high cultural capital. So it's really education, I think, because we're dealing with literacy and written literacy, which is important, I think.


Strategic Cybersecurity Module 11, the concept of data valence. Once you have completed the readings, lecture, activity, and assessment, you will be able to articulate Rosenweig's concept of data valence. Articulate problems with data valence with respect to authoritarian governments. Welcome to Strategic Cybersecurity Module 11. This module covers the concept of combining Big Data Analysis with Technical Surveillance, or Data Valence. Traditional surveillance methods have typically been physical in nature, with authorities tracking suspected criminals in the physical realm. For instance, consider the 2007 terrorist threat in Germany involving a three-person team of operatives of the Islamic Jihad Union, or IJU. These IJU operatives case numerous American bases in the country, looking for the most vulnerable to attack. Alerted fairly early, American authorities were able to track the terrorist as they sought high-concentration hydrogen peroxide to construct a bomb. The authorities physically tracked the terrorist movements for months, with reports that surveillance of each required four German counterterrorism agents per eight-hour shift. As you can imagine, the manpower required to track these terrorists each day for months cost the German government an exorbitant amount. In fact, this was one of the largest surveillance operations in post-war German history. We are slowly moving into a world where, increasingly, such physical surveillance is being replaced with electronic surveillance. This data valence, as Rosenweig calls it, combines the surveillance techniques, like facial recognition and gait analysis, with analysis of a person's digital dust, which we leave whenever and wherever we go on the Internet, and which is, for all intents and purposes, permanent. As the readings for this module indicate, two trends enable the ability for data valence. One, nearly exponential increases in computer power, and two, similar decreases in the cost of data storage. Increases in computer power are making it possible to quickly sort through and analyze vast reams of data, such as those produced by the faces and gates of hundreds of thousands of daily travelers passing through an international airport. And storing this data is becoming less and less expensive. Think about this. In 1984, storage for one megabyte of data cost roughly $200. Today, we can purchase a tiny thumb drive with one terabyte of storage capacity for under $10, and these trends will only continue. As Rosenweig points out, these trends increasingly give both the government and corporations access to our lives and to our digital dust for some future purpose. Although we still have adequate protections inside our homes, problems arise as we enter the public sphere, where our every move can potentially be recorded and stored. We are rapidly losing the ability to live in practical obscurity. The capabilities of big data analysis are not all bad, however. For instance, online retailers might sift through your purchase history and recommend products based on your preferences. Police agencies will increasingly be able to operate more efficiently by digitally tracking terrorist suspects. Even so, we have a long way to go in perfecting these technologies. Think back to your reading in this module about the non-obvious relationship analysis, or NORA system that Las Vegas casinos employ to identify potentially threatening individuals. NORA may be a good system, but it was not good enough to identify Stephen Paddock, the Las Vegas shooter who killed nearly 60 people and wounded hundreds from his hotel casino rooms window. In fact, given his lack of online presence and low profile over the previous decades, no system likely could have identified him. To end the module on a good note, however, I will point out that the Islamic Jihad Union terrorists mentioned earlier were with the purported help of NSA's big data capability eventually arrested, prosecuted and sent to prison. Quiz question one. Which of the following best describes the concept of data valence? A. The use of global positioning system, GPS, to track potential criminals. B. The collection and analysis of personal data and information about an individual or corporation. C. A term coined by the Supreme Court indicating unlawful surveillance by police using unapproved technology. D. The ability to sift through large data sets to determine someone's location. The answer is B. The collection and analysis of personal data and information about an individual or corporation. Quiz question two. True or false? The two trends that have facilitated the explosion and data valence are increases in computer power and decreases in the cost of data storage. The answer is true. Quiz question three. Which of the following is not a way that authoritarian governments are likely to use data valence capabilities? A. To track suspected dissidents using facial recognition technology. B. To help critics of the government travel anonymously while abroad. C. To reduce the ability of its citizens to anonymously surf the internet. D. To identify foreign intelligence officers operating in their country. The answer is B. To help critics of the government travel anonymously while abroad. The activity for this module asks that you assess the amount of digital dust you have left in the past 48 hours. Include things such as the websites you have visited. Include the comments you have made onto social media. Do you allow Google to track your location through your cell phone? Think about the last time you checked your privacy settings on any social media you may have. What might an entity engaged in data valence on your internet habits learn about your life based on the digital dust you have left behind?