is midnight, and an old automobile is driving along a narrow road through the woods. At a point where a second road, even narrower, crosses the first, the car stops. Hey, young fella, this is the professor's place. Is it? All I can see is woods. That's up that road, about 50 yards. Look sharp, and you can see the light shining between them two trees. Oh, yes, I see it now. Then I guess I get out here. Would you hand me my bag, sure, friends? Right. Yeah. Thanks. And that's a dollar I owe you, right? Yep. Thank you. You know the professor, do you? Yes. I was Professor Clark's laboratory assistant back in college 10 years ago. Why? I was thinking maybe you could drop a hint to him. A hint? What kind of a hint? Well, if there's been some talk in town of running him and that man of his, that Barton fell out of the county. Running Professor Clark? Oh, you're not serious. Yep. Of course it's just talk, so far. But what has anybody got against Professor Clark? There isn't a milder man in the world. Well, maybe so, but folks has got wind of what happened at the State Pentantry over in Hillvay last year. Sure, if you're talking in riddles. What did happen? The professor went over there when they hanged Richard. That pulled up killer. And the warden give the professor the murderer's brain. That's what happened. Oh, what of it? Professor Clark is a great authority on nerve and brain tissues. Maybe he wanted it for research purposes. I'm not saying he didn't. I'm just telling you how folks are talking.   No, they don't think so. They got the notion that brain is big as a bull calf, but now, and they're afraid someday it'll escape. Sheriff, for a minute I was taking you seriously.  Oh, I'm not saying I ever believed it, but it'd be a good idea if the professor would give folks a notion of what he's really doing in that laboratory he is. With that Barton fella to help him, then maybe the talk would die down. All right, Sheriff. I'll mention it to him. Well, then I'll be getting on. Good night, young fella. Good night, Sheriff. Right up that road, about 50 yards. You can't miss it. A few moments later, Dr. Richard Dale was knocking on the door of an old stone house almost hidden among the trees. A frail, white-haired old man answered the door. An old man who could hardly speak in his joy as he gripped Richard Dale's hand. He led the way down a long hall to a great room where strange equipment took up almost every inch of space, retorts and electric furnaces, generators, batteries, and great glass vats. Dr. Dale stared around him in intense curiosity, as Professor Clark helped him off with his hat and coat. There.  Sit down and let me get a good look at you. So, you got my letter? Yes, yes, of course you did, or you wouldn't be here. Thanks, Professor. Yes, I got your letter, and it made me so curious I took the first train. You promised me a surprise. Well, is this it, this amazing laboratory? No, no, my boy. Come to that in a moment after you've met Barton, my assistant. Barton, I don't seem to know the name. Should I? No, he's not famous yet. He will be, and he's been with me only a few months. I couldn't get along without him. He certainly sounds interesting. You'll like him, I'm sure you will. Oh, Barton! Yes, Professor? Dr. Dale has arrived. I want you to meet him. Why, of course. How do you do, Dr. Dale? We both have been looking forward to your visit. How do you do? Yes, the professor's letter made me so curious I couldn't stay away. I'm still wondering what the great surprise is, he promised me. You'll see, Nick, in just a minute. My curiosity's at fever pitch. Well, it's time to satisfy it. Barton, is Alpha making some coffee? Yes, he started it when we heard the car. Alpha? Who is he? Our general man of all words. Truly amazing fellow. Here he comes now. I said you'd be surprised, Nick.  Yes, my boy. An artificial man made from metal and synthetic brain tissue. A machine man. But walking and talk, he's not very pretty, but then the professor was mostly interested in making sure he worked. He must weigh a ton. No, only about 300 pounds. You see, Alpha's mostly aluminum and other light alloys. Inside is aluminum plates or some new batteries I devise, together with miles of fine silver wire and a dozen electric motors. And to give you only the highlights. It's a good thing you did keep this for a surprise. If you'd mentioned it in your letter, I don't think I would have believed you. Yes, Alpha. Put it on this table here and pour a cup for Dr. Dale. I still can't make myself believe it. Go on, Nick. Drink it, huh? Oh, yes, of course. Alpha, thank you. Alpha, this is Dr. Dale, our guest. Any orders he gives ought to be obeyed. Alpha understands. He looks clumsy, but he poured the coffee as well as a man could. Yes, my boy. Alpha has capabilities you'd never suspect to look at him. Here, I'm sure you. Alpha, the fireplace needs more wood. Put on that big log there. Break it in half. Breaking it with his hands. He won't need you anymore tonight, Alpha. You can go back to your room now. Be sure to switch off your batteries. They're going to need recharging tomorrow. It's incredible thing I ever saw. You see, Nick, I tried to treat Alpha as if he were really a man. So I gave him a room of his own. Like any machine, he's completely inactive when his batteries have been switched off. But his brain continues to function. It's an artificial protoplasm that I spend eight years creating. It's the only thing that makes him different from any other machine. But it means Alpha can think. Think like a man. A machine that can walk and talk and think. Ah, but Alpha's not the only surprise I have for you, Dick. He's not? No, I have another one. Even more astonishing. But you'll have to wait until morning to learn about that. Because now it's time we were both in bed. I suppose you're right. It's after one. I know you must be tired. I'm getting old, so I'm going up to bed now, Dick. Barton, I'll show you to your room. Of course, Professor. I'll see you in the morning, then. Yes. We'll have a long talk tomorrow. Isn't it? Good night, Professor Clark. Dr. Dale. Yes, Barton? Could we talk for a minute before I show you to your room? Yes, of course. It occurs to me that Professor forgot to tell you why he asked you here. Oh, yes, that's true. And I'd been so interested, I forgot to ask. It was his hope that you'd stay indefinitely and help us carry forward the work we've been doing here. Stay indefinitely? Well, I have my own work. Don't say no yet. Now just think, Dr. Dale. Alpha is stronger and more rugged than a man. He needs no rest, no food. Yet he can do the work of three men. He can plow, reap, run machinery, think how much drudgery a million like him could lift from mankind's shoulders. Yes, yes, that's true. And already Alpha is technically obsolete. Professor Clark has the blueprints for a new machine man. As superior to Alpha as an airplane is to a bicycle. We want you to help us build them. Well, I'm certainly tempted. Perhaps I could arrange it. Ah, excellent. And now there's only one more thing I want to tell you. Yes? What is it? It's about Alpha. You must help me persuade the professor too to dismantle him. Dismantle him? Why? He has become dangerous. I don't understand. Because he was the first successful machine man that the professor built. He is imperfect in many ways. He's not completely reliable. I'm afraid that someday he may escape from the house and so do some damage that would seriously upset our plans. Yes, yes, that could easily happen. The local inhabitants are unfriendly enough as it is. I know. Sheriff Ramsay was warning me about that tonight. All right, I'll speak to Professor Clark about it tomorrow. Ah, good. Then I'll show you to your room now, if you wish. Yes. I am sleepy if you'll just come this way. His mind in a whirl of amazement. Dr. Dale retired and finally fell into an uneasy sleep. How long he had slept, he did not know. When abruptly he woke with a scream ringing in his ears, the cry came from downstairs. Dr. Dale left from his bed and raced down to the lower floor. One barton hammering on the heavy door of the laboratory. Professor Clark, Professor Clark, what's wrong? What? What's happened? It's the professor. I heard him call for help. So did I. He woke me up. I'll be in there, but there's no sound in there now. Well, we've got to break the door down. Yes. Put your shoulder beside mine. Right. You ready? Ready. And shot. Professor Clark, where are you? Professor Clark. He's not here. Yes. Here he is lying on the floor beside the window. He's been murdered. It was Alpha. It must have been. No one else could have done it. Where is he? The window. It's open. He went out that day. We've got to go after him. I'm afraid it's hopeless. At nights in these woods, we couldn't possibly find him. No, no. You're right. Of course. It'll be this morning soon. Then I think he'll come back. He knows that he can only go a few more hours before his batteries must be recharged. Then we can capture him and destroy him.  The professor must have come down to the laboratory for some reason. Occasionally, when he couldn't sleep, he would do that. He may have decided to make some more tests of Alpha. Yes, but that doesn't explain why. In fact, something must have occurred when Alpha returns. We can find out. Poor Professor Clark. Well, we'll have to notify the police. There's only the sheriff. In any case, I think we should wait till morning and then report the professor's death as an accident. An accident? Yes. If the authorities learn the truth, our research may be stopped. And when Professor Clark has achieved so much, can we let it go for nothing? No, no. Of course not. He must carry on his work for him. Yes, that's what he would want. Then you will help me continue it. You'll stay? Yes. Yes, I'll stay. Greatly upset by the tragedy, Dr. Dale returned to bed. And at last fell into an uneasy sleep haunted by dreams of Alpha, the metal monster Professor Clark had created. When he awoke, the sun was shining. And he could hear Barton moving about downstairs. He dressed and went down to find Barton getting breakfast ready. Oh, good morning, Dr. Dale. Good morning, Barton. Any sign of Alpha? Not yet. Well, we ought to start a search point. But first I think you ought to eat breakfast. Everything's ready. All right. Some coffee, anyway. Yes. Sit here. Thank you. I didn't know you were a cook as well as a lab assistant, Barton. I've learned to do a lot of things since I came here. Aren't you going to eat, too? I'm not hungry. I sell the map. But I thought that while you wait, I might outline some of the problems facing us. That's a good idea.  I was wondering about that. Sure, Ramsay mentioned that the professor secured a human brain from an executed killer. Yes. The professor found that to give life to his artificial brain tissue, it was necessary to add a small amount of tissue from a real brain. I see. The real tissue gave life to the rest. Of course. Yes, but in this instance, it may have tainted Alpha's brain with the murderous impulse of a killer. Yes, that sounds plausible. So our first problem will be to obtain untainted brain tissues to blend with the artificial tissues we will make according to the professor's formula. That should give us no trouble. I can get what we need through the research laboratories where I'm connected. Ah, then that solves our worst problem. The rest will be matters of detail. Fortunately, there's enough equipment here to build a dozen or so robots. Like Alpha, you mean? No. The far more advanced type, Professor Clark was perfecting. And now, if you finished, I have something to show you. Yes, I'm through. I don't feel much like eating after last night. Then come with me to the laboratory and I'll show you the second surprise that Professor Clark had in store for you. What I'm going to show you is in this box. Another robot? Yes. A second mechanical man the professor built a few months ago. This one, though, was a failure. You mean it wouldn't work? It worked too well. I don't follow it. It was too intelligent. Professor Clark called it beta.  But beta was insane. Good Lord. He represented, however, a tremendous technical advance. Look. It looks exactly like a human being. Yes. Professor Clark used me for a model when he built beta. It's an excellent likeness. I'll touch the face, Doctor. All right. It feels smooth and rubbery with a hard surface underneath. The surface is a new plastic, Professor Clark developed, with which he could imitate exactly the appearance of human skin. Underneath isn't a human body on which the plastic was baked. I see. Beta's hair, eyes, and teeth are all artificial, too. But he walked and talked and acted so much like a human being that no man alive could have guessed his secret. No, he would have fooled me completely. And you say he was insane? From the human viewpoint, yes. He considered himself superior to the human race. With his enormous brain power, he intended to make himself ruler of the world. You're joking. Not in the least. That is why Professor Clark destroyed him just in time. He had made plans to take over this laboratory and construct dozens of mechanical men like himself. And then, with their help, he was going to enslave all mankind. If that could happen once, it might happen again. I don't believe we should continue Professor Clark's work after all. There's no danger now, Doctor. You see, Beta also had a brain which contained tissues taken from that of the condemned murderer. But we will select the brain tissues from the highest types that are available. Yes, but even so... Then, Doctor, we will produce mechanical men, tireless, indestructible, who will be mankind's willing servants, who will solve for man problems he can't solve for himself. I wonder. In any case, we must proceed with the utmost caution. Of course. Doctor, listen. Someone's coming to the house. It's Alpha. He's come back. Alpha, we may need a weapon barn. No, I can control him. Alpha, Alpha, come here. You killed Professor Clark. Why did you do it?  And you killed him because of that? Alpha does not want to be destroyed. But you're just a machine. What difference does it make to you? Alpha is a machine that lives. Alpha is stronger than you. Alpha is better than you. Alpha, be quiet. We must destroy Alpha at once. You all right, Doctor? Do you hear, Alpha? You are to be punished. Alpha, hear. But first, we want to know where you've been. Did anyone see you? Men saw Alpha. Men saw you? What do you mean? Two men driving automobile saw him. And what did they do? They tried to hit Alpha with automobile. And then what happened? Alpha stopped automobile. Alpha killed one man. Killed him? Other man ran off in woods. Alpha could not find him. Alpha came back. We can't keep this a secret. No matter what happens, we must notify the authorities at once. No, wait. Let me think. We can't... Sir Bel, there's someone at the door. I'll see who it is. You stay here. But what about Alpha? I'll switch off his batteries, then he can't move. There. Now I'll see who's at the door. Dr. Dale waited while Barton went to the door. He heard the door open and recognized the excited voice of Sheriff Ramsey speaking. Then a moment later Barton came back into the laboratory followed by the sheriff who held a revolver in his hand. But Sheriff, if you'd only let me explain... Never mind that. You're coming with me, both of you. Dr. Dale, perhaps you can reason with the sheriff. He insists that we're under arrest. Yes, and I'm taking you to the lock-up. The Professor too. Where is he? Professor Clark, it's dead, Sheriff. He was killed last night when an experiment he was engaged in went wrong. An experiment, huh? I suppose it was an experiment that crushed the life out of him. It crushed the life out of Jed Thompson an hour ago down the road and scared Fred Jennings so bad all he can do is jabber about monsters. It is true, the things that killed both the Professor and Thompson is an experiment. It's standing there behind... Behind... A machine. A man made out of machinery. Don't be alarmed, Sheriff. It's perfectly harmless now. It is a machine man which Professor Clark built. Unfortunately, it got out of control. I don't believe it. I don't blame you, Sheriff, but that's the truth. I think I can convince you. What are you doing? Stand still. I'm simply going to switch Alpha on. There. Now he can move and speak as well as you and me. That thing talk. You're lying. You're up to something. Alpha, will you tell the Sheriff that it was you who killed Mr. Thompson? Alpha killed him. He tried to hit Alpha with a car. So that's what the Professor was up to all this time? Building that thing? Now, Sheriff, surely you realize that we are not murderers? Maybe not, but you come to jail just the same. You're partly responsible anyhow. But Sheriff... Anyway, it's for your own protection. There's a mob on its way out here from town. They're going to burn this place down. What? I got to put you in jail for your own safety. They're ready to lynch you right now. Burn the place down. That's what I said.  We ain't got much time. No. All this equipment, machinery, the Professor's notes, they must not be destroyed. We must stop them. Yes, Sheriff. We're lost to science. Never mind science. You've got your own skin to worry about. That mob means business. Let's get started. I'm afraid we can't do that, Sheriff. You can't. I got a six-shooter here that says different. We have no choice, Mark. Oh, yes, we have. Alpha, take the gun away from this man. What are you doing? Stop him! Stop him, or I'll... Oh, no! They're in a good cause. The life of one man or of a dozen men cannot stand in my way. You don't expect me to keep silent about this, do you? I think you will. Alpha... Alpha, he doesn't answer. His batteries have gone dead. That last burst of energy must have drained him dry. But it makes no difference. I think it does. A big difference. There, see this? Sheriff Ramsey's revolver with three bullets still in it. Now put your hands up. I must explain something to you, Doctor. You can talk, but if you move, I'll shoot. I only want to say that nothing is going to interfere with my plan to build more of the improved form of robots that Professor Clark perfected before his death. Robots who look and act so much like men, no one can detect them. They'll never be built. I intend to destroy all of Professor Clark's... They will be built by me. I shall build ten, a hundred, a thousand. Then I shall lead them with a superior intelligence to the mastery of the world. Your math? Of course I should have done... No, Doctor, that's not the answer. I shall tell you the truth. And then you must die. I'm still all shooting. You remember last night when the professor said he had another surprise for you, an even greater surprise than Alpha? Yes. That surprise, Doctor, was Beta, the second robot. So perfect it looked like a man, but so intelligent that human beings were children in comparison. But Beta was destroyed. No, Doctor, Beta was not destroyed. But you must be destroyed. Stand back. Stand back, I say. All right, then I'll shoot. And now, Doctor, your bullets are gone. You aren't even hurt. Bullets cannot harm me. That's what I'm trying to tell you. Beta, the second robot, was not destroyed. But I saw him. What you saw was only an initial attempt that failed. The real Beta still exists. You see, Doctor Dale, I am Beta. You? Yes. I, too, am a mechanical man. And now, you must die. No. No, stay away from me! Everett again happened to Doctor Dale, while he's still alive, but of course under observation in a hospital. In fact, it was he who told me the story. You see, the mob that was coming to burn down the house arrived just in time to save him. A Barton, or Beta, as he called himself, escaped. He could hardly have survived all those bullets if he had been human, could he? I wonder if the story is true. Do you suppose that somewhere, a strange individual who was really a robot is making other mechanical men preparing to carry out Barton's plan to rule the world? Oh, you haven't time to talk about it now you're getting off here. Well, I'm sorry. But perhaps we'll meet again soon. I take this same train every week at this same time. You've just heard chapter 19 of The Mysterious Traveller, a series of dramas of the strange and terrifying brought to you each week by station W-O-R. In tonight's story, Beware of Tomorrow, Will Hare played Dr. Dale and Don Randolph played Barton. Also featured were Maurice Tarplin and Philip Clark. The Mysterious Traveller, written by Bob Arthur and David Cogan, is directed by Jock McGregor. Original music was played by Doc Whipple. Listen next week to a tale titled... The Accusing Corpse. Another tale of The Mysterious Traveller. The Mysterious Traveller is presented over W-O-R Mutual every Sunday at 7 over most of these stations. This is Mutual.


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Hello! Guten Tag! Guten Tag! Hallo! Ich bin Kimberly Henderson. Ich heiße Karma. Ich heiße Quinten. Ich bin Sam Deeson.  Ich heiße Nick und ich studiere Deutsch, Geschichte und Pädagogie. Ich studiere Wissenschaften in Deutsch. Und ich habe ein Nebenfrag in Deutsch. Why do you love German? There are a lot of reasons why I love German. Opportunity. I was able to live twice, not just once twice. In Germany. I want to become familiar with kind of the aspects of the culture. Meeting new people. Understand these kind of minor interactions. As a kid, I had a natural affinity for the language. I love German because I get to combine my love for like system, structure with creativity. And I get to really combine those two. Love the way that German sounds. I love the way that it feels in my mouth. That's a very different feeling in my mouth and my face than it is when I'm speaking English or Spanish. I just went into the U of A thinking, I'll just study neuroscience and go straight into medical school. But German has allowed me to explore other cultures, other realms of science even, and work at one of the best hospitals in Europe. To be able to fluidly speak to people who I never would have been able to converse with in the past has been really cool. So different network of people that I didn't expect. Do you have a favorite moment with German studies at the University of Arizona? Realizing how much of a connection the university has with other schools. My first week or two at the University of Arizona, I got very nervous and my classes were a lot more focused on speaking German, which is something my high school hadn't focused on. And so I emailed my professor. I don't know what to do. And she sent me a long email back that's supportive and encouraging to show that there was people in the department to just support me and be there for me. German film class. One of my favorite classes, I had an aha moment and while watching one of the films, like the actual history of what was going on in Germany at the time. We were assigned instructions in German of how to find our German instructor. We would sometimes misunderstand the directions and we would go in the opposite direction. We actually ended up finding our teacher. She was reading her book at one of the cafes on campus. Going to Leipzig with Dr. Ecke and the rest of my colleagues for the Leipzig program. Saying a new part of the country had never been to the east, improving my German, making new friends. That was really cool. Well, I'm only in my second year, but something I've really enjoyed is that German is the only online class I've had that really feels like an online classroom. It doesn't feel like I'm just watching a recorded lecture. I've actually enjoyed doing that. I feel like I've really gotten a lot out of it. Do you have a favorite German word? My favorite German word is Dof because it's a little sassy. Ubergaschum, which means surprise. Yeah, Ubergaschum. It feels like a slang word. It's kind of fun to throw around. The first word that I learned that I found really funny was Geschirrspulmaschine. Such a long word. It was really hard to spell. My favorite activity, besides just generally sleeping and eating, is taking naps. So my favorite word is Nikaschen. It means to nap or naps just in general. My favorite German word is definitely backfivinggesis.  German has a lot of good words like that, don't you think? Definitely. I wish English had more of them. One is Geschsprachen, just the way it sounds. And then maybe Jain, because it sounds fake. It sounds like a meme. There's no way that's a real word, but it is. Tschüss. Tschüss is goodbye. And it's like Germans just say it really cute. Like they see it. They don't just say it. They say Tschüss.


I just got here and so far it's been really really cool. There's been some live performances and I saw some art inside and I'm about to go explore some more. I think it's going amazing. Yeah, I'm really excited about the turnout. And people seem to be really happy to be here and finding community and like having new ideas because of the art that they're seeing which was always the goal. Process. Gosh, like a year at least but it's been something on my mind for like three years and then what we first applied for funding in the fall, last fall. I think it's really awesome. I love seeing all the different art there is in here. I love seeing all the different people here. It's really really cool. All the performances and stuff as well. It's really interesting. I think it's extra cool because some of my art is up here and so it's really fun that there's an opportunity for local artists to kind of share their stuff more. And it's so nice to just look around and see what kind of talent is just around here. What is the most notable emotion that comes when it comes to doing a movement piece on the roof? I think I've just done it a lot that it's not so scary anymore. I think it's always nice to see a crowd and exciting to have a platform and to like put the ideas that I'm excited about forth. Over there around the corner there is this really, really interesting dancer. There's this musician creating this awesome electronic music. And there's a dancer in a full-on, I think it's called a gimsy where he's in all greens and he's doing this really interesting interpretive dance to the music. And he's been doing it for a while and it's been really mesmerizing to watch. I really like all the orgasm pieces. I agree with that. I really liked seeing there was a couple like masturbation pieces. Those were really awesome. Those were fun. I think it's more like about the festival as a whole that people are having like a really lovely evening and that the work like collectively is really exciting. I think it's not supposed to be like, oh, this one piece is the best piece and more like people are having a really wonderful time and like having their minds expanded by the variety of art here. I think that it's growing. I think that there's always been a community here and recently maybe it's because I'm just coming into it more but I've noticed that there's a lot more happening than I ever noticed before. I just moved to Vermont and this is exactly why I moved to Vermont to see all of this stuff and engage in the arts and see everything local. Is there any plans for next year? I mean hopefully I feel like people were really psyched so I think like it will be all that much easier next year because people will have heard about it and be excited for it to return. Thank you everyone who came. It means a lot to me.


nerve injury can be of various severity and can occur due to a multitude of causes now the causes can be suppose if there is a pull of nerves then they can be compression nerve injury where the nerve can become compressed like suppose you have slept in an odd position it can cause an injury to radial nerve it can cause wrist drop then sometimes in anesthetized people if proper care is not taken then it can cause compression of the ulnar nerve common peronial nerve so the position has to be maintained in case of anesthetized people then they can be cut injuries that can also cause nerve injuries apart from this a lot of diseases basically neuropathies in them also the changes occur as in nerve injury so they can be multiple sclerosis they can be amyotropic lateral sclerosis then leprosy so in all these diseases also we will get the pathological changes same as we get in trauma injuries okay so now let's see that how the severity of nerve injuries is classified and what are the changes which can occur in case of nerve injury so for that first we should know a little bit about the structure of a nerve now remember that when we are talking of a nerve we are not talking of a single neuron nerve is basically a collection of a lot of neurons so here this is showing a cross section of a nerve and you see that this outer black lining it is basically a connective tissue covering which is surrounding a lot of bundles of neurons so this outermost connective tissue covering is known as epineurium then inside you see that there are a lot of bundles this blue colour it is showing the bundles of lot of neurons so this is also a covering this covering is known as perineurium so the bundle of neurons which is surrounded by perineurium basically forms a fascicle then each neuron also you see it is surrounded by a connective tissue covering so to understand it we'll just try to pull out a fascicle and this is one single neuron which has been pulled out and it's a myelinated neuron this is the myelin sheath so this gray coloured it is also a connective tissue covering surrounding the myelinated neuron in this case and this covering is known as endoneurium so outermost covering the up covering is epineurium the innermost in covering is the endoneurium and the one which is surrounding a number of nerve fibres that is the perineurium which forms a fascicle so the severity of a nerve injury is classified depending on how much of this structure is affected basically there are two classifications of nerve injury one is the sedans classification a simpler classification which says that the first level of nerve injury is neuropraxia in neuropraxia what happens so that the entire nervous structure is intact and it is only a functional loss which is occurring basically in this case there is demyelination of the neuron and this will affect the conduction of the nerve impulse but you see anatomically the structure everything will be intact second level of nerve injury severity is axonatomesis in axonatomesis there is injury to the nerve fibre however all the connective tissue sheets that is the endoneurium the perineurium and the epineurium all are intact but there is some discontinuity in the axon right so discontinuity in the axon but overall all the connective tissue sheets intact is known as axonatomesis third level is neuratomesis neuratomesis is when the connective tissue sheets are also disrupted along with the discontinuity of the axon so in neuratomesis there can be discontinuity of endoneurium only and the perineurium and epineurium may be intact there may be discontinuity of endoneurium plus perineurium and third one they can be that to all the three that is endoneurium perineurium and epineurium all are disrupted so that is the sedans classification neuropraxia basically functional loss then axonatomesis then third is neuratomesis now in this you see neuratomesis actually the detail that which connective tissue sheet is injured is not mentioned why this is important because ultimately it affects whether the regeneration of the neuron will take place or not so to elaborate that there is another classification which came little later than sedans classification that is known as cinderlands classification in this classification there are five degrees and first degree is basically same as that of the neuropraxia that is there will be functional loss then second degree is same as axonatomesis that is there there will be axonal discontinuity with all the sheets intact now third is where there is axonatomesis plus there is injury to the endoneurium as well in the fourth there is endoneurium plus perineurium injury while in the final one all the sheets that is endoneurium perineurium and epineurium everything is disrupted basically classically you see sedans classification talks about disruption of the connective tissue sheet mainly the outer one that is the epineurium it doesn't detail so here these third and fourth degrees do not have a counterpart in sedans classification that's all so it's a more detailed classification okay so now what so there will be certain changes which occur in the neuron after the injury so what are these changes basically whenever an injury occurs there is influx of calcium in the neuron and this leads to activation of certain enzymes that is a calcium dependent proteases and calcium dependent lipases so owing to this a number of events start happening in the neuron so first is that as soon as there is injury there is functional loss that is the transmission of the nerve impulse will be affected that is the first immediate thing which you will see and later on this will be followed by the physical degeneration so suppose this is the site of injury where this part is showing the cell body of the neuron and this part is the axon so if this is the site of the injury you see the neuron has been cut into two fragments there is axonal discontinuity so if this is the site of injury basically the neuron has been divided into a distal segment to the injury and a proximal segment to the injury so there will be two types of changes changes which are distal to injury and changes which occur proximal to injury now the changes which occur distal to injury were described by august waller in 1850 and that's why it is known as valerian degeneration also because it is distal it is also known as ortho-grade degeneration so what are these changes which occurring in the part of the neuron that is distal to the injury so first is there is cytoskeletal network degeneration see within the neuron there are lot of cytoskeletal elements they are basically acting as tracks for carrying the material from the cell body to the axon terminal so there is cytoskeletal network degeneration plus this myelin and the cell membrane also disintegrate the breakdown so something like this then what happens you know that this myelin is basically formed by the schoen cell membrane isn't it so schoen cell release certain chemo attractants which cause recruitment of phagocytic cells so lot of phagocytic cells that is macrophages come and invade the area of the injury in the distal segment so this green color is showing the macrophages and you know that macrophages are basically the debris cleaner so they will start eating all the debris which is generated due to the disintegration of myelin the breakdown of the membrane and the cytoskeletal network yeah by the way these calcium dependent lipases which I told they cause they are the ones which cause the membrane breakdown and myelin degeneration okay so yeah we were talking about the recruitment of the phagocytic cells and the cleaning of the debris by these cells now once these macrophages come to the site they obviously clear the debris but along with that they release a cytokine that is interleukin one which causes schoen cell proliferation so here in the distal segment the proliferation of the schoen cell will start which is known as glyosis so see schoen cell are the ones which release chemo attracting to cause the recruitment of phagocytic cells and phagocytic cells now are acting on the schoen cell causing their proliferation so finally what happens basically you see the distal segment has degenerated the membrane is not there the debris has been clean myelin has degenerated but the schoen cells are proliferated so in the distal segment we get something known as distal stump or a schoen cell columns so these schoen cell columns act like tracks it's like a road path which is provided such that if this portion wants to grow it can grow inside this already laid path by the schoen cells okay so what is the timeline of these changes I told you that functional loss is immediate then this cytoskeletal degeneration myelin and membrane loss occurs over a period of two to three days then there is a recruitment of the phagocytic cells and this schoen cell proliferation or the formation of the columns it takes around one week now what are the changes which occur proximal to the injury that is the distal segment see in the cell body that is the soma chromatolysis starts chromatolysis basically is a condition in which this cell body swells and the nucleus moves to a eccentric position it basically corners itself and rough endoplasmic reticulum there is some breakdown plus there is also degeneration here so the first node of Ranvier near to the injury till there there is a degeneration in the axon as well so these are the changes which occur proximal to injury okay but along with this the degeneration happening in the distal segment and the changes occurring in the proximal segment what happens that along with this some changes occur which promote regeneration and these changes are basically change in pattern of genes which are expressed plus there is increase in the protein and RNA synthesis in the proximal segment and the schoen cells they secrete nerve growth factor so these are the regenerative changes occurring because of this what happens this part of the axon starts giving regenerative sprouts so lot of sprouts start coming from this segment of the neuron now this it can go here here here so multiple ways these sprouts can grow but it is the schoen cells which actually guide these sprouts to the track so there are certain chemicals released from the schoen cells which act on these nerve terminals causing the nerve terminals along the path to grow now one thing you remember is that these regenerative changes occur very well in peripheral nervous system but regeneration of the neuron does not occur in central nervous system this is because in peripheral nervous system schoen cells are there which release certain growth factors and they guide the sprouts towards the path but in central nervous system it is other way around the oligodendrocytes which are surrounding the neuron they actually inhibit the regeneration they secrete certain inhibitory factors such that these sprouts do not perform and they do not grow any further is it good or bad well it appears bad but one thing you should remember that central nervous system and all the neurons are packed isn't it so you cannot allow any chance of misguidance so suppose if axonal sprouts grow and they grow some in wrong direction what will happen there is no space there isn't it so they it may go and may contact with other connections and it will create a havoc in central nervous system so physiologically it might be good but when we see this in patients it where it is very heartbreaking since the neurons in central nervous system cannot regenerate anyways there is a lot of research going on and how to promote this regenerative changes in central nervous system okay let's come back to our topic we were talking about the axonal sprouts so now once these axonal sprouts grow they can be two outcomes one that they grow back to the original target along the laid path or second these axons become entangled so here all the sprouts will get entangled to each other and they will not grow any further now this depends how severe the injury is which we discussed in the beginning so actually this neuropraxia which we said that there is no axonal discontinuity that is the grade one this has a very good prognosis no need to grow back and nothing that kind of things are not happening so it's a it has a very good prognosis axonitimesis also it has a good prognosis because the connective tissue sheets are not injured the paths are laid down so there are very less chances because the sheets are intact isn't it so there are very less chances that they will grow in different different directions on the other hand neurotimuses if the outer covering is injured or even for that matter these coverings if they are injured in that case it becomes little difficult for regeneration so in this case basically surgery helps where you suture the various connective tissue sheets together and the guidance will be done by our physiological processes by our shown self themselves okay so that was about the prognosis that how you tell about the prognosis of the nerve injury but there are certain consequences which happen one is that if the neuron doesn't regenerate what happens the area which it is supplying okay like suppose here I am showing a neuromuscular junction so what happens this is a target organ it has a receptors for the neurotransmitter which will be released now when there is degeneration these receptors increase in number we call it upregulation so there is upregulation of the receptors such that even minute release of the neurotransmitters now will excite the target organ more so that is known as denervation hypersensitivity it is a common phenomena in body whenever the concentration of the chemical goes up the receptors go down on the other hand when the chemical goes down the receptor goes up so it is a regulatory mechanism in body which in this case becomes pathological causes denervation hypersensitivity second consequence can be that there can be chain of events which can lead to nerve degeneration so suppose this is the neuron which is injured what will happen that the signal will not go to next neuron if the signal doesn't go to next neuron this neuron will also degenerate because there are certain trophic factors also so this neuron will also degenerate so that is known as antograde neuronal degeneration then the neurons which are making connections here on the cell body of the injured neuron they also get removed and what happens that this area gets occupied by glial cells so this is known as synaptic stripping so this is a phenomena which can occur and what happens that if there is an injury in one part of the brain suppose it can lead to loss of function due to some neurons in other part of the brain because the neurons may be interconnected and they all will undergo degeneration due to the chain of events which is occurring so yeah so that can also occur antograde neuronal degeneration and retrograde neuronal degeneration fine finally there can be wrong connection so even if the growth is occurring they can be formation of wrong connection so you might have heard about crocodile tear syndrome in this what happens this is a phenomena which occurs in patients of Bell's palsy where there is a palsy of seventh cranial nerve so during regeneration they can be cross connections with other nerves so what happens that there is lacrimation that is the tears which fall while eating so because they are false tears the person is not actually crying but while eating there is a stimulation of the nerve and it causes the tears to come out so that is known as crocodile tear syndrome then they can be formation of neuroma that is the entangled mass of the neuron so as I told you that there is formation of the sprouts if it doesn't grow into the path laid down by the schwann cell the schwann cell column then it gets entangled and it is very painful in case of sensory fibers well that is all about the nerve injury the classification the changes which can occur the consequences and what is the prognosis of different types of nerve injury well thanks for watching the video if you liked it do press the like button share the video with others and don't forget to subscribe to the channel physiology open thank you


This is the first time I've ever taken on a kind of heavy military strategy earlier in a game So we'll see how this goes because Scott has outstripped me Science-wise. Oh, well at least he had outstripped me until suddenly just now I actually don't know how this demographic works But I've been to this point and showed him at like 12% of me and it's zero So I should look up what this number actually represents Things are actually suddenly looking a lot better than they did before so anyway You'll see a little clever trick I did so earlier. I started making that barracks I only made it because I didn't my economy wasn't going great. I didn't want to Like build another unit that would just cost me I didn't want to build like a settler that earlier another worker So I started building a barracks and I switched it out one turn before it was done to build something else So now I'm one turn away from finishing a military unit I'm gonna go over to this barracks that I'd mostly finished and oh look it's one turn away from finishing So I'll finish the barracks this turn. I'll finish the companion cavalry next turn it'll get the experience bonus and then I'm gonna have an army of three hoplites two companion cavalry and two scouts and I might start building one more companion cavalry and One more hoplite before I start building other stuff to leave behind in these places as free garrisons Primarily just to protect the cities from barbarians, but I'll send the rest of the forces over to take out these barbarian encampments Since this one is a city-state quest and I want to be allies with all four city-states before I fully take on Scott But otherwise, I want to send these troops over here and just harass Scott to the point that he quits the game So let's move these guys around continue to build up my awesome city Let my hoplites heal have the scout continue to check on where these barbarians might be alright. There's one Ooh, this guy already leveled up. I'm gonna use him as a shocktrooper and I'll just straight up finish that off Nice culture nice experience this guy finish that off Nice and remember I'm already getting 50% more experience So I'm gonna have one fuck of an army by the time it gets over to bother Scott and look this guy still got movements I could explore this little area, but instead I'm gonna run back into my territory to ensure that I heal a Little bit faster than I would normally This guy remember I living here because he should heal thanks to my religion much faster than he would anywhere else I'm just gonna let the city keep building that caravan for the time being because I would like to get that caravan going And just start sending it to her and just get some money just to cover that minor deficit That's gonna grow a little bit more as I build more military units And that's that see how things go with Scott Let's see So it's interesting population wise we're pretty close, but that's just because Sparta hasn't grown substantially yet. I'm Doubtful that Scott is built a second city this early if he did I Probably built it up here somewhere I mean he's only got two spots you build a city if he got a guy over here and built a city in this I will be shocked Utterly shocked and I think I'm gonna build my next city over here in the middle of all this so I get a city here I've locked the map away from him and his game over So things bode less well for Scott than I'd anticipated because sure he just finished the Great Library as he was bringing about when we're about to do the show But he also just entered the classical era Now if you look at the tech tree I've been in the classical era for a while and I'm working on my second tech so How do I have to have that much more science output than him like what does he been doing? He must have completely get sailing. I know that he must just like completely filled this tree out. I Don't know exactly what's up, but let's see the demographics Yeah He's got a little more manufacturing a little more stuff going on is one big city So I got to start expanding this guy more otherwise you can see these barbarians everywhere.  I can finish that guy off Significantly damage that guy I'll leave this guy here for the flanking this guy So he's healed he can't kill that guy in one turn So maybe it's time to just send him around to deal with this other stuff So I can send this guy down here to help deal with these guys I'll leave him there for now and I'll come here And almost finish them off And then once again end my turn in my own territory Finish the quarry City's looking pretty good Start growing a lot faster. I'm gonna plantations. I can finish all these out I'll get the city on a little more and I'm gonna come down here and start building this city out more Otherwise everything's coming up in the house. Just think this guy closer to keep an eye on Scott Because that's not a city-state quest. So I really don't care I'll finish this off as I come across to settle in here. I want to keep this guy around to start menacing Scott That one I want to kill though Is it for Prague? I assume so Yep, it's for Prague and this one Should be for Lhasa