So, we'll get started here in just a couple of minutes, but one of the questions I was asked, why did I do this particular presentation? And the answer is really quite simple. There's so many different versions of Wi-Fi out there. There's so many different addresses, so many different numbers and letters and everything else assigned to it that it was like, if I'm confused about what Wi-Fi is what, then somebody else probably is as well. So we will try to address those issues and make sure that everybody understands what versions mean what, especially when it comes to some of this new stuff, when they're saying, oh, it's going to be Wi-Fi 6. Well, wait a minute, Wi-Fi 6, how the hell does that relate to 802.11 whatever? And so, and then I found out there actually was a Wi-Fi 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. And they never said anything about those. So we'll talk about those as well. But now they're talking about Wi-Fi 7, and it's like Wi-Fi 6 isn't even out yet. And they're already talking about Wi-Fi 7, and it's got its own goofy 802.11 BE assignment to it. So it's weird. They're rapidly running through the alphabet. They've already run through it once, and now they're at the AA something, you know, X-A-D-A-F, and they'll run through those, I guess, and we'll go to, well, they're already talking about BE is the next one, so go figure. All right, well, we are at time. So let's go ahead and get started here. My name is Mike Anderson, and I will, let's see, if I can get it to turn once there, right? There we go. That's my particulars. If you need to get ahold of me, feel free to reach out on LinkedIn and, of course, the website and email. I work for the PTR group. We're a consulting shop. We've been in the Linux business since about 2000. We were the first to put Linux in space. That was on Taxat 4 for the Navy. That was back in 2007, and now we do a lot of work with NASA, most of the space refueling mission, the new Restore L, where we're trying to refuel a low-Earth orbit satellite. We've got Linux on that platform as well. So it is a lot of experimentation with Linux over the years. We've used it for everything from bicycle shifters all the way to big robots in space. So lots of fun stuff. We are now a wholly-owned subsidiary of Huntington Ingalls Industries, which is better known as Newport News Naval Shipyard. So I am now owned by a shipbuilding company, of which I'm not quite sure exactly what that means to me. My 24-person company is now part of a 40,000-person company. I'm sure we're still having kind of selling shocks because the company that bought us originally did not tell us they were selling to somebody else. So that's the way it goes. So what we're going to talk about is we're going to talk about IEEE 802.11 and of course the Wi-Fi Alliance and how that factors into things. We'll do a quick history and try to clear up some of the naming confusion associated with Wi-Fi. As we go through, we'll discuss various topics like the frequencies that are being used, the modulation techniques, the data rates you can expect to get, and we'll finish up by talking a little bit about security and the future of where we believe Wi-Fi is actually headed. So the Wi-Fi Alliance, which is an industry consortium, they are responsible for a logo program, and that logo program then designates, if you see the logo, Wi-Fi Alliance, then you know that that device has been tested and is compatible with other devices that also have the logo. So it's a mechanism for being able to guarantee some interoperability between the individual manufacturers of components. As of 2019, they actually claimed that there's been over 60 billion devices shipped that support Wi-Fi. Now they claim the 20th anniversary of Wi-Fi is in 2019. We'll see in just a moment that that's not quite true, but we'll get to that in a bit. Now as the Wi-Fi Alliance continues to expand, if you want to basically sell compatible devices to Wi-Fi, you effectively have to become a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Now that's not of course cheap, but that's not my problem, I'm just a user of Wi-Fi, so I want to make sure that things are interoperable, therefore the logo program is a good thing. Now in the early years, the first Wi-Fi was actually 1997, so much for 20 years of Wi-Fi, that would have been two years ago, but that's okay, we'll kind of give them a break on that because the real first significant piece of Wi-Fi, which was the two megabit per second support for Wi-Fi, didn't come out until 1999. So we'll give them the 20 years on that one. One of the key things about the Wi-Fi world is that it's originally been targeted and continues to operate inside of the industrial, scientific and medical bands. So the 2.4 GHz ISM band is unique around the world in that it is the one band that exists in all countries. So when we talk about the 5 GHz band, we talk about the 1.2 GHz band, even the 900 MHz bands, those frequency ranges do not exist as open frequency ranges in all countries. So and it turns out that the U.S. restriction on the 2.4 GHz band is actually quite a bit smaller than what we would see in countries like Israel or Japan, where they have additional frequencies inside the 2.4 GHz band. So when we're buying a Wi-Fi device, we also have to take into account what region are we buying this device in and what region are we going to deploy the device in. Because we may in fact run afoul of various frequency allocations. If we're trying to run a Japanese radio here in the United States, their channel 1314 is outside of the U.S. allocation for the 2.4 GHz ISM band. So we could in fact run ourselves into trouble if we had the FCC really knocking on our doorstep. Now in 1999, they introduced 802.11A and this was the first use of the 5 GHz band. So the 5 GHz band understand that when we talk about frequencies, the higher the frequency, the less its ability to penetrate walls. So when we go from 2.4 GHz to 5 GHz, well we've effectively cut the distance that we can get out of the signal and we've cut its ability to penetrate walls and operate inside of buildings. So that does become a bit of a problem. Now one of the advantages, however, of the 5 GHz frequency for 802.11A was they added orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, OFDM. And OFDM has a distinct characteristic in that you can operate multiple radios in the same frequency spectrum, all of them using OFDM and they won't interfere with each other. So that's a huge win when you're trying to operate multiple access points or multiple SSIDs simultaneously. But with the 802.11A specification, they went from the 2 Mbps frequency, 2 Mbps data rates that we saw with the original 802.11 to 54 Mbps. Well that was a huge, excuse me, gigabits per second. Was that a gigabit? No, megabits per second, that's a typo. So it's megabits per second. And that was a huge jump in capability. At the same time, they then found that the original Wi-Fi had some serious problems. And those serious problems had to deal with interference. The original Wi-Fi frequencies happened to also sit where microwave ovens radiate. And there were also portable phones. Back in the day before cell phones, we actually had these things called portable phones. And they were wireless phones that would then operate with your landline, another unique concept these days. But it turned out that they could easily be interfered with. So if somebody was trying to use the internet and they were on their 802.11 Wi-Fi interface and then somebody decided they were going to microwave dinner, well you suddenly lost all connectivity to the internet as long as the microwave was running. Those problems were a significant issue with Wi-Fi. And that's why in 1999 they also brought down 802.11 B. 802.11 B was 11 megabits per second. It switched to a direct sequence spread spectrum option. And by going to spread spectrum, it basically bounced around inside the frequency bands in such a way that you didn't get any significant interference from microwave ovens and other devices that happened to be sitting in the 2.4 GHz band. So that was a real hop, a real jump in terms of capability that were basically things that existed just before the turn of the century. And I like saying it that way because it's like when you say, oh, this was the way we did it before the turn of the century. That makes it sound really old. Now in the aughts, in 2003 they introduced 802.11 G. And with 802.11 G, because of the problems they were running into with the original 802.11 specifications, they took the OFDM modulation technique from the 5 GHz band and moved it into the 2.4 GHz band. So that then gave us a 54 megabit per second frequency, a 54 megabit per second transmission rate, but with forward error correction. And with the forward error correction, of course, it made it much more reliable. But it also significantly cut the effective throughput on the device. So we were seeing an average of about 22 megabits per second in the 2.4 GHz band with 802.11 G. Because they're not one to leave well enough alone, the 802.11 frequency group, the TGMA task group, then took the specifications for 802.11 A, B, D, E, which never got deployed, G, H, and I, and rolled them all into one specification called 802.11 MA. Of course, they had no devices that actually spoke 802.11 MA. They were just doing that as a way of trying to reduce the amount of documentation that they had to have in order to keep track of all these individual variants. But then in 2009, they introduced 802.11 N, and within the unique characteristic of N was they introduced what they called multiple input, multiple output antennas. So they started going from the concept. If you look all the way back to G and earlier, there was one stream. And the data rate that you got was the data rate you could get on one stream. When they went to 802.11 N, they added multiple streams. And those streams could then be bonded together into a single data throughput. So when we looked at 802.11 N, we had antennas and devices that could operate in both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. In the case of 802.11 A, it was only 5 GHz, and 802.11 B was only 2.4 GHz. With 802.11 N, we had now both 2.4 and 5 GHz. And the data rates could range anywhere from a single stream at 54 megabits per second all the way up to multiple streams at 600 megabits per second. So 802.11 N was a huge jump in capability that everybody was very excited about. Well, unfortunately, that was still not fast enough. And as we start getting faster and faster, understand that at the time, Ethernet was about a gigabit per second. So they were trying to get the equivalent of a wireless gigabit Ethernet to delivered from an access point to a consumer. So in the 802.11 N amendment, they basically took that original standard and they switched from a 20 MHz or 40 MHz channel up to an 80 or even a 160 MHz channel. Now, when they went to the 80 and 160 MHz channels in the 5 GHz band, they also added additional spatial streams. So now we had up to 8 spatial streams as opposed to 8.11 Ns for spatial streams. They also switched the modulation technique. So QAM, QAM is a quadrature amplitude modulation signal. So in the case of 802.11 N, they were using 64 QAM, which is 64 bits, basically 64 symbols per cycle. When they went to 802.11 AC, that is 256 QAM. So they multiplied the number of symbols considerably and they also doubled the number of spatial streams. So if we take a look at some of the high-end implementations in the 80 MHz channel space, we had three spatial streams and 256 QAM. We would effectively see three separate 433 Mbps streams and when we combined them together through bonding, we were getting an equivalent of about 1.3 Gbps. So we managed to make that one gigabit number that they were trying to get to make it compatible or actually competitive against normal wired Ethernet. Now vendors have announced a special version of 802.11 AC called Wave 2. And in Wave 2, they go to 160 MHz channels. So again, they've doubled the size of the channel. And with 160 MHz channel and four spatial streams, and they add one more thing to that. And that is multi-user, multiple input, multiple output antennas. So this means if we take a look at a typical antenna right now, you've got one user, one antenna, they communicate with each other, then they have to switch to another user. In this case, with multiple user MIMO antennas, now I can run multiple users at the same time, all using the same four spatial streams at 160 MHz for an effective throughput of about 3.4 Gbps. Now in terms of the availability of Wave 2 devices, that hasn't really been made significantly available. You can get samples at this point, but they're still pretty expensive. And understand that if you get a Wave 2 access point, you still have to have a Wave 2-compatible client, otherwise you're not going to see the kinds of performance out of it. So in terms of being able to actually scale this thing up, it's a significant investment in terms of getting Wave 2 devices, especially when 802.11ac is now old. So when we talk about 802.11c with the use of multiple antennas, we get significant better performance out of it, but now we've got another problem coming on the horizon. One of the problems that came about was the introduction of another industry consortium called YGIG.  They also saw that the 5 GHz band is actually not all that wide and it actually has two separate sections of the 5 GHz band. So that made things even more complicated. So the YGIG industry consortium decided, well, let's throw all that out. We don't care about all of that. What we're going to do is we're going to jump right to 60 GHz. Now this is millimeter wave. Understand that 2.4 GHz is microwave frequencies. Anything above about, well, there's a magic number, but anything above 24 GHz is going to be millimeter wave and millimeter wave has the advantage that up in the 60 GHz band, there's a lot of bandwidth there. There's a lot of frequency space available, which means we can run extremely wide frequency bands. But as I said, the higher the frequency, the harder it is to penetrate walls. So 60 GHz is fantastic in terms of the throughput. However, it's not going to be able to get out of this room. As a matter of fact, it might not even be able to get to the back wall. So there are certain applications like set top box to TV sets that make a lot of sense for 60 GHz. But not all use cases are going to work terribly well with this particular model. Nonetheless, the Wi-Fi Alliance saw that this YGIG Alliance was basically trying to create a competitive standard. So the Wi-Fi Alliance didn't want that. So they bought the YGIG Alliance and made them part of the fold and they then took what they were doing as YGIG and gave it a new name. And it becomes 802.11 AD. 802.11 AD has a very high data rate. It's seven gigabits per second is the throughput on that. But it's only over very short distances, typically less than 10 meters. So inside this room, maybe it would work to the back corner, maybe not. But if it did work, you'd get incredible throughput out of it. So an interesting trade-off. Now, what's happened though is because most handsets like your cell phone and your tablet and your PC don't have 60 GHz radios in them, it meant that they're not compatible with the 802.11 AD specification. So what they've done is they've created dual-mode radios that have 802.11 AC for 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz on one side and 802.11 AD on the other side. So you can do 60 GHz if you've got a 60 GHz radio or you can use 2.4 and 5 GHz if you have normal radios. Okay, well, that's kind of cool. But a lot of that is assuming that sooner or later we're going to get handsets with 60 GHz frequencies in them, which is not necessarily a safe assumption. So another aspect of this, at the same time, there's another group of people out there that says, remember back when we switched over from analog television to digital TV, we then had all the frequencies that are associated with the VHF and UHF television frequencies, that became what's known as white space. So 802.11 AF is also known as super Wi-Fi or white-fi, where it basically implements a wide area, a wide local area network, a wireless local area network in the frequencies between 54 and 790 MHz. Now on the plus side, 54 to 790 MHz, those frequencies actually go very long distances. You can get potentially in the 54 MHz band, you can get hundreds of miles in the 54 MHz band. But in the way they defined 802.11 AF, basically you have to have access to a geographical database that tells you what other operators may in fact be licensed to operate in those frequencies. So the FCC opens up bids basically for a lot of these white space frequencies, and they've sold some of them. We've seen numbers like several billion dollars for buying the rights to certain parts of these frequency spectrum. So with 802.11 AF, you have to ask a regional database who has a legitimate license in this particular frequency range, and if you have someone that has a legitimate license, you have to basically release the frequencies periodically. So here in the United States, when you acquire one of these frequencies, you have access to it for 48 hours, and then you have to move to another frequency. In the EU, it's only two hours before you have to move to another frequency. So from a coordination perspective of how am I going to coordinate between the transmitter and the receiver, I have to do a handoff between the transmitter and the receiver to let the receiver know, hey, I'm getting ready to change frequencies, you need to follow me to what used to be the old VHF channel four. And then everything would move to VHF channel four, and you'd have that for another 48 hours, and then you'd have to move to channel six or whatever. So that becomes kind of complicated. But what they did was they took advantage of 8211AC's OFDM modulation technique, and they had channels that were in between that could either be six, seven, or eight megahertz wide. So using 256 quam and up to four channels bonded together, it meant that if I was using six and seven megahertz channels, I could do about 426 megabits per second. If I'm using an eight megahertz channel, I could get 568 megabits per second, but I could go extremely long distances with this. Now, ostensibly, they had a limit on here that said no more than a kilometer. But there's nothing about the frequency that limits that. And in fact, what they've done is they've introduced yet another standard, the 80222 standard. The 802.22 standard is a wireless regional area network, a metropolitan area network that has ranges up to 100 kilometers, and it coexists with 802.11 AF. So this is something to take advantage of the white space. If we were to look at the entire frequency spectrum from DC to daylight, it turns out there's not a lot of open spaces. It's either already allocated to some preexisting service, or it's allocated to the military. And the military isn't too keen on giving up their frequency spectrum. And obviously, there are other organizations like CB radios and ham radio operators and all these other people that are either licensed or have purchased a license for some of this frequency spectrum that they're not eager to give up their frequency spectrum, especially when it cost them a billion dollars to get access to the spectrum in the first place. Now, if you take a look at normal cellular communications, cellular communications today in the United States for 4G LTE is anywhere from 1.7 GHz up to 2.2 to 2.3 GHz. So it's just below the 2.4 GHz band. And when we talk about 5G and its interface to Wi-Fi, we'll actually find there's some other problems that come up because of that. We'll get to that in a moment. Now, unfortunately, if we were to take a look at a typical Wi-Fi radio, Wi-Fi radios are incredibly power hungry. So from an embedded systems perspective, trying to put a Wi-Fi radio on your embedded platform means you're going to burn through your battery in a very short order. So one of the other versions of Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi Halo, otherwise known as 802.11AH. In 802.11AH, it's again one of these repeater modes where I have one frequency on one side and a different frequency on the other side of the radio. In this particular case, they're using the 900 MHz ISM band on one side of the radio, and they're going to 11AC on the other side of the radio. Now, what's the advantage of using the 900 MHz band? Well, it is, in fact, an ISM band. So it's an open frequency here in the United States. In the European market, they don't have the 900 MHz band. They have the 868 MHz band. So one of the problems for Wi-Fi Halo is that they can sell one radio in the United States, but they have to sell a different radio in European nations. And neither of those two frequencies are available in Asia. So this, of course, further complicates things, but the significant advantage of the 900 MHz band is its range. I can easily get a couple of kilometers out of 900 MHz with the right antenna. So this gives me the ability to have a reasonably good transmission rate and understand that for most Internet of Things devices, I don't need megabits per second. A few k bits per second is usually plenty fast enough. So in Halo, they had 26 channels of 100 kilobits each, and then it would go into the radio and pop out on the other side as 11 AC. So you could basically use the radio as an aggregation point of multiple sensors out in the field, aggregate them to the radio, and then the radio would spit them out as high-speed Wi-Fi on the other side or potentially go gigabit ethernet or whatever happened to be wired to the radio at the same time. This was kind of a cool approach, but it's one of these cases of it may have been too little, too late. In the Wi-Fi specifications, I mean, for the Wi-Fi Alliance, the Wi-Fi Alliance realizes that they're eating a lot of battery when they're using Wi-Fi. So they've been working very diligently to try and cut the power requirements for Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi Halo was meant to do two things, increase the range for Internet of Things devices and cut the power requirement for those Internet of Things devices by getting everything down in the 900 megahertz band. Well, if they can cut the power requirements for Wi-Fi across the board, then part of the argument for Wi-Fi Halo goes away. So even though there are radio units that are available, that is embedded modules that are available for Wi-Fi Halo, we haven't seen Wi-Fi Halo really hit the market any big way, and it could be one of these things.  Now, the successor to 802.11ac is also known as Wi-Fi 6. This is 802.11ax. Now, 802.11ax ties OFDM, MuMemo, the multi-user, multiple in, multiple out antennas, but it goes from 256-QAM to 1024-QAM. So again, we've now just multiplied the number of symbols per signal time that we can get out of this particular type of modulation. It's backward compatible with 802.11abgn and ac, so you don't have to worry about older devices not being able to talk to it. And they've also implemented a new encryption standard called WPA3. Why did they call it Wi-Fi 6?  That is to the consumer. The consumer doesn't know what they just bought. Do I need an AC? You're telling me I need AX, but AX isn't commercially available. Well, it is sort of commercially available if I'm willing to spend $500 for a unit, but most consumers are not willing to throw away all their old equipment just so they can have this incredible performance. What kind of performance are we talking about here? Remember, it's about four times the throughput of AC. So we can actually see significantly faster performance out of this. And part of the argument is they could do it this way without needing millimeter wave radios, without needing 24 gigahertz or 60 gigahertz or any of these other special radios. They could do it with existing radio silicon. Now, beyond 802.11aX, we have 802.11aY, and the 60 gigahertz frequencies are just not going to go away. 802.11aY brings 60 gigahertz millimeter wave back as an extension to 802.11ad. And unfortunately, if you take a look at some of the other frequencies that this particular standard operates in, it overlaps with some of the 5G cellular technologies. So how this is going to play out, it's not entirely sure yet. But just so that they don't leave well enough alone, they've introduced 802.11be, which is the extremely high throughput that builds on top of 802.11aX for indoor usage using the 2.4, but they also now have an extension into 2.5, 5 gigahertz, and 6 gigahertz frequency bands. 6 gigahertz was a fairly small band, but they have enough range in there that for indoor use, it won't interfere with anybody else. So this is likely going to be standardized as Wi-Fi 7. And again, the idea is, let's give it a simple number for people to remember. We'll call it Wi-Fi 7. Everything's cool. Well, they added to the 802.11aX, they added this import of WPA3, so we'll come to that in a moment. Just for research capabilities, I kind of went back and I go, well, if they have a Wi-Fi 6, did they actually have a Wi-Fi 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, and 5? It actually turns out they did, but they never advertised it. So Wi-Fi 1 was 11b, Wi-Fi 5 was 11ac, and now Wi-Fi 6 is going to be 11aX, and Wi-Fi 7 will probably be 11be. All right. Wi-Fi mesh. Now, this is another aspect. It turns out that all the Wi-Fi mesh implementations that you have in your home today, because you can't get access to the far end of the house, and so you had to put a repeater in there, those are all proprietary. So you cannot mix and match. You can't take Googles and mix it with anybody else's. There is a standard called EasyMesh where they have a standard that's been specified, but none of the manufacturers have signed up to it. So even though they have a standard, and they could standardize so that all the radios are compatible with each other, at the moment there's no impetus for them to do that, because Google wants to be able to sell Google radios, and Asus wants to be able to sell Asus radios, and Apple wants to sell Apple radios, so you just have to buy radios from the same manufacturer. The Wi-Fi alliance does not see this as a problem, because it basically sells more radios. So whether or not we'll actually see anything that uses the certified EasyMesh standard as an open standard, it's hard to say at this point. Excuse me. All right. So to kind of wrap things up here, a quick word on security. Of course, when Wi-Fi first came out, it had this thing called wired equivalent privacy, and WEP came in both the 40-bit and 128-bit mode. The problem with the algorithm is that it reused initialization vectors. So if I sat there with Kismet or AircrackNG for more than about 10 minutes, I could break into your Wi-Fi system. And a lot of people did that. So they decided that WEP was bad, so they decided to replace that with a new version, a new encryption standard called WPA. But WPA had its own set of weaknesses, so they had to replace that quickly with WPA2. WPA2 is an enhanced WPA that added support for pre-shared keys, or PSK. It also had a whole bunch of enterprise class additions for CCMP and advanced encryption standard, AES. This is basically what we see today in all of the open Wi-Fi access points. So the one that we're running here for the Linux Foundation, the hotel Wi-Fi, the airport Wi-FIs, the Wi-FIs in Starbucks and things of that sort, they're all running WPA2. If they're running any encryption at all, they're running WPA2, and you just simply have to have access to the pre-shared key, like in our case Linux 1991, that pre-shared key then gets me into the interface. Now, one of the problems and one of the things they were trying to address with WPA3 was setting up a mechanism so that there would no longer be open Wi-Fi access points. So with WPA3, they would effectively do a handshake between your radio and the access point, and it would negotiate a pairwise key. It would look a lot like Diffie Hellman in the way that it would negotiate a secure channel, and then you would always be a secure channel into the device. They would have 128-bit personal mode and 192-bit enterprise mode for using this particular encryption technique. So it used the CSNA encryption suite and forward secrecy techniques, but unfortunately, even though it looked like it was a good idea, it was subject to the crack attack, and so there was a mechanism for breaking into WPA3 using this particular technique called the crack attack, and it found out that WPA3 wasn't as secure as they thought it was. So unfortunately, they found not only that problem, but they've also found other serious design flaws in WPA3. So in spite of the fact that it looked like a good idea, WPA3 is actually subject to a downgrade attack where I can actually tell it to fall back to WPA2 and leave the WPA2 channel open so I can get into the system. There was also some side channel attacks to be able to extract out the SSID. There was also, and the key out of that SSID, there were also another attack that could be used to brute force the password. So at this point in time, the security saga continues. We don't have a good solution yet, and everybody understands that we need to be able to effectively do away with open access points, but in order to do away with open access points, it then means I need to have enough CPU horsepower to be able to handle the encryption for potentially dozens of units that are all attached to one particular access point, where I'm pairwise negotiating that encryption. For 802.11 AX with WPA3, the minimum machines that we're seeing are 1.8 GHz quad core systems. So now the amount of heat that's being generated by these radios is becoming significant, not to mention the power consumption. So, our summary is that Wi-Fi by itself is a confusing mismatch of 802.11.something, and it's very difficult for the typical consumer to sort out which one is which. We know that now they're trying to make this a little bit simpler by rebranding this as Wi-Fi 6, and if everything has got Wi-Fi 6 and the little Wi-Fi 6 logo on it, we know it should be compatible, but at this point in time, the consumer is so hopelessly confused that it remains to be seen how many of them are actually going to plunk out another several hundred dollars for a new radio. Of course, some of the differences in the ISM bands in various countries also further complicate things. I can't run 900 MHz in Europe. I can't run 868 MHz in Asia. So, and then the 60 GHz bands, those are millimeter wave. That's a completely different kind of radio. It does not penetrate walls. Oh, and by the way, if you're thinking that 5G cellular is going to be your solution, understand that 5G cellular is in the 24 to 26 GHz bands. So you're going to have to have five times as many cell towers as you have now in order to support 5G. Fortunately, those cell towers come in the form of light poles. So major metropolitan areas are going, ooh, we're going to make a lot of money off of our light poles because I have power and enough altitude that I can actually run a 5G cellular. They'll have lots of 5G Pico cells in order to be able to support 5G, and it'll only work in cities. It won't work out in the hinterlands because the radio frequency just doesn't transmit that far. So 5G is probably not going to be your solution in spite of what all the telephone companies would like for you to believe. We will always have 4G at some level, at least for the foreseeable future, because that's the only way we're going to be able to service the outer reaches of the rural areas. We're not going to be able to do that with actual 5G. And don't believe that 5G evolution is 5G. It's not. It's 4G. They just put fast 4G, and they called it 5G evolution. So it's all marketing. It's all crazy. And unfortunately, we find ourselves in a circumstance where we really need to have greater frequency, we need to have greater range, which typically means lower frequencies, but there aren't very many lower frequencies to be had. WPA3 was supposed to make things better. Unfortunately, it's already been pwned. So we don't know what's going to happen with WPA3, assuming they will either fix WPA3 or they'll just simply move to WPA4, whatever the answer to that is. So stay tuned. You'll have to figure out how to set that up on your radios, on your home routers at some point in the future. All right. That's it for me. Any questions? Yeah. Well, and that's because 802.22 is trying to replace it. So 802.22 is going to be the white fi. It's going to be the metropolitan area transmission of Wi-Fi. There are examples that are running, but in terms of being able to have a shipable product, I haven't seen any yet. So it's a concept. It's out there. Manufacturers have radios. We have techniques for actually doing it, but now you have to have the will of the metropolitan area to actually set up radios like that. Understand that the metropolitan area radio system is really not a solution for delivering radio signals to the end user. It's to handle the last mile. So it gets me to your house or it gets me to the Starbucks, and then in the Starbucks, I'm going to have to go from 802.22 to 802.11. Oh, for a marine application. Yeah. Yeah. So in that circumstance, yes, there is a standard. There are radio modules available for it, but I've not seen any actual product shipping that uses it. Yeah, we'll talk about that later. Any other questions? Yeah. Is just marketing. Yep. Now, if you're in your house and there's no other radios nearby, then, and you live in Kansas somewhere, then you can probably actually get those kinds of speeds, but also understand that AX is going to be more focused on doing like set top box to TV kind of transmissions, fairly small range. And as a consequence, yes, it's really fast when you can get the connection, but it will start falling back. And that's why they say it's compatible with A, B, G, N, and AC. Well, it'll fall back to 256 quam or even back to 64 quam in order to be able to interoperate if it's in a really noisy environment. So most of it is smoking mirrors, frankly. Now, the question was, if I have an AC radio, if I have an AX radio, and I've got three users in the room, two of them using AC, one of them using AX, what's it going to do? Is it going to fall back to AC or is there going to be an AX and then ACs? Well, this is where the multi-user part of it comes in. So multi-user, multiple input, multiple output says that it will, in fact, have AC channels for those people that are using AC and an AX channel for those that are using AX. And it'll keep them separate. Yep. Yes. Yeah, so they have an aggressive sleep schedule for this. Understand that for the most part, when we're dealing with a radio, it's got a lot of time that's basically dead time. I mean, unless you're doing streaming from Netflix, there's a lot of dead space, a lot of dead time on the radio in the frequency band. So what they're trying to do by reducing, in order to reduce the power consumption, they're basically looking at all those things based on the speed of the connection. So if I've got an AC connection to an AX radio, that says I've got a lot of dead time.  The device that's actually running the radio is not really consuming all that much in terms of power. It's the transmitter that actually consumes most of the power. So if the transmission is going mostly outbound and you're not really transmitting, you're actually receiving, then you can also power it down. You can actually cut the power back. So this is one of these things that the manufacturers are going to have to get very aggressive in terms of their power consumption. Especially when you look at a typical AX system, which is going to be a 1.8 gigahertz quad core, this is going to be a fair amount of heat this thing is going to generate. And are you going to want an access point in your house with fans running on it? Probably not. So you're going to have to dump the heat somehow and that's another one of the reasons why they're getting very aggressive with the power management because they want to be able to keep the temperature of the CPU as cool as possible. So yeah, they're going to have to get really aggressive with that. And fortunately, in the case of Linux, we have the no hurts option. So we can actually then turn off the clocks and do interrupt reduction so that we can put it into sleep states for extended periods of time. And then obviously during sometimes, you know, some point in time in the middle of the night, for instance, from like midnight to eight o'clock in the morning, there may not be much traffic out there at all. So they can cut everything back to even 11g and see if anybody is communicating. And if somebody tries to communicate, then they can power up and be able to go to the faster speeds, but they don't have to sit there and work at AX speeds all the time. Yes. Ah, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. So I've done a lot of work with Bluetooth mesh. And of course, Bluetooth sets in the same frequency spectrum as Wi-Fi. And they do interfere with each other if you don't allow the Wi-Fi to move between channels. So typically here in the United States, we have 11 channels, channel one through 11. And there is some overlap between those channels and the Bluetooth specification. However, the Bluetooth mechanism uses a completely different modulation technique. It uses Gaussian frequency shift keying, or there's another one, but neither one of them are OFDM. So we can actually have the radio set up on the Wi-Fi side using OFDM, and they won't be interfered with by either the BPSK or the GPSK, the Gaussian frequency shift keying. So they won't be interfered by those. The only thing that we would run into is if there was a broadband jamming that was going on. So I mean, if all of the Bluetooth radios, because they use frequency hopping as well, if all the Bluetooth radios suddenly woke up and started just transmitting without any secession, that will basically block off a big chunk of the 2.4 gigahertz band, and that would force our Wi-Fi's down into the lower frequencies in that band. But are they going to interfere with each other? We haven't seen much interference at this point between those two spectrums, but we do know that we can't just basically take the entire 2.4 gigahertz band. Also, if you look at Bluetooth mesh, there are three advertising bands that are used in the 2.4 gigahertz spectrum for Bluetooth, and Bluetooth mesh uses all three of those advertising bands, and that's how they can get two megabits per second out of Bluetooth mesh. Bluetooth mesh is really targeted more at lighting and locks on doors and things of that sort. So it's a smart city kind of, or smart building kind of protocol. Not really made for Wi-Fi, I mean not made for IP traffic. It's really just made for device to device communications. So I don't see much in the way of interference between those two spectrums. It is of course possible, but with OFDM able to sort itself out between them and Gaussian frequency shift keying, I don't see you're going to see much in the way of problems with that. Anything else? That's it. Thank you very much.


Okay guys, you saw a little speed through there of me altering our title page a little bit after thinking about it overnight I wanted it to look a little bit different and a little to go a little bit more with what I plan on doing in the rest of The journal and so here we go. I'm not worried about covering up all the writing in the background It just adds texture in my opinion, but now I'm much more happy with the way it's turned out I'm still very pleased with the cover. I'm waiting for a few more sort of winter themed parts to come in They're not here yet But hopefully they'll be in some time today. Anyway, we are going to get started with our first page Which I'm going to sort of talk you through if so, we're going to start off our pages Always with putting the dates so I printed the dates For December on these labels. These are Avery 81 67 little tiny labels and I Have this as a PDF document. You actually get two months on here So because there's 80 labels on the sheet So you definitely could you know cut some off here and give some to a friend? I am going to put this PDF document in both Patreon and my creative year To download so you need to be either a supporting patron over in patreon or you need to be a member of my creative year Now my creative year are getting some of these downloads free. You don't have to Give me any money for them, but they're getting less of the downloads than you would get if you're in patreon They're getting all of the downloads in patreon And a few extra well, they always get extra things over there And I have an idea for a special video series for them over there, too. Anyway, that's different for 2021 so I'm going to start always with pulling off the label for the date and I'm going to put it in the upper corner. Oh, but wait But wait, I punched out these large snowflakes.  These are a scissor's die that I literally just got in the mail Yesterday I ordered it to Amazon They have it's a Tim Holtz Die, I need some more you good thing I have more I will put the Name of the die here somewhere and there'll be a link in the video description We are going to put that down And then my my date date label fell on the floor, so let's get that and on the page There we go So we're going to always start the page off by putting the date We don't need to put the year because the year is in the front of the journal and the year is also here on the cover so We're going to always start out that way My desk is a disaster. Okay. Anyway, then we are going to take our bowl of positive Affirmation words. I'm going to choose a word at random. I'm going to mix them up I'm not going to really look while I'm looking in the camera I'm not going to really pay too much attention to the one I'm picking Playful that's a good one and then we are going to find the coordinating sticker For that word It was near the bottom of the pile there Now you might ask why am I not just putting the stickers in a bowl and putting one at random You could definitely do that when I originally envisioned this idea It was taking this card pulling a card at random and actually Stapling the card into my journal because I have a number of these sets of cards positive affirmation cards These are a digital download in my Etsy shop the people over at patreon got this as a free Download for them, but you can go buy it in the Etsy shop and I have a number of different sets So it's not like I don't have plenty of them to spare. I've got two or three sets upstairs I got one set downstairs There's a lot of them to go around because I have guests when they come over at random just pick a card take it home Why not anyway, and then later I thought hey, why don't I make stickers? So this was kind of an afterthought so you could do either way or not at all Maybe this part doesn't appeal to you whatever works for you So we're gonna be using that in our page And we are going to be using the positive affirmation word as a jumping off point for whatever we do on the page Now the other thing that I want to do is grab one of my to-do sticky notes Because we're gonna add that I have a few other random pieces, but I think that's enough for this page So I'm gonna put a page together. I will probably I may print a couple of images with art foamy's on just printer or drawing paper thin printer or drawing paper because again This is Moleskine kayak the paper is very thin Plus it's kind of nicer to work with thinner papers and gluing them down rather than lots of card stock which Because this is thin paper the card stock will make bumps and ridges on the back side Which is then hard to write on and blah blah blah you get the idea, right? All right, so I am going to Work through my page. I've got my word playful Which inspires an idea for an art spoke foamy to use I've got my to-do list which again we are going to put We're gonna put things that Will send us in a more positive direct direction this holiday season again. This is not a Traditional December daily by any stretch. We are looking for the lightness in the dark the bright spots in what is a crazy insane Slightly depressing holiday season this year. We are trying to find the light. We're trying to find the lesson We're trying to find the bright spot. Yeah, so we're not ignoring what's going on But we're trying to find the message. So I'm going to use this to-do list rather than writing, you know Christmas gift shopping wrapping decorating cooking whatever I'm going to write breathe and listen and Peace and things like that on my list. Yes. All right, so I'm going to Get my mojo going and I will be right back Here is the first journal page in my version of a December daily. It is part art journal part Diary journal part positive affirmation journal call it what you will And it is similar in style to my daily drawings journal that I've been doing already I'm really enjoying that process and I thought to carry it over to December with a particular theme in mind of Positive affirmations in what is bound to be a very strange holiday season So anyway, the two art foamy stamps you saw me use one is mine And it is from my collection of art foamy stamps which you can find on their website the others The other one is not mine Okay, this this one is from in at Kessler over in our foamy's and I will link Both foamy's directly in the description below, but they have a lot of designs So browse around the our foamy's went website. It is a an American owned mom and pop company So show them some love and if you need some foam stamps to add to your tools this season Please be sure and do so you don't have to buy mine. Of course if you do that's great But you know just shop with our foamy's and show them some love anyway I love the way this turned out. I can't get wait to get started on page two and Yeah, so I hope you join me this December in what we are affectionately tongue-in-cheek calling our December daily and You do some sort of positive affirmation December journal that you may not need want to do it every day That's you know crazy town and you know leave it to me to decide to do that But anyway, maybe you just want to do one or two pages I would love to see what you do regardless and if you're in my creative year, please share over there Of course, if you're a patron and patreon, you know how to get a hold of me and message me I would love to see what you're doing. You can also leave something in the comments below You can direct message me my contact information is out there, but I would love to see what you do leave any questions comments or concerns down below and Okay, and that's it for this page for today December 1st And there you go Don't forget to like share and subscribe and support the free content here on YouTube and over in the Facebook art groups If you can I would sure appreciate it that not just for me But other content creators and small companies like art foamy's We would all definitely appreciate that if you don't know how to support your favorite content creators Ask them. They probably have a way in their video descriptions if they do YouTube videos Don't forget to stay safe stay healthy stay creative and go out and do something nice for yourself because you deserve it I'll see you later. Bye guys


I hope you're well. I'll come back to my channel or if you're new here. My name is Seppy This is Sanaa If you haven't watched the making us vlog you have to pause it now go watch that because this is a bit of a continuation So we are now off to Istanbul 24 hours in Istanbul. It's gonna be a mad one. We don't even have a hotel booked yet That is our last minute home. We are and the guy couldn't even find our flight. So we were checking in He was like he was like you bought three tickets. You've cancelled to it Like we haven't cancelled anything. He's like well He might as well check your statement because he paid three times. I was like Cheers they have they made the mistake. We haven't done the whole three whatever Why does this always happen to us even in mykonos? We ended up buying like three flights. We really did We changed our flight Over here. Yeah, it's another story, but yeah, I'm so excited.  So yeah, we're just gonna go grab food to eat and Dormin our flight already says boarding but like and it's a 15-minute distance. So we're just gonna grab and go, right? Yeah, grab No, they're the hamlees though. We're at terminal to Heathrow I want to buy you some toys. I'm handling do you want some toys? Toys to play with on the plane We don't need a speaker every time we come to an airport. She wants a new speaker She keeps dropping them in the pool and breaking them. So We'll have a seat. I'm a fashion has Marshall. Who's Marshall speaker? Okay You yummy yummy yummy. What should I get? What should I get? I'm feeling some which is guys. I don't know. What are you feeling? They have toasties there? Yeah Hey, say no How was life we've arrived touch down Istanbul. We thought the weather would be better than this not gonna lie The other side is sunshine It's not raining it had previously lit rain that side the sky is clear and it looks so beautiful This side it's great. I feel like London Istanbul I didn't tell me How I was too busy talking to the camera No Thank you guys when life goes you on the floor Listen, I hope you didn't see my jumper Yeah, just my arm hurt No, it's a bit like less than the but burn I got from the rope in that Guys, I'm telling you watch the making us vlog But yeah going passport controller. How nice is this airport? Yeah, it's really nice.  What even is this bit? Honestly my eyelashes weren't cooperating with me this time about it's fine So we checked in in this cute boutique hotel and taxi and like it is just so tiny We don't realize when we're booking it well Technically we booked it on the flight and I was trying to upload it Instagram But it's all just like yeah, this one's right in the center. Just book this it looks so pretty and it is really pretty I can't lie Yeah, cuz we're gonna go out. We're just gonna put makeup on and go out But it's like it's so pretty though. It's very small, but very pretty, you know So pretty I look like a curtain around the shower Yeah, yeah So I was trying to say that she's the life of the party everyone knows I'm the life of the party May you're a dead ting Compete to me. I swear to God that statement is just funny. That's out We're just putting on our makeup.  Yeah, but I was with her and this girl Definitely has not been stopped.  I didn't use that shillies found So we made out the hotel show you Show my outfit So I'm wearing this dress. I've been out. It is my coat And I hope they don't get I know I was just thinking I hope they didn't get ruined I should have re-protected them, but I didn't this road is really weird The city is poppin a Saturday night, baby In Istanbul best night of the you know what it is it started raining today about me over here The weather is really good. It's really warm. Yeah, it's just like rainy. It's not like England. England's freezing right now And it's all good It's so busy Crazy It's just a vibe. Wow So this is taxine square. It's so funny. There's someone trying to record that as well. We're So taxine square is there and the road we're on now is called Establa Kabab look at that will actually have come up all the kabab The vibe is crazy There is people from all over the world here. It's actually really amazing Thank you Thank you so basically There's like all the stores still open and like look heels is open and it's like 9 p.m. Like there's it's like a city that doesn't sleep. It's a man It's Yeah, there is people from like Arabic countries, there's people from European countries. There's loads of iranian It's so cool I'm obsessed as an I've been here before we have another Istanbul, but we came in the daytime We always come for one day at night, and yeah, I haven't experienced the night time So and my parents yeah, so much has came I think they have a vlog dropping on souls channel I don't know how they know where we're from They were just talking in iranian We must look in iranian And this is the train in taxi The best baklava in town the best Turkish light in town is here. You heard it here fast I had it last year. Got it take away. It is incredible and then right next to it. There's a Look at this Look at this.  I'm ready for baklava.   I've had better Turkish food in London My favorite is yamabache But it was still very young But now it's on to my favorite part dessert in Turkey So this word just does shisha And it's just of a sepulon And Look at this store these like It's the one I showed you guys the famous one Very me here very me I'm just ordering And we've got cannot that dish delight Smoking your shisha. Did you order to try it? Yes sign is it nice? I've had it so good So we're in the cab It's 7 a.m. We've literally slept like two hours because we end up going to boss for a slot I will insert I'll insert clips of where we went and we're to a really cool place called hookah I went to it was in an area called Kurchesmer Definitely check out Kurchesmer a million percent recommended. It's where all of the really nice Nightlife, and I'm probably sure this time is really good as well But all the lovely like restaurants shisha bars clubs all of that with that seem lovely Like it's just so luxurious. It's nicer than any shopping mall. I've ever been to Right Saina It's nicer than any shopping mall. I've ever been to I Wouldn't agree that it's nicer than any shopping mall, but it is definitely Really nice airport. It is so beautiful. It's the nicest effort open to really Where do you think it's nice? Yeah We're so tired I literally I'm like a me and look at me Literally, we haven't slept properly Head on the pillow that's how I'm passed out like 4 a.m. I couldn't sleep really yeah, and I was having the most random dream This they have like a little buzzer Here Yeah, should we eat here It's the end of the Turkey blog


Namaskar. Welcome to this course on Domestic Equipment Maintenance. Today's homes are equipped with many appliances that has made a lot of domestic work easier and faster to complete. The rapid development of technology in mechanization increases the availability of different models of domestic equipment in the market. We all know that there is a possibility of breakdown in this equipment due to misuse and mishandling. To reduce the failure of these devices, regular maintenance is needed. Maintenance of the domestic equipment is also necessary to keep it running smoothly and efficiently as well as for extending the longevity of the equipment. Therefore understanding the machine capabilities and its operation is very important for effective handling of equipment. The aim of this course is to impart knowledge and information on various electric appliances and equipment used in our domestic works. This course especially examines and demonstrates the commonly used electric household devices. This course is for anyone who wants to learn the correct operation, working principles, maintenance and repair of home appliances. Now objective of the course are to get an idea about the common tools with specification and function used in household appliances. Next to provide the skill of basic maintenance of domestic electrical devices. Next to enable the learners in identifying the common faults and their troubleshooting arises in domestic equipment. The first few modules of the course will highlight the importance of safety practice, distribution of electricity, power consumption and general tools used in handling electrical equipment. Many appliances are used in the kitchen. Food can also cook much faster using various appliances comprises of heating elements. The course shows you how a heating element is made and works. In addition to this, a demonstration on how to safely service and maintain appliances like rice cooker, electric kettle, room heater and cooking heater will also be addressed. We then discuss washing machine, vacuum cleaner and inverter in terms of how they work and how to maintain them. Cleaning water for cooking or drinking is also essential in the home and we guide you through the operation and maintenance of water purifiers including different water filtration methods. We will also discuss the audio and video systems, their operations and troubleshooting process. The course then highlights in the construction components, types and applications of refrigerator and air conditioner as well as their common faults and troubleshooting process. In the last section of the course, we will study the desktop and laptop computer system and will also explain the working principle and installation process of printer and scanner. It is our 4 credit course having 36 modules which have then divided into 12 weeks, means 3 modules per week. Total duration of the course will be 3 months and it is a multidisciplinary course. The prime eligibility of the course is 10 plus 2. Each module comprises of pre-recorded video lectures, e-contents, overall presentations and demonstrations, suggested readings and multiple choice questions. Regular assignments will be given to the learners in the light of continuous evaluation system. There will be internal as well as external assessments. 30 marks will be allotted for internal assessment and 70 marks for external proctode exam which will be conducted by the host institution. After completion of this course, learners will get the certificate from the host institution. The certificate will help them get recognition while applying for higher studies as the credits earned in the course goes to their academic branch of credit account. It will also help in getting jobs as repair technician or help immensely in getting their livelihood opportunities or encourage them in starting their own service center. Hope you will enjoy the course. Wishing you all the best. Thank you very much.


Welcome to George H. Smith's Excursions into Libertarian Thought, a production of Libertarianism.org and the Cato Institute, narrated by James Foster. The Philosophy of the Declaration of Independence, Part 2 Among the controversies generated by the Declaration's second paragraph, two stand out as especially contentious, one, Thomas Jefferson's use of self-evident to characterize these truths expressed in the second paragraph and two, the omission of the right to property in the list of inalienable or unalienable rights. I shall discuss these problems in this essay. One, it would surprise some people to learn how much scholarly attention has been devoted to analyzing what Jefferson meant by self-evident. Morton White, the Philosophy of the American Revolution, 1978, devotes nearly 90 pages to show that, in the Declaration, the use of the word self-evident was directly or indirectly influenced by John Locke's essay concerning human understanding. Gary Wills, Inventing America, Jefferson's Declaration of Independence, 1978, links the meaning of self-evident to the common sense philosophy of the Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid. W. S. Howell, in a 1961 issue of The William and Mary Quarterly, suggests that Jefferson was influenced by a now obscure logic text, William Duncan's Elements of Logic, that he read during his college days at William and Mary. In my judgment, the most plausible explanation is that given by Michael P. Zuckert in his excellent book The Natural Rights Republic, Studies in the Foundation of the American Political Tradition, 1996. Zuckert maintains that self-evident should be understood in a practical sense, not as an epistemological theory. This ongoing hermeneutical exercise is complicated by the fact that self-evident was a later revision of Jefferson's rough draft, which originally read, we hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable. So who crossed out sacred and undeniable and wrote self-evident above it? And why was this revision made? Some historians believe self-evident is in the handwriting of Benjamin Franklin. The Jeffersonian scholar Julian P. Boyd disagreed, maintaining that the alteration bears the distinctive characteristics of Jefferson's handwriting. But Boyd goes on to argue that John Adams probably suggested the revision. Fortunately, none of this matters for my purpose here, since Jefferson obviously agreed with the change regardless of whose idea it was. As Jefferson put it many years later, the revisions made by Franklin and Adams were merely verbal and did not affect the meaning of the text. Jefferson knew that the declaration would be read aloud to throngs of people throughout the colonies, so he was writing as much for the ear as for the eye. At this stage of composition, before substantial changes were made by Congress, we may safely assume that revisions were made primarily for stylistic reasons. For example, a phrase in the rough draft, writes inherent and inalienable, among which are the preservation of life and liberty and the pursuit of happiness, became certain unalienable rights that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, a definite stylistic improvement without any change of meaning. We now return to the original question that has generated a cottage industry for historians and philosophers. What did Jefferson mean by self-evident? One good thing about writing overviews of complex subjects is that I can plead space limitations to avoid getting bogged down in technicalities. I hereby proffer this plea with the understanding that I will gladly discuss this controversy in more detail in the comment section of this page should readers be interested. In accord with the treatment of Michael Zuckert, I believe it highly unlikely that Jefferson used self-evident with any technical epistemological meaning in mind. The epistemological interpretation might be credible if Jefferson had confined his self-evident truths to the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, but he doesn't stop there. He extends the list to include the purpose for which governments are instituted among men, the doctrine that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, and the right of the people to alter or to abolish an unjust government. It exceeds the limits of credibility to contend that Jefferson viewed all these truths as epistemologically self-evident, as if they should be accepted without argument or demonstration. Note that Jefferson does not say that these truths are self-evident. Rather, he says, we hold these truths to be self-evident. Jefferson is articulating what Francis Bacon once called middle axioms, that is, propositions that, though not self-evident in themselves, are accepted as axiomatic for the purpose of a particular argument. In later life, Jefferson characterized the Declaration's political principles as an expression of the American mind. It was not his intention to invent new principles, but merely to summarize the principles that were widely accepted in America and that constituted the theoretical foundation of American independence. Jefferson does not argue for the principles expressed in the second paragraph much less attempt to prove them. He presents them as a given, as contextually axiomatic, so to speak. We can better appreciate the reason for this approach by taking a look at the opening paragraph of the Declaration. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them. A decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. It should be kept in mind that the Declaration did not actually declare the independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. This occurred on July 2nd, 1776, two days before the Declaration was approved by the Second Continental Congress on July 4th. It fell to Jefferson as part of a five-man committee to explain and justify this momentous decision. Jefferson's use of the word impel is significant, as is his use of necessary. Jefferson didn't feel the need to justify the Lockean principles expressed in the second paragraph since he believed they were already accepted by most Americans. But, as I explained in an earlier essay, notes on the Declaration of Independence, many of these Americans were either undecided about independence or opposed it outright. The Declaration was addressed as much to these people as it was to mankind at large. Jefferson wished to convince fence-sitters and skeptics that independence was not a reckless scheme hatched by hot-headed, seditious radicals who were eager to grab power for themselves. This was the standard line of hawks within the British government. Rather, independence was rendered necessary by the despotic measures of the British government, hence the crucial significance of the list of grievances to which the second paragraph served as a theoretical prelude. Thus, as Michael Zuckert points out, Jefferson intended self-evident to be understood in a practical sense, not as the application of an epistemological theory of self-evident knowledge. There was no way within the span of a brief document that Jefferson could have demonstrated the principles articulated in the second paragraph, nor was there any need to do this. Jefferson said, we hold these truths to be self-evident because he wished to express their axiomatic status among the advocates of American independence. The purpose of the Declaration was not to justify these fundamental principles but to apply them to the crisis with Britain, and this application is found in the list of grievances. Strictly considered, self-evident was not the best choice of words. Jefferson's original formulation, sacred and undeniable, was more precise, but those philosophers who ring their hands over this bit of literary license should keep in mind that Jefferson's contemporaries, many of whom were well-schooled in philosophy, appeared to have had no problem with self-evident. They knew exactly what Jefferson meant. 2. After stating that men are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, the Declaration goes on to say that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The controversy over this clause, which has been considerable, is owing not to what it says but to what it fails to say. Why did Jefferson omit property from his trinity of inalienable rights? Could it be as some leftist historians have argued that Jefferson was a quasi-socialist who did not hold property rights in the same esteem as his contemporaries, even one of Jefferson's best biographers, Willard Stern Randall, contends that Jefferson's choice of words, pursuit of happiness over John Locke's property, marked a sharp break with the Whig doctrine of English middle-class property rights. With due respect to Randall and similar commentators, such interpretations have no justification whatsoever. The first thing to note is that Jefferson did mention property, along with life and liberty, in some other writings. For example, the end of government would be defeated by the British Parliament exercising a power of the lives, the property, and the liberty of the American subject, who are not and from the local circumstances cannot be there represented, and to obtain redress of the grievances which threaten destruction of the lives, liberty, and property of his majesty's subjects. The second thing to note is that Jefferson refers specifically to inalienable rights, and he states that among these inalienable rights are the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, thereby indicating that his list is not exhaustive. Why Jefferson did not include property in his partial list of inalienable rights is obviously a matter of conjecture, but the reason should be fairly obvious to historians who understand the ambiguous meaning of property in Jefferson's day. It had two distinct meanings. Property was an inalienable right, according to one meaning, whereas it was an inalienable right, according to another meaning. Given this ambiguity, to refer to property as an inalienable right would have been confusing without further explanation, and Jefferson was not writing a philosophic treatise. When we speak of property today, we usually mean a thing or an object that is owned, something to which we have a moral and or legal right to use and dispose of, such as a pencil. This pencil, we say, is my property. I own it. I have a right to use it, give it away, sell it, or destroy it. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the word property was often used in a broader sense to mean rightful dominion or moral jurisdiction over something. As the Lockean William Walliston put it during the early 18th century, to have the property of any thing and to have the sole right of using and disposing of it are the same thing. They are equivalent expressions. This broad conception permitted Walliston to speak of a man's property in his own happiness. Whereas we would say, this pencil is my property, early libertarians were more likely to say, I have a property in this pencil. When John Locke argued that the proper function of government is to protect property, he explained that by property he meant a person's life, liberty, and estate. This usage is what Locke had in mind when he wrote that every man has a property in his own person. In Jefferson's day, both meanings of property were common, but the older usage, according to which I would be said to have a property in my pencil, was giving way to the modern usage, according to which this pencil would be said to be my property. This dual usage was discussed by James Madison in 1792 and his treatment deserves to be quoted at length. This term, property in its particular application, means that dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world in exclusion of every other individual. In its larger and juster meaning, it embraces everything to which a man may attach a value and have a right, and which leave to everyone else the like advantage. In the former sense, a man's land or merchandise or money is called his property. In the latter sense, a man has a property in his opinions and the free communication of them. He has a property of peculiar value in his religious opinions and in the profession and practice dictated by them. He has a property very dear to him in the safety and liberty of his person. He has an equal property in the free use of his faculties and free choice of the objects on which to employ them. In a word, as a man is said to have a right to his property, he may be equally said to have a property in his rights. Property in the broad sense, that is, the right to exercise moral jurisdiction over one's person, labor, and the fruits of one's labor, was viewed as an inalienable right. To have moral jurisdiction over that which is essential to one's survival is inextricably linked to one's moral agency and so can never be transferred or surrendered. But this is not true of property in the narrower sense of material objects that are owned. One can clearly transfer one's title to pencils and other material goods. Indeed, the title to a certain amount of property collected in the form of taxes was said to have been implicitly surrendered in the Lockean version of the social contract since revenue was needed for a government to function. It would therefore have been confusing for Jefferson to have included property in his partial list of inalienable rights. He would have needed to draw the same distinction that Madison did between two meanings of property, and this would have transformed the declaration from a brief manifesto into a lengthy treatise. Given many statements by Jefferson, there is no reason to think he would have disagreed with this very Lockean conclusion by Madison. Government is instituted to protect property of every sort, as well that which lies in the various rights of individuals as that which the term particularly expresses. This being the end of government, that alone is a just government which impartially secures to every man whatever is his own. Thank you for listening to Excursions. To learn more about libertarian philosophy and history, visit www.libertarianism.org.