nt to do it because it's a lot of bones um, but I think the squig himself I like the color. I think that really pops with the blue lips I think one of the ways you could do it is having a little bit of blue as your shadow color on this bone Like work it in there work it in here. Um, you could push the highlight up in this area of the face even a little bit higher Uh, to really make sure that that's interesting and visually compelling Uh, but overall I think this is really good stuff. I I like the lower squig More than I like the top one. It feels like this when you win all the way on Like I the yellow feels a little brighter down here The texture on the teeth the texture on the lips and stuff like that. I I like that a lot um But I think that's probably what I would say things like the leather you could do it add a little that they're holding onto That strap could be a little more textured something like that, but uh, but on the whole I think this is good stuff Yeah, I don't I don't I think you've got a good amount of pop in here So I think the bone is a big opportunity Um, maybe adding a little more of like the yellow into the goblin's cloak back here Uh, so that like he has some some Flames or checks or daggs or something and I think that could those could be other little touches that'll make it pop out Okay, next up Sean Rogers Uh cypher lord, uh, trying non-metallic metal glazing and getting good contrast Sure interested in feedback on the flesh and the overall balance of the scheme Uh, so the flesh is flat. I mean that's that's the short answer So like we can see it from here All right, we just there's a little bit of shadow. You're not you're not totally flat But we need to go farther So we go back to this one. This is a nice way to look at it We need to see those soft red tones purple tones stuff like that more in there a little bit more of like I understand You probably want him to be a little more pale. He's not exactly like super tan. I'm good with that Um, but those soft tones like that can worked into those shadows is really gonna help make him feel more alive Okay So uh now overall composition. I think he's great Uh, I think your non-metallic metal is looking pretty sharp The helmet needs to come up a little higher, especially on the the light catch points like the top of the helm When we look here, we need to get into a little more of the white, uh, just very lightly Uh, but on the whole I think this is coming together really well Sean So yeah, I'd say pop that flesh up a little more push it and get in a little more Uh add in a little more tonal variation through variation of hue and you'll be in a good place Okay robin winter, uh support girl guard, uh So basically uh done his practice for every heavily corroded metals and bone looking for critique on the metals And how to make the models pop a bit more Sure, so I think we could add in some more like this guy doesn't have a rusty weapon But just adding in like you've got you really went all out with on some of these where it's just like This is everything altogether You don't necessarily need like the the copper corrosion color and the rust corrosion corrosion color I know like Darren Latham did a video where he used both of them But the key is if you're going to do that they have to be very much in balance So the dominant color should be the rust and then you should be using the teal just in like the low shadows or something to just Basically add as reflected light visual interest in the shadows These upper spears. It doesn't feel like they were done in the same way Like this one doesn't feel like it has anything going on at all So I would also say that with the rust you want to work in a lot of different stuff. Again, check out the videos I mentioned earlier The iron jaws video will be very helpful again 103 to 105 or the earlier rusted weapons video Rusted corroded weapons. That's in somewhere in the early somewhere in the first hundred. I don't know There's a playlist And I think that'll really help because what you want to get is a larger variation of tone throughout there That is to say like Some soft browns then some stronger browns that some deep browns then some brown oranges Then some bright oranges around the edges and where rust would really collect Right. So the key is to have a like a logic to it Right like here it just it's scattered, which is appropriate. You want it kind of random, but there's too much teal There's not enough rust in the pits where it would be those are pits because they've rusted and fallen out That's how pits get in metal There was a flaw in the metal water got in it corroded. It turned to rust. It felt flaked off That's where that pit comes from, right? So that would be the most corroded area, right? So there you go. Hope that helps cool stuff Look forward to the future submissions Okay robin decided to give his his uh, is the intro bit of arrest playing with escaven looking for uh Feedback on the skin tone Okay All right, and how to predict that and how to get the lighting going on it. Sure So this is a weird figure And you know for the most part like I do hate this rat over so much. Um For the most part, I think it's okay. Uh, I like I don't think you're I don't think you're bad Actually, that's that sounded way too harsh. Sorry. I think it's good I think you could go farther and where we're actually lacking is the highlights. Okay So you asked where to place the highlights? I mean, it's a volumetric highlight, right? So Your light is coming from some direction. Let's say above And that is going to mean that the brightest lights are here on top of this muscle and here on top of this muscle And here on top of this part of his head and here's part of his ear, right? like it's Hold it up to a bright light and that'll give you a rough sketch of where the brightest lights should fall I think you've got some good reds and tones like that. I think we honestly just need to push the highlights up That's probably my best advice for you Uh, when it comes to the skin getting those actual higher highlights in there So I hope that helps Okay, next up, uh Uh, Jonas, Jonas. I don't know. We'll say Jonas. We'll say Jonas Uh Try to focus on texture in the cloth and making the plasma more interesting But also appreciate general feedback if something else comes to mind. Sure. So we had looked at the main guys before All right Plasma is definitely brighter. It's good smooth it out a little more a little more light blue things like that Uh, the robes look a lot more interesting and textured this time So my next challenge for you is going to be on the metal Your your steel is still rather washed and flat, especially around the weapon We want to be focusing more in on restoring some of those highlights Adding some different tones to it would also help getting some colors in there You could work some blue tones into that metal It would help balance out the bright plasma reactor and things like that So that's going to be my next challenge for you But I think we definitely met it on like the plasma and the The leather so I think that's looking a lot better. So yeah, great great and great Implementation of that feedback Okay Tebow, Tebow, sorry. Sorry, Tebow Uh, basically this is he was supposed to be in attendance at his first golden demon and this was going to be his unit. So What could you improve and perhaps, you know, prepare them for further down the road? Yeah, it's a great question. So I think these guys look good. Um, I really like them I think you did a really nice job with them So the biggest thing I'm going to say for you is just smoothing and refinement So like on his helmet in some of these blends here on the copper is where I noticed it some in the silver here Um, I think you know where we go from the purple to the blue Uh, some of those are a bit stark the armor looks fantastic. I love the texture I love the implementation of the corrosion. I think that looks really nice Honestly, my biggest piece of feedback for you has to do with just smoothing out those blends We're finding it making sure this silver pops up all the way. Maybe he's adding some some Uh, other colors down in the shadows of the metal. Maybe working a little bit of brown into the deep shadows Right that kind of thing. This is old born rusted stuff. So it shouldn't necessarily make sense that it has real bright to dark just gray only like Fear gray only weapons. They should have a color and in general that'll be clean equals and clean and cold equals blue Dirty and and old equals yellow or brown or cp or something like that So work that kind into the tones there, but overall this is great stuff. I think you really nailed it on the armor Uh, I think the color scheme itself is fantastic. I love the purple to the blue. I think that's that's Freakin great. Uh, we just need to smooth those two together some Okay Mart's new painter has been enjoying the hobby Uh, love some general advice on the miniature Sure, so he is rather small. Uh, my first advice is probably grab some bigger things to paint It's really tough to learn on stuff this small. I'll be honest Um, now as to what to fix first off make sure you do Other than the metallics make sure you're matting your stuff down reds are naturally glossy I can see the gloss You generally want to make sure things are matte pick up some ak interactive ultra matte varnish That'll really help a lot into getting that done To make sure your elements are well separated. So I'll give you an example here on the ear We just kind of ran red to here and green to here, but there's no dark line in between There would be a separation there make sure there's a nice dark line there Those kind of things make paint jobs feel paint jobs being matte And paint jobs being clean and well separated between light lines and dark lines is what makes paint jobs feel clean, okay The next big piece of advice for you. I have is just on tonal variation. It's the same thing I've said many times in this review Where if anybody ever played a drinking game where they drank every time I said that they would be dead So please don't But you know again popping up taking the skin adding more tones You want to run that full gamut if you watch the attached video? I've got it'll help you out understanding Exactly what I'm talking about there as far as light and shadow and how to get that that extra contrast in the mini Okay, lee first post in the pmp monthly review felt brave this month So converting over the sisters of battle Uh, and so he says he knows he needs the blue and gold of the wings to have more tonal variation. Good excellent Uh, all of a sudden realized the wings were so distracting until I fully assembled it. What would you recommend?  All right, so the answer here is thankfully very simple lee By the way, I love the color scheme. These are great wings to put on top of my I also use different wings for my Seraphim, so I'm down with that But the uh, I didn't use these but these are a great replacement So, um The answer is thankfully pretty simple. You have a primary light up here going in a shadow and then a secondary reflection Let's play around with that a little different. Let's move the darker part up here Okay, so push your dark up leave your pink in a smaller area because this is the eye catching part Let's bring that darker purple up a little bit And then let's take this and bring the lower part out to like the same blue as her armor So fade from this dark purple into the sort of blue steel here not actually metal paint, but you know what I'm saying this kind of color Down into a white at the tips So then she's haloed on both sides By this blue white and then you have that bright tone just kind of in the middle It'll make it much more in line because you shrink out the bright magenta. It'll make it much more in line with the magenta on the Clothing that she's wearing the actual like robe and will help bring the whole thing in balance But overall, I love the conversion. I think she's super cool. So great stuff All right, greg a source tester generally happy with a few exceptions Still going figuring out glazing with miniature ghost hints over Alcohol gold going for a quicker scheme, but one that still pops on the table Sure So I think that if you're if you're having trouble ghost hints can be really tough to glaze with Over there. So you might also want to look into some dollar roundy fw inks. Those could really help I think my biggest piece of advice for you is make sure we get a little more texture onto the edge of the scales You can do that with like a quick very soft as I mentioned earlier a dry brush Take a nice makeup brush work almost all the paint off Just give them a real nice light light light touch lots of strokes Lots of strokes that you want almost no paint on there and you're just going Okay, there we have our color. That's how long it should take you Okay, stuff like that. I think would be really nice But overall, I think if you're going for sort of a quick fun scheme tabletop standard, I think you're you know Yeah, this this will work fine for you So there you go. I hope that helps and good stuff. Hope to see more Okay, adrian Looking for general feedback trying to get sort of toward a more competition level job Sure So I'm going to say the same thing. I've said a couple times which is we need to focus more on defining the individual elements Because a lot of this just kind of bleeds together So like the the the lines and the shades that are separating everything is kind of messy at some points You see how like you're see this line here how it's kind of fat and here right here here Here right we don't want this kind of messiness that makes it overall seem more more cluttered We want to have nice sharp well defined dark to light to dark Same with things like around the eyes around the hand around the sword now Looking at the black and white You can see that we've still got a lot of room to run on tonal variation on the blue Like you're you're doing better. You can see here, right? So let's go here on the side This looks a little better, right because I can see some here But we've definitely got more deeper shadows we could put in here We don't need to run all the way to non metallic or something But we can still push that contrast a little more you have this plate here in the middle like Oppositely defined for some reason. I'm not sure why that if light's coming from one of these directions It's going to come from one of these directions. You don't need to Like you you out clevered yourself there Um either the lights come from here the lights come from here We don't like it's not sometimes we do that on a sword But that's because they're they're at completely different angles, right? And so one is hitting the reflecting light from the ground and one is it's catching the light from above I think that the the biggest distraction here is kind of the purple peachy tone that you've got It doesn't feel like it's well defined, especially with some of this is the sculpt working against you by the way So like if you're going to use that it needs to be very clearly Boxed in to where like in the eyes, for example, I would need a dark line around it on the sword I want like dark lines separating that pinky purple from whatever the sword is made of right So make sure those elements are all crafted to be Individual and separate and I think that'll really help make the paint job look more clean and sharp. Okay all right Christopher first time submitting welcome, uh, so looking for uh, some feedback on Uh, getting this guy.  Uh, it says paint to a display standard. Okay. That's still very high but all right, uh Still have them usable in games. Absolutely. What can you deliver a practice on? Sure. So I've got an easy answer for you I look these guys over earlier. So the easy answer here is, um The your texture on the shell on their carapace looks great Where we're let down is with the skin the skin and the brain is far too samey Um, and you can see everything you need to see in this black and white picture Again, I love when people submit to me the black and white because it makes it so much easier to say what I'm talking about This is all the same color That's it. Like it needs something It needs more value contrast and As a point of reality when we go back to the color it needs more variation of hue, right? So red tones purple tones. It's still a fleshy sack thing same with the the brain ultimately, right? Uh, so that would be my my next thing I would absolutely direct you toward for working on there. Okay All right, ryan, uh ryan had a lot of questions. Okay Trying some osl The fingers weren't carved out. How do you handle it faces? Uh, sure. So let's have tackle this in order osl I would go watch the osl video again because like Part of the trick to this is It's going to cast a roughly even light. It's also going to cast a shadow Generally, you don't want to try to reflect a heavy osl over red It's not going to sell real well. You want it to reflect over something neutral. Okay, so that's just number one You're not you're not doing yourself any favors basically two, um Uh How do you properly osl fire on top of red? You don't glaze it's you build in each of the points of highlight like the yellow and the orange Strongly with paint and then you bring in the cloth through the red glaze back Okay, but then again, you also need to then shade to something cold away from the fire So that red needs to integrate like a purple color which we'll be bringing in blue Right and have heavy shadows all of these went okay When you cast a light you you create shadows This would be darkly shadowed. This would be really darkly shadowed every line here Everything has belt under here all of this all of that would have deep deep lines of shadow in it right Now as to the eyes again same thing. Yes, you should never see white on either side of the eye Eyes don't work like that. Okay this you can see that because i'm surprised.  I'll certainly do more in the future Um kujo has a great video on painting faces. Honestly, that's what I would direct you kujo Did a really really great video on painting faces that I love so you could go check that out if you just search for kujo painting faces you'll you'll find it and um Yeah, and that that'll probably help you out But the key is again Like just google real images of people's faces and look at like the color as I talked about earlier, right? There's a lot of highlights here. There's a lot of reds the the traditional old master way was this is yellow This is red. This is blue on a male figure on a female. It's this is yellow. This is red And there's a t-zone here that's hot like faces are a huge Huge thing But you want to create more value more red in the cheeks more shadow more shadow under the eyes around here that kind of thing now um As to the what to varnish Ultra matter for the whole thing you don't you don't want anything satin over an osl effect osl needs to be more matte than anything else because if the light reflects on its own then it's not osl anymore Right that light that's reflected is going to interfere with where you have told me the viewer There is light part of what you're trying to do when you do osl is you're creating the light You're telling me the viewer this is the where the light is If I pick up the figure and I see a bright white reflection from the light above it right here That's where the light is not where you painted it Okay, so there you go. Hope that helps ryan and gives you some stuff to think about there Okay, uh long First review submission second finished painted miniature. Oh, welcome. Okay, great Uh overall color scheme Yeah, I think that the overall color scheme is fine, but you need to balance that more so going to the yellow here is cool We just need to do the same with the ghosts again Anytime we use super bright colors like yellow those have to be in balance anytime we use those highly saturated colors They need to be up top there. So like bring the ghosts faces up to that same yellow It would snap this piece right into into focus By the way, you know, what else it would do draw the attention up here to the head where you're trying to get attention Which is your number two question. How do you get this back in attention? Well, there's a couple things One you could have glowing yellow eyes So that could be another place we could put the yellow That would certainly draw the attention back up and help to balance it, right You could brighten this up with a little more white or ivory under the sort of leather you're going for And then and have the osl you do both All right, but you need the deep shadows. So again go watch my video on glowing eyes if you want to see how to do that Um And he's mentioned that you try to do the smoke as I guide like sort of as a wet blend Uh, but the wet paint does not stay in one place and kind of mix mash flow on each other It's too thin then you need to work thicker Um to get that wet blending then is the answer if the paint is moving that much it's too thin So there you go. And then how to make a clean paint job the answer is uh Again as I've talked about many times a separation of lines. So if uh, here's an easy example. Let's go into the photo itself See how your brown comes down here. That's dirty See how this doesn't have like as much of a dark separation between it as it could That's what makes it look dirty, right? So each of these elements needs to have Like where the ropes go in this should be generally dark around it The ropes should have some light right here on it coming out If each of the elements feels deliberate also by the way as I mentioned the other thing that makes a clean paint job is a matte paint job Yeah, I can see a lot of like satin here where things are still glossy That makes things look unpolished because light starts bouncing into shadows Like you hold it up and there's light in a shadow and it just looks weird and your brain goes Something's wrong here when you mattle that stuff out. That doesn't happen. Okay So the clean alternation of dark and light, you know, make sure your paint job is nice and and Sort of, you know, cleaned up for just paint mistakes like that and then run this up to be dark And then we have the edge of this cloth light Everything's matted Boom, that's going to go a long way and it's going to feel like a more clean paint job So there we go long. I certainly hope that helps With that that brings us to the end of the month. So that was a long one Um, we'll see how we get on with the months to come I don't know if I can keep doing 80 or 100 or whatever this ends up as in the future So we'll see We might I might need to have like Some kind of way to alternate this but for now, it's cool. I do enjoy doing this very much. It's just it's also extremely exhausting Um, just I mean like physically tiring not like in any negative way Thank you so much to everybody who submitted beautiful work. Everybody who submitted is absolutely brave Uh, it's you know, it's a big deal to have your stuff get evaluated publicly And you know talk about and being and asking somebody to help you find flaws That is a measure of bravery Uh, so very well done That is excellent way to take it. That is an excellent way to take a step on your hobby journey And I certainly hope that I've helped you do so You're all wonderful. You're all wonderful hobbyists.  You did it excellent work this month Uh, so thank you very much everybody. Thank you all very much out there for watching Uh, and as always if people who watch this have more questions or comments or things like that Feel free to throw those down in the comments below if you want to join again Link is down below. Please do answer all of the questions so we can improve you get in here I like doing this once a month But as always the key is for you to give the your The feedback is if you remember this community, please do give feedback when questions are asked be positive Be helpful be respectful of the fact that everybody is on a different point in their own journey And and help them take their next step whatever that is Uh, that can just make someone's day. This community is built on positivity on sharing and I want to make sure we all keep that And I see so much of that every day and I love it. So please keep up all the great work Thank you everyone.


Welcome to this lecture number 6 on zones of aeration and saturation followed by the aquifers and the characteristics classification. So, in the previous lecture we discussed about the ground water column and specifically of course, we briefly dealt about this zone of saturation which is below the water table and zone of aeration which is above the water table. And we also discussed about how the in the zone of aeration how the water is held which is basically in the intermediate zone which is the vedos water and here. So, this water is held by hygroscopy capillary action. So, here because of this the attraction between the soil or the rock particles as well as the water. So, the water is held the water which is not moving is held by these two actions and the capillary rise is the we also saw the expression for the capillary rise which is given by this 2 sigma into cos theta divided by R into that is the specific gravity. So, here now let us continue before this one I would like to mention. So, essentially so in this vedos water held by hygroscopic and capillary action and here in this ground water. So, water is held by gravitational action and continuing with this the expression for this capillary rise. So, here suppose this is a capillary tube which is basically a narrow tube this is a central line and the diameter of the tube is given by 2 R. So, this is the surface tension force which is measured as force per unit length and this is the angle theta and then this is the water surface the meniscus and. So, this is the liquid in this case it is water with specific weight gamma and this theta is the angle of contact which I have mentioned here and say for if we further simplify. So, this so the surface tension which is measured as the force per unit length. So, generally it has a value of say 0.074. So, this is grams per centimeter of course. So, this has to be multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity that is 9.81 and then this specific weight of water again this is 1 gram per cubic centimeter again it has to be multiplied by the. So, this multiplied by G. So, this G is the gravitational acceleration which is say 9.81 meter per second square and this theta is approximately equal to 0 degree for water and clean glass same thing can be assumed in the for water and soil also same can be assumed for water and soil also. Therefore, the expression for this capillary rise H. So, it reduces to say 0.15 divided by R. So, as can see from this one the capillary rise H which determines the height of the capillary zone is inversely proportional to the size of the capillary pores that is the radius of the capillary pores that is basically here we are approximating the pores into the equivalent circular shapes and then taking its radius. So, this H as this the equivalent the circular pore radius gets reduced. So, the height of the capillary rise increases and here it is mentioned that say for different samples that is the say the material grain size in millimeter then capillary rise in centimeter. So, here on the lowest level where the capillary rise is as low as a just 2.5 centimeter we have this fine gravel whose grain size is that is 0.052 to 0.2, 0.02 and further as we go. So, this is next is coarse sand of course there are intermediate formations are there. So, here coarse sand for which it is a grain size is 1 it is 0.1 to 0.5 millimeter and it has a capillary rise of 13.5 centimeter and then I am sorry I made a mistake here. So, this is just let me correct this one. So, this is grain size is 2 to 5 and coarse sand the grain size is 0.5 to 1. Let me rewrite this again. So, this is the material grain size in millimeter then capillary rise in centimeter. See on the coarsest one we have say fine gravel the grain size is say 2 to 5 millimeter and the capillary rise because this is a too large grain size. So, therefore, the pore size is also too large. So, therefore, the capillary rise is as small as a 2.5 centimeter followed by very coarse sand the grain size is 1 to 2 millimeter and the capillary rise is a 6.5 centimeter. Still let us go to still smaller as one that is a coarse sand where the grain size is a 0.5 to 1 millimeter and then the capillary rise increases as the grain size is getting reduced and correspondingly the pore size also gets reduced. So, this is 13.5 centimeter then the medium sand has a grain size of 0.2 to 0.5 and the capillary rise of say 24.6 millimeter centimeter I am sorry then followed by say fine sand the grain size is a 0.1 to 0.2 and the capillary rise gets further increased to say 42.8 centimeter. Then it is the silt which has a grain size of 0.05 to 0.1 millimeter the capillary rise increases to 105.5 centimeter and lastly it is the fine silt it has a grain size of say 0.02 to 0.05 and the capillary rise is as high as 200 centimeter. So, you can imagine say how the grain size as the material gets finer and finer in terms of its grain size. So, the capillary rise increases and this has been so sources study by Loughman and now let me also represent here the distribution of water in a coarse sand water distribution in coarse sand above water table after drainage. So, here suppose this is the so this is the moisture content. So, this is the soil moisture content as percentage and then this is the height above water table in centimeter here say let us say this is 20 and then this is 40 and here let us say this is 20, 40. So, here this variation is it will be something like this. So, this represents porosity and here this represents capillary zone and above this represents the intermediate zone. So, in the capillary zone just at the water table level. So, the moisture content is exactly equal to the porosity and as we go above the water table. So, the moisture content goes on decreasing as you can see from here and so when we reach this intermediate zone. So, the moisture content it represents only the hygroscopic water. So, whereas here. So, here you can say this is the hygroscopic component and then this is the moisture content held by capillary action and then this is the moisture content held by hygroscopic action. So, therefore, so in the intermediate zone it is entirely the water is held by water is held by hygroscopic action whereas in the capillary zone water is held by hygroscopic and capillary action. So, you can see how it varies and say so just at the water table level just above the water table. So, almost all the pores are filled with this moisture, soil moisture and then as we go higher and higher it is only those pores which are continuous. So, they will be filled with water and as we reach this intermediate zone. So, it is only the hygroscopic water which is the water held by the force of attraction between the spaces, the void spaces as well as the air as well as the soil or rock particles and then the water. So, this is how for in the zone of saturation the water is held entirely by gravity and that is for all the zone below the water table and as we go above at the water table. So, this is the water is held by hygroscopic as well as capillary action and as we reach the intermediate zone. So, the number of pores contain soil moisture gets reduced only those continuous pores. So, they first of all for this capillary action they must have a very small size and then so through which this capillary rise takes place due to the force of attraction between the soil or rock particle and water due to surface tension force and above that in the intermediate zone it is entirely by the molecular the intermolecular attraction between the soil moisture, the air voids as well as the soil or rock particles. Now, let us consider the and this water content which is held by various actions whether it is the hygroscopic action in the intermediate veto zone or the hygroscopic as well as capillary action in the capillary zone both in the zone of aeration and further below in the zone of saturation by gravitational acceleration. So, this moisture can be measured by various methods such as the gravimetric method as well as the other tensiometers and so on and the same thing here we can mention here by a tensiometer basically it may it just pulls. So, this water which is held in the that is the measurement of soil moisture. So, this is by gravimetric method in which we take the weight measurements and also say by tensiometer. So, in this tensiometer suppose this is the soil column and here so this is the tensiometer. So, this is the porous cup and then this is the unsaturated soil and here so this is the suction head which is essentially the water held by the molecular attraction between water, air particles as well as soil particle. So, now let us come to what is known as the available water or available moisture content. So, here suppose I represent so this is the soil moisture and here so this is 0. So, the maximum soil moisture so this is the soil moisture content which can be which is possible is denoted as the field capacity. So, this moisture content let me represent this as mc. So, this is the field capacity moisture content. So, this field capacity is essentially the maximum possible water which can be held in this zone of aeration and also the minimum this is amount of soil moisture corresponds to so this is the permanent wilting point or simply it is known as the wilting point moisture content. And of course, there is also an intermediate this is known as the optimum moisture content content or say OMC. So, here so essentially so this field capacity is the amount of water which is held in a soil after wetting and after drainage has become negligible. So, generally it is after say 2 days of drainage. So, the after 2 days of the keeping it for draining. So, all the water which is generally goes out through drainage that gets drained out and then the moisture content which remains in that soil sample or soil or rock sample is the one which represents the field capacity moisture content and the total amount of moisture is the volume of that is the known as the field capacity. And similarly so this wilting point is the moisture content it represents a moisture content where in the plants start wilting that means say below this wilting point. So, the all the water all the moisture it is held by only molecular attraction between moisture or water particles as well as air and soil or rock particles. So, it is not given away by the soil. So, therefore, plants cannot extract any water by capillary action. So, the plants start wilting or drying. So, these are drying plants drying plants. So, further so they die. So, this difference between the field capacity moisture content and then the permanent wilting point. So, this is known as available moisture content and similarly the difference between the field capacity and optimum moisture content which is slightly higher than the permanent wilting point. So, this is known as the readily available moisture content. So, essentially the all the irrigation so they depend upon this readily available moisture which can be easily extracted by the plants through capillary action. So, therefore, in this irrigation what is done is so as soon as the soil moisture gets depleted to this optimum moisture content level. So, then one irrigation supply is given. So, then the moisture content increase to field capacity moisture content level and then further again by the due to plants metabolic activity due to evapotranspiration as well as evaporation. The soil moisture gets gradually decreased and again when it reaches this optimum moisture content then the next irrigation is given. So, like this so this is how the process of irrigation continues. Now, let us come to the moisture content in the zone of this one. So, this is available moisture. So, here so this is in the zone of aeration. Now, let us come to the zone of saturation which is the let us come to available water in the zone of saturation. Again here so in the zone of saturation. So, most of the water is held by this zone of this is gravity action of course very small amount is held by this hygroscopic action. So, here let us define say two terms which is the specific retention. So, if we denote this as SR. So, this is the ratio of the volume of water which is retained in soil against gravity after saturation divided by the total volume. So, this VR is the water volume retained in soil after saturation against gravity and this V is the total soil or rock volume. And let us also define another terminology here that is the specific yield which is denoted by SY. So, here so this is equal to VY divided by V where again V is the total soil or rock volume and this VY is the volume of water drained and obviously. So, this is by gravity and so this N which is the porosity of course few authors in the previous class I think I represented this by alpha and few authors they use the notation N. So, this is equal to the specific retention plus specific yield. So, this is a very important relationship between porosity and specific yield as well as specific retention and here. So, essentially so if I represent. So, this is the water table. So, the water retained above water table is known as the field capacity here we can say that is moisture retained in the zone of aeration. So, here you can say let me use the maximum water and here. So, this is the below this it is the water retained. So, this is water retained corresponding to the specific retention SR maximum water retained in the zone of saturation. So, essentially this field capacity as well as the water retained. So, they represent the same water content while the field capacity represents the water the maximum water retained in the zone of aeration wherein all the pores are saturated while the water retained represents the maximum water retained zone of saturation and obviously. So, this is corresponding to SR. So, this here you can say this is and both are against gravity. So, like this. So, the essentially this field capacity as well as water retained. So, they represent the water which is which can be retained to a maximum extent in the zone of aeration as well as zone of saturation. So, now let me also represent here. So, the and as this ground water is one. So, our objective is to harness or to extract ground water as much as possible. So, therefore, the specific yield is more important to us and here suppose I represent on a scale the specific yield expressed as percentage. So, here on the lowest level this is 10, 20, 30, 40 and in the highest this one that is around say 44 we have peat which is basically the vegetative matter which has decomposed and then the lowest specific yield is observed in clay which is. So, peat has 44 percent and this clay which has the minimum which is 3 percent and in between we have say the dune sand 38 percent and we have say medium sand which is a 28 percent and we have say coarse gravel 23 percent and we have sandstone 21 percent and we have limestone 14 percent and we have silt here with generally this one. So, these are some of the typical values of the specific yield in different materials ranging from the minimum of 3 percent in found in clays and the maximum of 44 percent found in around 44 percent found in peat. So, in between we have silt, limestone, sandstone, coarse gravel, medium sand, dune sand and of course few more. So, this is the variation of specific yield in different soil or rock formations. Now, let us come to the aquifers, their classification, characteristics and classification. So, these aquifers are essentially these water bearing layers. So, here we can say in this so, typically we can say this above this limestone all these rock or soil formations they represent aquifers and below this limestone all this soil or rock formations they represent either equitards or aquicludes or aquifuges which you discussed in the previous class in the previous lecture. So, here I would like to draw your attention to a schematic cross section representing the various aquifers. So, these are the impervious. So, this is the impervious strata. So, this is the recharge area. So, this is the ground level here I would like to represent the water table or the piezometric surface. So, this is the water table and this is piezometric surface which represents basically the energy. Here after this recharge through different forms of precipitation. So, this soil moisture the water moves in this is known as the confined aquifer which is essentially confined at the top as well as bottom by confining layer. So, this is the confining layer and here suppose we drill a well here which penetrates all the way up to the confined aquifer and here this one we may find we may. So, this is water table. So, this well is penetrating through the all the way and here this is the confined aquifer and then this is the unconfined aquifer also known as water. Let me write here. So, this unconfined aquifer that is water table aquifer. So, this unconfined aquifer represents the top most aquifer which has only the one confining layer at the bottom whereas, its top surface represents the water table which is subject to which is undulating and it is depending upon the slope the areas of recharge discharge and pumping and other factors and in this case. So, now let us come to this well which has been dug in the which has been drilled in the in the area in the land area which is below the piezometric surface and it penetrates all the way up to the confined aquifer and here the totals of this piezometric surface represents the energy the total energy at that level for this depth up to all the way up to the confined aquifer. So, therefore, here the well starts oozing out water corresponding to this piezometric surface and such a well is known as a flowing well. So, here the water gushes out of the well on its own. So, no artificial pumping is required and on the other hand suppose we drill a well which penetrates only the unconfined aquifer in this case the surface the water surface will be corresponding to the water table at that location and so therefore, this well which penetrates only the unconfined aquifer is known as the water table well. And on the other hand suppose we drill another well which penetrates to the confined as well as unconfined aquifer. So, here the water table corresponds to one and the piezometric surface and this well is known as artesian well. So, this confined aquifer is also referred to as artesian aquifer which is also known as pressure aquifer. So, there are three types of wells the flowing well the water table well as well as the artesian well. So, in the flowing well the water gushes out on its naturally by because of the ground surface being below the piezometric surface there whereas, in the water table well as well as the artesian well. So, the water surface will be below the corresponding to the water table or the piezometric surface and this artesian well it draws from both the confined as well as unconfined aquifer at the bottom as well as unconfined aquifer at the top. So, we will stop here and we will continue further our I will continue our discussion in the next lecture. Thank you.


Once the nucleus is out, the next step is irrigation aspiration. You just saw me using a 30 gauge cannula through the side port to irrigate any of the trapped material in that incision. Then I start the actual removal of the cortex with a curved or an angled IA tip. IA is irrigation aspiration. I always start subincisionally. That is the most difficult cortex to remove. Once I have the subincisional cortex out, I usually go counterclockwise or clockwise, it doesn't matter, and kind of go 360 degrees and remove all the cortex. Here you can see I still have a little tuft of cortex subincisionally, which I'm very gently tugging at, and you have to be very, very meticulous to not tear the anterior capsule or edge, to not cause a decimase, tear, and gently remove that subincisional cortex. Once that step is done and all the cortex is out, the next step is polishing. As you can see, I don't change my tip. I just change the mode on my FACO machine and go to polish. These are the tendrils. They look like seaweed or kelp underwater. They're attached to the posterior capsule, but float about, and I very gently remove as much of those adherent fibrils of cortex as possible before the next step, which is implant insertion.