Previously on Wheel of Mutt, Papa Meigs dominated in Season 1, a spectacular perfect season topped off with the coveted Super Bowl rune. We cannot dwell on the past. A new season quickly approaches, and our father will have to reset his entire team. Does he have what it takes for the back-to-back? Will he ever clap cheeks like Zack Wilson? Let's find it. Get him on! We're good, baby! Hey, I'm feeling good, boys! Now, weirdly, I'm feeling good. Usually after a loss, I've got this weird energy, but I'm not malding. There is no malding over here. Game 1 was amazing. We were able, despite the loss, to hang on to this insane, limited DK Metcalf. Oh my goodness. We even went to overtime. We had an awesome game. It was really fun. Things didn't fall in our favor, but that's okay. Is look who we hung on to this. It's so crazy. He makes Justin Jefferson look shitty. Justin Jefferson is insane. This is quite the card right here, and the animation goes hard. We've also got legend Michael Vick, who honestly kind of sucks right now. Oh, the other suit is horrible. Give me a new running bag, please. Jason Calcio is our new prestige center. So, hoping he gets a new card pretty soon here. Oh, Keith sucks too, so I need everything. I really need everything. Micah Parsons, EJ Speed Logan Wilson, and then Troy Palamalu, our new prestige. He was really good too, but like Palamalu and Micah were anchoring the defense. Everybody else was just like fighting for their lives, and it didn't work out. But we played pretty good defense in that game, dudes. I'm not that mad about it. And you know what? I can actually use Justin Jefferson as a kick returner now, since he has so much help at wide receiver. And I don't even mind if he's fatigued for some plays here and there, right? And I'm actually going to go 99 club home. I'll see how these Unis are. Wasn't a big fan of those silver and black ones. All right, boys, you know the rules. Let's see if we can get here. I think a half bag is a pretty big priority.   Same with the whole line, obviously, but... You think a half bag can pop out of here? All right, we go over to sets and we can do the best exchange set. So there's going to be like an elite exchange set. They do update this. So hopefully there's a relatively high one right now. Hoping it's at least 85-86. It's 84-85 overall. Lee player is the best one right now.  But since I have silvers at every position, it's actually amazing for where I'm at right now. So I get three of these. I would take all nine right now if I can if I can beg. Ooh, Shaq, Griffin, 84. Actually insane, too. 84 speed, six foot. 84-85, number two is eight. We're going to have to build the Eagles all-in. Give me Jordan my lot. I'll take the whole Eagles all-in. I don't care. And our final one is offensive line.  We didn't get an 85, but who cares? I got exactly what I asked for. Actually, I got that whole 84 all-in, right? Because I got Jason Kelsey. Now I got Gwitten Ellison and Lane Johnson. That's like, that really is such a massive difference. I mean, since Mike Vic is left-handed, I feel like my left tackle is super important. That's huge. I'll leave Carlton Davis where he is in cornerback two. Now it can become Shaq Griffin. And we're cruising, baby. All right, first wheel spin. I thought that was going to be better. Ended up being amazing. So I'm really happy about that. Hopefully this second one will give me a choice. Baby? Baby? Hey, you're not going to see me complain about re-roll. All right, I'm the last guy who's complaining about re-rolls. We got DK Metcalfe last time from re-rolls. So let's see what we can sauce up this time. You know what? I actually like that we got re-rolls here again. Sometimes I feel bad if people see me pull something insane, then go try and do it. Listen, I pull so much bad shit, but we never talk about it. We only talk when I pull something great.  I technically could go the training variety pack. 80 plus platinum players. I'll get strategy items too, though. No, I need to guarantee players. Well, I did do Grinner and Guardian last time. Let's alternate between kickoff and guardian. Is there a nice hat back in guardians? Very an ultimate kickoff. Travis Jones is our first player. What if I pull DK again and then I can't use him? Our second player, Rashid Walker. Travis Jones again. Joshua Williams, we're having a middle off. Oh, I wouldn't mind him. He's probably my front runner right now. Pack six, back to Grinner and Guardians.  Wow. Number nine, come on, baby. Anything over 79? Eight, that's over 79. Although literally I think I would take Joshua Williams still so I get all my silver corners out of there. This is our final pack, our final player. Those were dog water. All right, well, Kwan Alexander's good, but I don't think he's nearly as important as getting Joshua Williams or Rodney McLeod in there. I'm actually gonna go Rodney McLeod. Oh, he was strong safety, but I'll put him at free safety. No way. Dude, he has 74 speed. I take it all back.  There's no way I can justify that. Joshua Williams is 6'3 with 81 speed. He sucks too, but it's the best of the worst. There's an analogy for that and I don't remember it. Damn man, all right.  That second one did not clutch me up, but that's okay. Our third one is yes. I've been waiting for it. All right. You're gonna see my master plan unfold right now. There's a reason I wasn't getting halfbacks before in episode one. There's a reason I've been waiting for the Aka jackpot and that reason is the best halfback in this game and I don't wanna have a debate about it. A halfback's so good. I literally made a whole video on it. In fact, now that I realize it, my two God squad players are Seattle Seahawks. Oh my God, he's not on the auction house, is he? He's not on the auction house, so that's hilarious.  Oh, he is. He's not called Marshawn. He's called Beast Mode. He's on the auction house, wait. Oh, yep, I'm holding for no reason. This is who I want so badly, Marshawn Lynch, Beast Mode. I have wanted him at halfback for so long. I wanted him last season. I wasn't able to get him. The way this works, if you didn't see my Marshawn video, he starts the game with his X factor activated for three plays. After those three plays, it turns off for nine. Then it turns back on for three. Then off for nine, then back on for three and it just alternates like that. So you can't manually activate it. He's already insane as is. He's literally insane as is 90 speed, 87 XL, 86 agility. He's so good, 91 truck, 90 brake tackle. I'm like pretty Seahawks heavy right now, which is kind of hilarious because when would you ever be Seahawks heavy? This is also the jackpot so I can fully upgrade him. Now we're in the same boat as last time to keep my insanely good Seahawks player.    Are a dumpster fire over there.  So enjoy your two God's God players, how we live them up. I used to be a Seattle Seahawks fan, but I took my fandom to a real organization like the Detroit Lions. So freight train beast mode, it's five AP, the shit's expensive, but it's three plays it starts on, I have to go with it because it really is that good. And I'm just gonna go bulldozer for when he doesn't have that and potentially arm bar, the stiff arm is really, really strong. I don't know if it's worth two AP though. You know what I'm just gonna do? I'm gonna do freight train bulldozer. Keep it simple, he's already using six AP, which is a lot. And yeah, he's just such a savage. I'm so happy to have this card, dude. So that's our final spin.  I think I'll take some abilities off of Justin Jefferson. I really do feel bad. I'll take recuperation off. I'll take run off elite off as well. So Jay Jetta still has deep out elite and double me. DK back at Marshawn Lynch. Justin Jefferson. This is gonna be the season of Marshawn Lynch. I have to, I have to hang on to him. I gotta win this game. We're gonna leave my challenge wheel again.  Still no D-line, slightly improved secondary, but not really still no strong safety. No fullback, no tight ends, no right guard left tackle. We can actually effectively run the ball. We can effectively run the ball though. It's not gonna be really good, but I can do it. Marshawn's just gonna have to break a lot of tackles. We are a 78 overall. And once again, a crucial challenge wheel. I'm gonna be looking at this challenge wheel same way I did in the last episode, which is if I'm gonna lose this game, I damn well better get that challenge wheel. Ooh, that's gonna be tough. Last game I scored 14 points. Every game is unique, every game is different. Score 31 plus, that is so hard. DK, Beast Mode, Palomalu. What do you got, sir? What do you got, sir? Crabtree Fitts, oh, a Cardinals team. And we're in Cardinals stadium, it makes sense. All right, scoring 31 or more is not easy. So maybe the game plan really here is just win, but we'll just have to see how it plays out. Oh no, please no, not this, not this, man. Do I have a scum kick?  It's always the start of the season when your team is so many overalls lower and everyone just gets blocked for eight, nine seconds. I just don't want a scum kick. I don't want to be that guy. I don't want to be this guy. Oh no, that wasn't a scum kick, nevermind.  Maybe I'd try that though. Maybe I'd go to an edge, try something new. Okay, I'm liking this. Let's just hand it off to Beast Mode, right? Let's see what happens. Oh, he knew he was going to break it. Now I'm sure this is second and four. Where's his defense? Ooh, okay. Wow, screaming, super hot, four man rush. How did that happen? I got one more play with his X-Factor lit up. I'm going to give it to him. Let's go get a first. Let's go get a first. I can run the ball. All right, so now it's off for nine plays. If you look up there, offensive downs played zero of nine. So yep, now we just got to wait for him to more offensive downs and we're back in it. All right, we'll go right back to him over the middle. And he still got bulldozer. So it's not like he's ineffective now. He just isn't broken, broken though. Second and three Metcalf wide open. I'm going to go right through Buddha Baker.  You got, because you got Isaiah Simmons in the middle, Tyran, Matthew, Buddha Baker, Night Train Lane, Byron, Murphy, Chandler, Jones, J.J. Watt. This might be one of the best team teams. Oh, Andrew get Patrick Peterson.  All right, Co-Keeft, simple, simple yards. Look at this drive. This is beautiful. Hey, we keep our foot on the gas. Maybe we can score 31 plus. He's making adjustment. Oh my God. You do not know how bad I wanted to throw that to DK Metcalf. J.J. Watt comes in hot. We don't get anything out of that, which is a bummer. Looking for J.J. to... Wait for it, wait for it, wait for it, wait for it. Great cut. How is my good accuracy throw missed? How? Explain it to me. I just got, I'm going up top Metcalf.  Well, we haven't seen him on offense, so that's good news. He could struggle on offense. Oh, for one to start out the game, all right. Play action.  Shaq Griffin, again. Let's go Shaq. Why did I just say again? He never had the ball on offense. Whatever, Shaq Griffin, amazing work.  Great job. All right. Like, like, okay. See, so that was the same thing. It just, it just worked that time and it didn't work.  There's Metcalf over the middle. Insanely good catch. I think this time he will take the slant, which will leave Justin Jefferson open. Think he takes the slant here. Watch, he's gonna, he's gonna peel off to it. Peel off to the slant. Ah, I'm Acroblood zero. Fourth and nine need a really big play here. I kind of want to look at Metcalf coming in on this slant. I got a third of somebody. Shaq, look at that. That's so, it's just like, you're just gaming the system though. You're rushing five against five and Madden just doesn't pick it up. He's gotta play through it. I'm on the wrong guy. I like that he keeps throwing these though because those are not good throws. The dig? Oh, okay. I love that. I love that. Gotta come down with that, Choi P. Third and 10, what's his play? Right here. Ooh, nice throw. Very nice. Block Choi P inside the linemen. And somebody named Williams is almost gonna house it. Let's go. That's the break we needed. Hey, we stayed composed. Got a little luck on our side. I'll take it. How many more plays? Ooh, he's someone who has two more with the X factor. Let's give him one. Let's give him one. Yes, sir. You know we're gonna break the first one. Second and 10, tough to go anywhere against linebacker splits. Dude, there's so many amazing ways to beat this but it requires running the ball. And I have silvers out there still so I'm a little nervous but we're gonna try it. Hey. We still got it. Come on. Let's go boys. Beast mode into the end zone, seven to seven. I got a little bit of luck on my side with that fumble though I don't know if we can consistently get stuff like that. So, I don't know. We're just gonna play a perfect game from here and I already made enough mistakes. All right, first and 10, what does he want? Play action. Nothing, nothing, nothing. Do it, do it, do it, do it. I knew it. Come on. Let's go hard cut Micah. Damn. Oh, I would have loved to return that but insane interception. Let's go Micah. I hated him perfectly. Touchdown here is insane. Touchdown here would be so massive. Do I get ball half? Yeah, he opened the game up with a kick return touchdown. I think I can throw Beast mode here. Yeah, I can. Beauty. Great stiff arm. Out. Kind of figured he was gonna absolutely lay the hammer on me there but great play. All right, well let's go back to stretch. Stretch was amazing against us last time. Stevie's figured out how to stop it. He'll probably switch up to the free safety to stop it. Hard cut. No, no. My silver fullback go block the safety. I'm going to the side it's supposed to. I bet you his user will jump the wrong side. Nice play by him. Damn it. Let's go. I actually remember something working here. It was Metcalfe on just a streak. It's kind of, it's risky. Yep, they're inside. Throw that every time. Yup. Yup. I remember that from last game. The last game guy was running the exact same play. Oh, he knows. He doesn't know well enough though. Come on baby. Come on. Let's go. 35 seconds on the clock. We just got to put it in now. I'm going to run this right side. Actually no, left side. Let's go. He's going to over commit. Hard cut. Ooh, nice play. I did not expect him to get that there. It's call of time out, second and goal.  Justin Jefferson had his guy. I just don't know if it could have made that throw. I probably could have thrown that. I don't know if it was worth risking it, so I'm kind of glad I did not. I'm looking for Metcalf here. Don't know how strong this will be here. Really not that strong. Got all the way up there so efficiently then got boxed. I probably should have gone back to just an aggro catch with Metcalf, but I did it. I'll take my field goal lead and ball half and we can come right back to the drawing board and try and get this ball in the end zone. Oh, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa. What are we doing here? I respect it.  I can't say I understand why he did it, but I can say that March on Lynch Beast mode has freight train activated right now. Ooh, and we have runoff still. Oh no, I don't have runoff on either of my wide receivers, which actually makes these plays a lot better, but I'll still take all the yards about to get it. It kind of works either side. It works better to the left side. I'm gonna stick with the left side here.  Big hit. I'm gonna take this to the right side since I think he's gonna over commit and hopefully have a one-on-one with this safety. Great train. It's so broke, like it broke. I'll bring it back right side. Hard cut. Yep. Well, the reason I don't want to chew clock here is I'm not actually confident I'll be doing touchdowns right now. Great blocks. Great blocks. Right through them. Come on. You think you'd switch out of linebacker blitz zero at some point, right? Now these dudes sell out for their linebacker blitz zero. All they know how to do is click linebacker blitz zero and pray.  I'm just gonna aggro him. Aggro. Let's go.  The best corner in the game. But I put red zone threat on him right there, baby. I learned from my mistakes. I'm like, Tony Stark, baby. Then we really could put up 31 plus. Two more touchdowns is 31 plus. I also gotta remember Mike Victor's. Who has my first touchdown right now? How do I just forget who has my first touchdown?  Great tackle. Do it. I know you want to. Oh, the thing right over the middle. Thank God we got him. He should open. Got him. Got him. 13-13. Up in his grill. He can't throw anything. Oh, big one.  He's fumbled twice. He's gotta quit. What else are you gonna do? What are you just gonna do for quit though? You gotta quit there. I would be involved. Run! So we keep everybody from today's episode. And we get a win on the board. Beast Mode is staying. He was amazing. Jason Kelsey, Quinn Nelson, Lane Johnson are staying. Now remember, if there's a rage quit, we automatically get an upgrade for a power-up player. That's because if someone rage quits, I don't have the amount of game to even get the upgrade. Right? Like if he plays that game out, maybe I could have got 31 plus. Maybe Michael Vick could get an upgrade, but they stripped that ability from us. So we're gonna take our little upgrade here from Michael Vick, which allows me to give him abilities if I want. I actually wouldn't mind giving him run and gun. Yeah, let's give him run and gun. Let's take our ability off Justin Jefferson. It feels so bad for Justin Jefferson right now, but he's getting, he's kind of getting shafted a little bit. So we'll deactivate his ability. We'll put run and gun on Michael Vick. Everything else is looking really good right here. And that was my one upgrade for Michael Vick. Next time he throws for three touchdowns or 300 yards or 300 total yards, he'll get an upgrade. And of course, we get a spin on the rage quit wheel. Rage quit wheel? Come on, baby. Come on, baby. I'll take a left tackle out of this if I can. I don't know what possible it is, but if you got something that's got a left tackle on it, 50K choice. I don't think it's gonna get me a very good left tackle, but it'll get me a left tackle. There are no 85 left tackles. Oh, there is one. It's Munoz. 85 Munoz, 39,350 coins. That's a left tackle. Offensive line looks amazing. Look at this, dude. Our luck was crazy today. Nelson, Lane, Jocelyn, let's get Smith out of there. Let's get a tight end in here. Let's get a full back. And then obviously defense has so much to be desired, but I think we're on a good path right now being one and one. Pretty much the entire defense actually needs to get upgraded other than Troy Palamalu and Michael Parsons. So we've got like 10 positions to fill there. But offense, I feel good. All right, boys. I love you. Awesome episode. Hey, we're kicking this season off well, baby. I love to see it. Hey, you guys are the best. Thanks for watching as always. I'll see you in the next one. Peace.


Today, when I am supposed to talk to you about how psychology emerged as a discipline. It reminds me of an experience that I had several years back. During my undergraduate days, when I was going through the history of psychology, because it was prescribed in the course template at my university, I found the history of psychology to be very dull and right. And the primary reason, I guess now is that things were told to me in a very way, what you call linear fashion, where the different schools, the major personalities and their contributions, it was taught to me. And this is how, you know, even several of the textbooks of history of psychology also talks about. Somehow, I found it extremely dull, very, very dry, not at all fascinating. 20 years down the line, today, when I read the history of psychology and when I am in a position to a larger extent to relate things, the constructs, the personalities, the time frame, the happenings that was taking place in and around the other areas. Now, I find the history of psychology to be very fascinating and I also find it relevant, something that I did not find 20 years back. Two important things that I understood was the first, that at any given time in the society, there are certain practical needs. And development that takes place in any discipline, basically is an attempt to cater to those practical needs of the society. And so, has happened even in the case of psychology, where attempt was made, because there were social compulsions, because there was a need for certain things at that given point in time and therefore, things developed the way they developed. And second, that the strength and the limitations can be very well understood only when you view things in their historical context. The moment you know, delink it from the context, the strength and the limitation of something that has historically taken place, it is very difficult to visualize it. And therefore, now, I find that the history of psychology, when I am trying to know in a very comprehensive way, share it with you, I find it extremely relevant, I find it very fascinating. Traditionally, what has happened is that usually the books, the university curriculum, they will talk about the major schools. And then, you will have the different stalwarts, who gave certain theories, who gave certain prepositions, they are taught. This could be one way of approaching how psychology immersed at its discipline. The second approach could be, where you take the major influences, the way I have put it here, where you have the philosophical influences, the influence that was exerted by development in the area of physiological sciences. And then, how different schools of thought gradually started evolving. And then finally, how contemporary development has taken place in the area of psychology. Now, when I do all this, I will know deviate a bit after couple of minutes. What I will primarily do is that, I will look at the two strong influences, the philosophical influences and the physiological influences. And then, I would go to the major schools and even within the major schools, I would only talk about the major theories or the major ideas that was developed at that point in time. And especially, my emphasis would be that how finally, even though we had initially begun with the philosophical influence, how psychology gradually started emerging as a discipline, which was more into the scientific study of a behavior, more into a very systematic study of a behavior and how this discipline actually became much more scientific in nature. So, first we begin with the philosophical influences and as you know, I am just summarizing these major influences. René Descartes was the first person who you can give the credit of influencing psychology. And primarily, he was talking about the mechanism and the mind-body problem. Mechanistic conception of the body was another important construct that he influenced. The theory of reflux action was something that you can root it to René Descartes. Mind-body interaction was another very, very strong and important construct that actually came because of the influence of René Descartes. And two important things, one, the localization of mental functions in the brain and the doctrine of innate ideas. You would find that these six important developments in the area of psychology can be traced back to René Descartes. John Locke and George Berkeley. These three important philosophers also influenced psychology to a greater extent. And Comte can be given the credit for influencing the concepts like positivism, materialism and empiricism. And John Locke talked about the how mind acquires knowledge. And George Berkeley gets the credit of talking about mentalism. Then we have the influences of David Hartley, James Mill and John Stuart Mill, where David Hartley was actually talking about repetition. It was John Mill who talked about mind as a machine. And John Stuart Mill actually talked about the mental chemistry. So many of these things you find later on being discussed in the domain of psychology, which actually has its root in the early philosophical influences. Another important influence that psychology had was from those who were working in the area of physiology. And important constructs like reflex behavior was proposed by Marshall Hall. Paul also talked about something called extirpation, which actually was a process where you remove or you destroy part of the brain of an animal. And then you try to observe the behavioral changes that the animal has undergone. So this was another technique, which actually was part of physiology. But later on you find that psychology also was heavily influenced by this technique. Paul Broca, everybody in psychology knows him. And he actually is given the credit of evolving this clinical method, where posthumously examination of the brain structure was done. And he would primarily try to correlate the changes that has taken place in the brain. And accordingly he would correlate it with the behavior that the individual was showing.  This was little different from the method that was given by Marshall Hall, where he was trying to destroy or remove part of the animal's brain. And then trying to see the changes that the animal has undergone. By 1870 an interesting method came forward till now the methods were either extirpation or the clinical method. But then Fritz and Hitzig, they came forward with the method of electrical stimulation where weak electric currents were introduced to the cerebral cortex. And then the motor behavior of the subject, the individual was observed. And you would find that electrical stimulation as a technique has been used for very, very long in the history of psychology. Another important person was Hermann Helmholtz, who not only influenced psychology, but primarily his contribution was in the area of physics, in the area of physiology. And by default he also influenced development of psychology. Weber, who actually gets the credit of two things, the concept of two-point threshold and the concept of just notable difference, till date those who study the psychology of perception. In the perceptual process, people do refer to two-point threshold and just noticeable difference and undergraduate students must be doing practicals on these constructs. Another important person, who influenced psychology was Fekner. Fekner did talk about the mind and the body, but most importantly, Fekner should be given the credit of developing a technique whereby the mind-body relationship can be quantified. Remember, earlier also, right from philosophical days itself, the relationship between mind and the body was always being studied. It was always a primary area of interest for behavioral scientists, but Fekner should be given the credit, because he did talk about the mind and the body relationship, but then his idea was primarily to quantify this relationship. And till date, psychology is under the influence of quantification of human behavior. The concept of absolute and difference threshold was also talked about by Fekner. And the three methods of psychophysics that we read nowadays, the method of average error, the method of constant stimuli and the method of limits. Fekner is given the credit of developing one of the method and actually he systematized the remaining two methods. And all these three methods are now established method that are part of psychophysics. Gradually, psychology know after the influence of these philosophers and the people who were working in the area of physiology, psychology started gradually taking its shape. And we all have heard about William Wundt, who primarily talked about the study of conscious experience and to him, conscious experience was both the mediate and the immediate experience. Method of introspection was given major credit and the whole of psychology started revolving around this very method that William Wundt talked about. He did talk about the elements of conscious experiences and primarily the whole concept of upper perception, which is actually how you organize the elements in your mind. That was something that Wundt talked about. Herman Ewing Haas, we all know him. He gets the credit of influencing the construct of learning, where especially he talked about the nonsense syllables. Till date, you find the reference of nonsense syllables whenever you talk about learning, whenever you talk about memory. All experiments know a cross board would have invariably have the usage of nonsense syllables. Brands, Brentano was another important person who did talk about the study of the mental acts and stump came forward with phenomenology, which was actually introspective method, which was examining the experience as it occurred rather than reducing it to elementary components. And stumps way of looking at introspection as a method started making a deviation from what Wundt had initially suggested. And then it was Kulpe, who talked about the systematic experimental introspection. And where introspective method was used to seek information about an individual after the experimental task was complete. And then of course, Kulpe also gets the credit of talking about imageless thought. Now I am taking the route that is usually followed in most of the books of history of psychology and most of the universities course structure follows this template where you talk about different schools. But I must tell you that my idea is to just summarize the major individuals and their contributions, the major constructs that was talked about under the ambit of that very school of thought in psychology. But then once again I will make a deviation once I complete the neopradiance thereafter. And then I will now gradually go into much more detail of how psychology started taking its shape and becoming more and more systematic and scientific study of behavior. So, coming to structuralism, Tichner gave the concept of the content of a conscious experience and he did contribute a lot to it. And then comes functionalism where the primary emphasis was more on the functional outcome and once again you can trace it back to Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin actually did not make a direct impact on psychology at his time. But he had a very diverse interest and if you can relate the presented development to the contribution of Charles Darwin, you will find interesting relationships. For example, comparative psychology is one of the branches of psychology and when you start tracing the roots of this domain of knowledge, you can trace it back to Charles Darwin who had actually focused on animal psychology. So, primarily the focus of attention on animal psychology could be construed as the basis for comparative psychology. Another interesting thing was that even though consciousness was the focus of attention till that time, Charles Darwin suggested that the focus deserves to be on the functions rather than on the structure of consciousness. And two most interesting things, one that Charles Darwin should be given the credit of accepting methods used in other areas as well as using data which is of interest of different domains of knowledge. So, today what we refer to as interdisciplinary, what we refer to as multidisciplinary. It was Charles Darwin who should be given the credit, who actually advocated for accepting the method and the data from multiple sources. And most importantly, the construct of individual difference, the importance of measurement of individual difference was something that can once again be traced back to Charles Darwin. So, that way you can have these four important contributions of Charles Darwin which is actually a part of functionalism if you want to trace it back. Sir Francis Galton, another interesting individual who actually talked about mental inheritance and he is known for his research on mental inheritance and talking all about it. But the most important thing that he actually contributed to was quantification. What Francis Galton was repeatedly talking about was that there is a possibility of quantifying whatever you observe in human behavior. Then of course, William James who talked about the stream of consciousness, for him consciousness was a continuous flowing process and any attempt to reduce it to elements would actually destroy it. Besides William James, you have long list of people in psychology who influenced psychology in one way or the other. For example, you can take Hall, Dewey, Angel, Carr and of course, Woodworth. But the most important thing was the legacy of functionalism which actually was more and more into making psychology very, very application oriented discipline. One, the contribution of Cattail who was actually into psychological testing and little later our entire focus would be on the testing movement, how actually from one piece of work it actually went to the whole area of interest. Second, the two important movements that took place, one, the clinical psychology movement and two, the industrial organizational psychology movement. There you find the reference of Leitner-Wittmer and Walter Scott in the two different movements. These were the major contributions which made psychology more and more application oriented discipline. Besides that, the whole set of Gestalt psychologists, what they are called as Wardheimer, Koffler, they contributed a lot to understanding the whole principles of perceptual organization. But very interestingly, when you read the construct of development of insights, especially the study of apes, there you find that even the whole construct of acquisition of information, learning of information and how insight plays an important role in this, the credit can again be given to the Gestalt psychologist. Of course, we know the importance of field theory, Kurt Levin gets the credit for it and the study of motivation and all psychologists would know the zygarnic effect. Then, we come to behaviorism, where the major theories came, Thondike who came forward with a new instrument called the puzzle box, where he did his experiment and this is how the method of trial and error came into picture and two important laws came into existence, the law of effect and the law of exercise. Ivan Pavlov, we all know him, who gave the whole concept of classical conditioning, although Ivan Pavlov was working on some other problem, but the outcome that he got influence psychology to the, what you call the strongest possible extent and we have the whole construct of classical conditioning. Watson and influenced psychology like anything, Tolman who should also be given the credit of introducing the concept of intervening variable in psychology, till that time psychology was mostly looked at from the independent and the dependent clusters of variables. It was Tolman who did introduce the concept of intervening variable and then Clark who did talk about the hypothetical deductive method, but once again B. F. Skinner who did come forward with a major construct of operant conditioning and besides explaining the whole construct of operant conditioning, Skinner also gets the credit of introducing the schedule of reinforcement, which once again is mega construct in psychology and the concept of successive approximation, which actually explains how complex behavior are acquired by human beings. So, these were the major constructs that was actually talked about during the era of behaviorism, but once again socio behaviorism came into picture and especially you have two important individuals who contributed in this area, Albert Bandura who gets the credit for introducing the concept of bicarious reinforcement and also talking about self efficacy and Julian Rotter who did talk about locus of control. All psychologists would certainly be reading the constructs given by them and many of these concepts are still part of not only the understanding of this subject, but also you find them being used in their practical classes. And comes psychoanalysis where Sigmund Freud suddenly you know took a different turn where he talked about the theories of the unconscious mind. He did focus on the sexual basis of neurosis, evolved dream analysis as a technique and most importantly he did talk about psychoanalysis both as a therapeutic technique and he also talked about psychoanalysis as a system of personality. And later on came Anna Freud, Klein, Carl Jung, Alfred Edler and Karen Hornay all of them who are usually called as neo-Fridians who did not know challenge the major construct of psychoanalysis, but did try to explain human behavior in a way which was deviating from the usual way Sigmund Freud had explained. So, these were the major contributions, but then by the time personality was being explained by psychoanalysis there was another parallel development that took place where different personality theories started evolving and there emerged the whole humanistic psychology and especially two individuals Abraham Maslow who gave the concept of self actualization and Carl Roger who took to who did talk about positive regard the unconditional love of the mother for an infant he talked about it and these two were important constructs gradually no psychology started taking a different turn and then came an important turn around in the history of psychology what I am referring to here as contemporary development when George Miller started his work George Miller by training was not a psychologist no he was into language and later on he did contribute in a very big way talking about psycho linguistics and then it was nice who did know compare the functions of human beings with respect to the metaphors used in computer and this was a major turn around where there was a shift from the SOR pattern of understanding and explaining human behavior where one would talk about the stimulus organism response to when one started talking about input transformation and output and this is how cognitive psychology came into existence. More and more influence of the physiological processes which made it evolve as cognitive neuroscience in fact no later on in this series there is a section on neuropsychology where you would have 2, 3 speakers talking on different different topics and then there was also this influence of biology where it was not only you know studied as psycho biology but it was also investigated from a sociobiology point of view and more importantly the evolutionary psychology emerged out as an interesting area where behavior was traced back to the usual evolutionary biology way of explanation. So, the traditional methods used in psychology the scientific method the scientific rigor of making prediction about a human behavior but then also taking an evolutionary viewpoint. Having you know summarized the history of psychology in nutshell I am now making an attempt to revisit the scientific psychology and as I told you that I would now be making very, very surgical intervention into the history of psychology where I would try to trace how psychology actually became more and more scientific know as a domain of study. Now, for this I am selectively choosing the whole you know history of psychological testing and you can consider that William Wohne Francis Galton and James Cattail can be considered as the founders of the modern psychological testing. But I must tell you that if you start looking at the history of once again you know the testing and assessment you would realize that testing can be traced back you know to a very, very old practice in China. So, now onwards what I will do is that I will first begin with you know neighbor or neighbor China what actually was being practiced there and then we will know move to different European countries where different, different developments took place coming to US where psychology was taken forward to its modern format. We will then you know swing between Europe and US and then once again we will return back to India and see how you know developments took place within this country and what impact it had you know on the overall development of psychology as a discipline. Now, psychological testing is little more than 100 year old but then even though it had a very timid beginning it has now become a big business. You have different, different testing houses where you pay a large amount of money there are you know series of you know assessment that are being performed by different, different consultancy agencies government agencies. So, this has taken shape of a big business very interestingly certain cultural institutions have evolved around psychological testing and assessment and I refer to Madina and Neil who estimates that the usage of achievement and ability test in US is approximately 200 million per year and this gives you know an idea to visualize the quantum of the size of this whole development that has taken place. Going back to history Sir Francis Galton know you can give him the credit of developing the first battery what was the assortment of sensory and motor measures and later on it was Cattail who should be given the credit of talking about mental tests and measurements. Having said that now let us go back to China and there you realize that testing can be dated back to 2200 B.C. And I refer to Lai here who says that every third year the officials in China had a compulsion to undergo test of fitness. The hand dynasty in China introduced written test in five areas civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue and geography. These were the five areas and interestingly you will find that by 1370 a three tier examination pattern had evolved. The preliminary examination where all the first 1 to 7 percent of those who used to pass the preliminary exams they took up the district exams and 1 to 10 percent of those who qualified it they had to go to picking to take up the final exam. So right from 2200 B.C. you find that the society felt the need for testing and assessment of human capability and even though it was not hardcore you know psychological in nature. But you do find that there was no felt need that I was referring to right in the beginning that after 20 years when I realized that actually there are certain contemporary need of the society. There are certain you know practical needs of the society that demands that certain things should definitely evolve. And therefore, you know you find that you know psychological testing was being practiced in China in a different form of course. What is interesting to observe also is that although testing can be traced back to China 2200 B.C. but the validation of this whole process was actually not into a picture you know it also it always remained an issue at that time. And this whole testing system was evolved by 1906. Another important development that took place was not in the area of psychology but in our sister discipline psychiatric.  So, he developed an instrument for testing the brain injured patients. The whole idea was to show words symbols and pictures through a slot in a sheet of paper that moved slowly over the stimuli. So, one sheet of paper which will have either words it will have symbols it will have pictures. And then you have another sheet put over it which will have a slot there an open slot. And you move the paper with a slot over the picture now which has this words symbols and pictures. This is actually what you see in memory drum. So, this actually you know the process adopted by Grassey can be considered as a precursor of the memory drum. And you see here right now on your screen you have the memory drum. Of course, now it is being phased out because of the contemporary development of computers. Because you can replace presentation of the stimuli but traditionally I do not know in the modern times how many people have seen memory drum. But I remember my own undergraduate days where memory drum was used as an instrument in the psychology lab where you can see here rotor put there. This rotor actually could be used to adjust the speed of the movement of the drum. And this sky blue plate that you see on the top and a white opening there. You can open the slits there where you have the blinking arrow beneath which a drum was there which where we used to know put a sheet of paper used to paste it with the stimuli. The stimuli could be again anything largely it used to be words, it could be nonsense syllables, it could be symbols, it could be pictures. All you ensure is that without error you are in a position to present the stimuli to your human subject after a certain temporal limit. So, you would have designed your experiment and you ensure that after every lapse of these many seconds the stimulus would change and memory used to serve this purpose. Now of course, with development of computer memory drum as an instrument has lost probably its significance. But then it did play a very significant role. All I am trying to say is that it is not only the concept that developed it is also the need of the society. It is also the development of certain tools the development of certain techniques that should be taken into account when we talk of how psychology immersed as a discipline. Another German psychiatrist Konrad Rieger he developed a test battery for the brain damaged patients. Now you see an interesting thing the first test battery that we were referring to was traced back to Francis Galton. And after Francis Galton you realize that it is basically Grassey who thought of the brain damaged patients and came forward not with a test battery, but with an instrument. And again it was Konrad Rieger who again thought of assessment of the brain damaged patient, but this time it was not an instrument it was a test battery. The limitation with this test battery was that for its administration you needed more than 100 hours something that is impractical in terms of usage. And although it did not receive much acceptance these two developments the development of memory drum as a tool and the development of the test battery did contribute to the standardization process. So, today when we talk about as a standardized test in psychology you can again refer it back to these two significant development in the history of psychology. Now assessment of brain damaged patients and psychiatric symptoms became possible because of these two things. Another interesting thing we are still in Germany right now when we are looking at developments taking place in Germany. Experimental psychology thrived you know in Europe and also in England and William Wundt he was actually trying to measure mental process through the help of a thought meter. On your screen what you see swinging pendulum hitting two bells on two sides was actually you know what William Wundt called as thought meter and remember note that this was 1862 when he was trying to do this. Thought meter was actually a calibrated pendulum with needles on both the sides and while swinging it always know the needle used to strike the bells. Now the observer had a task to note the position of the pendulum when he heard the sound of the bell. Now Wundt had adjusted the needles beforehand and therefore knew the position of the pendulum. What actually was being recorded was the difference between the actual and the observed position determined you know through this experiment and actually this whole process actually determined the swiftness of thought of the observer. I quote William Wundt that for each person there must be certain speed of thinking which he can never exceed with his given mental constitution. Now if you know look at thought meter if you look at those whole process it might look as if it was a very very preliminary type of an investigation of how is human beings perform. But remember that this very experiment served the understanding of several processes which was actually a cause of concern for scientist in those days. In the area of astronomy there was a big debate going on because people in the observatory would keep you know tracking the movement of stars and then you know two different people would report change by certain time. And therefore when William Wundt you know experimented using his thought meter with whatever way it influence psychology it did serve the purpose of answering a question in astronomy. Now another interesting thing was that this experimental approach also contributed to understanding of certain very vital psychological processes such as attention, motivation, self correction and of prime importance once again individual difference. Now all four of them are extremely important constructs in psychology till date and you can refer it back to an experiment done by William Wundt in 1862. So this is an interesting development that took place. Let us know now go back from Germany to England where Sir Francis Galton actually attempted to measure intellect by measuring reaction time and sensory discrimination. So these two were his important constructs and his work actually helped to understand individual differences in a much better way. I am not going into the details of what actually he proposed. But what I am trying to tell here is that the fact that the difference between two individuals can be measured can be quantified is something that you know you should give credit to Sir Francis Galton. Interestingly he established a psychometric lab in London at the international health exhibition and again it was 1884 when he did so. Now as you can see on your screen know there was a long corridor with tables put there and he had put different instruments there and those instruments were primarily supposed to measure physical characteristics as well as behavioral tests were also put. Now physical characteristics such as height, weight, head length, head width, arm span, length of the lower arm and so forth was the physical characteristics. The behavioral tests such as strength of hand squeeze, lungs capacity, visual acuity, reaction time, speed of blow and the highest audible tone that can be received by the individual these were the behavioral tests that he had exhibited at that time. Interestingly 17000 people were tested you know during this exhibition and you will be surprised to know that 7500 records of those 75000 individuals are still available. And of course I refer to the work of Johnson and his colleagues for this. But most importantly once again as you can see that blinking statement on your screen that dynamometer was used to measure the strength of hand squeeze and even now to measure grip strength to measure the strength of the hand to measure the strength of the squeeze dynamometer is still used as a tool. So, something that was used long back at that time you find that makes sense to psychologist till date. This method of measuring intelligence of course perished, but it did clear that objective test can be devised. So, this was an interesting realization and that the scores that you draw out of your objective test can be used to draw inference. Remember that now when you talk of statistical interpretation of your data you do talk about inferential statistics psychology has moved to the extent where attempts are always being made with respect to the how much inference can be drawn from what you have observed.  What he actually was talking about was the fact that the bodily and the mental energies they are inseparable you cannot separate them. One, two that physiological measure is also an index of the mental power of an individual. And the interest of James Cattail included strength of hand squeeze using once again dynamometer rate of hand movement 2 point threshold for touch. I am sure many undergraduate students must have done practicals on 2 point threshold. Degree of pressure that is needed to cause pain, weight difference, reaction time for sound, time for naming color, bisection of a 50 centimeter line, judgment of 10 second of time and number of letter repeated on one hearing. So, these were his interests. Interestingly, James Cattail had of course, good number of students. Four of his students know made significant contribution to the development of psychology as a discipline. Thondike, who is famous for his learning theories. Woodworth, who wrote this exemplary book on experimental psychology. E. K. Strong, who is given the credit of developing the vocational interest blank. And Whistler, who actually made a correlational study between the mental test scores and the academic performance. So, actually whether psychological test serve the purpose that it is meant for, it is something that he tested. Now, Whistler in 1901, he did find the absence of correlation between the mental test scores with the academic achievement. Now, experimentalist by that time gradually started discarding the concept of reaction time and sensory discrimination as measures of intelligence. And of course, Whistler also gradually turned his interest towards anthropology, but 70 years later you find that reaction time once again revived as a major construct. Today, 2013 with all these modern equipments that are being used in psychology laboratories, you still have reaction time as an important variable in your study. But, once again you can see that this measurement of reaction time can once again be traced back. We once again come back to Europe. In the middle ages in Europe, people with intellectual disabilities were occasionally diagnosed as witches and they were put to death by burning. Broomberg, he has you know referred to a book, Flajlam Salutes, where he says that prominent physician advocated beating as a treatment for certain types of psychological phenomena like melancholia, frenzy, paralysis, epilepsy and facial expression of feeble mindedness. So, you can understand to what great extent feeble mindedness was you know disregarded by the contemporary society in Europe. But, then two French physicians, Squaryall and Seguin, they revolutionized the thinking of people in the Europe about people who suffer from mental retardation. Now, Squaryall actually was the first to propose a three tier classification system for those who are suffering from mental retardation and this classification was based on language skill. First, those who use short phrases, two those who use only monosyllables and of course, those who can only cry, but they cannot speak. In the late 1800's, Seguin was the one who was instrumental in promoting humanistic view towards the individuals who suffered from mental retardation and he was the one who also developed educational program for the mentally retarded. In 1838, he established an experimental class for them. So, you find that there was a big change you know in terms of catering to the need of people with mental retardation.  What you find is that there was you know a big debate taking place in contemporary Europe and then there was also a felt need by the society that the set of people who suffer from certain type of feeble mindedness or what was later on termed as mental retardation also deserves the attention of the psychologists. So, the social background of this time desperately needed a psychological tool for identification of such children. In 1904, an interesting development took place. The ministry of public instruction in Paris appointed a commission to formulate educational measures and Alfred Binet and his students Simon they were asked to help the Paris school system to identify children who are unlikely to benefit from the ordinary instruction that is being imparted there and this is how Binet came forward with his first test of intelligence in 1905. This is considered to be a major milestones in modern psychology.