Welcome to today's lecture. Now we have given you glimpse of how to determine the peptide structure and you have some idea like why it is important. Next is like what to do with this structure is known. So if you look at the whole drug industry is after getting a target for protein because you know proteins are workhorse for our body. Anything and everything that you imagine is done by protein. We are walking done by protein. If we are our heart is beating it is all protein action. If our eye movement eye movement is happening because of protein. So your oxygen is carried to different position it is by protein. Protein is very important target and therefore whole pharma industry is looking for target. One target that can particularly affect a protein which is corrupt in a disease case. So therefore the protein drug or protein ligand interaction becomes very important because proteins are a proteins are communicator, proteins are workers, proteins are everything. So protein ligand interaction is very very important for the pharma industry. But pharma industry actually is generally does not work like our lab. So in lab we can take one thing and go in detail and study very like slowly to what function is happening. But pharma industry many times requires a quick way to find it out whether this molecule will work or not. Should I invest so much time, money and energy in identifying those molecules. Therefore a high throughput high throughput process is always desirable for pharma industry to find it what is what will work and what will not work what we should discard it. So NMR over the years has emerged as one of the important parameter in drug discovery and today we are going to monitor this aspect of NMR spectroscopy how you can use the NMR in drug discovery especially suited for pharma industry. So as I said it is all about protein drug or protein ligand interaction. Protein is bigger molecule ligand it is smaller molecule how we can understand if this ligand interacts with a protein and suppose we are giving a soup of ligands which ligand will interact with a protein. So that we can take this optimize this make a better efficacy drug. So now we got all the different parameters that can be used to identify or to monitor the property of ligands. So here NMR can monitor different physical property that can exist between a protein and a ligand and that can be used for finding a better optimized ligand in drug discovery protocol. So let us start as we said ligand is a small molecule. So small molecule means it is a slowly relaxing molecule and if it is slowly relaxing then its diffusion is very fast. So in solution it is tumbling very fast. We had previously discussed small molecules that means it will have positive Hanoi and then will be like there are not too many protons here. So spin diffusion is also going to be very very slow. So we have a negligible or negligible spin diffusion whereas protein generally this is many KD. So this is say few Dalton 1000 Dalton or so. So it will be 100 kilo Dalton. So proteins are bigger molecule. So bigger molecules that means they have a fast relaxation and since they are big so they will be diffusion very slow in solution. They will have a negative Hanoi bigger molecule if you remember our previous classes we have discussed that big molecule will have negative Hanoi and then small molecules will have positive Hanoi. And there will be lots of spin diffusion because the proton network is very dense and that is how spin diffusion will be quite a bit. So now suppose this ligand interacts with protein and make a complex. So now ligand is small protein is big. So the resultant complex is going to be big. So if this resultant complex is big we have a fast relaxation it is similar like a protein. It will have a slow diffusion because molecule now overall molecule has become big and it will have also negative Hanoi and it will have fast spin diffusion. So it will acquire all the property of a protein molecule. Now what we are going to do is a concept that we have discussed earlier. So if you remember we have said that if two spins are somehow interacting through a space you put out this spin the effect of this perturbation will be seen on that. Like polarization transfer we had discussed earlier. So similar concept is going to be used in something experiment called saturation transfer difference NMR spectroscopy or it is in short form it is called STD, saturation transfer difference. So what we are going to do? Suppose our ligand which has some protons and protein which has some protons so chemical shift of this proton H is delta A and this chemical shift is delta B. Now if suppose this is binding in a micromolar range and it is in fast exchange so ligand is binding going off in a microsecond time scale or fast exchange. So that is the complex that we are going to do. So now suppose we do some experiment as some trick suppose they are two are interacting and we saturate selectively the signal of this. Saturate the signal of proteins the effect of that saturation will be seen on the chemical shift of ligand. We are saturating protein signal we are seeing effect of that saturation on ligand signal if these two are interact and this precise concept is used in a technique called saturation transfer difference. So now saturation will be transfer if they are in exchange and they are in proximity if they are not in exchange or if they are not interacting they are not in close proximity then effect of saturation on protein will not be transferred on the ligand and they will be not interacting. So that is what we are doing. So the KD of such kind of process should be in micromolar and size difference between ligand and target should be at least 15, at least 15 fold. What I mean if your ligand is say 1000 Dalton your protein should be more than 15 to 20 kilo Dalton if it is more it is better otherwise the effect will not be seen. So one KD is ligand and 15 to 20 kilo Dalton each protein then we can do these experiments which is called STD and binding of this should be around micromolar range. So you have to have some idea of binding. Now protein is taken very small concentration you do not need very large concentration of protein you just need large concentration of ligand. So if you take protein concentration say in few micromolar and ligand concentration in millimolar we can do these experiments. Now what we are saying since this concentration is very low so we will not get any signal coming out of the protein we only get signal coming from the ligand. Now say this is a my signal from protein and this is my signal from ligand I just brought it for but this signal we are we are not seeing it just for representation I plotted it. Now we are irradiating the signal from protein which is delta B is irradiated saturated. So saturation means you are making the population here and here equal that is so that means this peak will disappear after saturation. Now since these two protons are in exchange and also in close proximity the effect of saturation particularly at this position you are going to see here therefore the intensity of this peak will decrease, intensity of this peak delta A will decrease. So now by saturation of peak of a protein effect is seen on the ligand peak and that actually will show up in reduced intensity of the ligand and this method was developed by a group in Germany and published in Angokam. So this is called STD. So let us discuss what actually we are doing here. So we are saying say this is protein signal if we take in high concentration. So this is protein signal. Now we have to saturate a signal which is not in ligand because we are selectively saturating now protein signal. So suppose we are saturating somewhere here quite offensively like minus 1, minus 2 ppm and effect of this saturation we are going to see on the ligand signal. So this is say our reference spectrum for the ligand 2 equal intensity peak we are getting. Now we saturated the protein signal and all the protons of the ligand which were in close proximity of the protein their intensity will decrease. So here if you look at this intensity has decreased this has not changed. Now if you take a difference of these two then we know that okay this will cancel it out and only signal from here will appear. So we know that this proton is interacting this proton is not interacting. Similar you can take then another example here is a reference spectrum. If there is no STD means no interaction then you do not get any effect and therefore if you take a difference you do not get any signal okay. So that is what you see if it is interacting in the difference spectrum you will see some peaks if they are not interacting that means there is no peaks. There is no peak that is what easily just by recording 1D spectrum of ligands in presence of protein you can find it out whether this ligand is binding to particular protein or not. So things to remember we are collecting two experiment one is reference spectrum where we are not saturating protein signal one where we are saturating protein signal and recording the spectrum. Now we are taking the difference of these two reference spectrum and the saturated spectrum and if peaks appears that means we are with this ligand bind to that protein and we are getting therefore a signal. So we need to saturate protein peak usually this is methyl is student and that we can find it out just by knowing where the ligand signal is not. The pulse sequence is something like this okay. So two experiment is done one saturated one non-saturated and this is done by for saturating then you just apply a 90 degree pulse then this is for removing the protein signal and essentially record it. So saturation followed by 90 degree and then recording in one experiment you don't saturate in another experiment you saturate take the difference and the difference peak will tell whether it is binding or not. So just for an example I am showing it say here is my ligand which is binding to a protein. So in first experiment we recorded proton NMR spectrum and we get the chemical shift for each of these protons right ABC you can see here. Now then we saturate a signal from protein and then subtracted that signal from here. So if you look at this, this, this, this they are anyhow coming from solvent they are almost vanished and here also this peak and this peak vanished. However DEBF these peaks appears that means this ligand interact with a protein at DEF these 3. So this moiety interacts with the protein this moiety does not interact with protein. So precise in beautiful way just by recording 1D spectrum we can find it out binding epitope of the ligand to the receptor and that can achieve achieved with a very, very high sensitivity in a very quick manner just 1D, 1D means few seconds. In few seconds we identify which moiety of the ligand is interacting with a protein that is what is STD for another example let us take a mixture of these two and we want to find it out which one binds. So if you look at here the mixture has only like only one difference. So difference is essentially here this just everything if you look at it same right all the moiety is same so only this CH3 is shifted here. So 6, 7 changes there. Now these two ligands you are given a mixture and you want to find it out which one of them is actually binding to the protein whether methyl at 6 position or methyl at 7th position that is what we have to identify which one is binding with. So we recorded a spectrum the 1D proton spectrum and we can identify the red are coming from the 7 methyl triptophan and 6 is coming from 6 methyl triptophan. We record a spectrum we identify these peaks then we record an STD spectrum means by saturating protein peak recording 1D spectrum and we find that here are some peaks which are appearing. So here if you look at these peaks are appearing. Now we can find difference spectrum is a mixture of protein which is HSA and 6 methyl triptophan and 7 methyl triptophan and then corresponding now you can find it out the spectrum. So if you look at here this is binding. So if you look at this methyl seems to be strongly interacting like 6 methyl triptophan seems to be strongly interacting with HSA compared to 7 methyl triptophan and one can get other protons as well. So this 7th does not interact 6 interact. So now from the mixture of these 2 compound just they are isomer position is different 6 to 7 one can find it out that which one interacts with the protein which does not interact and that is just within a few second one can identify. So now that was we started with 1 we will now look at mixture of 2. Similar thing you can do have a mixture of 3 or even 4. Suppose we have a mixture of these many compounds and then one of them is binding depending upon what is the activity site and how ligand can fit it. So we keep increasing the saturation time and now what will happen that a binder the binder will show the STD peak here and nonbinder will not show. So nonbinder there will be no peak coming from these 2 shapes only for this will be shown here. So binder will show a peak nonbinder will not show a peak and therefore even from the mixture of the compound you can find the appropriate ligand. So you see now this can be used a throughput screening method for finding it out which ligand is binding to protein and which does not bind to protein. And now that can even like here was a ligand and if you look at the nonbinders like here it is a just flat peaks that means something like this is not binding. Reference spectrum for these guys are like this and reference spectrum is very well spread. So here you can see each of these peaks are present in STD spectrum. Again reminding you STD spectrum is a difference spectrum where we are saturating and where we are not saturating. So the non saturation minus saturation is giving peak means these molecule like blue molecule may bind and here the other red molecule or pink molecule is not binding therefore you do not see peaks in this region where the reference spectrum has a peak and this does not have. So if you look at this is just a very small molecule concentration of the molecule we are taking 80 micromolar of say binder or the ligand and 2 micromolar of protein that is what you need just for finding it out. So with a very low concentration of ligand protein now you can and from the mixture of the compound one can find it out a binder and a nonbinder and therefore it is a high throughput method for screening of a drug molecule. Now other thing that we have said can also be used for finding it out whether it is binding or not. So if you remember I said there are many parameters that can be used like here.  So if that is the case can we use this relaxation property to identify whether this molecule is binding or not. That means relaxation property which one T2 will transfers relaxation rate and transfers relaxation rate if you remember it is encoded in the line width. If a molecule is relaxing fast that means lines are broad if relaxing slow lines are sharp. So here is a line for protein and here is a line for ligand. Now we are going to exploit this phenomena of line shape to find it out whether this is the ligand is binding to protein or not. So as we have seen before line width is directly related to apparent molecular width, high molecular weight, broad line, small molecular weight, sharp line. So a small molecule like 100 Dalton to 1000 Dalton the order of magnitude lighter than the typical protein of kilo Dalton, kilo Dalton protein will have a broad line. So a small molecule sharp line of few hertz and then proteins have broad line of say few like 100 of hertz, 10 of hertz or 100 of hertz. So if a small molecule binds to protein now as we have seen.  So line sharp for small molecules protein line broad and complex will be line broad and that is what we will have. So if here is my small molecule this is my protein this will have sharp line like this and typically this should have broad line like this. So now if the complex formation happens because of complex formation now we are looking at the line of say ligand which was earlier sharp line now because now it is slowly tumbling it gives to broad line. So line width increases because of binding from narrow to broad. So it was earlier fast tumbling now it becomes slow tumbling. So tumbling also changes line also changes and that gives an idea now this ligand is binding to protein. So upon complexion one ligand lines will become broader and one can identify just looking at the line whether this binder or not binder. So like here nonbinder lines remains same if suppose this was binder lines becomes relatively broad and just looking at the line one can find it out whether it is binder or nonbinder just by looking at the line one can find it out binder or nonbinder. So now just we had looked at NMR analysis of ligand protein interaction here if we will concentrate it say free compound we have a free line. So Kd should be in typically micro molar range here micro molar range Kd should be and size difference between ligand and protein as I was saying it should be minimum 15 fold. So ligand line width will change upon binding and as you keep titrating so you have a say 500 micro molar of ligand and just 5 micro molar of protein. Now you keep titrating it so if you keep titrating what will happen you just look at this line follow this line. Now this line was quite sharp here two lines are sharp if you increase here ligand to protein now if we are coming one to one line become really broad. So this says that now this protein ligand interaction has dramatic increase in the line width happens not at the low protein concentration include that binding is not there. So if you increase here say ligand and if you go to ligand protein concentration line becomes dramatically broad and that says that this ligand is interacting with a protein great. So application of STD so what all you can do by saturation transfer difference you can essentially determine the Kd of the ligand dissociation constant. So you can find it out association constant dissociation constant kinetics K of and K on and then one can find it out any type of receptor in protein either it is soluble or even membrane integrated you can find the ligand for a receptor whether it is integral membrane protein or a soluble protein one can identify and even proteins which are embedded on the surface of whole cell you can analyze by STD and MR and find it out whether there is a ligand for that or not. And one good thing is that you need very less protein concentration just say about few micromolar even picomolar is good enough for obtaining the STD and MR signal. So that is what you can do by STD and MR application. So I hope this concept can be used in pharma industry to identify it. So I will go further and then we find it out now you kind of direct detect the ligand binding to a membrane protein in the living cell. So this topic because this is very very interesting you see the now soluble proteins are okay you can find it out but billions of dollar revenue is just by targeting G protein coupled receptor GPCRs though they mitigate the all signaling and 30% proteins are actually membrane protein many of them like GPCRs and all those. So they are difficult to investigate what is the receptor ligand interaction because these proteins are not easy to purify for making it soluble and looking at the binding affinity they are difficult to purify, difficult to reconstitute and get it for a structure determination. So but STD offers a very quick methods without perturbation of the protein in moment to find it out how what will be ligand protein receptor interaction. So difficult so all the difficulty of associated with membrane protein can be tackled by STD and MR. So what one can do here we can use the atomic level binding interaction of cell surface protein in the living cell but we are looking at the ligand all the time and this is done by something called saturation transfer double difference SDD. So this is SDD NMR. So now I am going to explain you what actually SDD NMR is saturation transfer double difference for studying the membrane embedded protein or protein immobilized on the cell surface and finding the binding epitope on the ligand how there we are going to do this. So this is very interesting hope to see you in the next class and I am going to explain in detail how you can use this SDD technique to finding it out these kind of interaction of whole cell. Thank you very much and looking forward to see you in the next class.


Welcome to the ITU studio in Geneva where we're conducting a series of interviews head of WTPF 21 which is the sixth world telecommunication ICT Policy Forum which is going to be held here in Geneva between the 16th and 18th of December 2021. I'm very pleased to be joined in the studio today by Mr Fabio Bigi who is the chair of the informal experts group on WTPF 2021. Mr Bigi welcome to the ITU studio. Thanks for the invitation ready to respond to your question. First of all I wanted to ask you can you tell us a little bit about the WTPF preparatory process how does it work and what are the key issues on the agenda? So as you very likely are aware the WTPF 21 has been agreed by the pre-potentially conference in 18 with resolution number two and the theme for the Policy Forum has been agreed by the council in with decision 611 and in 19 since then the the world's calling for experts I was nominated chairman and it was a call for expert from various members and we have quite a good team I have to say of expert together to draft the secondary general report and the text of the opinion to be presented at the Policy Forum. At present we are held in our last meeting and for the time being we have finalized more or less the report of the general secretary to be presented at the forum and the possible five draft opinion. How can new and emerging technologies like AI 5G and the Internet of Things facilitate sustainable development and what actions can governments take to drive this? As I said there are five draft opinion all deal with this aspect and particularly the aspect of the role of established rule and made mode of utilization of different technology in order to avoid discrepancy to avoid possible problems and things like that so all that is coming together to formalize and the role of new technologies essentially in this world changing world and this improving facility necessary for our normal life and this is particular for developing country where to have to go come to same level of connectivity and the same level of mutual understanding. Now this year Italy holds the presidency of the G20 in your role as informal expert group chair what are some of the commonalities in the priorities and the discussions? I have to say the final press release for my ministry of economic development has stated the accent on the digital economy and new technology and impact on the human being so there are the team treated the world more or less very close to that of the policy forum will treat and we I hope that will assist help also in making the final conclusion I found the final press release very useful. And finally what is your one key message to those taking part of WTPF 21 what makes this WTPF special and why should people attend? The people should attend because they set the future of the communication ICT and the scenario for future world and past experience the recent experience with the pandemic situation has indicated us how important our telecommunication ICT in this present world the world will continue to work thanks to them and improvement in this facility is essential to keep on going. What I the message is to the policy forum participant first you should attend either level to make a decision globally valid. Secondly make the normal practice of like you to have consensus to reach agreement to reach solution because the world want to have solution not problems. Fabio Bicci as always a pleasure to have you in the studio with us and we look forward to catching up with you again soon and seeing you at WTPF 21 in December. Sure I will be present and support the designated chair from the excellency minister from Ghana. Thank you very much indeed. Thank you.


So I got back from Air Force Field Training a couple days ago and I was trying to brainstorm some video ideas because I have a couple days free before I head back to campus and I was kind of reflecting on the summer and I came up with this idea and I think it should be pretty good video so stick around. Alright what's up guys it's Josh for Backing In with another video. Like I said today's video is going to be a little bit different because I'm going to be talking about a topic I've never really talked about on this channel and that is kind of language learning and how that kind of ties in with my experience this summer. I spent two months this summer in Tanzania and Kenya on an Air Force Language Program so it's this program called Project GO, Project Global Officer where they can send Air Force RTC cadets on trips to learn critical language skills. In this case I was learning the Swahili language which is the language that's spoken in most of East Africa. So I was there for over 60 days and we had Swahili class almost every single day. The only days that we didn't have Swahili class were the days that we were traveling and even then we were trying to have conversations with our teachers while we were in the van or the bus or wherever we were. A lot of times like for the first couple weeks class was literally like four hours a day of Swahili and then gradually it kind of got less and less as we got more busy and began traveling more throughout the program. Our teachers were actually pretty cool because for the first half of the program our teacher was actually a native Kenyan from Nairobi and then as we got into the second so the first half the program was in Tanzania and then as we moved into Kenya we actually picked up two more Swahili tutors who were also Kenyan and they were great as well provided more extra conversation practice. To kind of preface this video I knew absolutely no Swahili going into this program like literally nothing. Before the program they sent me a little sheet of like stuff that I should study before I get there because we did have a quiz on the first day but it was it was super basic stuff. It was like Hobari Zaleo or Gina Longu Nijosh you know like your basic like day one stuff that you need to know and it picked up pretty quick. So before the summer started I kind of thought of it as kind of a challenge. It was kind of cool to start fresh on a brand new language that I'd never studied before because French after studying for like seven years kind of just really dragged on and it was kind of cool just to completely start something fresh. I kind of wanted to track my progress and see how much I could learn in the two months that I was there when I started from absolutely zero. So obviously before I left I did do I did use a little bit of like Duolingo and other apps but Duolingo really isn't great for Swahili to be honest. A lot of the translations don't match up because Swahili doesn't have like a lot of the articles and other words that English has so a lot of times you get incorrect translations which was kind of frustrating but I also just use the the giant package that they sent us to learn and because Swahili really like Google Translate is not very effective at all for Swahili when it comes to like giving the words that you need so you really just need a Swahili dictionary or like a book that explains it really well. So I'll kind of give a little comparison between Swahili and the other language that I know French. So French in a lot of the romance languages kind of one of the hardest parts of the language is the different tenses and the irregularities between these tenses like French alone like just the past tense is a very complex tense because it's two parts and some verbs if you want to say in the past tense take a certain verb and some take another and with those different verbs some of the past participles are irregular as well and all these different tenses are conjugated different ways and although most of the tense constructions are very mechanical there's a lot of irregularities whereas on the Swahili side I literally learned the past the present the future and the conditional tense all within the first week because they're very simple to construct and there's barely any irregularities except when it comes to like monosyllabic verbs the hardest part about Swahili which is actually the easiest part about most of the other language I'm familiar with is nouns like you learn a noun in French and that's the way it is like it may have a masculine or feminine form and that kind of changes the way that the adjectives are but in reality it's it's pretty simple whereas Swahili has noun classes whereas like French would just have masculine or feminine Swahili has like nine different noun classes which are which completely changes the way that the grammar is constructed for these different nouns so like your demonstrative pronouns your possessive pronouns the connectives like all these different things change depending on which noun class you're in and some of the noun classes are pretty self-explanatory like the the MWAT class is just it's people animals and insects so it's pretty easy to determine that it's in that noun class but then you have the other noun classes like GMA or like in class which literally it's just random verbs you kind of have to when you learn a new verb you have to memorize which noun class it goes into in addition to learning all the grammar for every single noun class so that's that's kind of the hardest part for Swahili I would say so I've come pretty far and learning the language in only two months I like I said I really wanted to dedicate my summer to learning this language and kind of see how far I could grow starting from absolutely zero and I made a lot of really good progress at the end of the summer as part of the project go program you have to take something called an OPI which is basically a it's a phone call and it's a verbal Swahili assessment that's ran through the Air Force and the Department of Defense to kind of see how far you've grown in the language and kind of give you a give you an assessment so they kind of grade you on a scale from like zero one one plus two two plus three three would be considered like a pretty advanced speaker someone who's not like natively fluent but somebody that's that's good enough to speak the language and talk about some complex topics whereas one is just like your basic stuff and two is somewhere in between I actually ended up scoring a two on the exam after only two months of Swahili prep so I was able to talk about some more complex issues like the politics and the economies of Tanzania and Kenya and the different problems that these countries face in Swahili which was pretty cool so to kind of demonstrate a little bit of how much I've learned I'm actually going to attempt to talk about myself for a minute or two in Swahili I'll probably put subtitles at the bottom so you guys can actually understand what I'm saying just to kind of demonstrate how much I've actually learned this summer because it's it's honestly wild so let me begin This is Africa Mashariqi This is Post-Sopharian Africa Mashariqi because we are in Zanzibar and we are going to come here to meet and meet and we are going to meet Serengeti and we are going to meet Simba, Twiga and Pundamalia and we are going to to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet and we are going to meet to talk about myself. That was just off the top of my head. I hope that was good. Overall, the experience in East Africa and learning Swahili was incredible. And I was very surprised by just how in depth and how much this program really changed my views on things and allowed me to connect with people all the way across the world. And I never thought that, I don't know, I kind of wrote the program off. I didn't know how good like an ROTC language program was gonna be because I'd already done like a Yale study abroad program, but sorry Yale, but this program was miles beyond anything I had in Paris last summer. And it was completely funded by the Department of Defense and the military, so it's great opportunities for anyone that sets an ROTC cadet that wants to study a critical language, especially because I started from completely from scratch. Like they actually let me join the program when I knew the Swahili and half the people there didn't know any Swahili. Like it was about half and half newbies and returners. So as I said in my little Swahili blog, I do think I want to continue studying Swahili. I'm not sure how my schedule is gonna work out at Yale this semester yet, but I really kind of fell in love with the language. And since it's a critical language and it actually will serve me well in my future career in the Air Force, I think I do want to continue studying it. I feel like there's a lot of benefits to doing so over like French. Honestly, like after my study abroad in French I didn't want to take any more French where Swahili came back and I'm really pumped and excited and I kind of want to keep taking it, which I guess is a good sign. So that's about it for this video. Hope you guys enjoyed me telling my story about how I tried to learn Swahili in two months and I think I did a pretty good job. Let me know. Let me know what you guys thought of this video down below. I know it's kind of strange and not a normal type of video that I would do, but let me know what you thought in the comments down below. If you're excited that I'm back and pumping out more content, drop a like because that helps me in supporting the channel a lot more than you think. If anyone's new and somehow found this video because Swahili was in the title or language learning or something along that, feel free to subscribe. I post a lot of different stuff on this channel and this is just one little aspect of my life. So with that, I hope you guys enjoyed the video and I'll see you next time.


Today we're going to continue our discussion of the architecture that resulted from the split between the Eastern and the Roman Empire. And as we mentioned last time, this split was fostered in part because of political difficulties having to do with invasions of various barbarian tribes coming down and threatening Rome and innervating the forces of Rome. And it also had to do with the adoption of Christianity by Constantine, one of the Roman emperors, or at least the legalization of Christianity, after which time Christianity spread very, very quickly. I just want to get to this chart again to show you the split between the East and the West. In the West, Rome remains the capital, but its power base becomes fragmented and it becomes less and less capable of holding together an empire and barely able to rule itself. So pretty much by 476, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, hands his crown over to the Odessor, the Western Roman Empire is generally considered to come to a halt. It's kind of interesting if you think about Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor, but he has this kind of double name, part of it from the first legendary founder of Rome, Romulus, and the other part of it from Augustus, the founder of the empire. And at this point, he's considered to be so paltry a threat that the barbarian king Odessor doesn't even bother to assassinate him, he just lets him retire quietly to the countryside. Meanwhile, the Eastern Empire, headquartered in Constantinople, becomes stronger and stronger and stronger under powerful rulers like Justinian, for example, who was not only a brilliant warrior, but also one of these rulers who devoted himself to architecture. So under the rule of Justinian, the influence of Byzantine culture and Byzantine architecture spread wide and far. And we see this orange territory here to indicate that domain. Last time we looked at the simplest of early Christian architectural types. This is the Basilica of San Giovanni and Latterano from 313. This is really the first Christian church. And it's strange because you would think, hmm, this is 300 years after Christ. Why did it take so long for Christian churches even to be constructed? Anybody have a take on that? Yes. Exactly. It was taboo. It was against the law. It offered another model of governance and another code of beliefs that threatened the code of beliefs that were authorized by the government. So it was covert. So it was not until the Edict of Milan and not until the legalization of Christianity that the type of Christian church was able to emerge. How would you describe the basic organization of San Giovanni and Latteran, St. John Latteran? What's the plan type? What are the construction principles? What does it have that is similar to Roman architectural precedence? What does it have that seems not to be picking up on the architectural precedence? Yes, sir. Make that into a complete sentence. He said wooden trusses. And wooden trusses are true, but it just depends on the rest of the sentence. See if the sentence is true. Right. In Roman times, it would not have been so common to provide the roofing of a large structure like this with wooden trusses. Why do you think they put wooden trusses here? Yeah, it could be that you really required a lot of engineering know-how to put the big vaults together. And already by this point, the resources and the competencies are becoming diminished so much so that a few hundred years from then, they would have completely forgotten the technologies altogether. I mean, in 330, they could still do vaulting.  But maybe it's also a modest kind of architecture. If one of the ambitions of the architecture of ancient Rome was to be ostentatious and to demonstrate the glory of the government through these architectural marvels, maybe one of the ambitions of early Christian architecture was, in fact, to be humble, to provide a simple shelter rather than a symbol of glory. Good. What else is characteristic about the early Christian church plan that we see here in St. John Lateran? Yeah? OK, they have, like, colonnades inside. Can you think of another word for the colonnades, this thing that you walk on? Thank you very much. Excellent. Yeah, it has aisles. Do you know what that big thing that the aisles flank is called? Excellent. Yeah, so it has this characteristic plan type of aisles flanking a nave.  Excellent. They added a transept to the shape of the Basilica and formed a cross. And you could also proceed that by saying the basic shape was the Basilica, which is a Roman type. But they added a transept to the shape of the Basilica to make it a cross. And in making it a cross, they made it a particularly Christian church. Good. One reason you have all of these aisles here is that the church was full of people not simply attending the Mass, but also visiting various altars on the side. A lot of these churches were burial places for important people, like bishops or cardinals. And so the pilgrims would circulate through the aisles, and they would pay their homage to various characters. So as a point of comparison to this very simple, very humble vaulting of St. John Lateran, I just want to remind you of the vaulting of the Basilica, which are astonishing, really technological wonders, not simply in terms of their shape, but also in terms of their materiality. This is marble. This is gold leaf. This is pulling out all the stops in terms of making an architecture of grandeur and persuasion. And here again, we have old St. Peter's a few years later. It shares similar characteristics with St. John Lateran. It is a modest architecture. It is an architecture that almost turns its back on the structural innovations of Roman architecture in favor of this simple way of working. And if you look at the wall, you see this thin wall with simple punched windows. Quite a different situation than the kind of thick, massive walls you need in order to support the vaultings of something like the Bass of Caracalla. And here, too, we see a bit more of the plan organization. And that is the idea that there's a courtyard in front. And the courtyard has a kind of double purpose. One purpose is that there are assemblies. There are meetings. There are rituals that take place outside. There is a fountain in the middle for ritual cleansings or baptisms. But also it becomes another kind of mask between the church and the city. So it becomes a way, another way of denying the physical importance of the body of the church and maybe celebrating the spiritual importance of the body of the church. A different engagement to what architecture could do than what the Romans had. So early Christian basilicas in Rome that we looked at really characterize what was going on in the Western Empire after the legalization of Christianity. But in the Eastern Empire, a really different kind of development took place. Early Christian churches in Rome were all about procession, all about longitudinal spaces, all about building the symbol of the cross in these Latin cross plans. But when you get to Byzantine architecture, the architecture in Constantine's new capital, Constantinople, present day Istanbul, you begin to get a real predilection for centralized buildings. And a lot of that could have to do with the fact that the rituals, the method that Mass was celebrated, may have been slightly different. And I say may have been because scholars disagree on this. But there is at least one large camp of scholarship that says the celebration of Mass was a kind of secret thing in the Eastern Church, that the congregation didn't worship jointly and in the same space as the celebrants of the Mass, the priests, but they clustered into the aisle spaces at the margins. And so this notion that the center becomes the place where this ritual is observed begins to authorize the idea of strong, centric plans, as opposed to a plan like, say, St. John Lateran, which is all about the procession, and all about a shared space between the priests and the congregation. Maybe not shared in a non-hierarchical way, but shared like we're sharing this space. I'm in the front, you're in the back. You're not hunkering down in the corridors peeking at me. Oh, we haven't read a poem for ages. And this is a good one, because it's about Byzantium. It's a poem by the Irish poet William Butler Yates. And he's looking at this age when an architecture of elaborate detail, an elaborate surface manipulation, an elaborate collectivity in terms of the way workers from all the different disciplines came together to make artifacts. And he's thinking about this as something quite different from the condition that he lived in, where the trades are separated. The architect says one thing. The carpenter does what the architect tells him to do, surrendering some of his autonomy in the process. For Yates, Byzantium seemed like this dream place where all the workers were expressing their own joy in the process and their own contributions. And it became this wonderful collective thing. So let's see what Yates has to say, sailing to Byzantium. Yates is good. Also, Yates is really interested in Celtic revival. He's interested when he's writing this in finding a way for the arts in Ireland to take off in a similar way. So this is not something he's just looking back at nostalgically, but he's invoking the idea of Byzantium as something toward which Ireland of his day might aim. And I just heard on NPR F. Scott Fitzgerald reading poetry. So I'm going to read this as though I were F. Scott Fitzgerald. I think it will be better that way. Oh, sages standing in God's holy fire as in the gold mosaic of a wall. Come from the holy fire, pern in a gyre, and be the singing masters of my soul.  It knows not what it is. And gather me into the artifice of eternity. Once out of nature, I shall never take my bodily form from any natural thing, but such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make of hammered gold and gold enameling to keep a drowsy emperor awake, or set upon a golden bow to sing of lords and ladies of Byzantium, of what is past and passing and to come. This notion about sick with desire and fastened to a dying animal is a nice expression of how the medieval people viewed the body. We saw in classical thought how the human body is this microcosm of divine order celebrated for its perfection, celebrated for its beauty. And not that Yates is really a medieval guy, but his take on the medieval spirit is that the body becomes this dying animal that the soul is somehow tethered to. And only by pulling yourself out of nature and putting yourself into these eternal creations can you somehow save the situation. We looked at San Vitale as an example of a Byzantine church. This one is in Ravenna. And Ravenna, after Rome had completely collapsed, became the capital of the Western Empire for a brief period of time, 401 to 453. There is a nice collection of these Byzantine buildings there. And just by looking at San Vitale, you can see how typologically different it is from the early Christian architecture of the churches in Rome that we looked at. Here, this is one of those centralized buildings that's somehow being inflected to recognize the idea of procession, to recognize the idea of access, but nonetheless is incredibly emphatic about stipulating where the center is.  And you would expect there to be some kind of axial organization going on. And in fact, there are these two little doors, not one door in the middle, but two little doors. And if you come in through the lucky left door, you're on access. If you come in through the unlucky right door, you're off access and in the aisle space. And a lot of that has to do with information we don't see on this drawing, which is to say a courtyard in front of it that's tucked into a dense urban fabric. So this edge aligns with the ideality of a rectilinear courtyard. And these little triangle spaces are kind of like habitable pochets. They're a thick wall that you can pass through. And by passing through these little triangle spaces, you begin to make realignments between the axis of the courtyard, which is out here, and the axis of the church, which is over here. And one reason the axis of the church would have to rotate is that there was a favoring of orientations of east-west in churches. So you wanted to make sure you had the propitious orientation of the church, but you also had to deal with the existing courtyard. We also noticed when we looked at things like San Vitale last time that there's a really different attitude about the wall and a different attitude about how architecture is articulated. And a lot of that has to do with the fact that the wall becomes much, much flatter. The wall becomes this kind of luminous surface upon which sparkling little glass chips have been laid in order to create these beautiful figural ornaments. This is the court of the emperor Justinian under whose patronage San Vitale was constructed. So you look at a wall like this. And again, if you remember the walls of something like the baths of Caracalla, it's altogether different. Caracalla is all about plasticity, all about heaviness, all about the spatial visualization of the wall. And this is all about surface. As though just as the body of the person is somehow being denied and relegated to a lower role, the material body of architecture transforms and becomes much, much more a marker for symbolic meanings. The geometry is important. The ornamental program is important. But the plasticity of the building begins to become undermined. Justinian's best church, and really one of the best churches ever, is the Ayah Sophia in Istanbul, Constantinople. This was built over a church that Constantine had constructed that was burnt down in riots, the Nica riots of I think 530. And so Justinian, in a sense, picking up the mantle of Constantine and challenging Constantine in a fairly direct way by building his church over the ruins of Constantine's church. So that's a tall order. And Justinian is thinking a lot about what it is to build a church in Rome. And what is Rome? And what is Rome in Constantinople? And he has his architects. Isidore of Miletus and Amesia of Thralls build him this thing, which is quite a shocker, given everything we've been looking at before. And I say it's quite a shocker, because it seems as though it's some kind of hybrid, a kind of oscillation between two kinds of conditions. In a sense, it's a basilica. In a sense, it's kind of like the early Christian basilicas. Look, we have a courtyard. We have an axis. We have an apps. We have some aisles. It's exactly what we want in a basilica. But at the same time, it's emphatically centralized.  And not only do we have a giant dome, but the dome becomes expansive and linear. So that the thing that reads as the nave, if we think this is a basilica, becomes a serial dome if we think about this as a centralized plan. A completely new structural device is being introduced here that makes it possible to simultaneously have the idea of center and dome and the idea of this extended space. And that device is called the pendentive. The pendentive is just a device to put a circular dome over a square bay. It has to do with the notion of these curving triangles, really, that come down with point loads at the corners of the square.  So if you look at the plan here, these little curved triangles that you see in plan are actually these curving surfaces called the pendentives that make the transition from square to circle. So that's really great spatially. That's really great spatially because it opens the space up. It's really great spatially also because remember the pantheon dome? We had these ponderous walls. You needed the walls because the loads were coming down all along the edge. And it was tough to make a breach in those walls because you had all this lateral thrust kicking out. You needed a lot of mass. But here, it's really great spatially also because remember the pantheon dome? We had these ponderous walls. You needed the walls because the loads were coming down all along the edge. And it was tough to make a breach in those walls because you had all this lateral thrust kicking out. You needed a lot of mass. But here, perimeter loads have been resolved to point loads, which is pretty smart. And what are you going to do with a lateral thrust? Because you're still getting lateral thrust kicking out. And that too gets dealt with in a sneaky and dematerialized way by displacing the supports from the perimeter to the edges. So these half domes that we have here, right over here, clipping on to the central dome of Agiosophae aqueous bracing. Instead of having massive walls bracing the lateral thrust, we now have domes that take the load. So the thrust is coming down, coming down. And then this double shell that functionally is the aisle of a basilica also becomes a way that pochette, in a sense, gets hollowed out. You have part of the pochette here, part of the pochette here, and a habitable void in between. And that seems crazy. Like, how can you hollow out the pochette and still have a good structure and still have something that's rigid?  Like, you've seen i-beams, right? The steel beams that are used routinely for construction. They're called i-beams because they look like the letter i. Why are they so wide up on top? And why are they so narrow in the middle? Wouldn't it be better to just have a big hulking beam? No, it wouldn't be. Why is that? Well, weight is certainly one thing. But also, the structural properties have to do, yes, sir. Yeah, absolutely. What I said before about corrugated cardboard is that certain geometries become self-bracing. So in the case of Agia Sophia, these vaulted cells down here become self-bracing. And the geometry of the arch becomes something that works incredibly well as a kind of composite structure to brace the lateral thrust on this side. The pendentives work very successfully as a structural device to dematerialize the building's envelope so that there can be this transparency and permeability of space at the ground plane. They also work very well symbolically. If you look at the plan, you see a square and a circle. That's the diagram we looked at that represented the Vitruvian man. It's the diagram that represents the perfect nesting together between a symbol of the cosmos, the circle, and a symbol of the earth, the square. And in the sense that Agia Sophia is a Christian church, the fact that it is a triangle that acts as the intermediary between the heavens and the earth, the circle and the square is particularly loaded with significance because the triangle is the symbol for the Trinity, the Christian unity of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. And so it is the Trinity or the Christian faith that brings together the cosmos and the earth into a happy reconciliation. So this is what the Agia Sophia looks like from a distance. You can see a real direct expression of the interior space on the exterior space. There is this wonderful cascading of domes down from one to the other. And if you look at it in its present condition, it looks a little bit surprising because it's flanked by minarets, these little needle-like things. And that has to do with the fact that, of course, Turkey now is an Islamic country for the most part, and over the centuries it has gone towards serving one faith to serving another. And I think right now it's a public monument, although I'm not 100% sure. So I don't know if these diagrams show you any better how these pendentives are working. Here you can see the curved surface of the pendentive pretty clearly, and here you can see the base upon which the domes springs, where you have this very thin ring of pendentives coming down to this kind of double structure at the perimeter over here. And so a point of comparison that's pretty useful is the Pantheon. Because I think if you're building in Constantinople, the new Rome, and you're building over the ruins of an old church that Constantin put there, you're not simply dealing with Constantin, but you're dealing with the old Rome, too. And so you'll be dealing with the Pantheon if you're dealing with a centralized church.  The technique for building the Pantheon dome is not wizardry. It is something that is a fairly straightforward way to make a dome. In many ways, not so different from the dome of the Treasury of Atreus that we saw in Mycenae, where there's a slight displacement of material having to do with compression rings that stack up. And finally, you get a dome. Of course, it's much more elaborated than the Treasury of Atreus, but it's a simple construction. It's not using elaborate ingenuity, as opposed to the Hagia Sophia, which seems to take the ambitions of the Pantheon and then dematerialize the envelope with some kind of spectacular way. We don't have records from antiquity telling us what the ancients thought about their buildings, but we do have a scribe who worked for Justinian, who described the contemporary impression of the Hagia Sophia, a guy called Procopius. And it's pretty great. I'm just going to read a little bit of it. And this is amazing. This is a guy many hundreds of years ago describing the effect of this church. It abounds exceedingly in sunlight and in the reflections of the sun rays from the marble. Indeed, one might say that its interior is not illuminated from without by the sun, but that the radius comes into being within it. Such an abundance of light bays the shrine. The dome is marvelous in its grace, but by reason of seeming insecurity of its composition altogether terrifying. For it seems somehow to float in the air and on no firm basis, but to be poised aloft to the peril of those inside it. And I think that's just a spectacular description of the ability of this architecture to impress in a way that's quite different from the way that the Roman architecture impressed. Roman architecture may be impressed through super abundance of material. Like, wow, how'd they get all this stuff here? The Byzantine architecture, at least the Hagia Sophia, amazes because it seems to defy gravity and it seems to be so thin and so immaterial, yet nonetheless contains this kind of pure disposition of space and light. If you look at the Hagia Sophia on the outside and compare it to the Pantheon, you can see that the typology of, or let's say at least the facade articulation of the Pantheon is not a bit interesting to the people building the Hagia Sophia. And to me, that makes sense. Does anybody have an idea about why that would make sense? Why wouldn't you want your great Christian church to look like the Pantheon? If the Pantheon's such a great church. Right, it's a pagan temple. It's a pagan temple to a whole bunch of pagan gods. A Christian church should look different and so there's no interest whatsoever in reprising the kinds of elements that articulated the facades of pagan churches. And here's, I think, a good view of how these structural systems differ. We noticed when we looked at the walls of the Pantheon that there were these niches carved inside that helped transfer the load and the geometry of which helped brace the structure. And you can see that even so it's quite a thick thing, whereas in the case of the Hagia Sophia, it's incredibly light and incredibly delicate and even more so in Justinian's age. When Procopius was writing this, it was a thinner, less braced thing than it is now. This sometimes happens with great architecture. You build it so closely to the tolerances that it falls down. So the Hagia Sophia has fallen down at least three or four times. Sometimes because of earthquakes and sometimes because they were just too much in the daredevil mode when they constructed it. If you see it now, you will see that there are all kinds of buttresses all around it that are helping to brace the lateral thrust. That this idea was a good idea, but you throw a little bit of earthquake shaking in there. And the best ideas and the most over-designed structures will fall, let alone the Hagia Sophia. So let's look at this interior space that Procopius was talking about. It is pretty amazing, even with all the retrofitting of the buttresses. This slide is a bit too green. It's really golden in color. The little glass tessera.  Are luminous and golden. And look at how the dome sits on the pendentives. This is really quite amazing, right? This is the dome. This is the space of the church. You would have to say, a dome is heavy. I've seen the pantheon. How can you have this ring of windows here? How is that possible? What are you doing?  I am terrified. But the solution is that the very structure of this dome is quite different than the structure of the pantheon dome. The pantheon dome had to do with the horizontal stacking of rings. The Hagia Sophia dome has to do with ribs. Just as the plan structure uses the pendentives to isolate the loads to points rather than perimeter surfaces, so too is the dome structure organized by all these ribs that come together. So you have lots and lots of little point loads that come down on the pendentives rather than a continuous perimeter wrapper. Look at the modeling of surface. Incredibly different from the way surface was articulated in classical architecture. And again, it's an argument about the plasticity and the engagement with close observation of nature. You look at a Corinthian column capital and there are these little leaves unfurling and sometimes little blossoms, things that seem very graceful, things that are very much cut in relief to allow your hand to move around the space. And here instead, it is pattern making, it is surface making. It's almost as if the column capital is being dealt with as an ornamented surface in the same way that the wall is being dealt with at a luminous ornamented surface rather than something that bears weight. And I think a lot of it does have to do with these very, very different ambitions. The idea that light is created within the church and emanates out is a beautiful observation of what a church could do. And this idea that associates light and divine presence is something that continues through church building symbolism. When the Western empire fragmented, various cities were identified as seats of power. Milan was one, Ravenna was one, Aquileia to the north of Venice was one, and Venice was nothing.  Venice was a little bit of high ground and a couple of fishing boats. And actually right now, if you ever go to Venice, you'll see that it's an island. It's not connected to the mainland. It's this thing floating out in the middle of the Adriatic. And it's artificial ground also. In order to build in Venice, you have to get these trees that they bring in from Croatia because they have good trees there and they drive them down. So you get 50 foot long trees and they still do this nowadays. It's kind of amazing. And they have these like methods of hammering these things down so that you build up this new fortified ground plane upon which you can build your buildings. So Venice wanted to become a city of greater prominence. It began to expand. It began to develop an arsenal that built great vessels for sea travel, but also for warfare. Venice became an important port, but it was still nothing as a city. And the reason it was nothing as a city is that it didn't have a Roman past. It didn't have the imprimatur of ancient Rome and it didn't have a major church. It didn't have any great relics. They needed some. They needed to get some relics in order to establish the presence of an important church. This painting by the mannerist painter, Tintoretto, Venetian painter, probably from around 1560, shows you this project, this kind of crusade that the Venetians mounted to go to Alexandria in Egypt, where St. Mark, the apostle, was interred and to go there and steal his body. Okay, and the reason they wanted to steal his body is this is an important relic. This is an apostle. If they could get the body of St. Mark to Venice, then they would be able to establish a church. Then they would be able to attract pilgrims. Then the status of the city would become not simply mercantile, but also important in terms of its presence in the Christian pantheon. So this is the removal of the body of St. Mark. And this painting is quite fabulous. This is mannerist space at its best. Look at the disequilibrium between the left side of the painting and the right side of the painting. The left side of the painting seems to be pushing so far forward toward you that it's almost bursting through the picture plane. And at the same time, the right side of the painting seems to be whooshing back so far and so fast that even the people seem to be flung into the aisles of the colonnade next to them. So there's this disequilibrium of spatial tension and side to side. And the compositional way of representing that I think goes hand in hand with this incredibly powerful task of removing the body of St. Mark and thereby founding a new status for Venice. One more little anecdote about the removal of the body of St. Mark. Who knows if this is true or not, but this is commonly written up in guidebooks to Venice. Okay, one thing to go to Alexandria and have a crusade. Another thing to find the body of St. Mark. Still harder to get the body of St. Mark through customs, which apparently they had during the crusades, which seems crazy. But how are you gonna get out the body of St. Mark? And what they did was pack it in pork. So they took this shriveled old mummy of St. Mark and packed it in a big crate of pork. And when they were going through the controls, the Muslims who were soldiers guarding the boundaries said, what have you got in there? And they said, pork, wanna take a look?  And so they got the pork smeared body of St. Mark out for Venice, and that was a great day for Venice. On the left, we see one of the most important churches in Constantinople, a Justinian church, not really because of its importance, certainly Agia Sophia was the most important church, but because of its form, its typological organization. It gives us one of the first instances of a quincunx, funny word, a quincunx is just a five-domed church. So the basic plan type that we have here at the Church of the Holy Apostles is what kind of cross? Greek, thank you, why do you say Greek? Yeah, because it's like equal. A Greek cross has the arms of the cross more or less equal around the center, as opposed to a Latin cross, which is the kind of cross we saw in the early Christian churches in Rome, which have a long processional nave. So the Greek crosses are centric, and the quincunx in particular has these five domes. And this becomes a highly copied model for what a church under the Eastern Empire might look like, or any Byzantine church. And the type is conserved for a long period of time. We know that the Justinian churches come from around 525-30. This is St. Mark's from the 11th century, more or less reprising the same plan type as the Church of the Holy Apostles. Once again, it's a kind of great looking quincunx with maybe a few transformations, but truly not many. Even the idea of the material surface of the interior that we saw way back in Ravenna and Constantinople in buildings like San Vitale in Ravenna or Agia Sophia in Constantinople, Istanbul, we see here in St. Mark's. And that is this denial of the material presence of surface in favor of the creation of this luminous field of pattern and ornament. And the façade of St. Mark's is pretty amazing because it makes explicit use of spoils. The Venetians have this great arsenal. The Venetians have this great navy. The Venetians are conquering both sides of the Adriatic. The Venetians are conquering Greece. The Venetians are making incursions into Alexandria. The Venetians are conquering Constantinople. The Venetians had a lot of these kind of successful battles, but for the most part, they were authorized crusades because they were going off to the land of people who had not converted to Christianity. But at a certain point, the Venetians got so greedy, they basically raided Istanbul. They raided Constantinople and they took these horses out of one of the fora in Constantinople, this quadrigo, these four bronze horses. And they're now on display right on top of the portico to the St. Mark's Church. And we have all kinds of things. Like, look, here are Constantine's sons. The Venetians got those, too. And lots of columns, not only from Constantinople, but also columns from Greek temples, columns from anybody who wasn't guarding their columns well enough. And they're encrusted on the façade, and they are spoils. And spoils simply mean things that you take away as kind of trophies of your victory over another culture. But really, it was considered to be very bad form to have a crusade against Constantinople just because they had good stuff that you wanted. That seemed really difficult to justify from any kind of religious basis. From the time of Justinian, there's a kind of low, let's say, in terms of great architectural projects until around 800 when Charlemagne comes onto the scene. But it doesn't mean that culture was at a standstill. It just means that the centers of culture and cultural production shifted away from the state and shifted away from the centralized church to monasteries. There was a great kind of flourishing of monastic culture. And the earliest monks were hermit monks. You would be out in the wilderness meditating, not talking to anybody, fasting. But Saint Benedict, in around 530, began to consolidate the monks together and form the Benedictine order. And one of the missions of the Benedictine order was to be the conservators of culture. So a task that the monks would have would be copying manuscripts. You may have seen pictures of these illustrated manuscripts. Or if you've gone into any museums that have these on display, they're really, really beautiful things. They're hand-panned, beautiful calligraphy things, lots of illustration, gold leaf in the margin. So you have the Benedictines creating these centers of learning, these institutions to conserve culture. And at the same time, they're creating this big administrative network from one Benedictine monastery to another Benedictine monastery to another Benedictine monastery so that if anything counts as a kind of organized infrastructure during this period between, say, Justinian and Charlemagne, it is the structure of the monastic order. But let's just kind of look at our little timeline to get us up to Charlemagne. In 312, Constantine legalizes Christianity with the Edict of Milan. Clovis adopts Christianity in 496. Christianity is really becoming solidly established in European territory. In the 7th century, you have the rise of monasticism. These monasteries established by Benedict are flourishing. And not only Benedictine monasteries, but also other sects of monasteries. 610, Muhammad, founds the Islamic religion. So you now begin to have other strong cultural impulses coming into play. And from 610 to 733, there's a large spread of Islam through Arabia, Southern Europe, Africa, Asia, and India. It's extremely effective in terms of moving quickly across a lot of territory. Charles Martel defeats the Arabs at the Battle of Tours. And with this, he stops the spread of Islam. Tours is the south of Paris. So Tours is right in the middle of Europe. That battle was really one of the decisive turning points in keeping Europe in a Christian country and expelling the Arabs to the south. And with that battle, Charles Martel begins to consolidate power, not simply in the area around Île-de-France, the area around Paris, but also he begins to bring together a lot of city states in France and consolidate them together and make a new empire. We talk about Charles as the originator of a period called Carolingian. Charles Martel's son was Pepin, and Pepin's son was Charlemagne. And Charlemagne continued this project of consolidation initiated by Charles Martel and Pepin, and really at a certain point decided to declare himself to be the Holy Roman Emperor. So when we talk to you next time, we'll continue our discussion of Carolingian architecture. And specifically, we'll talk about the imperial palace in Athens.


You know, the interesting thing on this conference is that you learn a lot. It's politics, it's economics, and it's technology. It's actually every, and also social matters, and I think it's everything which moves the world. There's a bit of that. There is certainly a bit more on the politics and economics, but I think this is very helpful. I think it was quite interesting. For instance, this morning, the former president of Mongolia, who showed how the Chinese are looking at what happens in Ukraine, I thought that it was extremely interesting, not only hearing the American, the European, and sometimes also the Russian view, but also looking at from a neutral source of the Chinese view.


Seabees from Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 4 are hard at work as part of a construction civic action detail in Cebu, Philippines. The detail allows seabees to refine their skills and build relationships with their Filipino counterparts. In the future, if we have to come back for disaster recovery or any other humanitarian aid efforts, then we already have a working knowledge with each other. The group has renovated several social welfare facilities and also began work on multiple schools, providing new classrooms for the students and teachers. We are really in dire need of classroom buildings. With these five classrooms, we can cope up some of our problems. Seabees, building relationships and refining skills, all while helping the local community. From Cebu, I'm Petty Officer Steve Hill.


Ladies and gentlemen, sound on the mic back with another video.  Wee! Well, it's the big show! Step one, three weeks ago. Clean. Psssh! Step two, strip. Psssh! Psssh! Step three, paint everything. Choose a paint color, paint everything. Step four, take BS out. So there's piping and nails and metal on the ground. Step five, grind the entire building down with 10 inches. Do the math. 10 inch grinder over 5600 square foot. Most likely 62 to 6400 square foot. 10 inches. Do the math. Where are my math people? Where are my Excel people? Put it comment below. How many inches? I had to inch by inch, row by row. And today's step six, we're choosing the die to prep the ground and then we're going to seal it. So, I think we talked about it a little bit. What's so different about your gym and why do you think your style? Look, bro, I'm just trying to make it look nice, right?  I want this environment not only to be fueled by the people that are in there with good energy and positivity, accepting of everybody, but I want the gym to have a vibe of its own. I want a security camera on the corner to take the gym. Just with a picture, you can see the vibe. So, what we're trying to do is not put gross black rubber mats all over the gym.  We're trying to give it a little vibe where you come in here like, damn, this place kind of looks dope, right? Like maybe you, I don't know if you guys are in the street wear scene or anything like that, but first time I stepped into the hundreds in San Francisco, one of their first locations, they built it like a dungeon. Like it was like a cave dungeon and like the racks of clothes were like inside of a cave. The whole thing's super dark. There's one tiny desk and like one dude helping.  You're just kind of like, what? There's no sign. And you walk in and you're like, yeah, this place is cool. Like this doesn't look like whatever, American Eagle or something where you just shop and everything. Every store, American Eagle, Hollister, Macy's, they all look the exact same. So we're trying to differentiate the game a little bit. So my thought, our thought, the team, me, Kyle, Connie, Jim is to dye the ground a little bit and get a nice dyed concrete that'll kind of just give you a little base layer flavor of color in the building. The walls are going to remain mostly gray. We're going to add accents and things with material, not with loud graffiti or loud logos everywhere. It's going to be a little bit sleeker. So we're going to do some accent walls, which will probably be in a week or two of this episode. Stay tuned on how we're going to do that and differentiate that from the norm. But today the idea was to get the dye. So shout out to my boys that I don't know where I was. They're going to dye or specter cement or something out here in Sacramento. The most helpful dude I've talked to in this entire process and I've been to Home Depot a hundred times and every other company a hundred times. This dude was super cool and he's like excited for a project. So he helped us up with these dyes and basically we've got four sample colors to try to get the ground going. Now what's the most expensive, best upgrade you can do? It is an old wives' saying. Is an old wives' saying? Old wives' tale in an old saying? No, they say. People just say they say, right? They say. They say old wives. I don't know if they could be old wives. They could be young, they could be old. Old is not bad either. Old is wonderful. Wise wives. That a nice paint job fixes many things. We painted the whole thing gray and it looks dope. But we still got this ground, which we got quotes and everyone, shout out to the people that were very positive and constructive in the last comments on YouTube.  Your guys' support in general has been amazing.  That your idea, comment on the YouTube has not once been thought up by anyone we've consulted on this project. Not once. Have I thought maybe I should just lay new cement down or just throw rubber mats down? We've looked into all of it. I've been working, my brain has been working for a year and a half on this project. Kind of been working for 12 years on how to make gyms run better, smoother, look better. I've been in this world a very long time. Evan said, shout out to my boy Evan. Evan said something today. He said, dude, I'm so excited for everything you're doing. It's not like you're starting from scratch either. It's a culmination of all the years of work and relationships you've built. Shout out to him. But that's kind of true. And that's not to tie myself on the back, but a lot of times people will be a coach or something for a year or two and they're like, I'm going to open a gym. And I did that in 2010. Someone else wanted me to talk about that, Connor. Remind me, we'll talk about my gym in a different video. But all of this is like tons of experience I've gathered, you know, on online businesses, in-person businesses. And so we're trying to piece it together perfectly. Now will everything go perfect just to my vision? Probably not. But the point is the ground is really old. It's never been sealed. It's never been finished. It's never been relayed, probably since the 60s, right? So we're talking 60-year-old ground. We won't be using the ground. You'll be lifting on platforms and mats. But we just want to give it a little bit of flavor, right? You just sprinkle the Parmesan cheese on top of the salad. You sprinkle the pepper on the steak. You sprinkle hot sauce on your taco, right? This is my taco. You're in my taco. I don't know if you can say that. No, you can say that. You can definitely say that. So the hot sauce, what Connor showed you the film, he's throwing it over here. So those are the four flavors of my taco. And we're going to choose which topping we want. Because sometimes you want a basic street taco. And you just want some pico de gallo on top. Sometimes you want the Parmesan cheese and a little bit of lettuce and a little bit of guacamole on your taco. So the dye has to sit for around 24 hours. We're going to come back tomorrow and see what it looks like. Because the final product, it dyes into the cement, not on top. That's why we had to grind this whole thing, is to get the pores open so it goes in. So the color will look way different tomorrow than it does today. And then we'll make the final decision, which will be in the next episode.  We talked about staining the rafters, but actually after we cleaned them and painted the walls, they really pop and look like a pretty good wood. That's what I wanted. I wanted a nice wood industrial feel. We showed you guys the wood framing me and Connor. Went to town on. And then Jimbo, who's very handy, is going to frame these windows to match that. So we're going to have this real good concrete, cement, cinder block, metal action going on here for the general vibe. And then once you start to put in some furniture on this side, the retail store, the desk, and the equipment, I think you're really going to get the vision. That's a little bit harder to explain. Paint, I don't know the exact dollars. I know you guys are always into the financials.  Bro, I got every receipt and everything, but when I'm doing a one take video, I can't just tell you to the cent of the money dollars I spent. But the dye is going to cost us around a grand, a grand a little bit less. Renting the grinding machine was a couple hundred bucks, right? All the cleaning supplies, the vacuum, this dust to be gone stuff. I wish they sponsored me. This is the best product I've ever used.  It's a miracle. So that's the goal for this week. And then after that, I think we start to dig into some details, which would be fun. We're really going to try to fix the lighting so it feels really alive and vibrant in here. Not only for content, but for when people step in here, they really feel good. The back room still work in progress. Jimbo's really attacking that thing and basically rebuilding it. And then the bathrooms, which we've kind of shown you, we'll show you more. They're in really good shape and actually built really well. Multiple showers and built the men's and women's bathroom. But we just got to repaint and kind of redesign it to make it flow a little bit better and a little bit more functional and warm in there as well. So we are making progress despite what it feels like. As soon as I think we seal this ground, so the whole thing's not dusty all the time, touch up the paint, we're going to be really rocking and rolling. And for not that much money, to be honest, considering it's been a bit. So, equipment's on the way in. Final designs are working on the clothing, so stay tuned on the apparel. 3sb.co 3rd Street Barbell, 3rd RD Street Barbell on Instagram. Be sure to follow me. I really do appreciate you, man. The kind words out there are amazing. We will be doing a grand, grand opening when the COVID things kind of chill out. Until then, we'll probably trickle and do a soft opening for just, you know, kind of members of the homies. It won't be a big event. But when people can travel and when it's on and popping, we're going to get this place on and poppin'. So, ladies and gentlemen, again, follow me, Salah Mike with 2K's Instagram. If you guys want some behind the scenes, follow the boys, Conor will throw it up there. Kyle underscore Castro, Conor O'Neill on Instagram. The crew, we are building, we're changing the game. We are respecting tradition, yet evolving the game. One love, y'all. Take care of yourselves. Take care of your loved ones, I'm out of here.


The big bash league and this ball is bashed pretty big by Ren Shaw goes into the second deck for six and this guy he wanted to catch it. He's like oh and the kids next to him they really wanted him to catch it. This guy wanted him to catch it pretty bad. This guy was like I was going to catch it. This old man very scared glad it didn't come near him. She's laughing at him like ha ha ha you didn't catch it. And this guy's like I could have caught it too and this kid he's screaming. Ah so so big I was so big. And this is everything you missed that you never planned on watching. And if you enjoy these episodes subscribe to the channel. I appreciate that. Leave a comment. Click like all the good YouTube stuff. This one's brought to you by draft kings. Let's get into it. North Dakota versus Montana State tied up at 16 goes to overtime. They're all cold. They got to stay there. Montana says we're going to defend.  No first play QB keeper runs it in for a touchdown. That's not a good job by Montana. And look at the hats on this crew. We got beanies. We got scarves. We got hood over hat. And then up top we got cowboy hat over hood cowboy always on top. Ah coach Lincoln. All right that was easy. So we'll just hold them here and win the game I guess. Montana goes fake. It's second and seven. They throw it down the sideline. Five grabs it. Three guys try to tackle them. None of them do touchdown. Oh dancing. We're freezing. We're dancing. We're having fun. We're in double OT where Montana starts with the ball. They punch it in and now they're going to go for two. Really put the pressure on North Dakota State. Number fives in motion. That's junior Bergen. He gets the pitch looking for the pass pulled by the face bass flag. Don't care. He's going to tip it right to his dude. Says we practice that all the time. We've just never called it. I don't know if it went perfectly but they get the two point conversion and that's pretty big. Look at this pitch to Johnny. But I'm Johnny tipped right into the hands of six right where they wanted it to be. They're up now. They just got to make the stop. They don't. Everyone's scoring. It's too cold to play defense now they go for two and look at this setup.  They give it to number three. He rolls out. He going to throw interception game over Montana wins North Dakota State loses. She's happy. She's happy. Guy behinders happy. The other people we saw earlier upset. That's a game you guys missed. You never planned on watching it. Some of you maybe you did plan on watching it whatever and as I told you this episode of Things You Missed is brought to you by DraftKings. You can download the DraftKings sportsbook app now. New customers use promo code missed. Bet just $5 on any wager and get $150 in bonus bets instantly. That's promo code missed only at the DraftKings sportsbook. Let's go to the women's world floorball championship where the best dynasty going right now in sports that you don't know about is happening. The women's team from Sweden they are a juggernaut. They've won 10 gold medals. They've won eight gold medals in a row and they're playing Finland in the championship game and look at some of these plays. Number 11 just steals that one runs right in. Now watch this backhand hard shot. She's going to fight for her own rebound. Get it in the corner regroup. Go between those two carve in. She's got four people around her. She snipes to go up five nothing. What a play by Mia Vistram. Let's watch it in slow motion. That's the rebound from her backhand shot. Now number two can't corral it. It's bobbling around and our girl on Sweden. She hits it with the backhand, pokes it up in the air and then bats it down herself into the corner. Just totally took over. Then sharp turn sets up the shot. They all try to collapse on her and she snipes top left. What a play. Put them up five nothing. They end up winning six to four. Finland staged a mini comeback, but that's their ninth gold medal in a row. Rest of the world. Figure it out. Editor's note. I like how North American people are like, this isn't hockey. There's no hitting. And it's tiki-tak when like the rest of the world field hockey and floorball is the more common way to play hockey. Like that spaced out game. Anyway, moving on. We're going to hurling. Yes. I love when we cover hurling the all Ireland semifinal hurling St. Thomas versus Bali Gunner and St. Thomas is down by one, I believe. The way you read the scoreboard is, you know, the two is three point goals. So that equals six plus 19, 25, and then three plus 21, 24. They don't do the math for you sometimes. Imagine if basketball scoring was like this. Americans would be so much smarter if we had to do math instead of them just doing the math for us. So anyway, they're down by one, but they got a free shot there. I'm sure it's not called a free shot. Sorry, guys. He puts it in. So now they're tied 25 apiece and the clock is ticking. The clock is ticking. And number 14 on St. Thomas throws one between the uprights up top for one. All right. But there's still time left. He's like, come on, guys. There's still time left. There's still time left. Now, but Bali Gunner is going to move the ball to their dude, Billy O'Keefe, who grabs it, corrals it. All right. Here he's got it. He's going to cut in. He's pretty deep and throws that and doesn't have the distance. And is it accurate? Yes, to tie the game at the very end. Insane play that he was able to pull us off. On the run, backhand swipe. Got to cover so much ground it just barely gets over that it lands on top of the net. Insane. They're saying this is one of the greatest club semifinals of all time. It ends tied. So they got to go into a shootout, which is wild and hurling. You take the slither, you bounce it up, and then you just smack it. And the goalie's got to do his best. First one's in. Next one's in. Both teams have scored one for one. All right. Here we go. Up top. And he went low on the bounce, and it goes through. I think he did. How does a save happen, you may be asking? Well, there you go. He tried to go dead center. Dude used a stick and just saved. Probably not called a stick. It's not called a stick. I know that. It's called a hurly. I know that. All right. So here we go. They can take the lead here.  That's incredible. He tried to go top left. The goalie was all over it. Watch this. Up, whack. Perfect shot. No thank you. He throws his stick at it. Gets it. Unbelievable. So they just keep going. Now that's a goal. So it's tied up at two apiece with two to go. And the dude from St. Thomas is going to simply just smack that one top right. Takes the lead. But this dude can tie it. Number 18. That's got to be O'Keeffe, right? And he slips or something. Easy save. I don't want to be lost his footing. If he slipped, but he went down. It was kind of a weak shot. And now number nine, Evan Duggan from St. Thomas can end the match if he nets this one, which he does low. Green helmet, red jersey, Christmas vibes. St. Thomas have beaten a non-olster team in an all-Ireland semifinal. And that sees them through to the decider for the first time since 2019. I love hurling. That's a real fun sport. Let's move on to women's volleyball where the two-seed Texas trying to take down the one-seed Nebraska. And we had a rally that was 30 seconds long. Included 30 touches. Both teams trying to get cute. That was a straight spike, but it's saved. Now watch this. Ooh, cute little drop shot misses. Gets it over. Save. Sets it up. A cute little drop shot. Back row saves. Keeps it alive. All right, they set up a good one here. A cute little lollipop. That wasn't effective. Oh, smashed down. Saved. Everyone's trying to get cute, right? Just smash it home, guys. Just smash it home. Here we go. Cute and cute wins out. The teardrop over the first row in front of the second row. Nebraska's loving it. Look at this save which is off her shoulder and up to keep it alive earlier. And then you got the fingertip teardrop. Beautiful stuff from Nebraska on that one, but Texas did end up winning. They, Texas also set an NCAA championship with 12 service aces in this match. So good job, Texas. Good effort. Nebraska fun rally. Good job by me. Great job by you. This was everything you missed that you never planned on watching. We thank you very much for tuning in. If you enjoy them, you can subscribe to the channel. That helps us and you can also vote on the fan of the week. You know, dancing in the cold, screaming in the cold. Big bash screaming in the summer. Proud, proud woman in a red blazer. Firm claps. Politician vibes. You tell us. Who's a fan of the week?


Before Mount Holyoke, I think I never would have imagined that there are so many people who want to do good in the world. And I think, for me, that makes me really happy to know that so many people are invested in making the world a better place and changing things. And so many people are so enthusiastic and want to learn and to grow. And that's really exciting for me. I never would have imagined to be surrounded by so many people who have the same interests as me, so many people who want to do the same things as me and have the same mindset. So I really appreciate that all the people around me are committed to changing the world and making it a better place. And I really respect that about a lot of my peers.