Good afternoon everyone. My name is Noa Jarr and my name is Aaron Beer and we're both part of the Tech Lab team at PostFinance. PostFinance is the post bank of Switzerland. And yes, let us share with you today our insight into a production-ready hyperledger fabric certificate authority. Yeah, to begin let's look at some fundamentals first. In the upper part, in the yellow boxes we have some concepts related to public key infrastructure and underneath in blue and the implementation hyperledger fabric and now we go step by step through those terms. First one is identity. In hyperledger fabric it's very important because it's a private permissioned blockchain so every entity participating in the network has to be identifiable. This identity is used to produce signatures. They are to ensure the origin and integrity of a message and also for TLS transport layer security to answer the question who is my communication partner. Continuing with asthmatic cryptography also called public key cryptography. This term consists of a key pair which consists of public and the private key. This key pair can be used for encryption which we will not go further into in this presentation but very important digital signatures and there we have design. We do this with the private key of the key pair and this can only do the admin or the owner better said of the key pair and the verify procedure of digital signature can be done by every participant of the network with the public key. Now it comes together in this public key infrastructure term also called PKI for short. This is like the assignment of an identity to a public key and the identification is done by trustworthy authority which issues digital certificates so we call this authority the certificate authority the CA. The digital certificates contain information about the identity attributes, the public key and the signature of the CA. By ITU there is a standard set which is called X.509 which we will use in our solution. There is also an important part the hierarchy of certificate authorities which can PKI can be built on and this is like built up by a root CA and intermediate CA and operative CA's which builds those CA layers and those layers represent the chain of trust. And now the implementation of hyperledger fabric and there's the hyperledger fabric network which consists typically of organizations which are companies participating in the network and they belong and there are identities which belong to those organizations and they can be type of peers, orders, clients and admins. Next we have the crypto material this term includes all cryptographic artifacts of an identity containing the key pair consisting of public and private key, the digital certificate and the chain of trust which contains all CA certificates up to the origin which is the root CA and those two combined like the PKI version in the implementation of hyperledger is the hyperledger fabric CA which handles the whole life cycle of identities and crypto material so issuing with registering and enrolling identities and also renewing and revoking of certificates is included. And there is the global MSP. MSP stands for membership service provider and this is a directory structure which is built and the name is very misleading because this MSP doesn't service or provides anything actively and it's really only a folder and certificate structure. The global MSP contains all issued crypto material for an organization and the global MSP contains all local MSPs. Local MSP contains all crypto material for a single entity. This local MSP can later be distributed to the network's nodes and now some definition to improve the understanding of the rest of the presentation. So when we talk about an intermediate CA we mean every CA except the root CA. When we talk about an operative CA we mean an intermediate CA on the lowest layer and this CA manages the entity crypto material and when we talk about signing CA we mean an operative CA which only issues certificates for the usage digital signature. Yes so now let's dive right in and see how we got started with Hyperledger Fabric Certificate Authority. We started off with a simple fabric blockchain network with which we wanted to go into production mode. Now we had two peers and three orders running and these ran on Kubernetes and communicated with mutual TLS with each other. The cryptographic material was generated by Cryptogen. Now you may ask what is Cryptogen? Well Cryptogen is a tool developed by Hyperledger Fabric to generate initial key material to then start a Hyperledger Fabric Network. The tool consists of a binary and a config file. You see the config file on the right on the screen. This is a very simple config file in which we can configure things like for how many peers or how many users we want cryptographic material and that's where our problem arised. Now we wanted to go into production and in the read the docs it says for Cryptogen it would normally not be used in the operation of a production network and the tool is provided for development and testing only. So we wanted to go into production but had Cryptogen in use. Big problem. Now Cryptogen is like a one-way ticket. It can easily issue crypto material but there are many other features that are necessary for a production network that it can't provide. Yes then we had a closer look at what the PKI has to provide because Cryptogen plays this part in our network and like the iron said the one-way ticket is the issuing of a certificate. We see this in this a little bit complex illustration of the life cycle of identity and certificate. So now Cryptogen doesn't meet our requirements and so we built this diagram to have a closer look at what our solution has to provide. So what is this in detail now? Very important is that the identity is connected with the certificate and because of Cryptogen we only issue certificates itself. There's no identity part and also the rest of the whole life cycle of certificates and identities has to be covered. So we searched for product that fulfilled this criteria and we found out that Fabric has his own CA solution which is called the Fabric Certificate Authority which manages the network's identities and can issue revoke and renew crypto material. So there are also two binaries that come with Fabric CA. The first one is the Fabric CA server which can run a CA server with different options that we can configure in different ways and has a database connected to persist identities and crypto material related stuff and then we have Fabric CA client which is the interactive command entry and to communicate with the Fabric CA server. Now if we compare those two solutions Cryptogen and Fabric CA we can see that the features included in Fabric CA are like we expect that in the production network but we already thought that this would require more knowledge and more work to implement this solution due to the higher complexity. So nevertheless we decided to implement Fabric CA and while researching we came across many clever concepts but however we had to overcome many obstacles during our implementation. This was mainly because detailed examples of the implementation were not provided on the web and especially regarding the Fabric CA hierarchy we wanted to build. There was not that much like tutorials or detailed examples so we want to share our solution now with the community. We found several options regarding the hierarchy in the read the docs and we discussed them as a team and I will present to you them now. The first one is like how we built the layers of the hierarchy. As a first option we saw the possibility to just run a Fabric CA as a root and at the same time as an operative CA so every entity crypto material is issued by the CA. The next option in the middle is a root CA which issues only the crypto material for the CA's underneath and can be offline afterwards after issuing those crypto material and the operative CA underneath which issues the crypto material for the rest of our network. There's a third solution this is quite similar to the second one but there are one or multiple layers in between the root CA and the operative and with this we can extend like the chain of trust but our team committed for the second option because it's like the multi-level architecture or hierarchy we wanted to build to generate the chain of trust in case of compromised net to a crypto material we would handle this way faster and didn't have to have to exchange the all crypto material and this is not that complex compared to the third option which is similar but this is like would be an overkill the third one. Then by separating TLS and signing CA was also another decision we see this in option two we would build two operative CA one for TLS and one for the signing certificates and the other option would just be provide those two different certificates in the same operative CA and again we vote as a team for the second option because with this we can build a separate chain of trust for TLS and signing and handle the certificate types independent so in case of using an HSM a hardware security module and this can be done in the configuration far easier and another decision we took by choosing one of those option the first one is to provide a signing CA and the TLS CA for our whole network and the other one is to separate those peer and order stuff and providing a separate CA for each of them and as a team we decided to go with the option two because we thought this was more reasonable and then to our setup in detail and first we use open SSL to generate a route we do this by generating a self-signed certificate which comes with a private key of course then we have this second part where we issue the CA crypt material for all our operative CA's and this is also a digital certificate and a private key and in the addition to this we also have a chain file which represents the chain of trust which consists at this part only of the root CA certificate to keep our illustration a little bit simpler in the following slides and we mark this with the red folder so now if we look at the total or the full setup that we generate with open SSL we see that next to the root crypt material we have the CA crypt material for all our operative CA's which are listed here and then we can continue with the CA fabric CA servers so for this we prepare first the TLS CA server and because if we choose to split signing a TLS CA we first have to bring up the TLS CA and we do this by mounting the crypt material from open SSL into the container and configure this and afterwards we can launch the fabric CA server and the TLS certificate with the private key is generated automatically by the server again for the next step we use another color this time we use this orange folder to mark the TLS crypto material with the TLS CA server running we can continue with the signing CA server there again we just prepare the server by configuring or mounting the CA crypto material from open SSL then we enroll the identity for the signing CA server we register the identity first of course so that we can enroll it on the TLS CA and we get from this TLS CA server the TLS certificate with the belonging a private key so when we have this we get we have to configure of course the TLS section also and then we can finally launch the signing CA server so now to get a quick overview after those detailed steps we look once again at the open SSL part where we issue a self signed certificate then underneath the the CA crypto material containing the chain file that sit digital certificate and the private key for every operative CA then we continue by configuring the TLS CA also of course for the peer and order like we have chosen in our decisions there first we mount the open SSL CA crypto material and configure it then we can already launch the TLS CA server and the TLS crypto material is generated automatically then we continue with the signing CA's also for peer and order there first we also mount the open SSL CA crypto material register an identity for the signing CA on the TLS CA and then roll it so we get the TLS crypto material and last but not least we are ready to issue identities and issue the belonging certificates to the rest of our fabric network yes and how that works let's look at it step by step first of all we have a fabric tools container that's a simple container which contains the fabric CA client binary and with this container we communicate to all of our CA servers this container also includes our global MSP and all of our local MSPs included in the global MSP of course you see here two examples of local MSPs there will be all the others as well now it is very important to mention that we have one single database for both TLS and signing CA that means we generate a crypto material for the same identity for both TLS and signing which also means that it is much easier to manage for us in case of compromised crypto material now let's look at the step of issuing and entity crypto material step by step first of all we have to register an identity we take as an example a peer so we register a peer identity on which CA we do this doesn't matter because once again the CA's share the same database so we can do this on the TLS CA for example then as the next step we enroll this created identity on the TLS CA then the TLS CA persists that identity in its database and that's the next step we can enroll this identity yes I was in enrolling sorry so the TLS CA doesn't it already has persisted its identity in the database so now it persists the crypto material from this identity and in the fabric tools container we get a copy of this generated crypto material as the next step we enroll the exact same identity on the signing CA the signing CA persists that crypto material that was generated in the database and once again in the fabric tools container we get a copy of this generated crypto material now it is important to mention that we have the TLS crypto material saved under slash TLS and the signing crypto material saved under slash MSP the next step is to organize and rename all of our files contained in this local MSP how we do this in detail I'll explain I'll explain later so now we are ready to configure our peer to mount this local MSP which is ready and when it is mounted the peer can be launched it is important to mention that the same exact process works for the orders as well the peer is just an example so now let's look at the organizing and renaming part of our crypto material as an example we have this fabric CA client command to enroll the peer one identity on the CA peer the m flag defines under which path the the generated crypto material is saved in the fabric tools container now when we execute this command we get the following file structure we have the sign search folder with the generated certificate we have the key store folder with the corresponding private key then we have the intermediate search folder which contains the chain file and the CA search folder which contains the CA root certificate now we do some renaming to make things easier for us first of all we rename the private key to a name which isn't that cryptic anymore we add a minus chain to the name of the chain file so we know it is a chain file and we remove the ports from the file names so because we think they are unnecessary for our case at the right you see the the final local msp for the signing crypto material yes now while setting up this structure we presented we had a lot of learnings a lot of important learnings and the most important ones we want to share with you right now first of all we noticed that Fabric CA has a configuration hierarchy for almost all config properties we can define them in three ways as an example when we want to define the CA certificate for the CA server we can do that first of all by providing a flag in the Fabric CA server start command we can also do it by setting an environment variable in the Fabric CA server container or we can define it in the config file of the Fabric CA server and now there is the hierarchy that is important to detect the flags overwrite the environment variables and those override the config files so when we specify a CA certificate when starting the server in the with a flag all all the other prop the same property in the other ways to configure it are overridden yes another learning now in the Fabric CA server config file we are here in the signing section of this config file and it's about the attribute max path length this attribute is specified by a number and it says how many CA certificates can be issued below this layer of CA that means a number of one in the max path length attribute would mean that no CA certificates can be issued underneath the CA this CA can only issue end entity certificates now a simple example when we have a Fabric CA hierarchy with two layers a root and an operative layer we would choose the value of one in the root layer and the value of zero in the operative layer and in our example because we have no Fabric CA server as the root we generate the root crypto material with open as a cell and we only have one layer of operative CAs we dare choose the value of zero for for the property max path length now another attribute in the same signing section we have these different profiles we can enroll certificates with we see here the default profile and the CA profile and there is this attribute called is CA and this attribute defines if the profile and enrolls a CA certificate in the profile CA there is this attribute default set to true which means when enrolling an identity with the CA profile it enrolls a CA certificate but that's exactly where we made a big mistake because we thought when enrolling with the CA profile we get a signing certificate which isn't true for getting a signing certificate we have to enroll with the default profile or no profile at all because it is the default one and then we get a signing certificate because the usage of the default profile has the digital signature and one last learning which was very important for us is the usage of the chain certificates now we never really knew where to use the root CA certificate and where to use the chain file and it turns out that everywhere in the order and peer conflicts where there is a root certificate wanted you have to specify the chain file and not the root CA certificate in the documentation that isn't that clear that clearly mentioned so it is important to take away and now let's take some conclusions over all of this first of all we asked ourselves if this was really worth it and we want to be honest for us the step from crypto chain to fabric CA at the moment has hardly paid off we invested a lot of time and hard work and at the moment our network just runs the exact same like it did before like there's no big difference evil but and this is very important we no longer only have a one-way ticket so when we are looking into the future we experienced fabric CA as a reliable technical mature solution so in case of an incident with our crypto material we are now ready to react as of before we weren't so and that's worth very much we have to say and for all of you it is definitely worth it because the step for you now has just gotten a little bit smaller but talking about the future there is one important topic to mention that has to be studied before you can go into production mode with fabric CA there are many other yes the topic is managing the entire crypto material life cycle in this presentation we covered the issuing part of the certificates in all detail but there is also the part of revoking certificates generating certificate revocation lists making channel updates and re-enrolling certificates which really had have to be studied but we have no time in our presentation to cover these as well yes we just presented to you our whole journey and what is what it all was worth it so we asked ourselves what can all of you take away from all of this and we thought well there are many things but nevertheless we want to tunnel down on one specific key takeaway because while we were working on this presentation we came across a fundamental insight for us that explains most of the problems we faced while working with fabric CA and that is most of the problems when working with fabric CA are linked to other topics and concepts just like at the beginning of the presentation in the fundamentals part we had to explain to you the different concepts so you would understand the rest of the presentation when working with fabric CA you have to have deep knowledge and understanding these topics to not run into problems we experienced that we can't just read the docs and be good to go and that's exactly where we lacked because most of the time when we understood the topics and concepts all of our problems were almost solved immediately yes and we have decided to contribute we believe a contribution to the reader docs doesn't fit as well because like mentioned information there is really scattered and like mentioned in our key takeaway there are many other topics that should be known but have no place in the reader docs so what we want to do is provide this presentation as like a full on cookbook for the topic production ready hyper ledger fabric certificate authority server hierarchy yes and we are clarifying if we can contribute to a simple version of our fabric network to the fabric samples github or a similar github page yes that's it thank you for your interest and we are happy to try to answer your questions so are there any questions we have like 10 minutes left yeah alex yes alex asked if we combines those servers in one server instance or we have those running like parallel and it's the second option we decided to run them by using single server instances for every ca yes yeah the question was this time why we don't want to contribute to the reader docs um a tutorial would also be useful and we think that is right we tried to to search for those like parts in the reader docs and we found multiple very good examples for the ca a fabric server and fabric client binary how they can be used but like for a tutorial of fabric ca we struggled to to find like the space in the reader docs because fabric ca's when we run this in a single instance it's very well documented we thought that we can develop or at least work with this documentation very well but like the hierarchy is it's like never mentioned clearly in the reader docs so we decided or we thought that in the samples it would be more accurate but if you can show us the section where you think this would be accurate okay that's good okay nice to know and we are happy to contribute at all yeah yes so this exact solution we presented we have now running for half a year or so so not that long but we we researched a lot of stuff about re-enrolling generating certificate revocation lists and what to do in case of compromised material so we are ready in a case of anything would happen but yes the struggles we never really experienced until this point yeah we can say we have done a cron job running on Kubernetes to find out if a certificate will expire soon so not a single certificate is expired by now but we can test the whole exchange with revoking a certificate and we have done this and all the pain which comes with like Aaron said in the presentation with the renaming stuff at the very end but before like the revoking the creating the revocation list and channel config updates like we mean we managed to do this by now but yeah the pki is it's not completed anyway soon it's running to the end of the life of this solution yeah yeah the following question yeah the topic at this time was the connection of identities related to between Fabric CA and Hyperledger Indy and yeah we're pretty new to Indy so we like implemented a solution with Fabric CA so we're kind of new and if we want to discuss with some other contributors we're open to do this yeah okay they have a production ready Indy in Geneva so that we're located in Bern it's like not that big distance yeah Alex once again the question was if we came across using the private key as a password with a password exactly and this is a topic we didn't cover actually and I heard it for the first time so I never I've never seen anything like that in the Fabric CA realm yeah it's important to mention that we issue identities and the crypto crypto material for like technical users so all our peers and orders running they use our crypto material and like all client stuff we handle with our partner which provides the front end network and we only handle the fabric network so we issue like technical identities well we issue also identities for the clients which communicate to us but these clients are applications and not end users yeah yes we got it to work but the question was if we ever got re-enrolled to work and we got it to work but we didn't cover it in this presentation because we had no space for it yeah we did it by revoking a certificate and expiring certificates we we had not until yet because we're running this since half a year yeah if that's it we're happy that you were here and thank you for interest once again thank you very much


made a beauty. And now what can Woofendon do around the outside? He's going high into the dirt. Smarslick show these, and Woofendon has come through. Doyle closes that door on Bartos Smarslick. This is a terrific ride from Ty Woofendon of Great Britain, Jason Doyle of Australia, who's got Bartos Smarslick all over him. Smarslick hasn't been troubled all night and yet his other fellow world champions in this race are leading him right now. Brilliant start from Woofendon. Doyle actually did him a favour by clamping Smarslick on the line. Left all that room on the outside and Woofendon charged to the front. He's looking good out in front. Doyle hanging on in second place. Smarslick coming on strong in third. Won't want to run a third here. Safety through to the semi-finals. Always dry hard. Dry off great in second. Yeah, this is a great effort from Ty Woofendon. Can Doyle hang on for second spot? And Smarslick is beaten for the first time today. Relegated to third. What a performance from the class act that is Ty Woofendon. It's a runoff for the Silver Medal in Torum. Ty Woofendon in red. Three times world champion, the Great Britain man. Freddie Lindgren is the man in white from Sweden. Former teammates of Wolverhampton. Here comes Lindgren. Now he's going to throw everything in Ty. Woofendon holds the lead. Lindgren second right now. It's a straight shootout between these two. One left gone. Woofendon holds the line. Can he not your Silver Medal? Once again here to add to his three world titles from Lindgren. He's far from done Cal. Freddie coming on strong. He really wants to hunt him down. The inside gate proved to be the one for Woofendon. He's riding a clever line inside, outside. He's keeping Freddie Lindgren guessing. They're getting legs on here. Freddie getting a little bit desperate there. A little bit untidy. Woofendon hanging on in front. Left to go. Should do it from there. He's got some breathing room now. I think he's written a nice line here. Freddie tried everything there. But Ty Woofendon is going to be world number two. That's a good achievement for Ty Woofendon. Three times world champion as we say. Freddie Lindgren is world number three. And well done to both those boys because they've given us a lot of entertainment over the course of this shortened Grand Prix campaign. Well done Ty. Well done Freddie. Great stuff. Here he goes. Semi final number two in Rotslav. Woofendon's gone high and wide into the dirt. Now he's going to try and put pressure on Smarslik. He really is going deep here. Smarslik tries to go wide. Woofendon will chop at the inside. What a ride from Ty Woofendon. Now Smarslik's going to come back for more. Good speedway here as Chugginhoff loses it and Laguta comes through on the back. And now this battle up top is Smarslik and Woofendon going head to head kill. They are indeed. Smarslik is determined to get the better of the three-time world champion. Now Woofendon hits the front. Smarslik replays the compliment. Water race we've got going to squeeze him up as they go over the start finish line. Smarslik for all this is. Yeah that was good going into turn three. He's gone on the inside. He's closed the door and Woofendon hangs on under severe pressure from Bartos Smarslik. A magnificent. Magnificent speedway race. Well, Martin Deguti misses out. That was proper speedway. I dare say it was speedway out on the top draw, Nigel. Ah, come on, mate. I love it. Love it.


I woke up one morning and the room started to go black. I knew something was wrong. Sandra was a 36-year-old female, 34 weeks into her pregnancy. And she presented to the hospital over there with rapid visual loss into her left eye. A common thing in pregnancy, oftentimes there is some visual changes, but hers were very unique. She'd had some imaging and they had showed that she had an optic tumor. When you hear the word tumor, you think brain tumor, that's it. My life is out the door. On one hand, we have a baby not at term yet. On the other hand, we have a patient losing a vision who needs emergent intervention. So it was decided that the safest thing for Sandra and her baby was to deliver the baby emergently while she was in the Roswell facility. And then, as soon as it was done and the patient was stabilized to have her come to the Sacramento Morse Avenue facility so that we could operate on her tumor. We have an excellent neonatal intensive care unit here. And so we felt very confident that we could help her facilitate having her baby. They induced my labor. She was 8 pounds, 7 ounces. My doctor was wonderful.  And then I was transferred over to the hospital. I was basically in surgery for 9 hours. They came in to remove my bandages for me. And he asked me what did I see and I remember I could see him without the big dot in the middle. There was no blur. It was just, I can see you. I think Sandra's story really exemplifies very nicely the beauty of the integrated model where we could perform the complex surgery she required in a timely fashion. And she could wake up with a recovery of her vision and her healthy baby delivered. I think this shows even though in different hospitals we're all part of one integrated healthcare model. Their calm and professionalism give me strength. I've been a member all my life. I just want to tell my doctor thank you.


FIAT Money is a currency without intrinsic value that has been established as money, often by government regulation. FIAT Money does not have youth's value, and has value only because the government maintains its value, or because parties engaging in exchange agree on its value. It was introduced as an alternative to commodity money and representative money. Commodity money is created from a good, often a precious metal such as gold or silver, which has uses other than as a medium to exchange such a good is called a commodity. Representative money is similar to FIAT Money, but it represents a claim on a commodity which can be redeemed to a greater or lesser extent. The first use of FIAT Money was recorded in China around 1080. Since then, it has been used by various countries, usually concurrently with commodity currencies. FIAT Money started to dominate in the 20th century. Since the decoupling of the US dollar from Gold, I Richard Nixon in 1971, the system of national FIAT currencies has been used globally. FIAT Money has been defined variously as any money declared by a government to be legal tender. State issued money which is neither convertible by law to any other thing, nor fixed in value in terms of any objective standard. Intrinsically valueless money used as money because of government decree. An intrinsically useless object that serves as a medium to exchange also known as fiduciary money. The term FIAT derives from the Latin FIAT let it be done used in the sense of an order, decree or resolution.


Hello and welcome to NewsClick, talking about air pollution across India, especially in its metro cities has become something like a ritual, especially when winter comes around. The air pollution levels cross higher and ever-increasing thresholds every few months and every year. By all accounts, the wintertime, all of pollutants that covers most of North India reflects how serious this problem is. But air pollution is really not an NCR problem or a problem of Mumbai, Chennai or Polkata alone to discuss this issue and some possible solutions. We have with us the Raghu Nandan of the Italy Science Forum and the All India People Science Network. Raghu, let me begin by asking you, pollution in Delhi and Mumbai has been the focus of our attention for quite some time now. But what are the sources of pollution in these cities? Is it as the media says, the burning of stubble in the North and is it the winter air, if it is the winter air and if it is the burning of crop stubble, then what explains the pollution in Bombay or elsewhere? So like you said, this problem has become a ritual and I think discussions of it are also becoming a ritual because the same problems come up every time and you get the media and the newspapers all discussing it. Let me therefore spell out two or three I think basic things which we must keep clear. One is that winter stubble burning, these are periodic events, it's like seasonal. So winter is going to come every year and stubble burning takes place in the months of December, every year. So pollution spikes. And this is true of the entire North Indian belt, the Indo-Gangetic belt if you like, which sees winter, which has cold weather conditions during which you get what is called an atmospheric inversion. That is hot air does not rise, there is a boundary layer of air on top. So everything from the surface goes up to the boundary layer and stays there. So the pollutants have nowhere else to go except to hang around there. And there is a floor level of pollution. The question you asked, why does Mumbai have pollution, etc. That's because in all Indian cities, there is a floor level of pollution, whether it's winter, whether there is crop burning or not. There is a minimum level of pollution, which is always there. Then you get added features, winter inversion in the North, crop burning in the North, etc. Mumbai, Chennai are actually helped to lower their pollution because both these are coastal cities and they have sea breezes coming to clear it. Typically in the North Indian winter, you may not have breezes at all, which is another factor for keeping it. So coming back to what I was saying, there is a floor level of pollution. And that is I think what we should be discussing. There have been many discussions by governments, by central government, by the state government, they appoint this IIT and that consultant for source apportioning, what are the different sources, how much comes from what, etc. All said and done, when all these data are put together, winter variations, summer variations, what have you, the basic floor level of pollution comes from vehicles and from dust, from construction, etc., which is also related to vehicular pollution because vehicles driving on the road throw up the dust, which then floats in the air. So in effect bulk of the pollution comes from vehicles exhausts and from dust due to construction and due to the dust being thrown up by vehicles. All the other pollutants, industrial pollutants you will have in some cities in Kanpur or Lucknow or so, Delhi doesn't have any. We have no coal-based power plants, we have no industries spewing anything here. And in winter in the North Indian plains you will have some pollution due to anguities and chulas and coal-burning stoves, which would be a few percent, eight percent, nine percent of pollution. So essentially what you're dealing with is vehicular pollution and dust. This is the reality because in the summer months when there is no inversion, there's no stubble-burning, you will still find a stable level of pollution which rarely goes below 300 or 250 AQI and that is really the problem. If you have a 250 AQI throughout the year and then it spikes to 400 or 450 in adverse conditions of winter, stubble-burning etc., so we have to deal with that floor level of 250 and that is vehicular. So, Raghun, what you're saying is that there is actually a mix of factors which would mean that we need an equal sort of mix of solutions. I mean, what we see the government say in Delhi do because we happen to be here, is that they're spraying water, they have these anti-smoke guns and they have vehicles which claim to settle the particulate matter in, these are the ways in which we see the government actually tackle this problem. Let me ask you, if these are not helped or to put it in a different way, what are the solutions that governments, our local bodies are not talking about? Yeah, so let me start from where you made your comment about mix of solutions. I think that is one of the major problems one is dealing with which is people think there are a mix of problems and therefore there has to be a mix of solutions. What I just said in fact was you have a mix of problems which makes pollution worse but you have a base level of problem which is due to vehicular pollution. So, if you tackle vehicular pollution which causes AQI to go up to 250 or 280 at normal times and you bring that down to 100, let's say then on top of that even if you add stubble burning and winter it won't go above 200 or 225. So, I think the real focus should be let's get to the root of the problem. Let's tackle the base level of pollution which is vehicles and then the other add-ons we can always tackle later but I think it is the base level of pollution that needs to be brought down. You probably are aware that there is a clean air act in our country which has a target of bringing down the base level of pollution to AQI of 100. We are nowhere near that. So, let's keep that uppermost as the target, tackle vehicular pollution. Now, what are those means to tackle vehicular pollution that needs to be looked at the chulas and the tendours and the straw burning in Punjab are episodic. They last for two weeks here and three, two months there but let's get to the root of the problem. So, Raghun, but I'm sensing also that when you solve the problem and you set about trying to solve the problem of vehicular pollution then it's not, is it going to be mass transportation, public transportation because in the NCR, I think we are at the third or a fourth of the number of buses alone that we need. So, is that the only solution? Are there few solutions that need to be also talked about? Yeah, there are two or three factors here, the most important of which you just touched on which is we need to have a very hard shift from personal vehicles to mass transportation. The Delhi metropolitan area has a population of about 20 million people and we have 13. something million vehicles on the road. No city which has got 13 million vehicles on the road is going to have low pollution levels. It's just not possible. That is one factor. The second factor is with where the government has taken some measures is to phase out older vehicles which will have higher pollution levels than newer vehicles and we also have due to our economic income distribution in India many more two-wheelers on the road than we have four-wheelers and more two-wheelers you have the higher will be the pollution level. So, we need to get the two-wheeler owners to leave their two-wheelers at home, travel by bus or metro. We need the car owners to leave their cars at home or at the nearest metro station and travel the rest of the distance by metro. So, we really need a huge shift. You also mentioned the necessity for buses. The target is that we need about 10 to 12,000 buses minimum in Delhi. We are struggling to run 3,000 to 3,500 buses at any given point of time in the city. So, we need far more public transport infrastructure than we have at present. Rako, also you need affordable public transport. Now, the Delhi metro is an absolutely fantastic route around in the city but we've never seen the prices of traveling on that go down and we see that you have, for example, where I live it isn't the NCR but you have these giant auto rickshaws which carry 15 or 10 at a time and which the various reports say they're actually heavily polluting. So, one of the last while problem is that essential and the pricing of public transport. Should it be free? You see, pricing is a public policy issue. If you look at it purely from a viability point of view that metro rail should run and be viable by itself, the DTC buses should run and should be viable by itself then you will never get an equitable solution to this problem. The government gives subsidies on many things across the country. Public transport needs to be subsidized. It cannot be expected to be fully economically viable and people still will travel by public transport because they can't afford it. If you look at working class areas in the city, you will find public workers walking on the roads because they can't even afford the buses, forget about the metro. So, public transport needs to be subsidized. One should not feel shy about doing it. Government should not hide behind this viability argument to do it. To make it more viable, government should give subsidies. There are many European cities today which work for pollution reasons and for productivity of the city reasons have made public transportation free because they believe that by giving that subsidy, getting people to travel around the city in efficient public transport without having to worry about the money actually saves the city money by increasing human productivity and work effectiveness and getting to work on time. People are encouraged to actually go to work. Exactly. To go to work and go by public transport and go by convenient transport. This is the trend in Europe today where both pollution and productivity are seen as being linked and where state expenditure on these things is seen as being helpful to the economy. That's very, very interesting that productivity argument that you just spoke about. Now, what is happening in India is that whenever there's a spike in pollution, we actually have children told that well, your schools are shut, you don't have to go to school, they're losing out on, I don't know, 10 days of schooling. I'm sure there are many offices which are concerned about the health of their employees and they say they work from home but then your homes, your indoor air pollution is not a small matter either. So then you're buying products to keep the pollution out if you can afford it. So the consequences are not just at the health level but long-term effects of losing out on the school. Absolutely. And then there are thousands of people who can afford these devices at home. These devices are no solutions. They are putting on the individual the problem which should be tackled by the state. The state is unable to provide clean drinking water. So every house has an aqua guard or a filter. The state is not able to assure you of clean air. So you are asked to have an air purifier in the house. These devices can only be owned by people who have the money. The have-nots of our country cannot afford to buy these products.  They are very little spoken about. Again, the richer people can go to the hospital and so on but even the rich are not free of lung ailments or asthma or whatever it is they may be able to pay for the treatment but they suffer from the ailment no less. And this is becoming a major problem and this is another reason why in more developed countries government is prepared to spend money because if they don't on the other hand government has to bear expenditure for health care in one way or the other. So again economically it makes sense to tackle the air pollution rather than have health risks which you have to pay for through other means tomorrow. Air pollution in particular, we grow alive to it when we see the particulate matter suspended in this dense fog like substance outside our windows in the morning but that's actually not air pollution. Air pollution is also invisible and it's always around. So let's talk about how to aggressively encourage people to use public transport. What can the government do? Can it force us to not take our cars out? See there are two ways of doing it. One is to address the supply side. If you don't provide the public transport then people don't have the option. If I need to go from A to B and there is no bus to take me from A to B or taking a bus takes me two hours or even if I go by metro it takes me an hour and a half leaves me at some place from where I have to take another auto and spend 30-40 rupees more to reach the end spot then I will say I'd rather take my motorbike and reach my destination. So you need to have an effective public transport which covers the city and which provides last mile links whether that last mile is by E-Rickshaw or by any other means is depending on local circumstance. So that is one side that is the supply side of it. The other side is the demand side where people feel a discouragement to use personal transport. So for example if road tax is increased or if car prices were higher then it's a disincentive for people to own a car or if parking fees were higher then that also has to be kept in mind for the person who drives his car to the metro station and if he's going to be charged 100 rupees for the parking then he will rather take an E-Rickshaw and reach the metro station and then take his car and this is not a utopian idea one of the most developed cities in East Asia is Singapore and Singapore has extremely stringent policies towards private transport. Vehicles cost even one brand new vehicle in Singapore which imports a large number of vehicles they impose a huge amount of duty on those vehicles so that you are discouraged from buying a car and if you want to own a second car then the prices are made prohibitive you have to pay 150 percent more than you paid for the first car you have to prove that you have a parking space inside your house so even the upper middle class in Singapore travel by public transport because the transport is available they can reach where they want conveniently and the city government has made sure that driving a personal vehicle is made shall we say prohibitively expensive so you would rather leave your car at home than incur the expense of taking it out so you need to control both the supply side as well as the demand side of the you should encourage the demand by raising the cost of personal transport and you should encourage public transport by increasing the quality and quantity of public transportation which is available. Raghu let's also spend a little time at least on you know the various measures which we see around us and also the problem outside the metros you know Muzaffar Nagar city in western UP has repeatedly come up as one of the most polluted cities in the world the hundred most polluted that's a little puzzling that's surely is it is it driven by the same factors as you find in Delhi or Bombay. It is driven by the same factors with one additional factor which is that the anti pollution drives in the metropolitan cities of Bombay and Delhi even Calcutta to some extent have driven the factories out from the metros into the periphery so the metros have fewer factories but all the polluting factories where will they go? They go outside of Delhi which means they go to places like Muzaffar Nagar, Mirat etc in the NCR region they go somewhere if they are shut from here the same thing happened in Mumbai when the textile factories closed down the same thing happened in Delhi when the entire DCM mills area shut down and the factories went out so this is only decentralizing the problem of pollution by taking it away from the metros and taking it into the satellite townships around the metropolitan cities so the problem remains the same. It's only dispersing the pollution far and wide rather than solving the problem where it was. And yet stubble burning is the cause of concern right because you know let's talk finally about all those other you know relatively smaller factors and dealing with destruction dust comes to mind diesel fumes comes to mind and also these stubble burning. So let's deal with these one by one I'll take diesel first. Delhi has taken several measures to discourage diesel some of these are market driven in the sense that diesel prices have been allowed to rise whereas earlier they were subsidized in the belief that transportation would be eased and therefore essential prices of commodities etc would come down. Now diesel prices are fairly close to petrol prices so the earlier factor for a personal vehicle owner was he liked having a big SUV which ran on diesel and made him feel macho and big inside the car even though it was highly polluting etc because the diesel was half the cost of petrol. Today when diesel and petrol costs are not that much different then so the number of diesel vehicles in Delhi for example has gone down drastically earlier it was close to 50% of vehicles in Delhi now it's down to less than 20% and that figure is going to go down soon you'll get policies which will virtually discourage all diesel vehicles. We don't have diesel buses anymore although Chennai city for example has a fairly extensive public transport system entirely diesel buses that's the cause of pollution over there so we need to cut down on diesel and there are various arguments and ways of doing that but let's come to the stubble burning issue it seems to be a problem which defies solution somebody the Delhi government said they've got IARI which has made a solution which will dissolve the stubble leftover and put it into the soil the problem with that is the solution takes about four weeks to work to really degrade the stubble and get it back into the soil the time the farmer has between the end of the wheat and the planting of the paddy crop for the winter is two weeks everything has to be done in two weeks yes so if he's not able to cut the crop and move it out from his field he has nothing else to do except to set it on fire now the government has been trying all kinds of things state government central government by providing machinery now frankly you cannot provide a machine to each farmer a machine which will cut the stubble or a machine which will plow the machine the stubble back into the soil this has to be done collectively so this has to be provided to the grand panchayat or to a farmer's cooperative or a farmer producer organization some such institution which will arrange for distribution of these machines in a timely fashion between the farmers of the village that is one second is once you cut the stubble what do you do with it it'll cost the farmer money so government has started giving the farmer some money farmers say that's not enough say 10,000 rupees an acre the farmer gets to clear the stubble but he's cleared the stubble then what does he do with it so there are one or two factories which have come up which say we will use the stubble to make cardboard to make fiberboards or now to make alcohol ethanol so on and so forth but you need to establish a supply chain from the farm to the factory who is going to take the stubble from the farm to the factory that's another question the factory owner says let the government arrange for it let the farmer bring it to my door I will do it this has to be done in an effective way if necessary the government has to step in as an initial thing saying we will take the responsibility again like I said through a grand panchayat through farmers cooperatives they can gather the straw in one place then a state agency can pick this and dump it at the factory a gate somewhere so you solve the supply chain problem of taking the straw from the farmer's field to whichever factory is going to use that government is also already giving reasonably good subsidies for these factories to use the stubble so I think economically that will work but they need to arrange the supply chain and not depend on so-called market forces we might send because that won't happen so that needs to be fixed if you fix that I think the problem can be solved right Raghu the final thing just a quick thing also on the construction dust yes yes yeah so construction dust is a major factor and unfortunately in a place like Delhi especially which is still a growing city you have construction going all over the place and you have dust everywhere there are two possible answers to this one is which they have tried to some extent is all activities which require the dust particularly mixing of concrete you have dust suppression activities you sprinkle the whole area with water and so on and settle the dust down and then you bring the mixed concrete into the city and not actually do these activities in every house where you'll have a pile of dust in front of your house where the wind blows the thing okay now some people put a blue tarpaulin or plastic sheet on top which is torn things so it's hardly any protection anyway so you definitely need to control that mostly by prefabricated or pre-processing of concrete outside the city and then bringing the mixed concrete or prefabricated structures into the city that's one secondly the entire road dust phenomenon is highly mishandled in most cities particularly in Delhi in most cities if you lived elsewhere in Bombay or Bangalore your street cleaners will come out at 6 30 in the morning to clean the streets in Delhi the street cleaning starts at 9 o'clock in the morning some guy has come down the road he's cleaned all the cars and washed them and then the street cleaner comes and kicks up all the dust and it again get deposited on the car and gets carried away so you need to do an overnight sprinkling of water you can use recycled sewage water for that purpose so you're not wasting treated water sprinkle the city at night so that the dust settles down on the road and you can repeat this maybe once or twice during the day of course it's difficult on trunk roads where you've got heavy traffic which is why they now go with these so-called smog guns and try and do it down they are basically sprinklers which you do but I think a lot of this should be done overnight so that the dust settles down below stays wet so that the morning traffic does not kick up the dust as much as it does now and by the way most pollutants levels in India if you look at the AQI in Delhi is higher at night than it is in the daytime so the night time is the most effective time to do the sprinkling and settle the dust down that's one and of course the more construction sites you have all over the place trucks carrying sand and thing up and down you will get more and more dust everywhere in the city which will then get thrown up by the trucks and the cars and so on one is to keep the dust outside the city as much as possible the sand etc etc second is to do effective sprinkling of the streets and so on to do it and the third step in which funnily enough Delhi is slightly better than other metros the more tree plantation you do alongside roads the more dust will get captured by the tree and not allowed to fall on the streets and then get thrown up which is true of the polluting aerosols as well so tree plantation is the third step that is can be taken to suppress dust. Right Raghu thanks very much for joining us and thanks for answering some of these questions for us and thank you very much to our viewers for watching this news click video see you again later hopefully when it's cleaner and the cleanliness looks like it's going to last thanks again


Nearly a third of the countries in Africa will hold presidential or legislative elections this year. South Africa's election this year is the most unpredictable in the post-apartheid period. President Cyril Ramaphosa is seeking a second and final term. The ANC has been in power since 1994, with a parliamentary majority from which it could independently select the president and initiate legislation, but that could change this year. The DA, which describes itself as broadly centrist, is the main opposition party and is led by John Steenhason. Historically, the DA's strongholds have been among the white demographic. South Africa has robust democratic institutions, but more than a third of the population lives in poverty. Most of the wealth is controlled by the white minority. The question is, can political parties respond adequately to the rolling electricity blackout's unemployment and other socioeconomic challenges?


India needs another Nehru and what do I mean by that? I do not mean another Nehru Gandhi but I mean a prime minister who believes in the public sector, in the positive powers of the public sector and how it can help an economy. And why am I saying that? That is because currently India's massive economic problems cannot be solved by private enterprise. India's private sector caters to the top 10% at best the top 20% of people. That is what it produces for whether it is goods or services except for a small a few things like telecom where it's become affordable for the poor because of pricing wars between big companies who want to become monopolies. So if you leave that out overall the bulk of India's private sector production is for the top 20% and that is how it is bound to be because 80% of Indians cannot afford what India's private sector produces. They just can't afford to buy it and no amount of direct benefit transfers, universal basic income handouts is going to change that. They're not going to be able to buy what big Indian companies produced. And you've seen what has happened to SMEs with the consolidation of production into the hands of the big companies since GST came. It started with demonetization and then GST basically broke the back of India's small and medium enterprises. So anything that is bought by the poor is largely essential and some kind of services like education, they want their children educated. They have to spend on health because they fall ill. If you leave these two out more or less the only thing they spend on is food. The bottom 20% can barely spend on food. They will not survive unless they are given subsidized food. Above that the next 30% barely have enough to spend on anything beyond essentials. And if they have anything in their hand, you know what they buy? They buy cheap Chinese goods which have flooded the Indian market. And this is not what I am saying. A recent group of ministers said this exact same thing. The Chinese goods have completely taken over and had for a long time. Whether it's what the poor buy, batteries, torches, chargers, even shoes, clothes, everything that is coming in. The cheap products are Chinese products, sometimes fake Chinese products. Because Indian companies are great at producing things for the affluent middle class but not for the poor. Because there's nothing, no margin, no profit in products for the poor. So how doesn't that be solved? That can be solved with the Nehruvinism 2.0. Why am I saying 2.0? Because the original form of Nehruvin socialism. I'm saying socialism in inverted commas, care codes, why? Because I don't believe it was socialism. It was state capitalism. That capitalism was aimed at building heavy industry, in creating infrastructure, in creating capital investments so that India could become self-sufficient in future production. It did manage to do that. Whether it is steel, whether cement, coal, a lot of things, India has become self-sufficient because the public sector created the conditions through government spending, through planning to do that. Now we need a second stage and we need the second stage for consumer products that the poor can buy. Let me start by looking at the three main reservations against this. A typical middle-class person who is watching this video, this is in English, is going to have the number one is that they say government products are bad, no one wants them. No one wants to buy bad quality, shoddy looking, badly finished products. Number two, that the government companies, they all run on losses because they have low productivity, they're inefficient and their workers don't want to work because they've guaranteed salaries and jobs. So they are inefficient and they run on losses. And the third is that the government cannot, planning is never an efficient way of allocating resources because you never know what people really want. It's the only the market which can send signals of what people demand and then producers and entrepreneurs react to those signals, demand signals and they fill that space and that is why the market is the efficient way. Let me start with number one, which is that government products are shoddy. Most of you probably don't remember but you might remember that your parents had HMT watches. There was a government made products, it was a public sector company and they lasted for 20 years. They weren't great.  This is something that I can show off and maybe people think that I'm so rich. Yes, it was true that an HMT watch used to be something that people used to buy for their weddings in the old days but they lasted for many, many years. Chinese products at the poor buy, they don't last, they don't look great. They're badly finished. They buy the poor buy fake imitation shoes, imitation clothing. They look bad. You might not buy them, right? They still buy it. The cell phones that you talk about where you say that look at it, such great cameras. These are not the ones that the poor are buying. The poor buy cell phones which are usually not even smart phones. They're feature phones at best and the government has to aim, target at making similar products. You don't need a fancy shampoo bottle that looks beautiful on your bathroom shelf. What you need is cheap shampoo, soaps, good quality, sturdy clocks, sturdy watches, sturdy batteries, sturdy bulbs. You need things that last. They don't have to be brilliantly finished. And this is an important point because that's going to lead us to the second one. When you don't waste money on finish because design is a very important cost of any company and you don't waste time on brand building, money on brand building and advertising. Another huge cost, sales and marketing and brand building, advertising, huge cost. You don't spend and you don't pay 2, 3, 4, 5 crore to the CEO, chief operating officer, the CFO.  Yes, it is possible that the products are not going to be the greatest because they're not going to be. They're not meant to be the most beautiful products. They're meant to be utilitarian products that the poor need use. And if they become affluent over time, they can go and buy the better quality products. No one is stopping the private sector from producing what it does for the top 20%. What I'm saying is that the public sector, government sector has to produce for the bottom 50% and people above that who want to buy those products. That's number one. I told you about the wastage. The wastage involved in huge salaries for profit maximization, right? Advertising, marketing for fighting in the market. That wastage will not exist. That immediately reduces the cost, allows things to be sold cheaper. And yes, the government might have to subsidize these products and sell them at a loss lower than cost to match and fight and counter the cheap Chinese products that come in, right? But that will mean losses. Yes, because the profit motive, profits do not automatically lead to the proper allocation of resources for the benefit of all. So when resources have to be allocated, things have to be produced for a better living standard of others. This is a social good. And that means there has to be budgetary support. It has to come from taxes on the rich. And yes, it is ultimately the objective is for the government and there again the issue of efficiency is to generate employment. Automation is not required in the government sector. There is no need to say that only a machine can cut this thing because only a machine can produce such a brilliant finish. Human beings should do that. They get jobs and when they get jobs, they get decent wages. They get enough money to be able to buy the products and services they produce. That is what the government sector's objective should be to ultimately make enough profits so that it can lead to further investment. Not to create private wealth, which is the objective of the private sector. So yes, initially it will learn losses, but that is for social good. It has to be cross subsidized just as the government does in infrastructure. So it has to be cross subsidized. It has to come from outside, budgetary support. By running big fiscal deficits, it has to be done. And finally, the misallocation of resources. We have heard about how in the socialist countries or even in the old days there would be long queues for basic things like a telephone connection. We had to wait for 3-4 months because it was not available and because it was not properly planned. There were stories about how in the Soviet Union there would be no soaps because it wasn't properly planned. The output wasn't properly planned. No one knew what the demand is. Today we have huge amount of ability to collect data and the government is everyday collecting data. We have that data, consumption data that can be processed through artificial intelligence at 1 millionth the speed and with 1 millionth the effort that was required in the old days of planning. So planning today has become extremely easy. In fact, the corporate sector constantly plans. Private companies constantly plan and predict and decide how to reduce those resources by planning and predicting what the demand is going to be. It is for the government to do that as well and it's become much, much easier to collect data from individuals, run it through AI and come up with solutions. So it's become much, much more easy to make accurate predictions about how to allocate resources. So even that is for the government to solve and yes, this will be another expense maybe. But this is an essential expense. It will create more jobs. It will create the demand once those jobs come and yes and as I was saying that you might say what happened to the private sector? When the private sector will continue to have its market which is the top 20% no one is touching that. Plus when the government hires, managers, supervisors, white collar jobs, more administrators, fills its vacancies to run these companies there will be demand created for products which the private sector creates. So in both ways this is actually what in management parlance is called a win-win situation. Remember what I'm saying is that this is a pragmatic solution. This is not a radical solution. This can be done within the existing system without touching the elite. The elite will ultimately gain from this process. That is why they're saying make more Mandrega and who's stopping the poor once they have jobs from buying what the private sector produces. So therefore the objective is to come up with a pragmatic solution. A pragmatic solution that Nehru had come up with and the Nehruvian government had come up with in the 1950s. We need exactly that. We need a new Nehruvian government, a Nehru 2.0 which is pragmatic and understands that only the public sector can solve in their demand problems.


This last video is gonna be short. I'm gonna present you one more proposition. This one's not gonna go with proof this time. The proof is somewhat elementary and left as an exercise to the viewer here. In a group, the usual exponential rules hold. That is, if you have general elements, G and H inside your group and you have integers M and N, the following two things hold. If you take GM times GN, this will equal G to the M plus N. You can add the exponents together here. And the basic idea is if you have M many G's and then you have N many G's, we can put these together. You have M over here, you have N over here. This will combine to give us N plus N. But of course in order for G to the M to even make sense, you need associativity because just take G cubed for example, right? Is G cubed GG times G or is it G times GG? Which one is it? Well, by associativity, it doesn't matter. And therefore we get that G squared, G is the same thing as G squared G. And so this actually is kind of an interesting observation right here. What you see is that clearly the screen right here is that if you take powers of an individual element, they necessarily have to commute because G to the M, G to the N is equal to the GM plus N, which is the same thing as G to the N plus M, which is the same thing as G to the N times G to the M. So although there's not necessarily universal commutivity in a group, in some respect there has to be some level of commutivity. There's gonna be some elements that commute because of the associativity law. Now the proof of property A right here actually is a argument using double induction on the associativity there. You have to induct on M while N is fixed and then you induct on N. And so I'm not gonna worry about that double induction argument. I'll let you think about that a little bit more. Another one that follows by the same sort of reasoning use the associativity axiom plus double induction. If you take G to the M and you do that N times, that's gonna be G to the MN. The element, the naive proof, right? This isn't a formal proof, right? But the naive proof is the following. You have G to the M times G to the M times G to the M and you do this of course N times, right? You have M here, M here, M here, M here. You're gonna get N many M's and therefore you get N times M. Again, we're not gonna go through all of these. But there's a double induction argument that works there. But again, this is just the same thing as G to the MN, which is the same thing as G to the N times G to the M. So these usual exponential rules hold here. Now you have to be a little bit careful when you take negative exponents because negative exponents represent inverses here. And also if you take, you also have to be careful if you take a product to an exponent, right? G H to the N. This is not necessarily the same thing as G to the N H to the N. This will be true if you have an Abelian group, but how does one get from here to here in general? The usual argument looks something like the following.  The idea is all gather all the G's together and then gather all the H's together but that requires commutivity. It requires we all to, well it uses associativity, but it also requires commutivity which you don't have in general. So if we have an Abelian group, we can distribute exponents across division, across multiplication. But how does it work in general? G H to the N, we can write that as H inverse, G inverse to the negative N, but that's about all we can do. This is just the Shusach principle written in an iterative process, right? Now speaking about Abelian groups, if you do have an Abelian group, it's very common to write the notation actually additively as opposed to multiplicatively. You can do it multiplicatively, that's fine. But in group theory, whenever you write a group in additive notation, additive notation will always mean an Abelian group. You never, ever, ever use addition to represent a non-commutative group. It's like a carbonyl syn. I actually read this in Joseph Rothman's algebra textbook and he actually got exiled to the island of Patmos for doing that. There was a section where he was writing a non-Abelian group using the operation of addition and he'll never be the same for such a thing. And so Abelian groups, we sometimes use additive notation. We can use multiplicative notation, it's fine. But when you see additive notation, that will always mean Abelian group. It always means commutivity in that context. Now, if you're writing the group additively, the operation will look like G plus H. The inverse, you don't write it as G inverse, you actually would write it as negative G, right? Because subtraction's the inverse of multiplication.  So we think of it not as G to the end, but we think of it as N times G because it's G plus G plus G plus G, right? And the inverse would be negative NG. So negative G plus, negative G plus, negative G plus, negative G. You just make all the appropriate modifications to it. In terms of the group identity, you typically call it zero instead of one, but you could use an E if you want to. That's commonly done as well. The exponential rules we saw right above, they're now off the screen. If we rebranded those for Abelian groups, you'd see the following.  But when you write this in additive notation, this exponential rule actually looks like the distributive property here. And after all, the exponential rules you saw before is because exponents is an iteration of multiplication. Well, with real numbers, multiplication is supposed to be an iteration of addition. And so the distributive property that we know for real numbers is really just a consequence that multiplication iterates addition. And so the exponential laws in additive group look like the distributive property. And when you look at this one, if you do G N times and then you do all of those M times, that's the same thing as M N G. This exponential law, when you write in additive notation, realizing that multiplication is just iterated addition, this actually looks like an associativity law. And so associativity of usual multiplication, real number of multiplication, really just consequence of associativity of addition, believe it or not. And then the principle we saw before, right, the last one that only worked really for Abelian groups. If you have two different elements, G plus H, and you do it M times, you can actually do G M times H M times and combine them together. So this is the other distributive law that also holds for additive groups. So it's kind of interesting when you think about it this way that addition with real numbers forms a group, which means the operation is associative. And therefore, we can prove things by like the distributive laws, associativity of multiplication because addition itself is associative and multiplication just iterates addition. So in some regard, you can build multiplication for real numbers from addition of real numbers. But this is really getting us far afield pun intended there because we're talking about rings and fields right now, which is a topic we will talk later about in this series. But that'll then conclude our lecture nine about properties of groups. These are properties that are true for any group whatsoever. And with the exceptions of things like this, we see that most of these properties, there's just the one property, honestly, all of this was proven without the commutivity of the group. We don't actually need an Abelian group for many of these properties. Associativity, inverses and identities is sufficient.


Today, we're opening third-party blister packs from 20 years ago. What's up, guys? We're back with another Black Eye video.  You guys saw this when we opened these up on the purchase video. We purchased all those sealed blisters and stuff like that. So these are the third-party ones that we got from that video. If you guys missed it, go check it out. There's some other really cool stuff in there as well. We're going to open these up in this video and see if we can pull some amazing stuff from 20 years ago. Before we hop into it, we have a giveaway. I'll be giving away this Mermail Abistias. This was actually sent to me by... Check this out. From atEbraJuz? I don't know how to say that, but he sent me this for another video. I forgot to give it away. So we're giving it away in this video. Just like the video, be subscribed, turn on notifications. Let me know your favorite of all these products. I think there's five of them, something like that. So pick your favorite one. Let me know in the comments. All right. So I have all of them set up in the background. Let's do this one first, Yu-Gi-Oh! Two pack, two packs of Yu-Gi-Oh booster cards. So we've got some booster cards inside. I don't know if there's any extra cards. I think it's just two packs, right? Yeah. So this is made by Excel Marketing. These are the same people that made the first edition Legend of Blue Eyes blisters that they look just like this, except they have a Legend of Blue Eyes pack inside. They're the only blisters for first edition Legend of Blue Eyes. They're not, of course, Konami legit, you know, the official ones, but they are made, you know, they do have first edition packs in them. Des Moines, Iowa. So check them out. Yeah, go hang out in Des Moines, Iowa. You can probably find them. I'm just kidding. Okay. Let's open this thing up. Let's see what we get. I think it's Legacy of Darkness, Veronica. All right. So we have Massacre, this old school blister. We have both unlimited packs, Veronica and Legacy of Darkness. Let's start with Legacy of Darkness. This is straight up an old school opening today. So if you like old school packs being open, make sure to subscribe because that's what we do as much as possible on this channel, not every single day.  I'm doing my best trying to get as many as I can, but, you know, it's pretty difficult. So we're going to try it as much as we can. One, two, three, four from the back. Let's see if we can pull something cool like a secret rare, ultra rare, any of that would be pretty cool. Emergency provisions, Legacy of Darkness. We have opened quite a bit on the channel, but it's been fun every time. The illusory gentleman, it's a classic. I think that's kind of where like they had scaled up the print to like a really high amount around Legacy of Darkness because it was so popular at the time because it feels like Legacy of Darkness is one of the easier to obtain in terms of the old school product, Roboyaru, but it's still pretty expensive at this point. Bad reaction to Samoshi, we got the Robo Lady, a warrior fully covered with metal. It upgrades by fusing with Roboyaru. When does that become Super Roboyaru or something like that? Serpentine princess, very nice. The princess, okay, a little creepy. Is it more or less beautiful than the other serpent one? That's beautiful. We have the spirit Ryu and then we have a, is it a foil for the first one? Lesser fiend, no, it's not a foil. It's a Lesser fiend. It's forearms like General Grievous or Machamp, depending on which one you like more. All right, second pack, Pharaonic Egardian. It is really hot in here for some reason. I don't know why, but it is hot in my apartment. So I'll get a little sweaty. Let's see if that means we're going to pull something good. One, two, three, four. Maybe I'm just feeling the fire because it's coming up or maybe just my black eye at it again. You got the Royal Tribute. All right, Death's Lakuta, very nice. Gravekeepers assailant, beautiful. That's actually a pretty strong common. Gravekeepers are cool. Dark Snake syndrome. That is a very creepy artwork. Dark Swarpean barrier glitters. We've got the narrow pass. All right, what are the little monsters in here? Is that a Jama Green right there? I think it is. And then some other Hooligans. There's like an Elvis guy going on over there. We've got a Molten Behemoth, a giant born from magma. It attacks with a magma punch. So not fire punch, a magma punch. All right, what is it next? Is this it? These corners are in pretty bad shape. You can see him. D-Tribe, the tribe of the D. Will it be a foil? Come on, no really big commons out of there because Froniguardian has good commons. We didn't really pull any of them. Let's see if there's a good foil. Moisture creature. All right, this guy. If you tribute some of this monster by offering three monsters on the field as a tribute destroy all magical trap cards. Yeah, that's just another reference. If you're an old school player like me and you thought that if it had more than eight, you had to do three tributes every time. You actually don't. Unless it says specifically you have to do it. It's still only a two tribute card. I know if you're like a new guy or a new player, you've been playing for a long time. Probably like, you didn't know that? No, I did not know that. You'd be surprised at how many people don't know it though. Cause the last time I said it, people were like, I had no idea. I was like me either. Okay, next up, two more packs of boost your cards. I think this is Legacy of Darkness and a pharaoh servant this time. So let's see what we can pull. There's no light because these aren't legit. You know, I keep saying legit. I mean, to say Konami officials. What I'm trying to say, official blisters by Konami, they could be either hobby or retail packs, you know, cause normally if it's a Konami official pack out of a blister, it's a retail pack, but this is not official. So it could be either. Let's start with Legacy of Darkness. We want it to be hobby. So we can pull of course, the Genza. All right, man. Look at the back of these cards. Okay. There's a little something there, but they look pretty clean. One, two, three, four. Can we get a foil? Let's go warrior die, Greffer. For some reason, these just feel like in better shape than the other Legacy of Darkness. I don't know why we got dragon dwelling in the cave. It reminds me of Narnia, the fifth one, whatever it was called spirits invitation, twin headed wolf, super robo lady. Maybe this is it. Robo lady and robo yard. So super robo lady. Okay. I didn't realize it was a robo lady. Isn't super robo yard or something too? Maybe it is true dragon. Very nice. We've got a fang shing mirror, the mirror of fangs, patrician of darkness. And finally, will we get our first foil? Here we go. We will a reinforcement of the army and talk about a good one to get a little bit of a whitening down there. But that's still a super sick card because Rhoda is really awesome. And speaking of Rhoda, Rhoda is now in dual links. I actually got back on dual links. I did it. I finally got back on there after talking about it the other day. I was like, I'm getting a deck and apparently Rhoda is in the game. So it's crazy. You know, you can use it with elemental heroes and stuff. So pretty sick. There's probably an outside chance that I'm streaming dual links at some point on Twitch, you know, in the near future. Let's see if we can get a pharaonic guardian. Can we get Genzo? Genzo, make yourself known. All right. One, two, three, four. Our first foil. Let's see if we can get two in a row. We have gust. Cool. Insect barrier. The bot of spikes. Regulation of the tribe. I added a light of intervention. Steel ogre grotto, the number two. Earth, the shaker. Is it next? No. Mr. The Volcano. And finally we have, what is his name? This seemingly mild mannered creature has an extremely volatile temper. What do you mean mild mannered? He has a flaming finger. What's mild about that? Okay. Come on. Calm down. All right. Here we go. Final card. We have morphing jar numero dos. That's a pretty, pretty good card right there. Morphing jar number two. I mean, it's not great in terms of value, but it's it's quite the card when it comes to actually playing. All right. Next up, let's do this one. Let's do the one with Yu-Gi-Oh! Two packs of Yu-Gi-Oh! Plus 40 card protector sleeves. So I want to see what these sleeves look like. See if they're any good. Let's open this thing up. Chop it up. I'm pretty sure they're not based on what I saw. This looks hard to open actually because this thing is so long. All right. Let's see. Let's see what these are like. Are these any good? They seem okay. I mean, they're a little flimsy, but they're definitely not great, but they're not as bad as I expected when I saw the little blue sleeve. They looked really bad. Then we have two packs of magic ruler and we have Legacy of Darkness. So this is not a 2002 pack. This is probably a 2003 pack from like a 10. Because as you can see, this does not have the original square logo. It has the red banner logo. So it's the 2003 or later print. Let's go. Legacy of Darkness first. They put Legacy of Darkness and everything. That's why I'm like, I think this and Veronica Guardian were probably the most printed sets. The sixth and seventh sets there is when it was probably at its peak in terms of popularity. So one, two, three, four. We have Wingbeat of Giant Dragon. Dragon manipulator. And these are also 2003 packs, but they came out in 2003. So obviously life-absorbing machine, illusory gentleman, Frontier Wiseman. Beautiful. Possessed Dark Soul and sometimes Legacy of Darkness just has this really thin printing to it. I wonder if they cheaped out a little bit because it was getting so popular. We're trying to pump out of so many cards. We've got a Super Juvenation. Yeah, this one. They feel cheap. Battery action Samochi and which older that Konami cards in upper deck and stuff usually was not cheap. It usually felt nice. And then our final card is a foil. The A-forces. We have Warrior Digreffer with his lightsaber at it again. So no, that is not a foil, but that's okay. We have Magic Ruler. We still have hope. Magic Ruler bless us with a Blue Eyes Tune Dragon. Tune Summon Skull. Rolinquish. Tune Mermaid. It's a Linguint Duo. Snatch Steel. Confiscation. Any of those. They would be pretty cool. We have Crab Turtles starting it off. The Turtle of the Crab. Snake Fang. The Fangs of the Snake. Peacock. I'm not going to say that one. Shadow Wall. That would have been a good one though. Metal Fish. Very nice. Darth Maul. Awaiting Rooters. Horn of Light. We have Sonic Bird. Is it the next card? Let's see. Is it a foil? Come on. Manga Rayuran. No, it's not a foil. We have a foil. Okay, so far we've opened six packs. We've gotten two packs of sleeves that are 20 packs of 40 sleeves and then one foil. So Noligan's so good so far. That's okay because we have seven bonus cards available thanks to the Legends at Legends. We'll see if they're Legends. But inside we get two packs and we get seven cards. This was $9.99 back in the day at KB Toys. Huh.  Alright, let's open this thing up. Let's see what we can get. Let's not cut our extra cards because those are probably going to be really amazing cards. I'm guessing like Blue Eyes, White Dragon, First Edition for Legend of Blue Eyes. That's my guess. And we have a public service announcement before we keep going. Look for new Legends products in stores near you. Legends, I've never heard of you. So, uh, yeah. Alright, so before the two packs which are Legend of Blue Eyes and of course Legacy of Darkness. So Legacy of Darkness would be like the pack where like nowadays it's like duals from the deep. It's not probably not that bad but it was like, oh, more Legacy of Darkness. You know, they were putting in everything. Seven cards. Who wants to put in the comments? Come on right now. Do you think they're going to be any good cards? Are they all going to be comments from Star Deck Yugi or Star Deck Kaiba or they're going to be anything good? Let's see. Alright, Star Deck Joey. Okay. Alright. Nice. We've got Star Deck Joey. Crazy. Who would have thought? Star Deck Joey. Not going to lie though. If you did get these back in the day those were actually good hits from Star Deck Joey. That's not bad. Wabaku. I mean, that's also a good guard. Fake Trap. Not good. Wow. Star Deck Joey is really cool right here. Dien Kata. We're getting into the worst ones. Yeah. All Star Deck Joey. So, wow. What did they say on those again? Wait, at least they didn't say seven cool cards. I said seven bonus. I mean, they're literally bonus. They're just random. And by random, I mean, they're all from the same deck. Alright, let's go. We still got six packs to go in this opening. We're going a little slower because we got old school in this so we're, you know, taking our time to appreciate it. Let's see if we can get a big pull. So far we've gotten one Super Rare. So, we're really looking for an Ultra out of these. Come on. One, two, three, four. We have Gray Wing. His wings are gray. He's intercepting of Ready. The Z Nutrient. Plan Z can't possibly fail. Warrior Digreffer. Nice. Oh, what is it? What is his flavor text? The warrior who can manipulate dragons. Nobody knows his mysterious past. Wow. Troop Dragon. Nice. Fang Xingmere. Patrician of Darkness. A faint plan. It's faint. And oh, is this a foil? Is this something? I mean, that's a good rare royal impression. I think that's, that's worth money at this point. But wow. This guy, this seal, these are crazy flimsy. I'm telling you guys, like this is probably hurting you, but I'm barely touching it. It's flopping all over the place. Look at this. I don't know if you guys can see it. It's literally like so floppy. I don't know what it is about Legacy of Darkness sometimes. The cards are just weird. They're like so flimsy. Like you compare to this, this Joey card and it's even better than this. So I mean, the Joey card is even more solid. It's weird. It's very, very cheap. I don't know why they, oh, I have my, you know, I have my suspicions why they cheap. What in the world happened here? Oh, it's flipped. Okay. I was like, why is this back so short? Okay. There we go. All right. I was like, there's something weird going on. Legend of Blue Eyes. Okay. This is an original pack, by the way. Original logo.  Let's see what we can get. Bless us legends from legends. Can you give us a legendary pull? Here we go. Blue Eyes, White Dragon. These are pretty expensive at this point. One, two, three, four. Can we get something good? We've got to remove Trap. No glossier wavy from what I can tell. Move Trap. Steel Ogre Grotto. Number one. Number, oh no. The Monster Egg. I haven't opened a lot of Legend of Blue Eyes recently. So this is fun. Numi Ruko. Numi Riko. Dark King of the Abyss. Spike Cedra. The Spike Cedra. The Mammoth Graveyard. Here we go. Fire Grass. This grass is on fire. All right. Oh, that was the rare Dragon Capture Jar. I thought there was one more. These feel so much more like thick than the LOD, but oh my goodness. Dragon Capture Jar. Bummer of a pull. All right. I would love to pull something. I would love to pull a foil. We've pulled one. One foil at eight packs. Not good. Old school. This is how it went. That's why they were, you know, only $8.99 or whatever. So four packs in a year. Yu-Gi-Oh! Four pack. We've got one Legend of Blue Eyes pack guaranteed. Pretty cool. Let's see what we can get. All right. Inside we have our Ferranic Guardian. Legend of Blue Eyes, of course. Legacy of Darkness and Ferranic Guardian. Who would have thought? All right. We will save Legend of Blue Eyes for the end. Ferranic Guardian. You will go first because there's two of you. Will we pull some of the Epic Commons inside of this set? Hopefully. Because last time we didn't. So let's see if we can do it this time. Ferranic Guardian. Let's go. Bless us with an amazing bow. One, two, three, four. Give us some good Commons. We have Secret Pass of the Treasure. Farming and Duel Links. Dice Jar. That's a good one. It's like three bucks. Very... Oh! Trab does shoot. All right. We're already starting off hot. Beautiful. Now can we get a Metamorphosis or a Maiden of the Aqua? Gravekeeper's Curse. Nice to serve in strategy. Gravekeeper's Guard. That's another good card. Hyroglyph. Lithograph. All right. It's hard to say. Crywell. Is it the next card? This might be our foil. If it is a foil, Spirit Reaper. Okay. Not a bad card either. Spirit Reaper. Didn't we pull this the other day? What was that out of? I pulled a Spirit Reaper. Oh, it was when we did... Yeah. When we did the mail day, we opened one of the Ferranic Guardian. We got Spirit Reaper. Yeah. That's right. Okay. So another Ferranic Guardian. Another Spirit Reaper. Not a bad rare. We'll take it. I just want another foil. Like two out of 12. I mean, that's all I'm asking. Now just give us an Ultra. One Ultra. One Super. I'll take it or Secret. Different Dimension Capsule. Swarm of Lucas. Very cool. Oh my goodness. Look at the sinnering. I can see it before I even pulled the card. We got Secret Pass of the Treasure. Trab Dust Shoot number two. All right. This is a pretty good one. We'll take it. This man, whoever would have opened this back in the day if they had bought it, they would have almost a full place at a Trab Dust Shoot. Bird Face. Right of Spirit. Beautiful.  We're getting the Trio Dice Jar. Trab Dust Shoot Metamorphosis. That's a good three commons. We've got the Servant of Catabolism added again. And here's a foil. Hopefully it is. Hopefully it is. Hopefully it is. Book of Mood. Wow. That's actually two amazing packs. Like some of the absolute best cards from the set in there without even being a foil. That's amazing. Pretty good for the Ferani Guardians. Go back to Legacy of Darkness. Will the cards be flimsy? That is the question. Flimsy or not to flimsy? That is the question. Here we go. One, two, three, four. Can we pull a Secret Rare Woodland Sprite? Oh, no. Not the Woodland Sprite, please. Anything but that. Dragon's Gunfire. A Wingbeat of Giant Dragon. Dragon Manipulator. Troop Dragon. Fangshing Mirror. Patrician of Darkness. A Faint Plan. Beautiful. And we have a, is it a foil? Yes! Free the Magicals General right after he's on there. On a Faint Plan. So we made a plan and we pulled him. So we got an Ultra Rare. This is not the best Ultra Rare in the set by any means, but it is an Ultra Rare. I can't complain about that. Legacy of Darkness has done us well. We've got two foils. Ferani Guardian gave us some amazing pulls as well. Now it's time for Legacy of Darkness to bless us with the Blue Eyes Wide Dragon. Our final pack of the opening. It's been a fun opening. We haven't had insane pulls, but also hasn't been that bad. I think I might have cut part of the pack when I was opening this up. All right. Okay. Nothing too crazy here. Is there anything nuts? No, these aren't Ian packs. That means it didn't make it to 2005. So before that, oh, we're crimped a little bit. We got a crimped common. Okay. We've pulled crimped from what hello me before. You remember in the Trihorn Dragon, we have your Robbie. Let's see what we can get. Two-Mouth Dark Ruler. Can we finish it with another foil? Go three for 12. That would actually be on ratio. Two-Mouth Dark Ruler. Hinotama was our crimped card. Pretty cool. Armored Starfish. Very cool. I said very cool like seven times in this pack. Monster Egg. Numuriko. I always used to say Nimi Ruko, which is not right. Nemuriko is probably what it is. Sogan. All right. Is it next? No. Mystical Sheep Numerodos. What is going on back here? Is it like hypnotizing you or something? Monster Sheep with a long tail for hypnotizing enemies. I've never read the card. Just read the cards, man. All right. Here we go. Final card. Will it be a foil? Can we finish this off with a bang? Come on. Goblin Zigarremedy. So we can gain a few life points, but we're not going to get a foil unfortunately. But that was a fun opening. I love opening those old school like third party stuff. It's just insane to see what you're going to get. It's a lot of fun to see that repackaged stuff 20 years ago. So hope you guys enjoyed it. If you did, make sure to subscribe to the channel for more old school openings like this. Shout out to Toe Info Show, Daxter, Tomato Juice, JT Show, TCG Trust of Cards, Puffins of the Doom, Ernesto D'Anda, Dizzy, Flexi Boy, Hoppus, Choice333, Miss Cycle, James Jance, Frankie Martinez, An Unattied Show, Christopher Ward, Ian Musa, Junior Barting, Mike Nance, Mimegeko, Shadowfall, and Thomas McClane. Thank you guys for supporting the channel. I'll see you guys in the next one. Peace.