So, just while we are going for psychrometry it is basically the properties of moist air that we are studying and what we realize is that air anywhere is not completely dry it has moisture in it and we do require certain amount of moisture to ensure that you know our skin is proper otherwise the skin rise off and probably all of you know comfort conditions require around 50 percent R H or relative humidity. But, we will now during the course of this lecture try to understand these properties of moist air and to begin we will just draw the T S diagram for water. So, this is the standard T S diagram that everyone knows this is the critical point and we have various constant pressure lines and this region here is the vapor region. So, water obviously as it exists in the atmosphere is in the vapor region and we can say its state is superheated steam at the particular pressure it is at. So, the vapor pressure of water is not one atmosphere it is very very less and it is in a superheated format and in this format here water vapor can be thought of as an ideal gas it is very low pressure reasonably high temperature compared to its boiling point and along with air it forms a good ideal gas mixture air reasonably at one atmosphere can be considered as an ideal gas and these two together can be thought of as a mixture of two ideal gases. And we will apply the ideal gas equation P V is equal to M R T for both dry air and water vapor. So, both of these together constitute moist air and moist air is made up of dry air as well as water vapor and we can think that both of these are ideal gas gases and we can apply the ideal gas equation to both of these. Now, R of course will be different for air and I will call it R dry air and R will be different for water vapor and we will call it R water vapor. So, R for dry air would be just universal gas constant upon molecular weight of dry air, molecular weight of dry air can be assumed to be close to 29 whereas R for water vapor will be R u upon and molecular weight of water vapor or water can be roughly assumed to be 18 it is made up of H 2 O that is 2 H and 1 oxygen. So, this is how we will apply the ideal gas equation to both of these. Now, there are certain properties of moist air that everyone is supposed to know of and these are what are called as specific humidity, view point, relative humidity and then we will have wet bulb temperature, enthalpy and finally, we will draw the psychrometric charge. So, this is what we will follow. So, each of these topics will be discussed from the point of view of water vapor being an ideal gas inside air and you may have seen something called a psychrometric charge which we would not use at all till we come to the last topic. In fact, all our calculations will be done entirely using steam tables and you would be required to use your steam tables continuously and even then when there is a quiz on this topic, we will expect that you will be using only the steam tables for calculations and it is a good habit to know this thoroughly on how to use the steam tables. In fact, I would emphasize that we would tell all our students not to use the psychrometric charge initially because the psychrometric charge is usually made for one atmospheric pressure as the ambient and if the pressure changes then you need a different psychrometric charge which is made at that pressure and normally we would not have so many psychrometric charge, but if you know the barometric pressure as well as if you have the steam tables in your hand, you can do all your calculations without a problem and hence all our calculations will be based entirely on the steam tables. So, let us just start with specific humidity. So, we will see that all calculations are normally based on a per kg basis and this is purely for convenience because it helps us to do our calculations very easily and we will come to how we use this. So, let us start with specific humidity. Specific humidity is nothing but the amount of water vapor per kilogram of dry air or let us say you take a particular volume, you find out how much dry air is there in it and you find out how much water vapor is there in it. Divide the mass of water vapor by the mass of dry air and so you get the amount of water vapor per kilogram of dry air. So, it is on a kg to kg basis. Of course, we will realize that the water vapor is so less, so just talk about kg to kg basis is probably not very good and a lot of times people will express this in grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air and this is a very common unit that people would normally use, but we will believe as if we are first you know carrying out all our calculations on a kilogram to kilogram basis and then we will go we can always convert it into a gram to kilogram basis and this is purely how the definition is and you will realize that it is better if students you know stick to this definition, it is the original definition for what specific humidity means and now you will use the ideal gas law and see that you come up with some expression which people always try to remember, but there is no need to remember this.  So, we are taking one particular volume of gas and we will assume that the temperature everywhere is the same and it is what is called as the dry bulb temperature. So, t is equal to same for dry air and water vapor, it is what is called as the dry bulb temperature and same volume is what we consider. So, mass of dry air is the same volume will be just v by t the constant into pressure of dry air upon r of dry air which will be v by t times pressure of dry air times r u by m. So, this is what we would get and if I go ahead pressure of water vapor r of water vapor is just r universal constant upon. So, I will have m is equal to p water vapor upon r water vapor into v by t and this is for water vapor. So, I have now two things m water vapor upon m dry gas dry air is just v by t p water vapor upon r water vapor v by t p dry air. So, this is what I am going to have upon r dry air or we will have in this case p water vapor upon p dry air to r dry air upon r water vapor which would be p water vapor upon p dry air r u by m dry air v by m water vapor and I will just get m water vapor. So, this is what we would get. So, we have taken a constant volume of air moist air at a particular temperature and we are finding out how many kilograms of water vapor are present for 1 kilogram of dry air. So, all we do is in that volume we figure out how much water vapor is there and divided by how much dry air is there in that volume and we just apply the ideal gas law.  So, p total that is the p barometric pressure is just p water vapor plus p dry air. So, this is just the partial pressures adding up as per Dalton's law for ideal gases and it is believed as if the two are separate ideal gases and they each have their own individual partial pressures and this is all that we are focusing on. And the moment we take the mass ratios we realize that we just have to take mass of water vapor is p v by r t for water vapor and mass of dry air is p v by r t for dry air. And all we get is the pressure ratios and the molecular weight ratios and roughly you will see that this is 18 upon 29 p water vapor upon p dry air. And this I have put roughly because 18 and 29 are just approximately approximations the mass of water vapor is actually 18.01 something and dry air is actually 28.9 something, but roughly once we put these values we should get 0.622 pressure of water vapor pressure of dry air. So, in effect what we have done is that we have taken the basic definition of mass of water vapor upon mass of dry air which is what you must remember just put in the ideal gas law by substituting mass as p v by r t and get an expression in terms of molecular weights and pressure ratios and molecular weights are fixed for water vapor and air. So, we just take the ratio it is 0.622 and we just say it is p v by p d a. So, we give this specific humidity a symbol is 0.622 p water vapor upon p dry air and we can write it as p water vapor upon p total minus p water vapor. This is because p dry air is p total minus p water vapor. So, this is the expression we get for specific humidity, but do not forget omega is just purely m water vapor upon m dry air and we used ideal gas law to get this and people just often try to remember this expression on the top, but it is preferable they remember the original definition and know that you just have to use the ideal gas law and this is something that probably must be emphasized many times rather than trying to remember a formula like 0.622 p water vapor upon p p minus. So, what we will do right now is from now onwards instead of p water vapor I will be using the symbol p v and for p total I will just be using p and for p dry air I will just be using p a. So, slightly shorter version so that we can move faster. So, this is in effect what we will be trying to do. So, we have finished the first definition for what the specific humidity should be and I think I have emphasized enough that we must ensure that the students remember only the primary definition and then the use of the first sorry the use of the ideal gas law. So, now let us go to dew point temperature. So, again it is best to draw the T S diagram and explain to students where water vapor is lying. So, there is a pressure line here this is let us say your current temperature. So, T ambient also called as dry bulk temperature. So, this is where we are at a particular temperature and this is where steam is on this partial vapor pressure line here. So, if this is where we are you realize that we can start cooling if we start cooling then the partial vapor pressure of water vapor remains the same and we move along a constant pressure line along this or as you go lower and lower in temperature until we reach a point that we touch the vapor dome and this is where we are just going to start forming some amount of water that is liquid water. So, because here this is completely dry saturated steam and we were at superheated state and we started cooling it down at constant pressure and we moved along this line till we just reach dry saturated point. After this if we start cooling or we start removing heat from this it will start condensing out and it will just go along a constant temperature line here and this point where at a particular vapor pressure it starts condensing this is what is called as the dew point temperature and you realize that the dew point temperature is just the saturation temperature at the particular vapor pressure. So, all you have to do is actually take your steam tables figure out for a particular pressure what is the saturation temperature and you know your dew point temperature. So, that is as fast as you can do it. So, just look at your steam tables if you know your PV you know your dew point temperature or in a reverse fashion if someone tells you what the dew point temperature is then all you have to do is look at that temperature in the steam tables. So, in the temperature table part of it and look at what the saturation pressure is. So, whatever the saturation pressure is that is going to be PV. So, if DPT is given look P sat for DPT that will be PV. Obviously, if your temperature right now is the same as the dew point temperature then PV is P sat otherwise you will realize that at that temperature here if I go here again let me draw the T S diagram. So, you are here this is your temperature at which you are this is your dew point temperature if your temperature is. So, this is P sat at DPT this is the same as this PV because it is the same pressure line. So, if your temperature existing temperature T is here then your existing temperature is the same as the dew point temperature and sometimes you realize that at night when the temperature dips it reaches the dew point temperature and you see dew start forming then that is because the temperature has dropped down along this line of constant pressure and you have reached the dew point temperature. Now, of course you see that at this temperature I could have tried to fill in water and I can still do it and move like this that is because there are many pressure lines here and you realize that there is one pressure line here and which just goes up like this and you realize this point is nothing but P sat at the temperature as a ambient temperature or dry bulb temperature. So, we have two things now we have T sat at dry bulb temperature and we have T sat at PV. So, T sat at PV is the same as T sat at PV. So, PV is nothing but the dew point temperature DPT and P sat at a particular temperature is the pressure or the partial vapor pressure that we can reach by continuously putting in more and more water vapor into the moist air system. So, as long as your dry bulb temperature is much above the dew point temperature you can go on filling water vapor into the system your humidity goes on increasing that is because we will be moving along this line now the temperature is the same, but we are adding more and more water vapor to the system that means we go on passing lines of higher and higher PV here. So, each time we go to a higher PV line our specific humidity increases and then we put in more water vapor we move to a higher PV line our specific humidity increases and so on till we reach here. So, this is when you can no longer put water vapor in because now it will start condensing out and this is the maximum water vapor you can put in at that particular temperature. Of course, if you reach a higher temperature you can put in more, but here you will reach this and this is what would be called as the saturation point for that or the saturation pressure for that temperature. And so you realize that that is this P sat at your dry bulb temperature and corresponding to this I will have what is we can call as omega sat let me just call it as omega s that would be m sat. So, we will call it m sat upon m dry air and you will realize that this would be just 0.622 PV sat upon P dry air or this would be just 0.622 PV sat upon P minus P. So, this is omega s. So, we can define something called as the degree of saturation and this would be just omega upon omega s and this is just the ratio of what your omega is right now with a current PV. So, this depends on PV and this is a function of PV sat both at existing temperature. So, basically PV of course, will be the current PV, but PV sat will depend on the existing temperature. So, this is what is called as the degree of saturation. So, finally, we have again let me keep on drawing this diagram so that people do not forget it. This is one line we are here this is the temperature we are existing we are here. I can move like this along constant pressure line till I reach a temperature here this is called d P T this is d B T and this is P sat at d B T and this is T sat at PV. So, if I move along the constant pressure line and cool my moisture system I will reach the dew point or I will move along the constant temperature line and go on adding more and more moisture. So, that I move to higher and higher PV values till I reach P sat I will reach something called as omega sat or the specific humidity at full saturation and then I can define a degree of saturation where my omega is here I take the ratio of this omega to whatever omega I will get here if I had reached saturation. Obviously, if we have put in as much moisture as possible and reached P sat and if this is the current state of moist air then the dew point temperature is the same as the dry bulb temperature because you cannot cool any longer once you have reached maximum saturation the moment you start cooling you are already condensing. So, if you are fully saturated then your dew point temperature is the same as the dry bulb temperature it cannot be lower else your dew point temperature is always going to be less than the dry bulb temperature and at the limit it will be the same as the dry bulb temperature. So, this is up to what we have for specific humidity dew point temperature and degree of saturation. So, the next topic that we cover is what is called as relative humidity and again it is best to stick to the definition it is just mass of water vapor to what you can have at saturation. So, it is the ratio of masses of vapor existing to what you can put maximum when you have reached your saturation condition. So, again you can just use p v is equal to m r t and now both of these equations we are going to use only for vapor because both the numerator and denominator are only for vapor. So, r is the same. So, m is equal to p v by r t. So, at the same temperature whatever saturation we can reach that is m v sat. So, t is the same r is the same because we are talking only of water vapor right now. So, it is the r for water vapor and we are talking of a particular volume.  So, again I have used the regular definition for what relative humidity is it is the mass of water vapor right now to the mass of water vapor that you can put when you have reached the saturation condition. Obviously, m v sat is going to be much higher than m v and this is what we get and if I just use the ideal gas law you will realize that the ratios of masses is nothing but the ratios of the partial vapor pressures. So, this is what we get and this is called relative humidity and it is usually expressed as a percentage. So, what we do is r h is equal to p v upon p v sat multiplied by 100 else the ratio would have been a number less than 1 the moment you multiplied by 100 now it is like a percentage and we will get back to the T s diagram and see what we are trying to do here again I will draw the T s diagram. So, we are here as we said in the superheated state this is your dry bulb temperature this is your dew point temperature and this is p sat this is the p sat line this is the p sat line at T. So, this is your temperature here and this is your saturation pressure at that temperature of course, here if you start heating you will go higher, but this is your saturation pressure at this temperature and this is what you can reach maximum as you start putting in more and more water vapor and this is your current p v line and all we are doing is taking a ratio of this pressure to this pressure. So, r h is just a ratio of p v to p v sat and then of course, we are multiplying it by 100 just to express it in terms of percentages and that is what we are trying to do else you realize that this is what the ratio is the degree of saturation was just omega upon omega sat.  So, for example, I will just write r h is p v by p sat and degree of saturation this we have already figured out. So, this p v and this p sat are the same here and obviously, these two are related and we can express the degree of saturation in terms of the r h if we want, but it is very common especially when weather reports are given to talk mostly about the dry bulb temperature and the relative humidity. So, you must always notice that the moist air conditions are always given in terms of temperature and relative humidity very rarely do people talk in terms of degree of saturation and of course, when people are who are dealing with psychrometry and air conditioning processes you will realize that they will consider omega very often because omega is extremely useful to do all the calculations and relative humidity just tells you how far we are away from saturation. So, that is something that people know that when relative humidity is close to 100 it feels extremely sticky and you the air is full of moisture whereas, when relative humidity is very less it means that we are very far away from saturation and the air is very dry and you can feel the dry air. So, it gives to the common people something that they can relate to as to how dry the air is, but for all calculation purposes whenever we are talking of air conditioning etcetera. We will realize that specific humidity is the quantity we will often look at because we are always trying to get a balance between how much water vapor is existing in the current moist air system and that is very useful for our calculations else these are the two quantities which are normally given apart from P that is the total pressure. So, once we have covered this. So, now we can go to the enthalpy of moist air and again just for convenience you will notice that even for the moist air system the enthalpy is defined on a per kg basis of dry air and this is again for convenience. So, we take 1 kg of dry air this implies that there are omega k g's of moisture this is because omega is just mass of vapor upon mass of dry air. So, per kg of dry air there are omega k g's of moisture available and we write the enthalpy in terms of per kg of dry air. So, let me get back here if I want to define enthalpy we will normally have to have some standard as to or some reference point as to where we will put our enthalpy 0 and most air conditioning and the refrigerator systems as far as when they are dealing with moist air they will say that let us put the reference enthalpy for dry air as 0 when the temperature is 0 degree centigrade this is for dry air. So, if we assume that we are living in a place where the temperature is always going to be higher than 0 degree centigrade then h assuming that C p is constant throughout the temperature range we are talking about h would be just T minus T reference and T reference is just 0 degrees. So, just for ease it we will just write it as C p T where it is assumed that T rep is equal to 0. So, we are assigning an absolute value or a number assigning a number based on h is equal to 0 at T is equal to 0. This is how we are assigning a number for dry air. So, once we get this so you if you remember you know for air C p would be just roughly around 1.005 kilo joules roughly and this is something you can use using your ideal gas law and mass of water vapor you get your R for air and then you get your C p and C v for air. So, this is for air now if I go for moisture what we say is that reference h is equal to 0 when water is in saturated liquid state. So, this is what we say is h is equal to 0. So, and this is how most steam tables would be made. Obviously, you realize that when steam tables are made it is actually at 0.01 degrees that this is normally put as 0 and what we have is that if we. So, again let me draw the state of water vapor we are here at the dry per temperature. Now, one thing which is very easy is something what you can do is because I know the temperature and the partial vapor pressure all I need to do is go to the steam tables and get h here read it from the superheated section this is the easiest thing that you can do. Now, what else we can do is that you know as we said that moisture or you know I would say water vapor behaves as an ideal gas and one of the things that we will see h will be nearly a function of only temperature and not pressure and we will see that if you look up your steam tables you will realize that this is true and the way to do it is just simple you I will just draw the T S diagram again that I keep drawing now again and again you take this. So, this is where we are at a particular dry bulb temperature. So, method one is just look up enthalpy using superheated tables directly look up this enthalpy second is at the same temperature here I will claim that the enthalpy here is the same as the enthalpy here it is a function only of temperature you realize that this pressure line is different, but we are talking about really low pressures and the fact that water vapor behaves as an ideal gas and we will say that this enthalpy is nearly the same as this enthalpy and this is something that we will try out often and you one exercise that you should do before we get to our afternoon classes is that you just take up some vapor pressure which is you know common in moisture get the enthalpy from the superheated tables get the enthalpy for saturated dry saturated vapor at the same temperature here. So, this is a different vapor pressure line. So, get H sat vapor at T and something which is otherwise done often is we say that we were 0 here sorry this is a particular pressure line. So, we can move along the pressure line for 0 to 0 degrees really the pressure line for 0 degrees does not exist because we are it is below the triple line and you can actually move along the triple line which is at 0.01 degrees it does not matter 0.01 is pretty small compared to 0. So, I will just for the sake of argument say that we are moving along the 0 degrees line here. So, now we have many many I will this is my 0 degree line or rather the triple line this is my P V line here. So, this is T this is S. So, I am actually on this line here and this is the point we are at. So, we said method one was read this out of the steam table method two was get this and I say method three is you can get this from the steam tables or what people do often is they say start from 0 here this is our reference point anyway. So, we know it is 0 enthalpy is 0. So, if I move along this this is now a standard number it is 2 5 0 1 because we have fixed the temperature and pressure. So, this H F G is fixed. So, if I go from here to here H G would be just 2 5 0 1 kilo joule per kg. So, this is what we will get here and if I start moving here I will say this is a vapor and this difference here of enthalpy delta H it just C P vapor into delta T. So, C P vapor into delta T is equal to delta T is C P D minus 0 that is because this is the 0 degree line. So, what we are doing is basically going for convenience. So, the most accurate way would have just been method one which is look at the steam tables and find out your enthalpy, but we are suggesting other methods that is you go to saturated temperature sorry saturated condition at that temperature and find out H again you will require the steam tables, but we are suggesting a simpler way where you do not have to go to the steam tables. You just say that we had decided that enthalpy was 0 at and this is how the steam tables will operate that you have enthalpy reference enthalpy 0 at liquid conditions at 0 and you just move along till you have reached saturated vapor conditions. You know that you have changed the fixed number and 2 5 0 1 is what you get and from there on if I increase the temperature I will increase my enthalpy as C P delta T as any other gas and this C P value is roughly 1.88 kilo joule per kg Kelvin and because we have chosen 0.8 kilo joule per kg Kelvin 0 degrees this is just T. Again we just write it as T here and finally you see that we have come up with a third method which is to get the enthalpy which is move along this line and take C P delta T here and since delta T is just T minus 0 we just take it as T and you can choose method 1, you can choose method 2, you can choose method 3. Method 1 is obviously the most accurate. In method 1 what actually is happening is that we have gone from 0 degrees to this temperature corresponding to the saturation temperature of T v as a liquid. So what we have done is we have gone as C P liquid times T minus 0 to go till this temperature then we have added h f g at this pressure and then we have taken C P delta T here that is how we get this point really and this is the most accurate way to go ahead. But we have chosen seen two other method and you can check that either of these three will give you values which are very very close to each other and just for simplification people will often use only this method 3 because you do not require to get to the steam table. But in general if you stick to one consistent method there is no problem because finally we will be dealing in delta h s and if you choose one method then the errors more or less any small error that is there in getting the enthalpy using method 3 it just is the same in all the in all calculations and it just cancels off. So either you use method 1 consistently which means you always use the steam tables or you use method 3 and this is something which is done very often. So in many calculations people will just use method 3 but just for convincing yourself you must look at the steam tables and figure out these three using these three methods what the h is and you will realize that you know so these are we are on three different pressure lines here you will realize that this is the actual pressure line this is p sat at t of course this is not really 0 degree 0.01 degrees. So this is the p triple really okay is the triple point pressure and you are moving along that and you realize that you know these are three methods and you would see that it is the same irrespective of whatever you have is hardly differing by a small number after the decimal point. So we will just prefer to use method 3. So once we have decided what to do for dry air okay and water vapor okay so enthalpy or specific enthalpy is just c p air into t this is the dry air part plus omega into c p vapor times t plus 2 phi 0 1 okay so this is the water vapor enthalpy okay. So we have taken 1 kg of dry air figured out that there are omega kg's of water vapor in it the dry air part has this enthalpy per kg and the moisture has this much enthalpy okay you have multiplied it by omega and you realize this is not a specific enthalpy really for the moisture because this is not per kilogram of the moisture in fact this whole enthalpy here is actually for 1 plus omega kilograms of moisture okay so this is actually for 1 kilogram of dry air and 1 plus omega kilogram of moisture but we will stick to writing the symbol as if it is for specific enthalpy but remember it is enthalpy per kilogram of dry air and this is done purely for convenience because you will see later all our calculations become extremely easy if you do everything in per kilogram of dry air basis and that is why we stick to this convention but overall you have gotten this formula okay what you really have is actually h dry air plus h water vapor okay which is h dry air I should not say h water vapor it should be omega times h water vapor okay and this sorry let me write in this is equal to C P T for dry air plus omega times P P T so this is what we have done


I want a little hop on the end of these guys. There you go. Move. They're quick. They're quick. Other side. Other side. Other side. Other side. Right here, right here, right here. Right there. Woo. There you go.


Fall in. You won't fall if you run. Well, it holds me, and I'm heavier. Just go, run. I know, I'm going to fall in.


What's up everybody? It's Jason here for jasperjasecasebrakes.com.  And the way this works guys, this works, everybody gets a random team in the NBA for the one pack, remember no veteran commonship, we're animizing customer names and teams, this should be the hits out. Then at the end of the break, we'll take all 30 customer names and randomize them, and if you land in the top five, you will get one of the teams below. Number one going to the Hornets, number two going to the T-Wave, etc., all the way down to the Raptors. So we're going to do the break first, boom, boom, boom, distribute the hits out, right? Then we're going to come back here, randomize the customer names, top five, get a spot in the break, and get a team in the break from the Hornets down to the Raptors. So let's roll, and it is a five and a three, eight times. Good luck. One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, and eight. Maybe Kemba Walker, Charlotte, Bobcat I think, Roy, Donna Gregg, they're actually just replaying Kemba Walker at UConn, it was a nasty step back. Five and three, eight times, eight times, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight. Warriors, down to the Bucks.   Larry Johnson, yeah. I mean, at one point, guys, all of our teams were not wanted. You know, those are the time where all of our teams we liked were not wanted. But a player like Lamello changes that. All right, guys, so again, a lot of base here, none of this will ship here. Only the inserts and the rookies. And a Trevor Reza. Rui, Isaiah Roby, RJ Barrick, Carson Edwards, and Jalen McDaniels. Sorry, Jalen McDaniels, sorry. These are just more base here as well. All right, so there you go. Switch scenes now and give away those teams. Good luck, guys. Now top five, get in. Here's the dice roller, here's the customer names again. Good luck, everybody. Six out of four, ten times. Good luck. What's up, Derek? One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten. Boom. Ten times. Top five, get in. Oh, Rex just missing out. Rui, you are in at five. Lonnie, Gretchen, Jason, and Gretchen. Wow, there you go. Ten times. So top five are in. So Gretchen, you just got the hornets. Jason with the T-wolves. Gretchen with the heat. Lonnie with my thunder. And Rui with the raptors. So there you go, guys. That was the filler here. Coming up next is the break itself.


Hey everyone, I'm Scott Shagayoka, GoDaddy's Entrepreneur-in-Residence. I'm here in San Francisco calling in from my home as we are in a shelter-in-place order here in California. This week I wanna talk about economic resiliency. What can we learn from the past about how small businesses can rebuild after hardship? Or what about the worldwide effect that the 2008 economic and housing crisis had? Or major floods like the one that devastated parts of Iowa in 2008. Or category five hurricane Irma that left people homeless with thousands of businesses left to pick up the pieces for themselves. There is some really interesting and new data that suggests a link between the quantity of micro and small businesses in a community and that community's ability to bounce back. So we're gonna speak to researchers who are part of a recently released multi-year study by GoDaddy called Adventure Forward. And we're specifically going to look at the data that shows micro-business' impact on the American economy. We're also gonna talk to individuals who have been through economic hardship themselves and have come out on the other side. What can we learn from these stories and from the data that help us look towards life post COVID-19? Thanks so much for joining me Robert and it's great to talk to you. I understand you worked with Venture Forward which is a multi-year body of research that looked at data from 20 million online ventures and 30,000 zip codes across the country. Can you tell me more about what Venture Forward is? What we studied with Venture Forward was the effect of this unmeasured population of everyday entrepreneurs where the ventures that they're managing oftentimes don't show up in traditional government measures of economic health and vitality. And with GoDaddy's unique perspective, we have this window into this population that has allowed us to really study the relationship between the creation of and the successful development of these ventures and broader economic outcomes that policymakers and members of the academic community really care about. Can you also explain to me what a venture is? A venture is a distinct website or idea that an individual is trying to create a digital identity around. And the analysis and data that we're looking at, we distinguish those commercial entities from those non-commercial entities to help to explain what's happening within each of the markets that we've been looking at. So this week we're focusing on economic resiliency. And I was wondering if you could tell me more about the connection between ventures and community economic recovery. Does the Venture Forward data suggest that there's a link between the two? In the counties where we saw the highest amount of economic recovery from the recession, there was twice the amount of active and highly active ventures in those counties. It was the density of ventures that we really saw that was making the difference between those counties that performed really well post the recession and those that didn't. One thing that anybody could take from this data is the understanding that what they do matters. There's an opportunity for people to consume this information and reach out to the politicians and policymakers who can do something about it, whether that's creating tax policies or educational programs to help them. Thanks so much for your time, Robert. Great, Scott, thanks a lot for the opportunity to talk about this. So now given what we know about the data, what is it like to actually go through an economic disaster and recover from it? Next up, we'll talk to Scott Swenson. He's from Cedar Rapids, Iowa, which experienced a really devastating flood back in 2008. For those who don't know, could you tell us a little bit about the 2008 flood in Iowa? At the time that flood was the fifth largest disaster in US history, so for a city besides the Cedar Rapids it was just devastating. If you can imagine, thriving through town and seeing nothing but the tops of building. Could you talk a little bit about how small businesses in particular were impacted by the flood? Overall, the damages for the city were about $6 billion between private residential houses. There were about 7,000 houses that were flooded. We had over a thousand businesses that were flooded. What were some of the things you saw with the rebuild? How did these small businesses, how did these community members after a day of devastation get through this? We saw business owners working with each other to help the recovery. So in a lot of cases, it was a business that might be a competitor that had now turned into being a supplier for another business. I love that move from the spirit of hyper competitiveness to a spirit of collaboration. I think that's a really powerful message and something we're seeing already with the response to COVID-19. What were some of the factors that helped small businesses recover more quickly than others? Businesses that engage their team, their staff and we're highly committed to them from the very start were probably first in line. We saw a lot of people increase their capabilities within days after the crisis had. Restaurants became curbside overnight. Retailers that weren't doing any commerce suddenly developed a way to travel together a system and they're making some permanent improvements to their business mom. In some ways, we had a blank canvas to work with and something new and creative really emerged that we didn't have before. How did small businesses fare? Were they able to survive? So the statistics we had going into it was that after three years, we should expect 55% failure rate because of the business networks and all the things that we did. We were able to see 82% survival rate after after three years. That's beautiful. That gives me hope. Well, Scott, I really appreciate your time. I hope we see a similar positive recovery with what's going on with the COVID-19 crisis. Thank you. So next up, I'm going to speak to Amber and Kibwe. They're a couple I know through my work with GoDaddy series Made in America and they run a vegan popsicle company with their kids in Atlanta. They first hand experience of what it's like to go through an unexpected disaster. Hurricane Irma was a storm that hit on 9-11, 2017 and it hit primarily the coast of Florida in southern Georgia, but it came up through Atlanta and we were actually one of 13 houses that were totally destroyed in our county. And the power had gone out and we didn't want to lose the inventory. And so we said, instead of wasting them, let's go out and have like the Oprah effect and essentially and pass out popsicles and make people happy. And we left with instruments. Our next door neighbor had called us and told us that we got hit by a storm. We ended up losing everything in the house and having to evacuate immediately and never looked back at that point. We were at a neighbor's house up the street who was experiencing a power being out as well. And he immediately was like, y'all can stay tonight here. As tragic as the event was with the storm hitting us, we saw the good in it and it wasn't immediate. It was, I don't think we ever had any trauma like that in our lives or in our adult lives where something has impacted us so great. What would you tell small businesses right now? What I will say is that it's okay to feel uncomfortable at times and sometimes even the feeling of defeat. Find ways to reinvent yourself. So if our product is primarily a person-a-person product, how can this product now become an online product? You know, how can we further that? You have to be uncomfortable to get there and then once you're there, you can't be scared to leap. And so we're leaping right now. I just really wanna thank you both for your time and thanks for sharing so vulnerably about, you know, your experience with being affected with Hurricane Irma and everything that you're going through right now with COVID-19. I have deep belief that she will get through this. And you'll say, you know, we did get through that and we got through much stronger. Of course, our current crisis is unlike anything we've ever experienced before. It's different from the 2008 economic crisis. It's like a natural disaster, but it's happening to everyone everywhere and there's really no end in sight. But I think there's something that we can learn hopefully from the past that we can take into our future. And it's the unknown. But if there's anything I've learned about being an entrepreneur, it's that we can handle the unknown. So if you want to learn more about this study, just click the link below. And if you need any resources at all or any information, go to openwestand.org. We're gonna get through this together and thanks so much for joining me.


I want to welcome many of our distinguished guests, members of the Diplomatic Corps, some very distinguished officials and former officials, and thank you all for coming to this Atchison lecture. I want to also thank very much the people who helped underwrite this Coca-Cola company, LMI, and particularly Lockheed Martin, which really make this kind of effort possible. These companies have been working closely, Lockheed Martin in particular, in helping us think through where the world is going, and they want to be part of that as well. I would like to just stop there and turn it over to Dick Solomon, the President of the U.S. Institute of Peace, and to move right through the program. Thank you, Dick. Thanks so much for coming, and Robin and I debated how many of our friends and colleagues we should give recognition to, and we concluded you're all friends and colleagues. We don't want to waste the time of our honored speaker, and so I just want to thank you all for coming to this Atchison lecture. Why recognize Dean Atchison? I think that's one of the reasons why John West is due credit for establishing this series, and as you know, Dean Atchison is most widely recognized for that famous phrase of his memoir, Present at the Creation, which conveys all sorts of innuendos, but from his point of view, it reflects the fact that he was there at that turn of history from the end of the Cold War to the onset, I'm sorry, the end of World War II to the onset of the Cold War, and he had the foresight and the initiative to start building the institutions that succeeded in getting us through the Cold War, putting a lot of emphasis on building both international financial diplomatic institutions, putting a great deal of emphasis on diplomacy and our dealings with the world, and so it's from that perspective that we wanted to give a platform to national leaders in this period of history, which again is a major turn to new challenges, hopefully some new positive opportunities, which we'll be, I think, hearing about shortly, and it was a special honor that the first Atchison lecture was delivered by our Secretary of Defense, Bob Gates, who is really a fresh and farsighted thinker who almost outrageously is proposed giving money to the State Department and strengthening our diplomatic institutions so that we keep a civilian leadership out in front of our foreign policy as we deal with the challenges of this new era, so it's a special pleasure to have here tonight not only our speaker who will be introduced in a minute, but also Dean Atchison's sons, David, and his granddaughter, Eleanor, who I understand are with us tonight, and I hope they'll stand and be recognized. I have a tricky assignment now. I don't want to preempt our primary host for the evening who will introduce our speaker, but I've talked to Michael Dignan of Lockheed Martin, and we've sort of agreed that we'll share the introductions, and I want to begin by giving you a little appetizer. As the pictures that you're seeing on either side of the room indicate, our permanent facility, our headquarters building down at the corner of 23rd and Constitution, is now really taking shape. It's about 80% constructed. We expect it will be fully constructed, the working parts of the building by Thanksgiving, and we'll be moving in in the spring. And this will be a facility that will enable us to hold events like this in the remarkable atrium that will be a major part of this facility and to give a home to the work that we do. Now, one important aspect of our charter from Congress is public education, and one of the things we're building in this institution is what we call our Global Peace Building Center. It's 20,000 square feet of exhibits, a movie, and other facilities that will highlight the work of the Institute. And one of the things that will be in this educational institution are what we call witness displays. We want to make human the challenges and the face of those who are making major contributions to bringing peace to international conflict situations. And it's in that context that we're going to give you a little sneak preview right now of our honored speaker, who will be one of those witnesses for his role in bringing about the Good Friday Agreement Northern Ireland. And of course the work that he is doing day by day right now to try to bring peace to the Middle East. I'm George Mitchell, former United States Senator from Maine, Senate Majority Leader, and after service in the Senate, I went to Northern Ireland where at the invitation of the British and Irish governments, I served as chairman of the peace talks, which led to the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 ending decades of conflict in Northern Ireland. The conflict in Northern Ireland was fueled and conducted by paramilitary organizations on both sides, Catholics and Protestants, Nationalists and Unionists. The level of violence was very high and quite brutal. In the mid-1990s, the British and Irish governments concluded that the only way this could be ended was if they cooperated to try to establish negotiations to bring the conflicting sides together. The principal negotiations lasted two years. I devised what are called the Mitchell Principles, which required the parties affiliated with paramilitary organizations to use only democratic and peaceful methods for advancing their political objectives. It was very tense and highly uncertain. I was able to establish a sense that this was going to be a fair proceeding in which everybody could be heard, and I think in the end that's what helped us to reach an agreement. After many years of negotiations, the deadline for a peace agreement came, and it was dramatic that last day, we were up all night, there was very little sleep. The principal unionist party didn't reach agreement until about quarter or five in the afternoon. When the party leader called me, I said, look, I want to vote right away. I'd learned as majority leader of the U.S. Senate when you get the votes you vote. If you delay, something bad might happen. We assembled at five o'clock, and the parties all made clear their assent to the agreement, and so finally peace came to Northern Ireland. The most difficult obstacle to overcome is the lack of trust. You can rebuild buildings, you can replace vehicles, you can put bridges back up, but the really important thing to change what is in people's hearts and minds takes much longer. It takes generations who didn't see innocent members of their family blown up by a bomb just because they happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. It's hard to restore trust, easy to lose it. It isn't there yet in Northern Ireland, but it's on its way. Hope and opportunity are essential to political stability and peace in every society. Whatever people's difference is, they want the same thing. They want to get their children off to a good start in life. They want to have a chance for a decent job, and so what is necessary in all of these conflict societies is to create a sense of hope, vision, possibility for the future. Without that hope, without that opportunity, peace is in peril everywhere. I just want to say under the leadership of our Executive Vice President, Tara Sonnenstein, we're producing a series of these so-called witness statements, and it will give you a flavor of what we want young kids who are looking for careers in international affairs, tourists coming to our part of the mall where all the war memorials are located, giving them a sense not only that peace is possible, but that they can play a role in peacemaking. With that, I'm very pleased to ask Michael Dignan, the President of Lockheed Martin Center for Stability Operations, to come up here. We're very pleased to have Lockheed Martin as the principal sponsor of this series of lectures, the Atchison Lectures. Michael, please. Good evening. It was a great video. Thank you, and I'm honored to introduce our speaker for the lecture tonight on behalf of Lockheed Martin. But before I do, let me take this opportunity to thank Richard and everyone at the U.S. Institute of Peace for the work they are doing on behalf of our country and the world. Lockheed Martin is proud to support USIP because we recognize that conflict prevention is always preferable to conflict recovery. We are committed to being USIP, expand the smart power toolkit and ensure that America's defense, diplomacy, and development resources are used effectively to advance the cause of peace. And USIP could not have chosen a more effective peacemaker than our speaker this evening. He was one of the Senate's most respected leaders for 14 years with the talent of bringing together those with opposing views to pass legislation vital to our national interest. As you saw from the video, he became a hero to the people of Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic for his inspirational efforts negotiating the Good Friday Agreement, which has been the key to ending a long, bitter struggle that claimed far too many innocent lives. He has been a tireless champion of reconciliation in the Middle East, trusted by both the Israeli and the Palestinians to hear their concerns, understand their positions, and offer creative solutions to resolve their differences. As the administration's special envoy for the Middle East peace, he continues to be center stage in American foreign policy, working to bring to a close perhaps the most divisive and volatile conflict of this time. During the traditional St. Patrick's Day ceremony at the White House this year, President Obama described him as both a statesman who worked as hard as anyone to usher in an age of peace in Northern Ireland and a glutton for punishment for being willing to take on this latest Middle East assignment. However, if anyone can bridge the divide between the two parties, I know it's our speaker tonight. Ladies and gentlemen, George Mitchell. Thank you very much, Michael, to Robin West, Dick Solomon, and so many distinguished guests, and so many friends here. It's really a great honor for me to be able to participate in an event that is named for former Secretary of State Dean Atchison. I confess that when Dick Solomon called me to invite me to come to address you on the subject of peace and conflict resolution, I was uneasy and uncertain about accepting because I'm familiar with the United States Institute for Peace and the work it's done and I knew that all the members of the audience would each know as much if not more than I did about the subject. But then I reflected on my first day in the Senate and I want to tell a couple of stories about that because the subject of my remarks is serious and the whole evening ought not to be serious. And so it's easy for me to talk about my career in the Senate because it wasn't serious in many respects. I entered the Senate under unusual circumstances. I was serving as a federal judge in my home state of Maine when 30 years ago this month, then President Carter appointed Senator Ed Muskie, Secretary of State, creating a vacancy in the Senate which, as you know, under American law, the Governor fills. There was a lot of publicity. There was an ex-Governor and ex-Senator, couple of ex-Congressmen from Maine, all of whom were highly qualified and interested in the position and there was a lot of publicity about it. And the Governor announced that he didn't want Maine to be underrepresented in the Senate for a long period of time so in just a few days he said he would hold a press conference at the State Capitol to announce his appointment. The evening before I went to bed like everyone else in Maine wondering who he was going to appoint. My name had not been mentioned in the speculation. I'd been a federal judge for less than a year so it never occurred to me that I might be under consideration.  I said, gee, Governor, this is a really big decision. I need time to think about it, to consult with my family and my friends. He said, I'll give you one hour. I protested but he insisted so I immediately called up my three older brothers. I grew up in a very small town in Maine with three older brothers who were very famous athletes, very well known not just in our community but statewide. And then I came along and I was not as good as my brothers. In fact I was not as good as anybody else's brother. So very early in life I began to be known around our small town as Johnny Mitchell's kid brother, the one who isn't any good. As you might expect I developed an inferiority complex and a highly competitive attitude toward my brothers. So that night when the Governor called me I called them up ostensibly to seek their opinion. But I confessed there was a note of triumphalism in my voice. When I informed them that the Governor wanted to appoint me to the United States Senate, what do they think about that? The answers were predictable. My brother Johnny said, he said it's ridiculous.  He said nobody can understand how you got to be a federal judge. And the people of Maine are entitled to have a qualified person to represent them in the Senate. My two other brothers said much the same thing in less polite language. So I hung up, I called the Governor up, I said Governor I don't need an hour. I've already received all the reassurance I need of my ability to perform this job so I accept. The next day I went down to the state capitol, the Governor announced my appointment. I flew down here to Washington and I was sworn in right away. Actually the Senate was debating some legislation and the majority leader of the time was kind enough to interrupt and have me sworn in and then the Senate resumed debate and moments later I cast my first vote. The first of many informed judgments I made on your behalf and on behalf of other Americans. And then I went for the first time to what was now my office. And a young man said to me, he had a long list of things for me to do. And then he said, Senator we have a very interesting invitation here. I said, what is it? He said there are about 2,000 certified public accountants from all over the country holding a convention here in Washington and they just called up just an hour ago and wondered if you would come and be their keynote speaker tonight. And I said gosh that's just amazing. I said because until yesterday I myself didn't know I'd be here and to think that these accounts were so far sighted as to hold this open for me. No, he said it's nothing like that. He said they've had four cancellations at the last minute and you're the only member of Congress they could think of who might not have anything to do to do tonight. I said what do they want me to talk about? He said the tax code. I said the tax code to 2,000 certified public accounts. Every member of the audience I said we'll know more about the subject than I do. And this young aide looked at me, drew himself up to his full height and he said Senator, he said keep in mind you are now a United States Senator and you will be regularly called upon to address in public subjects about which you know nothing. He said so you might as well start now and get in practice. So that came into my mind and I said if I can go and talk to those accountants about the tax code I can come here and talk to the United States Institute about peace. So here I am. I do want to mention one of the person who's not here but who is principally responsible for the creation of the United States Institute of Peace. Shortly after I enter the Senate I became quite friendly with Senator Spark Matsunaga of Hawaii and as we all called him Sparky had an overwhelming interest in the establishment of what he used to call a Department of Peace. And I remember him telling me and as he talked to every member of the Senate we have a Department of Defense we should have a Department of Peace. Well we don't have a Department of Peace today but we have a United States Institute of Peace and I couldn't let the moment pass without recognizing the memory of one of the nicest persons I've ever met former Senator Spark Matsunaga without whom none of us would be here including Dick and Robin and all the rest of us. So please join me in a round of applause for a great man. Now I've been asked to talk about conflict resolution in particular my experiences in Northern Ireland and in the Middle East. I didn't know you were going to play this video tonight so there's a little bit of overlap I hope you'll excuse it and I want to begin with a few general comments. Human history is in large part a story of conflict how it arose how it was resolved so the subject is not new but it has taken on a new urgency in a world in which the number of people is increasing rapidly the number of nation states continues to grow the number of non-state organizations which initiate or extend conflict is also on the increase and there are rapid technological developments that make it easier to start and to conduct conflicts than it is to prevent or end them. I was involved more recently and I saw there a large electric clock which projects population growth in the world. On the day that I was there it predicted that in two thousand eighty there will be eleven and a half billion people on earth. I personally think that's an over estimate but it does remind us that population growth is an important factor especially when compared with the past. It took 1800 years that's 18 centuries following the birth of Christ for the world's population to reach one billion. The most recent billion was added in less than 20 years although the rate of growth has recently slowed slightly. A credible estimate is that by 2050 and that's in the sweep of history a short 40 years away there will be more than nine billion people on earth an increase of almost 40 percent over the current level. That means more competition for land for water for all natural resources more competition for economic growth for political power and inevitably as a result more conflict. And sadly we must recognize that while we live in an age of amazing technological advancement some of the most dramatic advances have come in the human ability to kill ever larger numbers of other men and women. 223 years ago in the midst of what turned out to be one of the most important conflicts in all of history a small group of American colonists gathered in Philadelphia in the convention that produced the American Constitution. The part of it that we call the Bill of Rights is to me the most concise and eloquent statement ever written anywhere of the right of the individual to be free from oppression by government. For as long as men and women seek to gain or retain freedom the Bill of Rights will stand as their beacon. That's one side of the coin of liberty the right to be free from oppression. The other side is the need for everyone to have a fair chance to enjoy the blessings of liberty to a man without a job to a woman who can't get good care or education for her child to the young people who lack the skills needed to compete in a world of technology. They don't think much about abstract concepts like liberty and justice. They're entirely focused in coping from day to day. Dean Atchison understood this. He headed the US delegation to the Bretton Woods Conference which gave birth to organizations like the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and what would become the World Trade Organization. He designed the Marshall Plan to give the war devastated European nations the tools and the money to rebuild their economies. He knew that without an economic foundation a peace that had been so costly to secure could not possibly be sustained. So it was for many years in Northern Ireland. Conflict hurt the economy. Unemployment rose with violence in a deadly cycle of escalating misery. Late in the 20th century after many years of disagreement the British and Irish governments concluded that if there was to be any hope of bringing the conflict to an end they would have to begin to cooperate in a sustained effort to lay the foundation for peace. In 1996 after years of effort they finally were able to get peace negotiations underway. The two governments asked me to serve as chairman. I've been involved in Northern Ireland long enough to realize what a daunting task it was. The negotiations were the longest most difficult I've ever been involved with at least until now. Often no progress seemed possible but somehow we kept going. After a year and a half of talks that produced no result a dramatic event changed my mind at the course of history there. A leading Protestant paramilitary leader was murdered in prison by a group of Catholic prisoners. That touched off a surge of sectarian killings. A vicious cycle of revenge took hold in tit-for-tat assassinations and the peace process slid backward toward the abyss. In desperation I devised a plan to establish an early and firm deadline to end the talks. I was convinced that the absence of a deadline guaranteed its failure. The existence of a deadline couldn't guarantee success but rather made it possible. As we near the deadline there were non-stop round-the-clock negotiations and finally an agreement was reached. It did not by itself guarantee a durable peace or political stability or reconciliation. It did make them possible. It then took a lot of effort over a very long period of time to achieve those goals and indeed the effort is still ongoing. Since then I've been asked often what lessons Northern Ireland holds for other conflicts especially the Middle East and I'll try to answer that question now. I begin with caution. Each human being is unique as is each society so it follows logically that no two conflicts are the same. Much as we would like it there is no magic formula which once discovered can be used to end all conflicts. The situation we faced in Northern Ireland was very different from the one we face in the Middle East today. But there are some basic principles which arise out of my experience that may apply more broadly. First I believe firmly that there's no such thing as a conflict that can't be ended. They're created, conducted, and sustained by human beings. They can be ended by human beings no matter how hateful, no matter how hurtful peace can prevail. When I arrived in Northern Ireland I found to my dismay a widespread feeling of pessimism among the public and the political leaders. It's a small well-informed society where I quickly became well-known and every day that I was there people stopped me on the street in the airport in a restaurant wherever I was and they always began with kind words. Thank you senator we appreciate what you're trying to do but they always ended in despair. You're wasting your time, this conflict can't be ended. We've been killing each other for centuries and we're doomed to go on killing each other forever. As best I could I worked to reverse these attitudes. This is the special responsibility of political leaders from whom many in the public take their cue. And one way is to create an attitude of success, the belief that problems can be solved, that things can be better. Not in a foolish or unrealistic way but in a way that creates hope and some level of confidence among the people. A second need is for a clear and determined policy not to yield to violence. Over and over in Northern Ireland the men of violence tried to destroy the peace process. At times they nearly succeeded. That means there must be an endless supply of patience and perseverance. No matter how severe, no matter how frequent the setbacks, how bleak the outlook, the search for peace must continue. Seeking an end to conflict is not for the timid or for the tentative. It takes courage, perseverance and steady nerves in the face of often horrific violence. I believe it's a mistake to say in advance that if acts of violence occur negotiations will end. That's an invitation to those who use violence to destroy the process and it transfers control of the agenda from the peaceful majority to the violent minority. A third need so obvious is that there must be some willingness to compromise. Peace and political stability simply cannot be achieved in sharply divided societies unless there is a genuine willingness on both sides to understand the other point of view and to enter into principled compromise. That's very easy to say. It's very hard to do because it requires of political leaders that they take risks for peace. One of the extraordinary facts of human history is that individuals and whole societies take the most extreme risks in time of war. But rarely will leaders or societies take risks for peace. And so political leaders must be asked to take risks and they must respond if there is to be hope. I know it can be done because I saw it first hand in Northern Ireland. Men and women, some of whom had never before met, never before spoken, who had spent their entire lives of conflict against each other came together ultimately in an agreement for peace. It was long and difficult, but it did happen. And if it happened there, it can happen elsewhere. The fourth principle, again, so obvious is that we must recognize that the implementation of agreements is just as important and usually more difficult than reaching an agreement. That should be self-evident. But often just getting an agreement is so difficult. It takes so long and so much effort that there's a natural human tendency to celebrate than to turn to other pressing problems. But getting it done is harder than getting agreement to do it. And once again, patience and perseverance are necessary. It is especially important that we Americans busy at home and all across the world not be distracted or become complacent by the good feeling created by an interim success or even by a highly publicized agreement. There's a final point to me that I think so important that I bring up every time I speak publicly on this subject and it extends beyond open conflict. Although it was 15 years ago, I recall so clearly my first day in Northern Ireland as though it were yesterday. I saw for the first time the huge wall which physically separates the two communities in Belfast. 30 feet high, topped in places with barbed wire.  Ironically, it's called the peace line. On that first morning, I met with Catholics on their side of the wall in the afternoon with Protestants on their side. Their messages had not been coordinated, but to my surprise, they were the same. In Belfast, they told me there was a high correlation between unemployment and violence. They said that where men and women have no opportunity and no hope, they are more likely to take the path of violence. As I sat and listened to them, I thought that I could just as easily be almost anywhere on earth. Despair is fuel for instability and for conflict everywhere. Hope is essential to peace and to stability. Men and women everywhere need income to support their families and they need the satisfaction of doing something meaningful with their lives. Now, the conflict in Northern Ireland was obviously not exclusively or even primarily economic. So I don't want to suggest that these conflicts are exclusively or even primarily, or even to a large degree, dominated by economic considerations. It is an undercurrent. As in the Middle East, so in Northern Ireland, it involved religion, national identity, territorial competition, highly emotional issues. In Northern Ireland, the conflict exacted a terrible price, paid mostly as it almost always is by thousands of innocent people. Just a few months after the agreement was reached, a large bomb shattered the calm of a warm summer afternoon in the small town of Oma. Many dozens were killed. Many hundreds were grievously horribly maimed. Amidst the death and destruction there was laid bare the utter senselessness of trying to solve the problems of Northern Ireland by violence. It didn't work and it only made things worse. Two weeks later, I accompanied Prime Minister Blair and President Clinton to Oma, where we met with the survivors and with the relatives of the dead. Among them were two young people with whom I spoke and who I will never forget. Claire Gallagher was 15 years old, tall and lovely, an aspiring concert pianist. She lost both of her eyes. As we sat and spoke, she looked out, could see nothing.  She was an exemplar of grace and courage. Michael Monahan was 33 years old. He lost his wife, who was pregnant, their 18-month-old daughter and his wife's mother. Three generations of women wiped out in a single senseless moment. And yet, despite their terrible and irreparable loss, both Claire and Michael did not speak to me about themselves. They spoke about others and they urged me to keep the peace process going forward. Their courage and their determination are permanently etched in my memory. And in fact, it was the two of them that I thought of when Secretary of State Clinton and President Obama asked me to serve as the U.S. Special Envoy for Peace in the Middle East. Even before I was asked to serve, I knew it would be very difficult. In December of 2008, when I did not know that I would serve in this position, I spoke at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. There I was asked about Northern Ireland and in reply, I noted that the peace agreement there came 800 years after Britain began its domination of Ireland. Later, an elderly gentleman came up to me and said in a very loud voice, did you say 800 years? I said, yes, 800. He repeated the number much louder. I repeated again. Then he said with a wave of his ah, such a recent argument. No wonder you got it settled. Well, only in the Middle East is 800 years ago recent. And it is true that the circumstances there are very different than they were in Northern Ireland, as I earlier said. But even in the Middle East, I believe conflict can be ended. There are, of course, many, many reasons to be skeptical about the prospect for success and most people are. The conflict is so complex. It has gone on for so long. It has had such destructive effects. The level of mistrust and hostility is so high that many, perhaps a majority there and here have come to regard it as unsolvable. But we can't succumb to that view because the pursuit of peace is so important, it demands our maximum effort, no matter the difficulties, no matter the disappointments, no matter the setbacks. The key is the mutual commitment of the parties and the active participation of the United States government led by the President and the Secretary of State with the support and assistance of the many other governments and institutions who want to help. Of course, this is not a new American objective. President Bush said in 2008, and I quote, the point of departure for permanent status negotiations to realize this vision is clear. There should be an end to the occupation that began in 1967. The agreement must establish Palestine as a homeland for the Palestinian people just as Israel is a homeland for the Jewish people. These negotiations must ensure that Israel has secure, recognized, and defensible borders. And they must ensure that the state of Palestine is viable, contiguous, sovereign, and independent. It is vital that each side understands that satisfying the other's fundamental objectives is key to a successful agreement. Security for Israel and viability for the Palestinian state are in the mutual interest of both parties. That is an accurate and effective statement of what American policy is and has been. President Obama publicly reaffirmed our policy on taking office, and he has broadened it to seek a comprehensive piece, which also includes Israel and Syria, Israel and Lebanon, and normal relations between Israel and all the Arab nations in the region. The President moves swiftly to place these objectives high on our nation's list of priorities. In the spirit of Dean Atchison, our approach to peace focuses on economic and institutional development as well. When the President began his administration just over a year ago, it seemed that the culture of peace, which had been so carefully nurtured during the Oslo process, had unfortunately largely dissipated, replaced by a sense of futility, of despair, of the inevitability of conflict. The war in Gaza had just ended. The Palestinians were deeply divided. The uncertainty of Israeli elections lay ahead, and few people believed that there was any chance for restarting negotiations, let alone achieving a peaceful end of the conflict. And yet, limited as it is, there has been some progress. First, a right of Senate government in Israel has endorsed the creation of a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza as the way to resolve the conflict. Second, Israel has frozen new housing construction starts in the West Bank for 10 months. Third, the Palestinian authority is aggressively working to prevent violent attacks against Israel based on its publicly stated belief that violence does not advance the Palestinian cause. Fourth, there has been substantial and continuing improvement in security, in law and order, and in economic development on the West Bank. This is the result of an effort to build from the bottom up the capacity to function effectively as a state from the moment of establishment. This involves extensive cooperation between Israel and the Palestinian authority, with strong support from the United States, the European, the United Nations, and other of our lives. Fifth, in circumstances that are very difficult for both Israel and the Palestinian authority are working to combat incitement and to refrain from taking actions that are provocative and that undermine further trust and confidence. Sixth, the Arab League has expressed its support for the negotiations. As a result, the Arab states have an important interest in a positive outcome and they can play an important role in achieving it. And seventh and finally, we have consequently begun proximity talks with Israeli and Palestinian leaders in an environment that is more constructive than has existed in the immediate past. The proximity talks are serious and wide ranging with both sides trying to move forward under very difficult circumstances. We commend their efforts. We will do everything possible to help the parties move as soon as possible into direct negotiations that will result in a two-state solution. Now I recognize of course that I could just as easily draw up a list of the many issues that remain unresolved of the huge obstacles to resolving them of the long litany of past efforts that did not succeed. So we are realistic about the difficulties but because peace in the Middle East is so much in the interest of the people in the region and in our national interest we must and we will continue our efforts. We know that we cannot impose a solution. It's up to the parties themselves to negotiate directly and to ultimately resolve this conflict with our active and sustained support and participation. This will require of them compromise, flexibility, and most of all it will require leadership. We believe that Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Abbas can be the leaders who finally deliver peace to their people. Peacemaking requires bold action because we know from bitter experience that there are many enemies of the process who will resort to violence in an attempt to prevent progress and to undermine those who seek a peaceful and more prosperous future for the region's people. We must strengthen the hand of moderates. The United States is committed to being an active partner every step of the way standing by those who are willing to take risks for peace. As Secretary Clinton said on March 9th this is about getting to the table creating and protecting an atmosphere of trust around it and staying there until the job is finally done. I know there's much history to overcome but there also was a lot of history in Northern Ireland and it was overcome. The conflicts are far from identical but they were both created by human beings and human beings can solve them. Dean Atchison once said history only comes one day at a time so must we take it now one day at a time and most of them difficult days but persistent effort on all sides despite the centuries of pain and mistrust can move history in the direction of peace and security. In fact when one looks back over the decades since the Six-Day War we can see that the road already traveled is much longer than the distance we still have to go. Peace between Israel and Egypt and between Israel and Jordan has paved the way. Now the Arab states have committed to end the conflict and normalize relations with Israel too. All sides have endorsed the two state solution and all sides know what the solution more or less looks like. The task now before us is to reconcile the Palestinian goal of an independent and viable state based on the 1967 lines with agreed swaps and the Israeli goal of a Jewish state with secure and recognized borders that reflect subsequent developments and meet Israeli security requirements. This should not be beyond the abilities of political leaders if they have the will to do it. The situation remains volatile complex and dangerous but it is not hopeless. We face the daunting challenge of rebuilding trust not only between the political leaders but also between the Israeli and Palestinian people. But peace requires that we find a way to renew their hope and to instill the belief that the tragedies of the past need not determine the opportunities of the future. The President and the Secretary of State have made it clear that hardships and difficulties cannot and will not cause the United States to turn away. We will persevere and we will work to see that peace does prevail. Thank you very much for having me I'd like to close just to say a few words about George. We those of us who live in Washington know we live in a deeply insincere city and we frequently visit offices of people who are important or were important or who think they're important and when you go to these offices there are often pictures of politicians memorializing meaningless friendships or awards commemorating meaningless accomplishments. When I went to see George in his office in New York I was struck how different it was. There were some sketches of Maine and there were some pictures of his family there was very very little political memorabilia but there was one thing on the wall which really moved me deeply in its utter simplicity in the power of the statement. It was a proclamation of the Irish Doyle, their parliament. It said very simply to George Mitchell, a hero of Ireland and I would just say that Dean Atchison was a giant in his time and George Mitchell is a giant in ours.