Good morning. You may remember we have been talking about word formation processes and today we will have the last session of this module. We have said that in all languages of the world, we have processes using which we make new words. New words can be made in at least either of the two ways. Either you put two existing words together and make a third word or you put a word plus part of another word and you make a new word. Say for instance, look at the examples. You have class which can mean more than one thing, what are the meanings of the word class? Class is a place where teaching occurs. Class is a group of students. Class is a group of people with particular level of economic standard but when you add room to it, it has now only one meaning.  What we have done here is we have taken two existing words and made a third word out of it. In all languages of the world, we have this process. There is a second process. We can take one word and part of another word. Say for example, you can have drive and you can add a part of another word and you get a new word which is driver or you can have one word, add something else. What we have done in A is two independent words coming together but in B, we have word plus part of a word. We have part of a word plus word and we get a new word. These are some of the basic word formation processes in all languages of the world and we have been talking about it for some time. I also told you if you may remember that these things are called affixes. This is word plus affix. This is affix plus word. In the first case, we have word plus affix. In the second case, we have affix plus word. You may remember I also told you that we have three kinds of affixes. We have prefix. Can you give me an example of prefix from English? Say for example, in this case, on is a prefix for do. Can you give me another example of a prefix? Sorry? Yes, please? Yeah, redo, undo, mis-deed. These are all prefix, legal, illegal. Similarly, we can have suffix, something that comes at the end. Say in this case, drive plus e r plus e r, this e r is a suffix. Can you give me another example of suffix?  We can have a third kind in fix, not attested generally in many Indian languages, but it is there in many South Asian languages. I give you examples from a language from Philippines.  As far as the linguistic theory is concerned, the fact remains that we can make new words in either of the two ways. Either we put two existing words together and we get a third word, or we put a word plus part of another word. This part of another word is known as affix. Affixes can be of three kinds, prefix, infix, suffix. Very simple so far, but the problem arises and this is where, you know, we like to talk today and I like to close. Then I will expect that some of you take these problems for research, create computer algorithms which can generate and recognize words and do a lot of other engineering or a lot of other, you know, knowledge building systems. The problem is here, the question here is, if you have both of them coming, let us say, you have danger, you have end danger, you have ING. Suppose you have something like end dangering. Now, you have both a prefix, a suffix, a suffix, which of the two would come first? You may remember, I told you that there can be different kinds of affixation, different kinds of steps in word formation. There are free and bound morphemes. You may remember, I told you that in linguistics, we do not recognize words. It is difficult to define. So, we say that a unit larger than syllable, but a unit smaller than sentence or phrase is morpheme. There can be two kinds, free morpheme, just a cat, but bound morpheme, s. So, you can say cats. You can have free morpheme, you have bound morpheme. For example, this is free. It can occur without anything, but this cannot occur without anything. This plural indicator in English requires something else. So, we have different kinds of morphemes, free morpheme, bound morpheme. We have inflectional and derivational. You see, danger, it is a noun, but when you say end danger, you make it a verb. When you say end dangering, it is still a verb, it is still a verb with an inflection with a sign indicating that you are talking about something in progress. We are endangering the ecosystem. We were endangering the ecosystem. The question here arises, when you have all of this, what comes first? What will your machine, what process will be queued up first and what will come up next? Similarly, when you have, you know, you may remember I spoke about category retaining and category changing morphemes. So, when you say cat plus s, it is still a noun. This was a noun. You add s, you add this is still a noun. But when you say cat plus y, then, you know, you are getting an this was a noun. Now, this becomes an adjective, cat, c, a, t, t, y. This becomes an adjective. So, there is category changing. This is category retaining. Noun remains a noun, but noun becomes an adjective. In this case, this was a verb, but now this is, please complete the sentence. This was a verb, drive, but when you added a, what is it, what is it now? Noun. It was a verb, but you added this and now it is a noun. But in this case, this was a verb. You added unto it. What is it now? This is still a verb. So, this is category changing, but this is category retaining. The point is, there are all of these variations in word building. Is there an order? Is it that x happens before y? Is it that a happens before b? Is it that b happens before c? That is a question. You know, look at examples like connect and disconnect. If you want to make a past tense of disconnect, what do you say? You add an ed and you get disconnected. The question would arise, should we first add ed and then add this? Suppose you have to get a past tense of the word disconnected. Sorry, disconnect. Then what do you do? Do you first add ed or do you first add dis? What is your opinion? The answer is, we do not know. These are empirical questions depending on statistics, depending on data. Let us look at how words behave in any given language. Let us therefore also look at universal patterns, universal trends. Is there any particular tendency that languages of the world follow? That is the question where we should look at. I will give you some examples. Let us first do this. Changing category. You might remember we did this exercise. Take out your pen and paper, please. Do not look at all the words beyond the first column. First column, you have the first word, account or accountant. What is the verb of accountant? Do not look at the table. Write it on your notebook quickly. What is the verb of accountant? I am just revising it, trying to refresh your memory before I raise questions. Many of these questions have no definite answers, but it is important that we understand these questions. What is the verb of accountant? Account. What is the verb of reality? Realize. What is the adjective of reality? That is known. Realization is known. Or if doubt is a noun, what is its adjective? Doubtful, dubious. Dubious will be an adjective. If friend is a noun, what is the verb of friend? Because if friend is a friend, yes. What is the adverb of friend? Adverb. Friendly. You know. In all of these cases what we are doing is we are changing category. I am going to give you a test and you will have this kind of test also at the examination and from your mother tongue. Okay. Not from English. So please be careful. Do this table. Look at your watch. I am going to give you 120 seconds. No more. Please. Complete the table in English. Check. If you have any differences, please tell me. If you made any mistakes, if you had any differences, please tell me. Okay. Let's do something different. Come back to the earlier table. We can do this kind of thing in any language because it happens in any language. Say for instance in Telugu, what is the Telugu word for person and what is the Telugu word for personal? Correct. Can you do the entire, what is the verb form of? Think. You see, the answer is there in your head. The answer is there in your mind. All you have to do is to pull it out. Okay. Look at another word.  What is the Telugu word for argue? What is the Hindi word for argue? Anyone who speaks Hindi in the class? Okay. What is the Hindi word for argue? Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. What will be the noun of Bahas Karna? Bahas What will be the adjective of Bahas Karna or Bahas? Bahasi. Bahasi. I am a Bahasi guy. I don't work. It doesn't work. Only argue. You know, Umar Chhen has that book. Have you heard of that book? Argumentative Indian. Okay. In all of our languages, we have these things. Okay. What is the The Telugu word for large, Peda, can we get a noun out of Peda? Can we get an adjective, large itself is an adjective. Can we get a verb out of large? That is English. Thank you. But can we get it in Telugu? A lot of Indian languages use Sanskrit here and they say Vistari Karan. Expansion, enlarging, sorry. I want you to look at these possibilities. You see, can I draw your attention out of these things into the theoretical question? Imagine a country like India is speaking 1700 different languages, at least according to government of India. There may be more. If at all we are able to create a machine, an algorithm which translates you from Telugu to Kannada so you can speak on phone in Telugu and your customer listens to you in Kannada. Imagine the efficiency, increase in efficiency. Radio broadcast alone will save crores of rupees. Entire batch of beta can be employed with fancy salaries creating that engine alone. The amount of saving that will happen only from radio broadcasts if you are able to create an engine which can automatically translate some of these things. And there are great similarities in all among lots of Indian languages because we all draw from Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English. We have some local affixation, some local inflections. If one of us can do this, he will not only get Bharat Ratna, but he will also do a lot of other interesting things. Do you see the point? Are you with me? Please, yes or no? Last mention. Are you also in the class? Last mention. Okay, thanks. I thought I had a different feeling. Okay, so please, let us do something with Indian languages. Okay, does it happen only in English? No. It happens in all languages. Say for example, look at some category retaining prefixes. Say for example, in Sanskrit which we use in many Indian languages. In Hindi, for instance, you have touchable. But when you add a, it becomes untouchable. So that is touchable. Similarly, if you add a, what does it become? Athiti. Guest. They are still. Tithi was noun. Athiti is noun. These are category retaining suffixes. Can you give me one example from Telugu? Using a suffix a, where noun remains a noun, I will give you 30 seconds. Ah, chetanam, achetanam. Lovely. Anything. You have lots of suffixation in our languages. Prefixation in our languages. You can say gamman, you can say agaman. Okay? Come on, please. Everybody please. Close your eyes, think for 30 seconds and give me some. Not me. Lots of them. Karm, akarm, karmar, chal, achal. How do you say Telugu? Achalamu. Okay? Come on. Up, up, kar, up, kar, up, kar, prahar, har, har is garland, haramu. And then praharamu is, you know, what Chansekarati has done to congress.  Anybody? Ah, correct? Yes. Somebody please. Any other example? I will have to hire Telugu tutors for you. Nyayam or nyayam. Okay? So it is still, you know, category retaining. It doesn't, you know, change. I have given you examples. Moda, enjoyment. Amod, special enjoyment. Gamman is departure, but agaman is arrival in airports. You see this. Man is respect, but apaman is disrespect. Sampadak, and what is the assistant editor in Telugu? Opa Sampadaku or Sahayak, Sampadakamu. Okay? But you can also have Sampadak or say, forget these things, category retaining suffixes like Chhatra, Chhatra, Lekhak, Lekhika, etc., Avneta, Avnetri. You can also have category changing suffixes. Barah in Hindi is big. How do you get known out of that? Barahi. Can we have similar thing in Telugu? Peddha, Peddahi. Peddadi. You see, these are the word formation processes. This is the how native sources, sorry, native resources of language are used by users to get new words out of them. Similarly, in Hindi, you know, very common. Before you marry the girl you want to see, the entire family goes to torture the poor thing. So, dikh and dikhai. Okay? Or chalana, drive. What is the noun out of that? Chalak. Do we get something in Telugu like that? What is the word for drive in Telugu? And driver? Sundar in Telugu. Beautiful in Telugu. And beauty. Okay, and beautiful? Okay, agli, korupamu. And agli, korupamu. Agliness. In Hindi we say korup, korupata. Okay? Right. So, the question arises when you have, are we together? Can I have your attention please? Okay? The question is what kind of affixation do you have first? Do you have inflection before derivation? Do you make a new word? Then you add plural, singular, gender or tense or things like that. What do you do first? Given, say for example, in this word, look at the word before you. Encouragement. There are three parts. There is a prefix. What is the prefix here? Please, what is the prefix here? N. What is the suffix here? Ment. What is the stem? What is the root word? Courage. Now to this root word courage, what can first? N or ment? What is your answer? Okay? Because you have word like encourage, but you do not have word like encouragement. Fair enough, but look at the next word. You have a word like deodorant. You know the meaning of the word deodorant. Right? If you don't, please look up your dictionary when you go back to your room today. Right? Now this also has three parts. What are the parts? What is the prefix here? D. And what is the suffix here? Ment. And what is the root here? Order. Now what came here first? Can you say we had deodorant like we had encourage? Yes or no? Please say something. No, because we don't have a word like deodorant, but we have a word like orderant. So in this case we will say we had orderant, then we added D and we got a deodorant. We will worry about the answer later. Let us first look at the question. The question is, is there an order in natural languages which the follow when confronted with, when faced with a choice of more than one affix? What is the question? Can you repeat the question to me please? What is the question? Two natural languages follow an order when they have more than one affix. We cannot look at all the dimensions of the questions. I am just going to look at inflection and derivation. What is inflection? When you say number gender person case, when you say Chhatra Chhatra, when you say Wah Jata Hai Wah Jati Hai, he goes, she goes.  You make a new word. Look at the examples. In English imagine you have these three things you have apple and cart and S plural. Where would you put this plural? Would you add it to apple or to cart? You would add it to cart, not to apple. You do not say apple's cart. Do you see that? Imagine you have bullock and cart and S. Would you add it to bullock or to cart? Cart. So it shows that first we do derivations first we make a new word and then we add S or DD or ED or whatever. So for example, pigeon holds. Can we say pigeon's hold? We can, but we do not. It is pigeon, then hold, then S. Similarly, engine driver. Imagine there are too many engine drivers. Shall we say engines driver? We say engine drivers. Even when there are too many engines and too many drivers, we say engine drivers. We do not say engines driver. In other words, derivational process, new word making process happens first. Then syntactic processes like making similar plural present past happen. There always are some exceptions. In English for instance, son-in-law. What is the plural? No, it is not son-in-laws. So imagine you know somebody has three daughters and he has three sons-in-law. He does not have three son-in-laws. He has three sons-in-law. Imagine somebody has four sons. So how many daughters-in-law? Four daughters in law at least. Similarly, you know group males, match point, look at the word personalities. How many particles are there? You have person, you have L, you have ET, and then you have S. Shall we say in the beginning, person-sality? You know, a priori there is nothing wrong. There is no rule in the constitution of India or in the Indian penal code that you should not. But natural languages for the same reason, there is no rule in the constitution of India or in the Indian penal code that you should not. But natural languages for the sake of cost and efficiency, prefer one kind of affixation to happen first. So derivations all take go together. You do personality and then you add one tiny bit, plural. So personalities, film personalities, sports personalities, etc. It happens not only with noun, also with verb. You make a new verb and then you add a tense marker. Say for example, you have a word like dehydrated. You know in malls, super malls these days, God bless them. You have dehydrated P's, dehydrated X, dehydrated Y actually. Now in this dehydrated, do you think we first say it hydrated and then we add a D? If you follow this principle, then we will say it was dehydrated, then we added past tense to it. Similarly downloaded. Did we say loaded and then we added down? Or did we say download and then we added ED? This principle would say that first have download and then add ED and get downloaded. The point once again is you are doing derivation before you are doing inflection. Please write. derivation before inflection. Do all the derivations no matter how long the word is. It may be personalities. It may be dangerously. It may be endangeringly but all the derivations will happen first. Only then you know whatever encroachments. So you do first encroachment then you add a simple S. It seems natural languages, exceptions apart, prefer one kind of word formation. First you have to get a new word. Once you get a new word, then you find syntactic operations like S, ED, ES, etc. are added. Look at some Indian language. I give you some examples from English you can ignore. You say business and man. We could have said business is man. But do we say that? We say business men, business women. We could have say forests guard but we don't say that. Similarly Americanized. We could have said Americanized. We don't do that. We do one kind of process first and then we add ED. Then we add S. So verb or noun derivation first and complete the sentence inflection next or last. Lovely. Let's come to Indian languages.  Your son. So what shows gender in Hindi? In Telugu you don't have that problem. In monthly that I speak, we don't have that problem. So you will find that all of these things happen after the word is derived. Say for example look at this Hindi word for astonishing. What is the Hindi word for astonishing? Chokane wali baat. So first we will say chokane. Then we bring wala, a wala and either say a or e depending upon whether it is chokane wala ladka. This ladka to fail karne wala tha. But in JEE mark it has passed. The teachers thrashed him so much that he got through the JEE. It's chokane wali baat. It's astonishing baat. So chokane wala ladka or chokane wali ladki. R or e comes only at the DC the point. Yes or no please? I feel nervous when you don't join me. It comes at the end. You can say chokane wali, daraane wali, dekhne wali, dekhne wali, tange wala, gore wala. Do you have similar things in Telugu? Too many. Too many astonishing boys. How would you say that in Telugu? Too many astonishing boys. Too many frightening dreams. How would you say that in Telugu? So the too many part will come at the end. You will add it to the dream. What is the Telugu word for dream? And plural of dream? Once again it comes. But you see this is the problem with the theory and this is the answer. In all languages of the world you cannot expect it at the end. There is also infix. In some languages this happens at the infix. But for your algorithm it doesn't make a difference. You can tell your computer, computer, computer please do all the derivation first and then put this inflection at the designated spot. That designated spot can be in the beginning. In Arabic it can be in the beginning. Al fatah, all the victories. In many Indo-Aryan languages including Persian it can be at the end. In Persian Farik is partner and many other languages many partners is Farikan. You can add an at the end. Or in some African, in Philippino east south station languages it can be in the middle. So it doesn't matter for algorithm your algorithm will still be safe. Derivations first inflection next. Second step will be inflected particle would occur in the designated spot. Designated spot are fixed. They are either A which is prefix or B which is infix or C which is suffix. You get a very smart algorithm out of that. Look at order of affixation here in Hindi. Gauri wale, Mahila dubbe, ladies compartment. So plural compartments in Hindi can be shown by A. Dubbe more than one. But dubbe is more than one. It comes at the end. Mahila dubbe, ladies compartment. How would you say that in Telugu? Somebody speaks Malayalam here. Tamil. How would you say that in Telugu? Ladies compartments. You know you just try this. On the bus seats. But if you have to say the compartments, come on make a word. Imagine you are the new manager of Hyderabad Telangana metro rail which goes from Hyderabad to Varangal free. That will be a sensible thing to do. But politicians don't do that. So what would you do? What is the compartment for Telugu for? Compartment. Okay. You look at the examples from Hindi. Hindi. Here. Sheela lekhon. Stone engravings. Okay. Samachar patron. We do not just Samachar on patron. We could have said that. We could have made plural out of news. But we don't do that. We say Samachar patron a, a si aff wa fa lai. Newspapers spread this rumor. Okay. Chaatron chaatron. Okay. So first we have got chaatron. And then we say aon. Ladies. And then plural. Feminine gender. And plural. Daulat mando. Akl mando. Even in Urdu. Okay. I think we should stop here. It's almost time. Even in the verb. You know. When you have emphatic. Only, you know, Hindi has three kinds of things. Khana, khilana, khilvana. And fourth kind is emphatic. Khalia.  Did you eat twice? Did you eat third time? Then the boy is irritated and says khalia. So khalia, once again, lena comes to khana. But past tense, feminine gender, whatever will be shown, will be shown at the end. Okay. Look at all the examples. I have given you there. Khalena, khiladia, kho gaya, bhag gaya, kahdia, kahdali, margayi, margaya, whatever. Okay. Let's close. Can I?  Okay. Showing the order of affixation. Can you do that? And mail it to me using phonetic transcription. Please. This is anyway going to be a part of your end semester examination. Do the practice now. Show it to me. Okay. I just want ten words. But ten derived words where derivation comes first, inflection comes next, both nouns and verbs. Please give it to me before the end of this week. Okay. Beginning tomorrow, we will be talking about variations in natural languages, how languages vary according to place, people, class, caste, etc., etc. Thank you. Have a good day.