This morning. I want to talk about something that might seem a little silly on the surface But actually does serve a point because Super Mario 3d all-stars is a unique game in a couple of ways And one of those is that it's a limited release and because it's a limited release It makes the physical copy of the game extremely collectible I've actually heard from many of you guys That you guys bought a physical copy, but then bought it digitally to play There are some people who actually just bought it physically just to keep it sealed just as a collector's item Didn't even care about playing the games since they just happened to be essentially the same games from a childhood with you know Some tweaks for controls and yeah HD is nice, but maybe not enough for some people to care They just wanted it as a collectible well one thing about it being a collectible and This is one of the weird things out there is There's some issues with the way the cartridge itself is presented In one region versus another but before we get into that I want to remind you that we do have two giveaways going on right now One is for three copies of Super Mario 3d all-stars and the other one is for a switchlight and two switch games of choice Can be any game on switch To you know get those go down in the description. You'll figure out how to enter. Good luck winners are announced October 1st. Alright, so How this works is there's essentially the North American version and the PAL version There's actually versions all over the world, but the reason we're focusing on this is because the PAL version Or Hong Kong or whatever you want to call it the version that they have is Not only titled differently and maybe in a way that would create less controversy. It's a nicer looking cartridge So you're seeing on screen right now This tweet by Daniel Ahmed blown up and you'll see on the right is what it looks like in North America So that is the Super Mario 3d all-star North America with the ESRB rating on on the left You see what other regions are getting by the way calling it a collection and not all stars And you'll see it does not have a rating on it and it makes it for a much cleaner looking switch game now To be fair to the kind of hack job It seems is happening on the North American one all switch games in North America have the ESRB rating on The cartridge in that same location at the same size It seems to be a standard required thing by the ESRB to do And it had to be at a size that's legible and so that is what it is now There's some things Nintendo could have did design wise to still make this look nicer They could have taken the Super Mario 3d all-stars logo shrunk it a bit and then put it above the ESRB And center it and then maybe put additional information along the side if they really wanted, you know like as an example You know, I'm looking at the spider reignited One right now. Maybe I'll show it on screen. They got the the logo up there And then they have a Activision next to it just like there's Nintendo there and then they have some other SQ numbers and a copy right and all that Nintendo could have did that filled in the space a little bit made it look a little bit nicer Even if the logo might have been a little tiny But they didn't do that and obviously, you know This whole giant logo in other countries is a little bit harder to do in North America Just because of the ESRB requirement to have that on the cartridge and on the box Now I think it's a little ridiculous you have to have it on the cartridge and the box But remember because it's a physical thing that can be resold and can be resold without the box The ESRB rating has to legally be there now It would be nice to see maybe a different implementation of that ESRB rating Maybe, you know on the back of the cartridge or something But then again, there's also information on the back of these cartridges as well for manufacturing So it's kind of a sticky situation to try to make this look better The reason this to become controversial though is isn't because it matters if you just bought the games to play the games Most people don't even look at their cartridge art to care But people care about this in particular because it's a collectible now Obviously if you're leaving your copy sealed and that's how you're gonna collect it Okay, like what's the what's the cartridge art matter at that point? You're never gonna see it It's gonna it's a sealed copy the value to you is in holding that sealed copy But for some people they bought the physical version to play it But also because it's collectible think of it like amiibo people buy amiibo some leave them in the box Some take them out of the box, but still collect them, right? So it's still collectible to them personally It's just a collector's item that they don't care about maintaining the maximum value on that collection item Leaving anything sealed maintains the maximum value on a collector's item But some people like to display them some people like to play with and use their collector's items But still kind of keep them around many many years down the road like being able to go back and look at their Collector's item a decade from out two decades from now and reminisce about it or just have it in you know on their shelf somewhere And and for people like that that would be looking at the cartridge as part of the collectability of it It is a little you know fugly I don't know if Nintendo was even thinking about this when they made the Super Mario 3D all-stars logo it could have been altered by the way I feel like there's a way they could have altered the logo to make it fit better on On the cartridge because you know maybe instead of going with that round design They could have flattened it out a little bit You know what I'm basically saying is have Super Mario and then 3d put next to Super Mario You know and then just bump the Super Mario 3d text down into the circle a bit more and then all of a sudden It's a much wider perspective and then easier to put above the ESRB logo and keep the same font sizes and still have it Legible again This is just stuff Nintendo could have done to make it just a little better Looking for collectors and again this normally doesn't matter We don't talk about switch cartridges beyond I guess what when the switch launched and we talked about how nasty the cartridges taste And you know that this was part of a safety choking hazard thing was actually originally Why this coating was applied to switch cartridges? Because Nintendo was afraid of you know with the switch blowing up and these cartridges being smaller Even the DS or 3ds cartridges that children might put it in their mouth So the hope is by putting an agent on there that tastes gross It's not toxic, but it tastes gross that it would deter children from chewing on it and and Swallowing and having a choking hazard and I think we all can agree the taste of it Isn't very good and if a baby stuck one of these cartridges in their mouth They are highly likely to spit it out and not want anything to do with it I'm not gonna test that on the baby because it's a little cruel and unusual punishment But it's an extreme situation where Nintendo was looking out because these cartridges are so small and could You know, they're just about the right size for someone to attempt to swallow one So that's like the only time we've really ever talked about the cartridges We rarely talk about the art on the cartridges or anything because it ends up not matter We'll talk about box art once in a while if it's really really weird box art I didn't talk about this but like the FIFA the new FIFA box art, you know, and how like it looks like someone just made it an MS paint It's really embarrassingly bad Like well that those kind of tapas come up once in a while, but we don't really talk about cartridges like that But this is a collector's item cartridge a collector's item cartridge that many people are going to see and or collect on the line, you know and and Literally want in their collection and keep in their collection if you're to resell any other switch game There's going to be limited physical copies of this if Nintendo sticks to their guns and they don't release any more physical copies after March 31st Of 20 21. Yeah, there's going to be a limited amount of these out there and they're you know People are going to care about this people are gonna One thing this does do by the way is it technically makes It even more collectible because now you're going to want to get another cart from a different region that has the different art on The cartridge because that's going to create a different value for that down the road So if you know anything about collecting there's different art versions different cartridges like if you if you collect like, you know the collector's version of the golden cartridge version of ocarina of time and Majora's Master's actually multiple versions of it in different regions that have slightly different things in it Like there's a bug in one of the cartridge versions of Majora's Mask that one of the gold cartridge versions I actually own that one That causes your save file to wipe out if you save a certain owl statue in one of the dungeons That that glitch does not exist in other versions of the collection Of the gold cartridge collection versions So like, you know if you get both versions because both versions will have different values And that's what's going to happen here is that the shrunk down art is likely you're going to have more or less value than One of the blown up art ones that you see so it's again a very minor thing in the grand scheme of things But it's also, you know Feels like this is Nintendo It feels like they could have found a better way or a better way to remake that logo on the North American one to make It look a little nicer with the required ESRB rating and I know some people say just shrink the ESRB rating But it's probably a legal thing. They probably can't it. That's probably as small as they're allowed to go on these cartridges. So Anyways You guys let me know what you think about this. Do you even care? I'm guessing most of you do not care You know that you've just bought it to play it and you're not really caring about the collector's value Okay But I know physical has been a big demand for this game in comparison to pretty much any other game released on switch Because of the limited run which makes it more collectible So even if you're not going to leave it sealed people want to collect it So is this something you care about as a collector about having better-looking art on your cartridge? especially when I mean Nintendo There's already criticism of this game being lazy and this looks like a very very lazy I'm just gonna shrink it and slap it to the right thing And I know I do that with some of my my thumbnails and all that but there's a purpose to it There doesn't really seem to be a purpose here other than we didn't want to rework the logo to make it work better on a North American cartridge Anyways, you guys are look better. I guess in this case I know such a minor thing but these minor things matter when you're talking about a collector's item All right, it's all I got for you guys. Thank you so much for tuning in and I'll catch you in the next video


Welcome back to the NPTEL lecture series on analgesiology. So, we are in section 6, where we are essentially dealing with the blood cells, immunity and clotting. So, I give you an introduction by introducing the topic with red blood cells. Then, we talked about the clotting factors involving platelets. Then, we talked about how these different blood cells, the red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets are originated. What are the different components of blood in terms of plasma? Plasma component, which is the fluidic component with suspended proteins, electrolytes, organic molecules, organic waste, which the blood collects all the time and dump it out. Then, we talked about the formed element in the form of the different cell types, which are present there. In the case of the genesis of the blood cells, we talked about how from the stem cells, there are two sets of cells, which are the myeloid origin and the lymphoid origin. From the lymphoid root, it leads to the formation of the lymphocytes, which are one of the white blood cells. In the myeloid tract, it leads to the formation of RBCs, platelets from mega karyocytes, the breaking down of the mega karyocytes or the fragmentation of the mega karyocytes. Then, we talked about the formation of neutrophil, which is a white blood cell. Monocyte, basophil, eosinophil. So, these different names of white blood cells, what they got, eosinophil, basophil, neutrophil, how they got all these names. Today, what we will do? We will talk about the white blood cells. Once we have done with the white blood cells, our next objective will be to understand about the blood grouping, how the blood grouping takes place and what are the influence of blood grouping. In between, we will talk little bit after once we finish the white blood cells. We will talk about the different forms of immunity. That is all we will be covering in that part. We will not go in depth with immunity, because that is outside the purview of this course. So, we will just touch upon the base. Restive people can really, if anyone of you is interested, I can suggest some of the books through which you can go through those books. That will give you a much detailed study of immunity. So, coming back to the white blood cells, we have already discussed the white blood cells have two sets of origin, myeloid origin and a lymphoid origin. So, cross white blood cells and white blood cells as I told you, I have already shown this layout lymphoid origin and myeloid origin. Within myeloid origin, you have four different types and here you have lymphocytes. I told you that lymphocytes from T cells, from V cells and it from NK cells, which is also called natural killer cells. So, this is natural killer cells. I did not show you in the last, the whole flow chart of the genesis of the blood and specifically with respect to white blood cells. On the myeloid origin, we will be talking about the neutrophils. Neutrophils, eosinophil, basophil, you have monocytes. Typically, if you take one microliter of blood samples, typically you get around 6000, 7000 odd white blood cells, which is distributed among these five different cell types, neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil, lymphocytes likewise. So, what are the functions? First of all, we will talk about what are the different functions of the and what are the different features of these white blood cells. One of the features of these white blood cells, I have already shown you, they are kind of huge size and they are also called polymorphonuclear. Poly means many morphological features nuclear. So, morphologically, they have multiple nucleus. So, whenever you see under the microscope, if you do a smear and you see, essentially they look like more like one second. Save this, they will mostly they will look like this. This is what is meant by polymorphonuclear. Poly, many, morpho, the look morphonuclear. These cells have a very interesting features. You see this huge cell out there. These cells can change their shape. They can show a lot of amyboid kind of women. You have heard about amyba. It is one of the lower organisms. You know, they change their shape, they move through. So, in other word, what happens? It is like, let me give an example.  So, if the vessel size say for example, it is flowing through a vessel of this diameter, then the vessel size goes a smaller. So, they change their shape. They become more like elongated. So, in other word, they have the feature like this. Suppose, say for example, they are traveling through the vessel like this and then the vessel becomes like this. Essentially, they change their shape and they become, their new shape becomes something like this. They will travel. So, they show something called amyboid movement. This is one of their classic feature. They have an amyboidic movement, which could be observed. The second thing, they have the ability to move out of the blood vessels, because if they cannot do so, then they cannot reach the site of, as I have already told you, they are involved in immunity. So, that is the major function. So, for the immune action, suppose say for example, you draw it, that will make a portion. So, for example, you have a blood vessels out here and you have a pathogen sitting out here somewhere, which is significantly distant from the blood vessel. So, what these cells will essentially do is, they will start moving towards it. They will come out of the blood vessel and they will start moving towards it and this movement of course, since they are moving. So, this is where the pathogen or the infection is sitting and these are your WBC streaming to the site of pathogen and here you have the blood vessel, where the blood is flowing. So, they have the tendency to, they have the ability, tendency is the wrong word. They have the ability to come out of the blood vessel and move to the site of infection or site of injury, where they are being needed. So, having said this you have to realize, if they have to come out of the blood vessel, if you remember, while I was showing you the structure of the blood vessel, their form of the endothelial lining.  You remember, I talked about fenestrated capillaries and all those things. So, there is a very little gap out here, very teeny tiny gap from which something can come out. So, for a cell like this, which has to come out through this, it has to change its shape significantly. It may have to take a shape like this before it can come out. So, that is the reason why I highlighted this point, that they have a tendency, they have the ability. So, in other words, if you have to change the shape that much, it means the cytoskeletal protein, which is making the framework of that cell is different from others, because you are squeezing your shape. They are very, very smart cells, they are changing their shape like this took like this, like this elongated, they can pierce through, they can move through. So, these are very, very smart structures, which can modulate their shape based on the situation. And this is one of the hallmark of these cells, second thing. So, say for example, they have to reach to the site. So, here is a white blood cell and it has to reach somewhere out here, here is the pathogen is almost.  They could receive the chemical signal and they have a tendency to a positive or a negative chemotexas. Chemotexas means you are moving towards something in response to a chemical. There is a chemical sitting here and then it is sending out some kind of stimulus, which could be sensed by these cells and they start streaming like this, as if the army gets a signal and then from a GPS they get a signal. There you have to attack and the army started crawling through there to that site. So, this is how they move and this is very, very tightly regulated and this is something amazing, the way they move to the site. And then they could, you know, kind of, you know, imagine and think of a very old city, where there are lot of alleys, lot of roads and through which the army is moving through, something like that, just the way they, you know, crawl through.  If you see the city of Mogadishu and they are moving through all those, you know, curves and crevices of a city, exactly the same way. The white blood cells have the ability to move through and go to the site and capture on to the pathogen and if they fail to do, so we won't be alive. So, this is one of their, so they have this chemotaxis kind of process. They could really crawl through, they could move to the site and they can sit on or they can, you know, surround the location of infection or pathogen whatsoever. So, from here what we will do after explaining this, we will talk about the role of this individual WBCs and why they got this different name, why we called eosinophil, why we called basophil, why we will call neutrophil. So, then genesis and there, then some informative stuff that what is the general number you see. So, whenever you see a blood report, you should be able to, you know, figure out whether eosinophil has gone up or basophil has gone down and whatsoever and so on and so forth. So, now, let us get back to the details of some of the, these different cells. So, we will first start with neutrophil. Neutrophils are bigger than others and basically 50 to 70 percent of the total WBCs of the total WBC is neutrophil. So, these are basically the, if you break this word, this neutro means they are neutral, neither they are acidic or neither they are basic, they are chemically neutral. So, basically you cannot stain them, neither with an acidic dye or a basic dye, why they are dye. So, this is something just slightly of the, I am digressing. So, whenever these dyes works, because most of the, like almost pretty much the whole biology depends on dyes, imaging, you have to imagine. When you see something, you believe it, if you do not see, you will not believe it. So, the biology over the years have evolved, have dependent enormously on imaging, has dependent enormously on different dyes, different fluorophores, different chromophores and everything. So, this chromophores, fluorophore dyes, they work with very simple basic principle. If there is a basic component, the acidic dye will go and bind, if there is acidic component, a basic dye will go and bind or if there is a neutral thing, then you needed a neutral dye. So, since these cells are neutral in nature, they do not, I mean chemically they are kind of neutral, all their. So, it is really tough to stain them with any basic or acidic dye. But, mind it, these are probably the biggest one among all of them and they are in highest number, one second back to the. So, this is basically, they look more like, this if you see, then it will be like. So, this is pretty much how they look like. And they support in different kind of, they have several functions, they are highly mobile, this is one of their feature, they are highly mobile in nature and they are the first one. They are generally the first one to reach the injury site. So, in other word, they are the first one, which basically, reach to the site and the first thing they do, they engulf all the bacteria, they have a tendency to engulf the bacteria inside them, which I was showing you one time, they go to the site like this and if this is the bacteria which is sitting there, which has to engulf.  And they destroy it using different chemical means, I will come to that. So, they do it by sometime by hydrogen peroxide and all those things. So, they secrete, they have granules which secrete hydrogen peroxide and kind of destroy this different bacteria. So, this is one of their major function. Then next come, eosinophil. Eosinophil got its name, because it binds to eosin dye and which is dark red in color and it is basically acidic in nature. And if you see it under the microscope then eosinophil will look red all over the red, because the eosin is red and it is acidic in nature. That is why it is called eosinophil, eosin dye. So, just like the neutrophil, they are also of the same kind. They have the tendency to engulf, go to the site of infection, site of injury, engulf the pathogen or surround the cell or damage cells or something and you know destroy it, chop it down by engulfing it inside their body. They are huge. They are smaller than neutrophil, but they are significantly big. Then comes the next one which is called a basophil. Why it is called basophil? Because as the name indicates, as the name says these are called basophil, they bind to a basic dye. This is the tendency. That is why they are called basophil and these are approximately 8 to 10 micron big. Whereas, eosinophil, they are of the same order, but slightly smaller than the basophil.  If you look at it, it will look more like pink color. This is how they look under the microscope if you kind of see them. So, these have the tendency. They contain histamine and heparin which prevent blood clotting. We have talked about this. So, these basophil contains heparin and the histamines. So, the heparin as we have already talked in the clotting. They are anti clotting agents. They help in preventing clotting. So, in other words, they ensure the viscosity of the blood remains constant. Talking about histamine, histamines are the molecules which are secreted whenever there is an inflammation in the body. So, if you see some people take like anti histamines. Anti histamines are given to ensure that those inflammatory. These are mostly cytokines, histamines. So, these histamines whenever there is an inflammation, there is some say for example, somebody have asthma. The histamine level goes up or some kind of attack of pathogen. Histamine level goes up. So, sometimes anti histamines are giving and these histamines are secreted by these basophil cells. From here, we move on to the next one which is called the monocytes. Monocytes are approximately 15 micron in diameter, which is essentially 2 times the diameter of R B C. Two times greater than the diameter of the R B C. These remains approximately for 24 hours in the blood vessel. That is pretty much and they also follow the same function as followed by the neutrophil. They reach to the site. They engulf the cells and they destroy it. So, these different cells contain different kind of granular structures. Some contains peroxide granules, which is the neutrophil. Some contain histamine granules. Then, heparin granules and they have different roles in clotting, in defense. Some of them contain peptides like defenses. Neutrophil actually contain defenses.  So, all of them are equipped. The arsenal of our immunity is equipped with wide range of small molecules and they have complementary role to play whenever our system is under threat from any kind of pathogen, which is continuously. We are continuously under threat from the surrounding pathogen. These different molecules, these small molecules, which are contained and which are being synthesized by these soldiers, blood soldiers of our body. We are continuously responding to these different changing environmental surrounding and based on that, they act. They secrete these different compounds to help us to survive. From here, we talked about all the four different WBCs of the myeloid origin. Now, we will move on to the lymphocytes, which are from the other root, from the lymphoid origin. Among the lymphocytes, the lymphoid origin, they form the lymphocytes. The lymphocytes could be classified into three groups, coming to the lymphocytes, lymphocytes. So, lymphocytes are classified to T cells, B cells, B cells, and natural killer cells or NK cells. Sometimes, in short, they are called NK cells. So, the T cells are also called cell mediated immunity. I will come to that very soon, cell mediated immunity. B cells are responsible for humoral immunity and natural killer cells are responsible for immune surveillance. So, in other words, what is happening is, these T cells, which are involved in cell mediated immunity, these cells, just like the neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil, monocytes, move to the site of infection. At that site, they multiply, could surround the cells or they secrete certain compounds, which will ensure that the pathogen gets destroyed or they activate the other WBCs of the myeloid origin, which are reaching. So, it is most the direct cellular action at the site or on the pathogen. That is why it is called cell mediated immunity. Yet, there is another one, which is called humoral immunity. Humoral immunity is, there are a section of cells or lymphocytes, which secrete something called antibodies. That is where it starts the whole origin of antibodies. These antibodies go and of course, they do the same thing, just like other chemicals does. But, this antibody lead to the whole concept of vaccine development. What does that mean? So, that essentially means that, say for example, you are attacked by a pathogen for the first time. So, your body will of course, fight it out and during that process, those B cells will generate some antibodies in your body, which will fight against that specific pathogen. So, first time the pathogen attack, you are ill for some days and then you know the B cells and along with B cells, along with T cells, N K cells and the whole myeloid WBCs handle the situation. But, the body remembers it. How it remembers? Because, in your blood titer, there are very small number of those B cell antibodies, which are present against that XYZ pathogen. So, next time when it attacks, they are much more well equipped.  So, you know the next time you know how to handle this individual. So, now the body is in a strategically much more sound position to handle it.   So, you are always charge up. So, you know you have that memory. So, you know next time when it happens, you can fight it out. That form of immunity falls under this whole B cell or humoral immunity, where different antibodies are being form and that is whole subject in its own. The whole field of immunity and within immunity also, humoral immunity is I mean like one of the very well explored and very intense research is going on, on all these areas. Those are like kind of almost our life line you can call them, because we are always at war. So, if you understand that how these antibodies are functioning, it could help us a lot. So, talking about this, I told you that this is the genesis of the whole vaccine is this. So, basically the whole idea is that, so say for example, I wanted to create a vaccine. So, what I do? I take that pathogen x y z pathogen and I inject it into a system at a very very low titer, at a very low concentration, titer means that is a very very low concentration. So, automatically it will spark up the production of the B cell antibodies. So, now your system is pre incubated to face this disease and that is where, so for example, let me just draw it that will make sense. So, say for example, here is an say let us take the example of say one minute let me, let us take an example. So, this is an individual. Now, what I do that I take say for example, for disease x, it could be any disease, it could be chicken pox, a small pox or whatsoever disease x. So, I want this person to get an immunity against disease x. So, what I will do when this individual may be very young or infant or at a older age whatsoever, I know the pathogen for disease x and I know the level say for example, this unit will cause disease. So, anything less than x unit, so less than x fairly very very less than x will not cause any disease will not cause disease, but this amount which is say for example, equal to y this amount is good enough to activate the B cells. So, what I do I pick up this tighter and injected in this person. So, as soon as I injected into this person, the B cells which are needed the antibodies which are needed to fight against this disease fight against this disease gets flared up. So, now in the blood vessel in all his blood those specific B x antibodies are present there. So, whenever this disease comes this person is much more well equipped to fight against that disease. So, this is the whole game of antibodies and this is the whole genesis of the vaccine development where it all started and then rest is all history. Now, we all know there whenever a child is born the child are given lot of vaccine especially in the tropical countries which are most susceptible to the wide range of tropical disease for which several vaccines have been developed over the years is starting from Kalajar to influenza and everything there are whole series of vaccines which are there. So, in other word what you are doing you are tweaking the system you are just charging of this is kind of a charging mechanism it is a very clever mechanism though. So, people are trying to find out vaccine for AIDS which is currently one of them in the market people are trying to find out vaccine against malaria which is a very terrible problem in the tropical countries and little bit of subtropical, but mostly in the tropical countries. So, up and little bit up and little down along the tropical rainforest these are some serious problems could we find this. So, vaccine this is one of the hottest area where things are happening these are kind of happening zones then you have the natural killer cells these cells are as I told you these are surveillance they just just like a GPS they are moving around moving around there is a problem they keep on chemo tactically sending signals immediately the whole army started moving into that site fine you have to take care of it. So, after talking this about talking about all these different kind of WBC's and everything I wish to close in with two aspect the immunity could be classified in two level one is the intrinsic what we have in a in a. So, say for example, some of the thing is that our skins they produce a lot of peptides those are form of immunity different structures of our body they prevent the entry of the pathogen those are immune our immune systems there are several molecules several different kind of. So, those are all falling under innate immunity those are all under the classification of innate immunity and yet there is another form of immunity which is governed by these antibodies which is the other class. So, broadly speaking immunity could be divided into innate immunity and the other form of immunity which is governed by antibodies and the phagocytosis and all those kind of things. So, the major so this though this is not part of it the major receptors which are involved in immunity are called toll like receptors TLR's in short form this toll like receptors it is just like you have seen on highways you have this toll roots toll booths where you pay and you move just like that they are all over our body even including into the nervous system this toll like receptors ensure something which has not paid the money should not enter. So, pathogen is not going to pay a money to enter your system they try to you know try to fool this toll like receptors and move into the system. So, these toll like receptors and all these falls under innate immunity and then comes the rest of the immunity which is covered by all these different kind of cells. So, this is the overall though since this is not part of the part of this curriculum I just to give you an idea how this immunity could be classified. So, that is it innate immunity and the immunity what I told you all these different kind of cells which are involved with humoral immunity, cell mediated immunity then immunity offered by this cells from myeloid origin and everything and you cannot really very there is a zone where pretty much both the immune systems merge innate immunity I mean there is a overlapping zone. So, with this I will close in on this and the next class what we will do we will talk about how the blood groupings are being done and how that affects in the childbirth thanks a lot.