eiving treatment for ars upon returning to san salvador he he would main off work sick until day 199 post exposure or tuesday the 22nd of august 1989 the operators mean body dose was 8.1 gray per reference five gray as a whole body dose can be lethal and he had more than that with his torso receiving an estimated 10 the other two men received 3.7 and 2.9 gray respectively back to the aftermath of the exposure after the first operator never returned to work on monday evening well the company just kind of carried on as normal what the operators didn't know was that the source rack had been bent and it was only a matter of time until another incident which would come on the wednesday after the initial incident where the rack became jammed again but this time it was released by the overpressure trick Thursday the 9th day five after initial exposure some of the source pencils escaped the rack and fell into the pool and the irradiation room this was discovered on friday day six post exposure after quality assurance discovered the products had been irradiated less than normal all workers would enter the room after checking the dose rate on a beeper style detector just outside the door which was essentially a pointless endeavor as the dose rate outside the room would have been 30 times lower than inside upon entering they were exposed to one of the pencils which had escaped the rack but their exposure was low ranging from 0.22 to 0.09 gray but this could have been far worse if more pencils had escaped this now left a massive headache for the owners how to make the irradiation equipment safe and secure this forced management to finally request the suppliers assistance two experts from the supplier arrived at the plant on day nine monday the 13th of february they succeeded in determining by means of a remote television camera and an iron chamber device sent into the irradiation room attached to a product carrier that there was an active source pencil on the upper level they drilled a hole in the roof of the irradiation room and on day 11 wednesday the 15th of february using a remotely remotely controlled tool succeeded in picking up the pencil successfully lowering it into the pool and 1930 on the same day the experts confirmed that the radiation in the irradiation room was at normal background levels due to the poor state of the facility the supplier disabled the machine and a full count of the source pencils was photographically undertaken and confirmed all were in the pool in november 1989 the incident was caused by a jam of the fiberglass boxes by 1989 many of these containers had become cracked resulting in a higher chance of getting caught within the machine the boxes were forced against the thin steel bar in the frame in which the source rack is raised and lowered the deformation of this bar was enough to cause the source rack to become stuck in the raised position the main issue of the incident was down to the actions of the staff on the day if the product jam had happened just after the facility had been opened this likely the issue would have been dealt with safely but two decades of neglect and poor training resulted in the dangerous actions of the staff at the facility the operation of the facility safely was greatly hindered by the political and financial situation in the country as the supplier did not have the ability to send out the staff to inspect the plant due to safety concerns the plant was refitted with a new radiator in the early 90s and subsequently had its safety procedures and safety systems overhauled this video is a plain difficult production all videos on the channel are creative comments attribution share alike licensed plain difficult videos are produced by me john in a currently dark and cold southeast corner of london uk help channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check out my twitter for all sorts of photos and all sorts of sods as well as hints and future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so if you fancy checking them out please do and all that's left to say is thank you for watching it is the summer of 1971 and several college students are being arrested at their homes by palo alto california police and charged with armed robbery and burglary penal codes 211 and 459 although none of these men had previously committed a crime college students getting arrested is not a unique thing slightly out of the ordinary the men had a good idea this would be happening and stranger still the whole event is being filmed all of this although odd could feasibly happen but the whole pantomime has a strangely fake feeling about it maybe the alleged criminals are more hardened than their records would suggest no passersby would know this but all the men are being paid to be arrested but not by some organized crime group but instead by university what is actually happening is the beginning of one of the most controversial and well known psychological studies the experiment's orchestrator would have to end the study short as the participants would take things beyond what he expected today we're looking at the stanford prison experiment and i'm going to give my rating for this one at the end of the video let's see what you think billyp george zimbardo was born on the 23rd of march 1933 in new york new york state united states in his early years he suffered discrimination due to his italian ancestry and was quite often carelessly mistaken for a multitude of other ethnic backgrounds the young zimbardo like many other people covered in this series used this all too common human behavior as a spark for his interest in psychology in the early 1950s he attended brooklyn college graduating with a ba boasting three majors in psychology sociology and anthropology the next year he went on to earn an ma and by 1959 had also earned a phd both from yale in psychology zimbardo briefly stayed on at yale to teach psychology from 1959 to 1960 whilst there he married rose ablenau and had a son in 1962 but he left yale when offered a job as a professor at new york university where he would stay in a role until 1967 in 1967 he would move again to columbia university which would be brief as he was offered a faculty position at stanford university in 1968 just three years later he was offered and accepted in 1971 a tenured position as a professor of psychology the same year zimbardo and rose would divorce as a side note rose was a very well accomplished academic in her own right specializing in english literature and this rather quickly brings us onto the experiment that would write zimbardo's name in history zimbardo was interested in how the us prison system had seemed to foster a pure hatred between prisoners and guards was the explanation for this purely down to the nature of the people involved for example are the conditions bad because criminals are bad or because the administrators are likely to be harsh in reality it is probably impossible to know and it feels like a chicken and egg situation as if a prisoner breaks the rules then the rules are made tougher leading to more prisoners breaking the rules naturally both sides of the bars would distrust one another which can create a downward spiral one thing that is true today as it was in the 1970s is such high recidivism rates purely by the nature of being a prisoner you become isolated from society and this isn't unique to the us we have very much the same situation here in the uk but what if you can eliminate the deep-rooted hatred between those in cells and those with the keys and this is where zimbardo comes in as can you get rid of his hatred by using a randomly selected group of people who are neither guards or prisoners and by splitting these random people up into the different roles you've essentially created a prison scene without the natural distrust between the administrators of the law and the breakers of the law zimbardo managed to secure financing for the experiment from the u.s office of the navy the navy wanted to understand antisocial behavior and by extension wanted to investigate conflict between military guards and prisoners his experiment would involve university students playing the roles of guards and prisoners for a princely sum of $15 per day zimbardo would be the research team leader and will in 1997 in a stanford university news interview say i wondered along with my research associates craig curtis and carlo what would happen if we aggregated all of these processes making some subjects feel de-invigilated others dehumanized within the anonymous environment in the same experimental setting and where we could carefully document the process over time to find his subjects zimbardo put out this advert in the help wanted section of the palo alto times male college students needed for a psychological study of prison life $15 per day for one to two weeks beginning august 14th the further information and applications come to room 248 jordan hall stanford university 75 men would answer the ad and after interviews and suitability screening which set out to exclude anyone with a criminal record mental health condition or any other medical issues 24 from the initial 75 would be selected the group was predominantly white and middle class and had no apparent health aggression or legal issues in their life in order to try and keep the result scientific each participant was randomly given one of two roles prisoner or guard in total nine were in each group with three substitutes the group labeled as prisoners were told that they would not experience physical abuse but would lose their civil liberties for between one and two weeks little else was given to them in terms of what would be expected of them only that they would be contacted by telephone to be at their residence on a given sunday for the experiment to begin the guards had a little more guidance before the experiment as they would be issued uniforms and equipment on the day before the commencement of the study the equipment given to them consisted of a generic law enforcement inspired uniform mirrored glasses to prevent the prisoners from making eye contact as well as wooden battens on the orientation day the guards were introduced to zimbardo who would be acting as the superintendent and an undergraduate research assistant who played a role of the warden they were told that their assigned task was to maintain a reasonable degree of order to allow the prisoner to function properly but weren't told how they could achieve this they were told to be prepared for any unexpected incident such as escape attempts and they would have to write a daily shift report on guard and prisoner activities as well as critical incident reports on any out of the ordinary event during this time they were told they would be responsible for the administration of meals work and recreational activities of the prisoners the guards believed that the experiment was solely to see how the prisoners would act but actually zimbardo's team were equally interested in their approach to the prison experience and as such they were given deliberately vague instructions on their contact and to finally help immerse the guards further they helped on the day before the study in completing the construction of the prison now the participants were chosen somewhere had to be built for them to play out their new assigned roles the university allows zimbardo's research team to use a part of the basement of the Stanford psychological department's Jordan hall the 35 foot long area seemed perfect for the role with little outside light and an essentially cut off from the outside world feel there were three cells which were originally office rooms that could accommodate three participants in each and measured at a whopping six by nine feet and was pretty cramped each man had a cot with a pillow blanket and mattress and that was it no daylight no clock all of which were designed to make the prisoners lose track of time the subjects will be locked up here for nearly 24 hours a day each cell also had an intercom wire set up so the experimenters could listen into conversations and also make public announcements there was a closet that would be used as solitary confinement and measured in at a coffin like two by two by seven feet the prison area which was previously a corridor with offices off of it had two fabricated walls one for the entrance and another for a small observation area the space between these walls and the prison cells was called the yard to use the toilet prisoners were escorted blindfolded as to further disorientate them the guards accommodation was completely the opposite to the prisoners with areas to change clothes after their shifts plenty of space to move around on downtime and plenty of opportunities for rest and relaxation and that brings us on to the beginning of the experiment Sunday the 15th of August a palo alto police car pulls up outside a residence a young man is taken outside searched handcuffed given their rights and put into the back of a vehicle onlookers stopped to see the unfolding drama and this same scene would play out for eight more people the nine men are taken to the police station where they're fingerprinted have their details taken down have a police file opened on them and placed in a holding cell pretty much the standard for an alleged criminal although after a short while each of the men are blindfolded and bundled into the back of a car and driven to the stanford mock prison once arriving in the prison each prisoner was stripped sprayed with deodorant which was standing in for a delousing spray and made to stand naked in the yard for some time before being given a prisoner's uniform from there they were photographed for a mugshot and given an identification number after this the prisoner was shown to their cell unlocked away and in the process being told to remain silent when everyone was on boarded to their new home for the next two weeks the warden went to introduce themselves and read each of the men the rules of the prison which had been created by the guards the day before the prison rules and their id number had to be memorized and will be asked three times a day during roll call once for each guard shift the prisoners were only to be identified by their number this was a further effort to de-personalize each inmate every day the prisoners were scheduled for work time to earn their $15 per day and were also allowed some exercise on top of this two visit periods were allowed per week but these rules would be modified and degrade over the course of the study data during the study would be collected by zimbardo's team in a number of ways filming the whole study audio recordings from hidden microphones rating scales taken of both guards and prisoners and before the whole experiment all par participants undertook a series of paper and pencil personality tests back to the first day after their interaction with the warden and tasks were memorized in the rules the prisoners were left in their cells to settle in for the night but that night would not be a quiet one when the first count was be undertaken at 2 30 a.m the prisoners were rudely awakened by the guards needless to say this didn't go down well the prisoners were at this point still trying to assert their independence and thus didn't take the count too seriously many of the prisoners refused to leave their cells ripped off their inmate number id tags took off their stocking caps and insulted the guards but now unexpected rebellion spilled into the morning shift by now the prisoners had barricaded the cells with their cots the morning guards frustrated with the rebellion in the early hours of the second day called up the reserve guards who were at home and insisted on the night personnel to stay on in a surprising ramping up of violence the guards decided to use a fire extinguisher on the prisoners in their cells to try and quell the rebellion further still the guards removed all of the prisoners clothes remove mattresses and sentenced the main instigators to time in the hole the rebellion was crushed but clearly the guards had a problem all nine couldn't be there all the time so how to effectively manage the inmates behavior and one person suggested psychological methods on the monday night in less than 36 hours after the experiment had begun zimbardo was forced to release one of the prisoners due to them showing signs of a mental breakdown before the release the prisoner was treated with skepticism and was offered a place as an informant in exchange of improved conditions but he refused and was thus released one of the three cells was to be used as a privileged cell the three prisoners least involved in the rebellion were also given special treatment they got their uniforms and their beds back and were allowed to wash and brush their teeth but the other prisoners were not on top of this they're also allowed to eat special food in front of the others all of this was intended to break the solidarity of the prisoners after half a day of this the three privileged prisoners were returned to the remaining inmate population this also so doubt amongst the other prisoners as to whether the privilege three were actually informers the prisoners were not allowed to use the toilet after lights out and instead were provided a bucket to relieve themselves on day three for tuesday a visit was allowed from friends and family in order to reduce the risk of complaints from the outside world the prisoners were cleaned shaved and fed furthermore their cells were also thoroughly cleaned to immerse the families in the experiment they had to register were made to wait half an hour and were told only two visitors were allowed to see each prisoner the total visiting time was also cut to only 10 minutes and was undertaken under surveillance of a guard before any family members could enter the visiting area they had to discuss their son's case with the warden many of the prisoners complained about the rules that were seeming to comply interestingly the family members rather than straight up complaining at their loved ones tired and dishevelled look actually looked to improve the situation by appealing to the superintendent one mother said i'm sorry i don't want to make any trouble but he just seems so tired after zimbardo asked her what the problem was with her son after visiting hours a rumor had started to spread that prisoner 8612 the one that was released on the monday was actually only pretending that he was suffering in the prison and that he was planning to return to do a mass breakout zimbardo's team bizarrely now fully invested in the prison themselves decided to place a new prisoner in the cell that 8612 had occupied and this person was actually an informer the study lead then went to palo auto police department and asked if he could have all the prisoners transferred to their jail this request was refused due to insurance issues even more strangely zimbardo then decided to dismantle the jail immediately after the visitation calling reinforcement guards take all the prisoners place a bag over their heads and escort them in an elevator to a fifth floor storage room to be hidden away from any breakout attempt zimbardo was then to wait in the location of the now closed prison to confront any would be liberator to inform them that everyone had been sent home and that the experiment was over only then to resume after the coast was clear the prison break never materialized and the rumor turned out to be just that a rumor once the prison was restarted the guards continue to act sadistically to the prisoners by again refusing access to the toilet and forcing the men to do push-ups for hours on ends another interesting thing the guards were doing was increasing the time it would take to do a count from just 10 minutes on the first day to several hours on day four wednesday the 18th zimbardo invited a catholic priest to the prison to assess the situation the invited clergy member had previously been a chaplain at a washington dc corrections facility he interviewed each of the prisoners individually interestingly half of the prisoners he spoke to introduced themselves by giving their numbers rather than their name the priest asked each man what are you doing to get out of here when confronted with confusion from the inmates the priest replied if they didn't help themselves nobody else would that they were college students they were bright enough to realize that they were in prison and that the only way to get out of prison was with a lawyer prisoner 819 was the only one to refuse to speak to the chaplain instead insisting for a doctor eventually he was convinced to come out and talk to the priest and the superintendent so that he could be diagnosed with what his problem was and what kind of medical practitioner he needed 819 was escorted to a side room given food and had his leg changed removed upon his removal the prison guards made the remaining inmates chant 819 is a bad prisoner this sent 819 into a hysterical fit of crying when zimbardo said it was time to leave the experiment the prisoner replied no i can't leave 819 didn't want to leave but instead wanted to go back in to prove that he was not bad shocked zimbardo broke character of the superintendent and reassured that the whole thing was an experiment the guards had now started using bags over the prisoners heads as a routine form of punishment after 819's departure he was replaced by prisoner number 416 one of the study standbys the fifth day marked another part of prison life a parole hearing the prisoners were chained together and ushered into the parole board meeting with bags over heads so that they could not see or talk the parole board were formed of people none of the prisoners had seen before and each man was asked a question would you forfeit the money you have earned so far to be paroled unsurprisingly every inmate said yes the head of the board was carlo prescott the experience consultant and ex convict even he had embraced his new assigned role at the end of the parole board meeting each person was told to go back to their cell and the board would consider their request every one of them did so calmly that it was clear that their sense of reality was completely warped even giving up the money which was the sole reason for them being there in the first place this would have been a perfect opportunity for the subjects to quit and leave but by now were mindlessly following any order given to them zimbardo had now observed the guards forming to three different types good guys who were sympathetic to the prisoners tough but fair guards whose orders were always within the rules of the prison's operation and finally the sadistic who for any reason were punished and humiliate the inmates by now the prisoners had become completely introverted and all bonds had broken within the cells one final act of rebellion manifested itself in prisoner 416 whom had been a stand-in brought in the day before he went on hunger strike the guards tried to make him eat but to no avail interestingly his co-inmates also turned against him seeing this last stand as an act of trouble making the guards after attempting to force feed the inmate even wrote to the other prisoners into forcing him as part of the psychological warfare everyone in the cells was threatened with punishment unless 416 would eat visits from loved ones planned for the evening was taken off the table and this was the moment the inmates completely turned on 416 screaming at him cursing him telling him he had to eat even saying they weren't going to be inconvenienced by his stupid act of defiance 416 was bundled into solitary confinement for three hours even though the agreed maximum time was just one hour the head guard on shift unlucky for 416 was the most sadistic nicknamed John Wayne he gave the prisoners a choice 416 out of solitary in exchange for blankets or they could keep them and 416 would stay locked up all night the prisoners opted to keep their blankets during visiting time that evening a number of inmates parents requested Zimbardo contact a lawyer in order to get their son out of prison a lawyer was called up and attended for interviews of each of the prisoners the prison had completely devolved into the harshest guards realm with the good guards not challenging immoral acts and even enabling them the evenings in the prison were worse for arbitrary punishment when the guards fought the experimenters weren't watching enter Christina Maslak a recent phd student and early in her professional career she visited the prison and was very well known to Zimbardo and in fact a year later would even marry him she was shocked to discover the horrendous conditions of the experiment and appealed to Zimbardo stating his lack of caring oversight and the immorality of the study additionally she pointed out that Zimbardo had been changed by his role of superintendent in the experiment into someone she did not like this in addition to the obvious signs of deterioration of the mental well-being of the prisoners led to the beginning of the end of the Stanford prison experiment on the 6th day Friday the 20th of August the study was cancelled over a week earlier than originally intended the final day involved debriefing of both study groups the encounter groups as Zimbardo called them were undertaken first with all the guards then with all the prisoners including those who had been released and had been invited to come back and finally a meeting for all the guards and prisoners and staff together this allowed the participants time to get their feelings out in the open and to start a kind of moral reconciliation between all involved questionnaires similar to the ones filled out at the start of the study were given to each participant to be filled out and posted to Zimbardo's team even though the experiment ended early the full amount for the 14 days was paid to each participant $210 roughly $1400 in 2021 money finally all participants were invited to return to the university a week later to share their opinions and emotions and thus the experiment was over but what of the results well Zimbardo interpreted the results but it wasn't the individual personalities of the participants but the prison itself that shaped the outcome after all Zimbardo had taken in any other way normal people at random and merely applied different roles be it prisoner or guard the two groups had the same goal of entering the study and that was to get some extra money for two weeks of apparently on the outset easy work Zimbardo took the experiment as an example of situational attribution where the environment shapes the person's actions he compared the prison experiment to that of Stanley Milgram's study 10 years earlier where the perceived authority of the scientist resulted in study participants administering a potentially deadly electric shock to another person although personality was thought not to be the reason for the way the prison experiment played out Zimbardo did concede that the individual did affect certain outcomes such as individual level of rebelliousness of the prisoners and the level of cruelty shown by the guards the experiment almost immediately invited criticism for the ethical way it was conducted exposing the prisoners to a high risk of psychological injury the apparent chaos in which the experiment devolved into meant that Zimbardo's team's conclusions were pretty anecdotal and relied on the experimenter's subjective understanding of the individual's behavior the guards were actively encouraged to participate more and be more tough for the benefit of the experiment by David Jaffe who was acting as the warden and also subsequent attempts to recreate the results have failed another criticism comes from Zimbardo taking on the role of superintendent himself which gave him the excuse of himself being influenced by the situation of the prison his role allowed him to directly influence the outcome of the experiment and through a thing called demand characteristics subconsciously influenced the participants to subconsciously act out the stereotypes or the roles that they were assigned furthermore the advert for the participants asked for volunteers for a prison experiment and thus opens Zimbardo to the criticism of selection bias on the part of the volunteers the BBC recreated the experiment loosely in 2002 for a TV series rather blindly called the experiment the results of the study failed to replicate Zimbardo's conclusions when the guards did not naturally fall into the role of creating a tyrannical prison hellscape and interestingly the prisoners held onto their sense of independence resulting in camaraderie within the inmates there was even a late experiment breakout attempt but funny enough this experiment was too finished early due to the guards and prisoners wanting to start a new much harder stanford style regime Zimbardo is still alive today and since the prison experiment has released multiple papers and books including introductory psychology textbooks for college students and other notable works including the lucifer effect the time paradox and the time cure reportedly none of the subjects had any adverse effects due to the experiment apart from the time actually spent in the stanford county jail now where would you rate this subject on my ethical scale one being all okay and nine being pure evil i'm going to rate this prison experiment a six this is mainly due to the questionable results and uncomfortable living conditions of the prisoners even though there were no apparent long-term effects on its subjects this is a playful production all videos on the channel are creative commons attribution share alike licensed playing difficult videos are produced by me john they're currently grim wit and windy southeast in corner of london uk help channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing and check out my twitter for all sorts of photos and odds and sods as well as hints on future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so check them out if you fancy supporting the channel financially i also have a merch store so if you fancy wearing one of my t-shirts check it out and all that's left to say is thank you for watching it is july 2008 and a controversial local landmark is being removed it has been here for nearly a decade and strangely it's the grim reminder of an environmental disaster officials locals and the wider public have argued whether it should stay or go but the decision and money has been committed and the multimillion dollar project has started the landmark in question is not a statue or a piece of artwork but instead a wrecked remains of a transport ship the removal and wreckage represents a legal argument that was used to make the ship's owners responsible for its running aground i'm john and this is a brief history of today we're looking at the oregon new carissa disaster a little background for a big ship our story starts at the end of the 1980s some 19 years before the wreckage removal with the laying down of a new dry goods transport ship the ship was built by imabari shipbuilding company in japan using an all steel construction beginning on the 30th of august 1989 she was named the new carissa and was 195 meters long and 32 meters wide with a draft of 10.8 meters when fully loaded the vessel had a complement of 26 sailors who in charge of the ship's gross weight tonnage of 36 571 pushed along by an 8200 horsepower direct drive diesel engine the ownership structure of the new carissa like many naval operations is rather complex she is registered to panama but her owners much like her builders are very much japanese she is under the operation of and owned by operator and managed tay hayukayan co limited and tmm co limited respectively although ownership is via a panama based subsidiary green lane shipping this registration is a flag of convenience allowing the owners to hire sailors under the working rules and conditions of the ship's registration country but to add another level of complexity the ship's home port was in the philippines and her crew consisted of a philippine captain and other personnel i told you it's a confusing web or maybe it's just me the new carissa would be pressed into service carrying wood chips used in the manufacture of paper between japan and the us part of this would require entering us waters and a law brought in in 1990 meant that any operator must be held financially responsible for any environmental impact in the case of an accident like with any potentially financially damaging risk operators insure against this and the new carissa was no different approximately 23 million us dollars of environmental liability insurance was provided by ship owners insurance and guarantee company limited of hamilton bermuda it is the beginning of february 1999 and the new carissa is doing what she does best heading towards the usa to collect wood chips she is running with an empty hold and is bound for the port of coups bay oregon she at this time has around 400 000 gallons of diesel and lube oil aboard all aboard the ship are philippine nationals on the 3rd of february and not far from their destination a local pilot is assigned to guide the vessel into port as the evening drew in an ocean storm with winds that reached 39 knots was hitting central oregon the pilot due to the weather conditions was unable to reach the vessel he informed the captain that he would not be able to assist until the morning and as such entry to the port should not be attempted healing the pilot's warnings the captain ordered the turn away from the bay to open the empty holds and drop anchor by now the new carissa was around 1.5 to 1.7 nautical miles from the bay only one anchor was dropped but little did the crew realize that the chain was too short for the 20 to 25 knot winds the evening gave way to the early hours of the morning of the fourth and the storm continued to rage slowly the ship began to drag her chain poor watchkeeping of the crew meant that the movement went undetected for quite some time she was dragged closer to the shore eventually the movement was noticed and the crew set to raise anchor to try and maneuver away from running a ground in the heavy storm and strong winds nothing could stop the carissa from moving closer and closer to the oregon shore around three miles north of coups bay the new carissa ran aground on a sandbank the collision was reported to officials at nine o'clock in the morning and immediately a recovery operation was set into motion the new carissa represented an environmental issue with hundreds of gallons of fuel aboard the immediate recovery attempts tried to make use of the new carissa's own power but the stricken vessel couldn't free itself a unified command consisting of representatives from the coast guard the state of oregon and other rescue party operations were set up as soon as officials were first notified three objectives were set out for the unified command to save personnel save the ship and prevent spillage the poor weather affected any immediate rescue when the only tugboat available in coups bay couldn't be used due to safety concerns as long as the ship was still intact refloating was the preferred option the high winds prevented the crew from being rescued immediately but eventually the coast guard helicopters were able to evacuate the sailors aboard and replace them with salvage specialists during this time a survey of the ship was undertaken by air and so far it looked like it could be refloated but there was a problem no suitable ship was in the area that was powerful enough to drag the new carissa off the sandbank the nearest suitable vessel was based in Astoria Oregon roughly 170 miles away from coups bay she was called the salvage chief but she had not sailed for over a year and required provisions fuel and the sourcing of a suitable crew the turnaround time to ready the chief was going to be 18 hours a long time to wait especially in addition to the 24 hour journey time that she would take all during this the new carissa sat precariously putting more strain on her hull the salvage chief would not arrive at coups bay until the 8th of February four days after the new carissa ran aground the waves and high winds continued to batter the stricken vessel pushing her further along the beach although rescue had arrived the additional 600 feet the new carissa had been pushed jawwood put her out of the salvage chief's reach not long after tar balls started to appear on the beach hinting that the carissa was leaking oil meaning she had developed a crack somewhere on her hull because of this the three main objectives for salvage were changed to ensure safety of personnel and the local community minimized damage to the environment and finally salvage the vessel but now leaking ship posed a serious risk to the local ecosystem cleanup activity preparation began almost as soon as the ship got beached but the leaking fuel had already covered wildlife and had leaked into the vulnerable local environment with another storm on the horizon and a high probability of salvage causing the ship to break up rescue workers were confronted with a horrible last resort decision whether to burn the ship or not you see setting a light to the vessel may sound like a bad idea but this could mean the toxic fuel would not contaminate the environment directly obviously there was still the environmental cost but by now it was a case of least worst outcome this rock and hard place decision was made for the salvage team when it was decided that the ship was a complete structural right off and thus movement was out of the question meaning an in situ burn was to be the outcome the unified command attempted the first burn on the 10th of february using a combination of napalm and incendiary devices but to the disappointment to all involved only one of the ship's tanks set a light time to bring out the big guns a navy explosives ordinance disposal unit from whitby island washington was employed to have a second crack at burning the fuel the unit used 400 pounds of explosives to rupture the fuel tanks and to sustain the burn a locally brewed napalm mixture was employed the fire would last 33 hours and result in between 165 and 255 thousand us gallons burnt now the things would get worse for the vessel all during the explosions and grounding the main structure was weakening and its integrity couldn't last any longer at around midnight on 11th of february the vessel broke into two sections and a now separated ship started to drive in different directions on the 26th of february the salvage teams managed to float the 440 foot bow section and prepare it for towing by the 1st of march the tugboat sea victory has successfully towed the bow from the beach and out to sea but a return of stormy weather resulted in the cable snapping the bow now loose free floated for 14 hours until it ran aground near walled port oregon on the 3rd of march roughly 80 miles to the north of the original grounding site it was refloated again on the 8th of march and towed out to 280 miles off the coast where it was sunk with explosives and cannon fire from two us navy ships the destroyer uss david l ray and the submarine uss bremeton interestingly the cannons and explosives didn't fully sink the bow requiring an additional torpedo before it was sent to the seabed the stern however would remain on the beach for nearly a decade but we'll come to that in a bit like with most disasters the authorities set out to find the root cause of the disaster and like most disasters everyone blamed everyone else with the government blaming the crew and the insurance company britannia steamship insurance association blaming the less than useful coast guard charts and the pilot not telling the ship to drop anchor where it did this resulted in two lawsuits one from the insurers claiming around 96 million dollars and a counter from the u.s government claiming around 7 million dollars both parties would reach a settlement of a net amount to the government for 6.5 million in 2004 but this wasn't the end of the legal proceedings in an interesting tactic oregon state demanded a 25 million dollar bomb to cover the dismantling and cleanup costs as well as charging the ship's owners a rent of 1500 per day for storage costs needless to say the ship's owners and insurers refuted these claims and the case went to trial let's take a moment to appreciate the case here the state of oregon was asserting that that the crashed ship was actually trespassing on state property bold claim but it did actually pay off when on the 13th of november 2002 a jury sided with the state's argument and the 25 million dollars was put into an escrow account as appeals and alike were hashed out the shipping company would get back around 5 million dollars after an appeal in 2006 now before we come back to the implications of this legal case and the stern we have to look at the criminal side of the investigation and what happened to the crew captain morgueido and his filipino crew had some questions to answer after the grounding and this required them to stay in us for several weeks as the coast guard questioned them the captain pled the fifth amendment for most of his questions which is a smart move and after their testimonies they were finally allowed to return home the investigation did find the captain and his first and third officers responsible for the crash but not enough to prove criminal wrongdoing and they would not see any charges brought against them bearing in mind the stern was still beached representing a constant reminder of the disaster the result was pretty unpalatable okay now we can get back to the landmark previously known as the stern of the new Carissa the state of Oregon had kind of painted itself into a corner with its trespassing trial as their whole argument would have been pretty much seen as a cash grab unless the stern was actually removed and this leads us back to 2008 and the somewhat controversial dismantling and removal of the last few remaining sections of the new Carissa the removal of the stern proved to be more difficult than originally anticipated as years of waves and storms had wedged the wreckage into the sand up to 20 to 30 feet in some places it was decided that the remains be dismantled by the use of jack-up barges which allowed crews to work on the ship cutting her up piece by piece by september 2008 most of the visual wreckage was removed leaving only a few small pieces by november the recovery crews and barges were gone and thus the new Carissa was no more but although no humans were killed the death toll from the fuel that did manage to escape into the ecosystem was thought to be responsible for over 3000 shore and seabirds rather worryingly if it wasn't for the burning of the ship this toll would have been significantly higher i'm going to rate this disaster four on my scale and a five on the legacy scale what do you think let me know in the comments this is a plainly difficult production all videos on the channel are created commons attribution share alike license plainly difficult videos are produced by me john in a currently wet and windy south eastern corner of london uk help the channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check out my twitter for all sorts of photos nods and sods as well as hints of future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so check them out if you fancy supporting the channel financially and all that's left to say is thank you for watching 11 white 11 year old boys were sent to a special remote summer camp in oklahoma robbers cave state park in the summer of 1954 each child is unknown to one another but they all have a few common background traits their ethnicity religion and two parent upbringing they have been told that they'll be living together on this scout camp site but first they must all get to know each other and pick a group name to solidify the bond between the boys a number of regular summer camp activities are undertaken such as swimming hiking and playing games the boys pick the name the eagles and stencil this onto white flags what the children didn't know was that an almost identical story was playing out with another group of 11 to 12 year old boys across the park and they had given themselves the name the rattles neither group is aware of one another and they are also unaware that in just a few days time they'll be competing against each other in a number of standard summer camp activities what the children also don't know is that their camp counselors are actually researchers into a psychology experiment into intergroup conflict and the researchers had created these groups by randomly selecting and balancing attributes of the 22 boys the result of the study would reveal the tribal mentality which has allowed us to thrive as a species but also has been responsible for some true historical horrors even though both groups shared so many background similarities the experiment will be described as the real life lord of the flies welcome to the dark side of science our story starts not in the usa but in the ottoman empire with the birth of musava sherif on the 29th of july 1906 sherif in the first 20 years of his life would see a tumultuous time for his home country with the italo turkish war the balkans wars world war one he grew up in odomis located 113 kilometers south of the city of ismir in roughly the western modern day turkey ismir would see occupation during the turkish war for independence which ran between 1918 and 1923 sherif would go on to college during this period graduating in 1926 with a bachelor of arts from ismir international college his education would continue with him earning an ma from istanbul university in 1928 after discovering the works of william mcdougal he looked into the theory of instinct and social psychology at a surprise to probably no one mcdougal was also into eugenics it does seem like everyone was into this theory in the early 20th century anyway i digress sherif would enroll at harvard in the late 1920s gaining an ma he would re-enroll in 1933 after a visit to germany although he would change to columbia for his doctorate earning his phd in 1935 upon returning to turkey sherif was offered a position teaching at ankara university during his time at the university he was very open about his antifascist views at a time with germany falling under the spell of nazism sherif was highly critical of hitler and became a communist ideological supporter this would get him into trouble in the mid 1940s when in 1944 he was detained with a number of turkish communist party members turkey during world war two was a neutral power for the most part until it sided with the allies in february 1945 but the country was fearful of a soviet invasion and sought to secure itself with the capitalist western allies this was around the same time sherif decided to leave turkey and return to the usa after being detained in fear of a harsher punishment for his political activities as a country looked further to the west in its political alignment sherif a graduate from two us universities found his marxist views in the late 1940s a benefit to his career as the social academic environment at the time was far more left leaning this led to his book the psychology of ego involvements 1947 published from princeton university but being left leaning wasn't to be a benefit for too much longer as the dark shadow of the cold war loomed and the rise of macotheism by the beginning of the 1950s sherif's social political and professional ties to turkey fell apart during the anti-communist movement to add further insult to injury anchor a university officially fired him citing his marriage to a u.s citizen oh yes i nearly forgot to talk about carolin his wife the couple met in 1945 when carolin who at the time was a research assistant at princeton university under mr sherif she gained a master's degree in 1944 while studying under wendell johnson of monster study fame their professional relationship developed into a personal then romantic culminating in their marriage in december 1945 the two were going to produce multiple works in the psychology and social psychological fields okay well that's a little bit of a background to the experimenters let's look at the experiment itself starting in 1945 the sheriffs began to look at the field of social ingroup let me dust off my dictionary for a second for the official definition an ingroup is a small group of people in an organization or society whose members share the same interests language etc and try to keep other people out the sheriffs sought to artificially create in groups amongst young boys to see if they could turn these groups against one another to study the intergroup conflict the first experiment would take place in the summer of 1949 with 24 white 12-year-old boys from lower middle class protestant backgrounds at an isolated camp in middle growth it will be funded by Yale university and the department for scientific research of the american jewish community the reason for all the children having the same background was to eliminate differences apart from personality between the boys sherif would for the experiment disguise himself as mr. mosaic the camp caretaker as a way for him to observe the behavior of his subjects the experiment would be formed of three stages the first consisted of all the boys taking part in activities amongst each other and were allowed to form friendships after a while the 24 boys were divided into two groups the experimenters deliberately separated the budding friendships in their selection of each cohort of 12 children from then on stage two commenced where each group would only be allowed to interact within each other this was to try and establish an ingroup mentality the team buildings were conducted where a common goal appealed to all in the group by the end of this stage sherif noted that friendships were bonding within the individual groups and a hierarchical structure had formed they found that the boys preferred interacting with their own ingroup over the other although this seems like a clean cut hypothesis confirmation it wasn't so perfect but we'll discuss that later on now with the two groups stage three would involve adversarial competition it was observed that the two groups would act hostile to one another and although acting democratically internally in their 12 strong teams the boys didn't conduct themselves accordingly with the outgroup sherif tried to restore harmony at the end of the study by giving the boys a common enemy to unite against they did this by beating a softball team from outside the camp although tensions still existed between the two groups with these promising results the sherif sought out to expand upon the subject of in groups this brings us on to the 1953 sherif's next experiment into in to group behavior the study would follow the same lines as the 1949 experiment but would employ greater laboratory controls we would only get to stage two before being terminated early sherif would later say in his 1961 robbers cave book on the reason for the failed experiment owing to various difficulties and unfavorable conditions including errors of judgment in the direction of the experiment but sherif's seemingly dismissive comment on the study actually glosses over the real reason but that will be revealed later on this meant that a rerun was in order and with the remaining grant money burning a hole in sherry's pocket this finally brings us on to the robber cave study of 1954 the rerun was planned to take place beginning in june for three weeks of the summer of 1954 the experiment would have 22 boys all from similar backgrounds but vitally not to have ever had any previous interactions with one another but where to get so many children it's not like you can just go take a class from a school as there would be prejudices in groups microcultures and already inevitable rivalries all of this could muddy a potential experiment in order to find a group large enough a city had to be selected to find the pool of subjects the experiment has settled on oklahoma sherif decided that a maximum of one boy per school could be selected researchers were dispatched throughout the city to its many schools and armed with higher education credentials and a letter managed to gain permission from the principals to go into the schoolyard to observe fifth grader boys playing these credentials also gained access for the researchers to the children's school records this compared to the modern world of stranger danger really blows my mind older 1950s where a degree and a letter will get you in anywhere in total around 200 children were selected this would require a little more selection down to around 50 anyway to cut a long story short around five or six children per school was selected rated top to bottom in preference and their parents were contacted in the same order the parents were given the same explanation of the study as the principals that the sherif team was looking to study the interaction of group activities within teams and how they would act during sporting activities and their attitudes towards winning or losing the parents were explicitly told that visiting their child during the three weeks was prohibited and the camp would cost 25 dollars which apparently on the inflation calculator is around 261 dollars in 2022 money eventually the 22 participants were selected and thus the experiment could begin the overall concept of the experiment would be copied from the 1949 and failed 1953 studies but would take a three-stage form sherif named the first stage in group formation this would take the space of a week where two groups were kept separate and team building exercises were undertaken to form an in-group bond within the participants games and treasure hunts were planned during stage one to help build friendships and in-group alliances stage two would be the conflict or friction phase this would involve a tournament between the two groups consisting of sports like baseball tug-of-war and a scavenger hunt but also experimental tests like bean counting competitions a trophy was promised for the winners of the competition as well as prizes like knives and medals over 1950s where preteens were given weapons the third and final stage was the integration phase where the two groups would be brought together to undertake group tasks and leisure activities of watching films to record their findings hidden microphones were used throughout the two groups living areas which were used to record conversations to observe the camaraderie within the group the groups were also given questionnaires to fill out about their group and later about the outer group on the 19th of june 1954 a coach of 11 children arrived at the robbers cave state park in oklahoma a day later another group of 11 would also arrive at the camp both groups were unaware of the other and throughout stage one the experimenters would keep this the case by carefully managing the two's activities throughout the park the boys would stay in log cabins alongside the macaizine creek where they could swim play and explore among the nearby woods each group had junior camp counselors who were university students they would stay with the boys all the time and there were also senior camp counselors who were participant observers who stayed with the boys for around 12 hours a day charif had instructed these assistants strictly to not influence the study in any way although there were two groups their experience in the first few days was very similar after 19th of june the first stage would begin this began even on the coach ride to the camp where boys in their separate coaches discussed parents and parts of the city of oklahoma where they had come from games were played and the groups encouraged to create team names make flags and create a motto one group took the name the eagles where the other took the name the rattlers over the next few days the groups were allowed to create hideouts and using a canoe placed near each respective campsite created their respective holdouts in order to keep both groups separate meal times and activities were staggered the groups were allowed to purchase t-shirts and baseball caps for stenciling their respective group names on as well as white sheets to be turned into flags the type of language within the group addressed items as are things and a noticeable microculture was developing within the boys towards the end of the week the two groups were allowed to find each other and once completely confirmed by the camp workers that there was indeed another group both groups became eager to see one another but a slight spanner was thrown in the works two boys in the eagle group had to be sent home due to homesickness this would give an organic path to stage two the friction stage the experiment has found that both groups became insistent on challenging one another to a baseball game allowing the subjects to believe that the tournament of stage two was going to be their idea the continued insistence of the groups albeit mainly from the rattlers meant setting up the control circumstances for stage two became increasingly difficult the rattlers upon hearing the other group was playing on the baseball field began to use language like they're using our diamond or they're on our field this showed that the in and out group dynamics had successfully formed at least in the rattlers and thus the experiment moved into stage two or the friction phase the first day of the friction phase consisted of an informal discussion between the experimenters posing as staff and the two groups separately these discussions informed the children of the tournaments possible prizes and assured them that every effort was being made to set everything up for the two groups to face off crucially during the first day of stage two both groups had no physical or visual contact with one another the different groups had different reactions to the informal announcements the rattlers seemed to be really excited for the competition and showed aggressive language about the other group they appropriated the ball ground as theirs and planted a rattler flag and made aggressive remarks about any would be flag removers the eagles on the other hand were far less enthusiastic with only a couple of the boys sounding particularly eager to face off but a remainder of the day the two groups prepared and practiced the eagles were showing as the day progressed a greater group pride when the flag was attached to a pole on the second day the two groups would have their first close quarters contact almost immediately this broke out into name calling and aggressive behavior the two groups had breakfast at different times where they were introduced to the tournament exhibit which took the form of a trophy bladed knives and medals after breakfast the tournament was officially announced the groups were informed that each game would accrue points to the winning team and a team with a largest number of cumulative points would win the whole tournament there was a mix of competitive activities as well as activities to be completed separately by the groups which would be judged by the staff the games were to consist of baseball and tug of war on the first day and second day of the competition touch football tent pitching and baseball on the third day and finally a tug of war and tent pitching on the fourth the separately completed activities were cabin inspections on the second day as well as skits and songs day three had another cabin inspection and day four had another cabin inspection and a treasure hunt the second group of activities allowed the experimenters to even out the score to keep the teams neck and neck for longer thus increasing the friction between the groups straight off the bat don't excuse the pun the Rattlers won the baseball game and the tug of war this was evened out by the experimenters during the cabin inspections after the first two days of the tournament the cheers for the losers and good sportsmanship went out at the window degenerating into heckling during mealtimes insults were thrown at each other and intergroup relations further fell apart after the first tug of war the defeated eagles took the Rattlers flag from the baseball pitch and set it alight the next day the Rattlers were sent for breakfast first in order for them to see the child remains of their flag in retaliation a punch up between the two groups ensued and in the scuffle a member of the Rattlers grabbed and burned the eagle flag the next tug of war on the second day resulted in a strong win for the Eagles frustrated in this and fueled with anger from the flag burning the Rattlers set about planning a raid of their adversaries camp in the night around 10 30 p.m the Rattlers group hit the Eagles cabin turning beds and ripping window screens stealing comic books and even clothing the next day during lunch the Eagles hit the Rattlers cabin doing the same amount of damage the Rattlers by now had also replaced their burnt flag with a stolen pair of trousers much to the annoyance of the Eagles the competitions continued and were manipulated in such a way that by the last day of the competitions it was neck and neck unpivoted on the final task the treasure hunt because the hunt was separate between the two groups again this result could be manipulated in the favor of the smaller eagle group right at the end of the hunt both teams were brought out in front of the trophy and prizes and the winners were the Eagles the Eagles did the hunt in eight minutes and 38 seconds and the Rattlers did theirs in 10 minutes and 15 seconds the difference was night and day between the group's reactions the Eagles gleeful in the wind shouting and jumping juxtaposed to the Rattlers dejected sitting watching the winners celebrate the Eagles went off to the creek to swim and play in victory this must have grated on a defeated group and they planned to even the score the Rattlers again raided the Eagles camp and in doing so stole the knives and medals which had just been won upon finding out the Eagles squared off against the Rattlers and a fight looked like it was about to break out a couple of the boys scuffled but quickly this was broken up by the staff the Rattlers observers herded the group back up the path to their camp a staff member returned some of the prizes to the Eagles but it was clear that neither group wanted to have anything to do with the other and thus the experiment now moved into its final stage integration Sharif and his team had created two groups who had become arch enemies this hatred was not from racial religious or cultural backgrounds but purely from being arbitrarily selected into a group by a third party initially it was thought that just exposure of the two groups to one another would increase positive feelings between the two Sharif tried group meals and watching movies in the recreation hall during the scenarios the staff would leave the groups during the initial contact seating was freely available thus giving the opportunity for the groups to intermingle and before each meal or film the groups were made to wait near each other but almost all interactions devolved into arguments and insults during a lunchtime unsurprisingly both groups had chosen seats with one another and again it devolved into insults and even a food fight in order to bring the groups together Sharif decided that stage three would include introducing a common goal the experimenters engineered a full with the water system this was done by turning off the tap from the camps water tank and covering over the area with two boulders it was hoped that a perceived deprivation of water would bring both groups together they were told that vandals had done this before in order to absolve blame from either group or the staff and were told that at least 25 people were needed to find the issue and fix it thus requiring at least both teams to cooperate after the combined effort of both groups fixed the water issue many of the boys went off to catch lizards play and carve wood whistles but interestingly the children weren't working within their groups but had separated off intermingling but the intergroup friction continued to persist when the groups were separated for dinner leading to more insults and arguing another engineer cooperation task was securing the film treasure island the children were told that the camp couldn't afford the $15 for the film as most of the children wanted to see the film it was suggested that both groups could contribute some money after some initial hostilities of saying either group should pay the full amount eventually a mutually acceptable amount was agreed upon where both groups paid an equal sum of $3.50 and the staff paid the rest although $3.50 was not individually equal as the Eagles only had nine members the breakdown of intergroup hostility showed some progress during the negotiations the boys intermingled again by playing and talking the next day the two groups agreed to take turns in going first for lunch and dinner towards the end of stage three a camp out was planned at cedar lake which would involve a truck ride including both groups once at the lake there was another engineered issue this time with the truck requiring all the boys to take part in the tug of war not against themselves but instead against the stricken vehicle after several attempts of pulling the vehicle the truck restarted and both groups erupted into jubilant celebration across group lines the next day a trip to Arkansas was announced this unlike before was seen as agreeable by both parties for the other to come along but a final dinner back at the robbers cave site the experiment is mixed around the seating from before as to encourage more intermingling both groups as they had done before lined up but interestingly after collecting their food all of the boys sat together across group boundaries during the evening's discussion the idea was posited that they all travelled back home on the same bus although a couple of dissenting opinions were voiced the majority seemed to look forward to the proposition of all traveling together even on the journey home and a stop for refreshments the rattlers agreed that a five dollar prize they had one be spent on drinks for everyone regardless of group it seemed as if Sharif's hypothesis was correct in that he could create two groups from almost identical backgrounds to hate one another the experiment also showed that within the groups a hierarchy was formed with high and low status individuals all without the encouragement of the adults it was discovered that in group stability increased when put into competitive situations with an outgroup and outgroup hostility also increased he also discovered that just exposing the two groups without competition during stage three didn't reduce hostility and as such group goals needed to be enacted to try and improve intergroup relations the ultimate result was although intergroup friction is increased when competition is included it can be reduced thus meaning in the wider world intergroup relations can be improved at the end of stage two Sharif found that intergroup friendships were around 93 percent but by the end of the first stage this had dropped to around 75 percent meaning that boundaries have been blurred by the use of superordinate goals the study has been used as a practical example of realistic conflict theory where intergroup hostility can arise as a result of competition over limited resources it doesn't matter however if it's real or perceived this theory has many extensions to explaining racism xenophobia and in general are human desire for tribalism or the exclusion of the other take football or soccer if you're american games for example people from essentially very similar backgrounds shout hatred and abuse to one another in the stands just because two teams are playing against one another on the pitch the spectators probably have more in common with one another than the millionaire sportsmen that they are cheering on but what of the criticism well there is a long list of both moral and scientific issues here morality the use of children who by design were not aware of the experiment couldn't give informed consent and their parents and teachers as well were not given the full concept of what the boys were going to be involved in this however does play into Sharif's stated reliability of the experiment's results but the scientific validity of the study has also been criticized this is due to the odd vibes during the experiment where staff members did not exactly act like there are actually staff instead of breaking up fights they took photographs instead of telling of poor behavior they took notes this was clearly not subtle as the reason for the 1953 study ending early was likely due to the fact the children kept on asking why there were microphones hanging in their camp and the ultimate discovery of a notebook with observations of the children written in the children instead of forming into two groups actually rallied against the experimenters thus scuppering Sharif's theory in the robbers cave experiment of 1954 the assertion of sherry that the adults had no influence over the children is clearly wrong as stage two was manipulated to increase the tension between the groups even one of the group's names the rattlers was influenced by the boys witnessing one of the adults shooting a snake the fact that the staff did not act like normal camp workers could have played up the reaction of the boys to be more aggressive also there was no control group which also brings up issues of the experiment's result validity how can we know for certain if the groups would become hostile have food fights and shout abuse at each other at a normal camp where staff wouldn't intervene and stop the bad behavior furthermore it could be normal for boys who started out as enemies to end up as friends after three weeks regardless of the superordinate goals set out by the experimenters leading to Sharif placing more weight on the results and attributing the children's actions to his realistic conflict theory the study would become a cornerstone of realistic conflict theory and put the Sharif's into the Hall of Fame of experimental psychologists but multiple modern re-evaluations of the experiment have disputed this in Gina Perry's book The Lost Boys which during her research went through all the material from the experiment found that there was more backstage manipulation than originally thought the way the robbers cave experiment book is written glosses over the manipulation in its neutral language as Gina pointed out what is interesting however is how the 1953 study actually proved the better nature of the children in that they stayed friends and turned against the experimenters now where would you rate this experiment on my ethical scale I'm going to say around a seven due to the violence that broke out between the boys and the apparent lack of intervention as well as the lack of informed consent on the part of the subjects this video is a plain difficult production although there's on the channel a creative commons attribution share alike licensed plainly thought videos are produced by me john they're currently windy and wet southeast in corner of london uk help with channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check out my twitter for all sorts of photos not on sods as well as hints and future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so check them out if you fancy supporting the channel financially and all that's left to say is thank you for watching it's christmas 1953 and new zealand is mourning a tragedy an intercity train from wellington new zealand never arrived at its destination Auckland the missing train was a victim of a flood which caused a bridge collapse across the tongue ee u river 151 would perish as the train was plunged into the river below the bridge the event would go down as one of the worst in new zealand's history and as one of the most unfortunate turn of events as if the train was just a few minutes earlier or later and disaster could have been averted today we're looking at the tangi why disaster and i'll reveal my ratings at the end of the video so let's see if we'll both agree on the rating later on the north island main trunk is the main railway line on new zealand's most populous north island the line connects the country's two main cities Auckland and wellington completed in 1908 it is a marvel of victorian and 20th century engineering the line spans rivers climbed mountains and passes over vast viaducts one such crossing is near the small rural village of tangiwai on the funger ee u river the river flows down the mountain side from crater lake for approximately eight and one-half miles in an easterly direction then it turns to the south at the bottom of a fan runs more or less parallel with a road called the desert road for approximately six miles and then in a south westerly direction towards tangiwai the total distance to tangiwai is approximately 25 miles the river flowing down from crater lake created a risk and that was erosion of its fragile ash banks which in turn would release large quantities of water down the river channel the violence of the flow would also take with it large quantities of material creating a lahar a violent type of mud flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material rocky debris and water needless to say this can be horrendously destructive washing away anything in its path the river was spanned by bridge number 136 it was built around 1906 by the public works department the bridge was built to a generic standard design used elsewhere in the country it stood at a length of 198 feet and made use of steel construction supported by eight concrete pillars the spans consisted from north to south of 122 foot 244 foot and 422 foot plate girder spans the bridge design would be criticized later on in that the piers had insufficient foundations but we'll come back to this later on the bridge would suffer a number of damages throughout its working life which required repairs to its foundations and piers the first of such damage occurred in 1925 when a nine foot swell made its way along the river causing a scour on pier fours upstream side above its footing this caused the track on the bridge to be misaligned and resulted in a half inch movement of the structure to fix the damage rocks were placed into the scour but this wouldn't be the last time the bridge would suffer some damage just over 10 years later in March of 1936 the foreman of works reported another scour at piers three and four he recommended 15 wagons of stone for protection this work was completed on the 18th of June 1936 pier three would be damaged yet again in February 1944 after a flood and whirlpool scoured a hole 10 feet in diameter and three feet deep on the upstream side of the pier in June 1946 engineers suggested placing eight five ton concrete protective blocks in the vicinity of pier number four to offer protection from floods and debris the project was completed in July the same year the bridge was closely monitored for the next couple of years but no other issues were reported which leads us on to train 626 departing Wellington en route to Auckland at 3 p.m on the 24th of December 1953 train 626 consisted of a k a class steam locomotive hauling 11 carriages five second class four first class a guards van and a postal van that evening the 467.3 ton 704 foot long formation was carrying 285 passengers and crew many aboard were holiday makers and as the evening set in many had settled down for the night at around 10 20 p.m the train passed through Tangiwai at what eyewitnesses on the station platform thought to be slower than the usual at around 40 miles an hour the reference to line speed was 50 miles an hour apart from it being a little slower than usual nothing else out of the ordinary could be seen as a locomotive and its rake passed through just one mile down the line was bridge 136 and it span over the fungi river as a train approached the Tangiwai end of the bridge the engine crew saw a man alongside the track waving a light strange they thought but soon enough the reason became apparent as the headlight of the locomotive washed over the bridge ahead a section of the track was missing but what couldn't be seen in the December darkness was that a whole section of the bridge had completely failed sending some of the structure into the river below immediately the driver and fireman applied the emergency brakes but it was too late as the train couldn't stop in the distance of available track the locomotive and its tender and the first five carriages went careering off the bridge plummeting into the river below the remaining three first class carriages the guard's carriage and postal carriage remained precariously on the track seal Ellis the man who was waving the light by the side of the railway approached the guard and explained what he had seen the two men made their way to the sixth carriage the first first class carriage which by now was teetering on the edge of the damaged track and attempted to evacuate as many passengers as possible they were the assistance of another passenger managed to evacuate 24 people by smashing out the windows one person wasn't so lucky as the coupling of the carriage failed resulting in the carriage rolling into the river 148 lives were lost to the river including the driver and fireman 22 of the victim's bodies would never be recovered five miles away the wairu military camp dispatched soldiers to assist in rescue operations along with rescue teams by midnight the first survivors were evacuated to wairu a few hours later the first of the dead were recovered and sent to a makeshift morgue more of the dead will be pulled from the river downstream by locals and farmers giving a grim awareness of the disaster six year the victims bodies would be recovered in such ways but the unrecovered victims are thought to have been washed out to sea as many awake for the christmas morning the news is broadcast across the country and the public is made aware of the full scope of the tragedy with so many dead and an apparent sudden unexplained disaster on one of the country's most important railway lines the question of how has to be asked soon after the tragedy investigators were dispatched to the site to pick over the wreckage and the collapsed bridge upon seeing the locations of the carriages and the missing span of the bridge investigators concluded that the 22 foot failed steel girder span must have failed before the train had begun its passage on the bridge thus hinting at something other than the train itself causing the collapse the bridge had the top portion of pier number two broken off and this was lying under the bridge between piers one and two pier number three was smashed above the base into at least four pieces and pier four was completely missing having broken into multiple pieces itself piers one six seven and eight were not damaged but what was the cause of the dramatic damage to the piers well investigators looked into the bridge's past and pointed to the likely cause to be further upstream at the crater lake you see the beginnings of the 1953 disaster goes all the way back to march 1945 and Mount Ruapius eruption the debris from this formed a naturally occurring tepura dam at the crater lake which in turn caused it to fill with water eventually this dam would be insufficient to hold back the lake and sadly the tipping point was the 24th december 1953 this was channeled down the Wangiyu river carrying with it a high content of ash deposited from the 1945 eruption this torrent of effluent smashed into the previously weakened bridge causing pier four to fail sending the span into the river the investigators had to deal with the questions on the bridge's original design suitability but an earlier fire at government buildings before the disaster had destroyed the plans but what we do know is the bridge wasn't suitable or was seriously weakened enough for this particular lahar the disaster would improve the safety in the area as the new zealand railways department will install a lahar warning system upstream to alert train control to high river flows the passerby who alerted the train Cyril Ellis and passenger John Holman were awarded the George Cross for a bravery that day and guard English and passing traveller Arthur D word bell both received the british empire medal for their actions that saved 15 lives sadly the disaster was a pure accident of bad luck although the bridge was likely deficient if the train was early or really delayed the tragic loss of such life might not have happened the bridge would be rebuilt reconnecting the vital railway line for the country so the disaster i'm going to rate here seven on my scale and also seven on my legacy scale do you agree let me know in the comments below this video is a plain default production all videos on the channel are creative commons attribution share alike licensed plain difficult videos are produced by me john and they're currently wet and windy southeast in corner of london uk help the channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check out my twitter for all sorts of photos and odds and sods as well as hints on future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so check them out if you fancy supporting the channel financially and all that's left to say is thank you for watching frankstein and his monster ever since publication has fascinated popular culture in a book that was originally a warning on the potential horrors of unchecked scientific discovery would actually go on to inspire real life studies in a case of life imitating art in the modern day we possess surgical abilities that would not be out of place in mary shelly's work one of the ultimate goals is that of reviving the dead a skill that would truly prove man to have the abilities of god needed to say this has resulted in a number of experiments and one such would become infamous and even managed to filter its way into pop culture in a number of ways the experiments would be filmed translated into english and distributed and would become referenced in multiple books including work from roll doll tv shows and even music my name is john and today we're looking at the 1940 revival of organisms film and its background my ethical rating will be at the end and welcome to the dark side of science our story starts long before the 1940s and even the soviet union with the birth of a future surgical pioneer Sergei Sergei which brook honenko was born on the 30th of april 1890 in koslov modern day maturensk to a family of the civil engineer brook honenko showed promise from a young age where as seen in his photo he designed and built his own bicycle in his teenage years he would enroll at a college in saratov for his pre-medical education after which moving to the medical facility of the university of mosco for his further education brook honenko would graduate as a doctor in 1914 this should have been the start of a long hospital career but world politics would intervene with the start of the first world war needless to say there was a need for medical staff to deal with a never-ending pile of casualties as such he was brought into active duty with the army as a junior doctor during his service he would see horrific injuries that war can inflict the experiences he gained in treating wounds would influence brook honenko to explore different concepts of keeping a patient alive after injuries to major organs and arteries with extracorporeal circulation as a side note that will make a lot of sense for the later experiments in brook honenko's career here comes my dictionary again extracorporeal circulation is circulation of the blood outside the body as through a heart lung machine or artificial kidney his career in the army would end abruptly when the russian empire pulled out of the first world war to deal with some internal issues and regicide he would return to mosco in autumn of 1917 working for the sanitary control council of soloniki in 1919 he would change jobs working at the military hospital in lefotovo just on the outskirts of mosco as the assistant professor in the clinical pathology department again like during his war years he would experience a wide array of injuries and illnesses in 1923 brook honenko returned to his interest in extracorporeal circulation when he was introduced to a drug suramin he discovered it could be used as an anticoagulant his experimentation at the time used roller pumps to perfect blood flow without the risk of contamination soon enough his experimentation would result in him designing a new machine for extracorporeal circulation heart lung machines were a concept dating all the way back to maximillion von frais early prototype in 1885 but a lack of anticoagulant drugs made the concept impossible to pull off but as we saw with brook honenko he had such a compatible drug three years after his awareness of suramin brook honenko had designed and built one of the first feasible heart and lung machines called the autojector the name to me sounds pretty nightmarish and to be honest how it works is pretty nightmarish too here's a summary of how the autojector keeps a subject alive right well the first gruesome but interesting part of the machine is how it originally oxygenated blood what is pretty efficient at doing this you might think well it's the lungs brook honenko thought why try to better mother nature and for his autojector he made use of real donor lungs brook honenko would employ excise lungs from a donor animal and use two mechanically operated diaphragm pumps with a system of valves the first pump would deliver blood to the oxygenator the donor lungs the second pump returned the now oxygenated blood back into the patient's body the experimental animal and donor animal were both injected with surinam before the experiment to stop the blood from clotting now brook honenko had the machine and the method he set about to test it out on november 1st 1926 the experiment was to use dogs the experimental dog was hooked up to the machine via the cartioid artery and jugular vein the autojector was switched on and adjusted to pump blood at the same flow rate as the dog's heart working in parallel that brook honenko would name later on parallel circulation a ligature was tied around the heart of the dog to stop it from beating at which point the autojector was switched off to allow the animal to go into cardiac arrest once some time had passed the autojector was switched back on and total perfusion was achieved the dog apparently lived for around two hours after its heart stopped but the experiment was brought to an end when the mammary artery burst subsequently killing the dog but the concept was now proven this experiment was the first of its type and marked a milestone for providing blood flow in a patient with an arrested heart in total eight experiments would be conducted by brook honenko with his machine in 1926 he would later say on this series of experiments in principle the artificial circulation may be used for certain operations on the arrested heart however further improvement of the technique is necessary for its practical implementation and improve it he did but the next few years brook honenko experimented with both isolated organs and total body perfusions all using dogs he felt so confident in his method that in 1928 on the 1st of June he demonstrated the autojector to the international audience at the third congress of physiologists of the USSR a year later brook honenko would shock and wow the world with his studies on the methods of artificial blood circulation and blood transfusion where a severed dog head was kept alive with it even reacting to its surroundings opening its mouth and even swallowing a piece of cheese in the late 1920s and early 1940s the autojector was used for hyperthermia based experiments where dogs would be cooled down to the point of cardiac arrest at a temperature of around three degrees centigrade then warmed back up with no long-term damage to the subjects the machine would be further improved upon by creating artificial lungs via a bubble oxygenator in 1939 a series of experiments 12 out of 13 test animals were resuscitated using the heart lung machine after around 10 minutes of circulatory arrest all of the dogs that were brought back to life recovered completely without any apparent neurological damage so confident and successful was brook honenko in the autojector that he decided to show it off in the now infamous movie experiments in the revival of organisms the short movie was intended to showcase the pinnacle of soviet scientific experimentation into extra corporal circulation now i must say it is worth watching the film in full it's only 20 minutes or so and when i watched it i definitely had mixed feelings not only because seeing various dogs being used as test subjects but also well we'll discuss that in a bit the movie successively ramps up the use of the autojector and exhibits various experiments which had been undertaken during the late 1930s firstly we're greeted with an isolated heart pumping with the help of an artificial lung it circulated blood through various tubes and seems to be working rather well outside of its body next we are shown a lung oxygenating blood via rebello's then we are greeted with what seems to be a disembodied dog head connected up to the autojector we're also shown via cartoon the connections between it and brook honenko's machine this part and the next are considered to be the most controversial it is shown being stimulated with its eyes being poked citric acid is also placed around the dog's mouth and it can be seen licking his lips other stimuli are used with a spotlight being shone on the dog's face and a hammer banging the table next to it both of which produce what looks to be an unapproving face as part of the grand finale brook honenko in his film would revive the dead a dog is shown on an operating table it has been given seramin and an anesthetic the blood is then drained from the dog causing cardiac arrest after which the blood is put into a container and then fed into the autojector now that the dog is drained of blood and dead 10 minutes is waited during this time the machine is hooked up to the now deceased animal at roughly 10 minutes after death the autojector is powered up and the pumping of warm oxygenated blood begins lo and behold the dog's heartbeat is shown starting up then not long after it takes its first breath post revival the dog is seen post experiment lying down looking very sorry for itself then around 10 to 14 days later it is seen to be acting as if back to normal the film ends with several dogs being shown to have also been killed to be brought back to life one of whom was dead for a reported 15 minutes some even had gone on to have puppies the film was filmed at the Institute of Experimental Physiology and Therapy in Moscow and was designed to try and appeal to as wide of an audience as possible with its diagrammatic explanation of the experiments and of the autojectors operation to add a level of believability to the production British scientist JBS how Dean introduced the English language version of the film claiming to have witnessed all of the experiments personally the film was distributed across the US by the National Council of American Soviet Friendship not surprisingly a communist socialist sympathetic group now the movie shocked many that saw it and impressed others working its way into American pop culture but the film is most likely a propaganda piece with its experiments potentially staged it is thought by many that it is likely that the final two most shocking experiments were faked for the film when the beheaded dog is introduced to stimuli the way it moves looks like it's still anchored to something and even at one point looks to turn around something I think that might be impossible without a body but a final revival scene the heart of the then dead dog is not shown any type of restarting by massaging or electro shocking instead just reoxygenated blood is all that's needed but although possible it was faked for the film it doesn't mean it didn't happen maybe the filmmakers decided to omit the more intricate details of bringing back a dead dog but a dog head experiment again it although possibly was also faked did actually happen as there are several accounts of earlier experiments being showcased with even photographic evidence of a separated dog head attached to the autojector for example when brook and enko exhibited his head experiment in 1928 to western scientists and released its findings in experiments on isolation of dogs heads my theory is maybe it was faked because the stimuli reactions weren't as impressive in the real experiments as that's shown in the film some of the biggest red flags are that the experiment wasn't shown in full frame and connecting the autojector wasn't shown reportedly some of the witnesses claimed that when they had seen the dog head experiment previously it only lasted a couple of minutes and not the hour was claimed in the film we also need to bear in mind the period in which the film was produced in which propaganda was rife in the Stalinist Soviet Union possibly the film was presented for dramatic effect and maybe the actual results weren't as striking although still fascinating for the camera it should also be stated that the apparent credible witness J.B.S. Howe Dean was an ardent Stalin supporter and also a vocal communist scientists and co-worker of brook and enko nicolai terabinsky published a monograph and reported excellent results of more than 260 open heart operations on dogs in 1940 demonstrating the viability of the device on humans after going as far as he could with the dogs brook and enko and his colleague terabinsky sought to test out the autojector on a human subject but war again would scupper the scientists plans operation barbarossa was unleashed by Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union and by 1945 tens of millions will be dead and many parts of the country will be left in ruins between the end of the war and 1951 brook and enko was sent to work at the skilyovsky emergency institute in Moscow during this period he had little chance to develop the autojector but in the early 1950s he returned to testing out his device between 1951 and 1958 brook and enko was the head of the physiology laboratory at the institute of experimental surgical devices and instruments in Moscow he put forward his device for the revival of patients of sudden death but after a number of attempts the machine failed to resuscitate any subjects time was running out for a soviet extracorpore circulation machine although brook and enko also suggested his machine would work for open heart surgery the pioneering autojector would be eclipsed by john hasham gibbon when on the 6th of may 1953 he was able to perform the first successful human open heart procedure using his own machine the final nails in the coffin of the Soviet autojector came when nickolai terabinsky died in 1959 by now brook and enko was the head of the laboratory of artificial circulation at the institute of experimental biology and medicine but just a year after nickolai brook and enko himself would pass away on the 20th of April 1960 in 1965 brook and enko posthumously received the Lenin Prize the highest scientific award in the soviet union the autojector would die with both men and their leaps forward would largely be forgotten to time but the film released in 1940 would serve as a record of the experiment falling into the public domain the machine was a crude method of total perfusion and the series of experiments resulted in a countless number of dead dogs the experiments are remarkably similar to the Vladimir demikov double dog headed studies and the monkey head transplants i covered in the first episode of a dark side of science although animal testing like this makes me a bit uncomfortable the experiments were working towards an admirable goal far less the mad scientist trope in which the film watched without context invokes i'm going to rate this subject around a five or a six as killing dogs is bad but a scientific discovery was really impressive where would you rate the subject one is ethical and nine is truly evil this is a plain difficult production all videos on the channel are creative commons attribution share alike license plain difficult videos are produced by me john in a currently bright and sunny southeastern corner of london uk help the channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check out my twitter for all sorts of photos and odds and sods as well as hints and future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so check my man if you fancy supporting the channel financially and all that's left to say is thank you for watching it is june 1889 and a country is in shop an entire community has been washed away and 2 209 people are feared dead a dam has failed sending a deluge downstream the event would become one of the country's worst disasters and would be the measuring stick in which all future tragedies would be compared against the event would permeate itself into the american psyche and leave behind haunting images of death destruction and the thought that at any moment everything you know and love could come to an end today we're looking at the johnstown flood our story starts with a construction project the main line of public works the plan was to provide the best commercial means of transportation between philadelphia and pittsburgh via railways canals and roads part of this project was to create a reservoir for the canal system to supply water during low flow periods and in order to make this happen a dam was needed the commonwealth of pennsylvania set out to build a new dam which would be later known as the south fork starting construction in 1838 the design was to make use of an earth and rock fill arrangement it was around 72 feet high 918 feet long 220 feet wide at its base and tapering off to 10 feet wide at its crest the south fork dam had two means of controlling the reservoir's water level although one had a greater level of control than the other the arrangement was pretty standard for such a construction of its time a control tower was provided for the outlet works and consisted of five cast iron pipes each with a valve for releasing varying amounts of flow of water which ran into a stone culvert with a discharge chamber which in itself led to the downstream face of the south fork dam the second method of level control was the good old fashioned spillway this was cut into the rock along the east abutment and was 70 feet wide although the original plans had actually specified for a minimum of 150 feet the shiny new dam was completed around 1852 and 1853 but the canal network would become a victim of one of the industrial revolution's greatest achievements the railway just about five years after its completion the dam became abandoned and was sold off to the pennsylvania railroad and it is to say the PRR wasn't that bothered with owning a dam and as such this led to the maintenance of the south fork falling pretty low on the company's priorities list in july 1862 just a decade after completion the south fork would experience its first failure the outlet works stone culvert collapsed and a portion of the dam breached gradually draining the lake in half a day now even as i edit this video i'm surprised at just how quickly things fell apart no longer needing the area in which the dam now semi-collapsed lived the PRR set about selling it off as a parcel incorporating the dam and lake in 1875 John Riley a former congressman this now rather large property prospect once again changed hands in 1879 when benjamin ruff took over control he wanted to create a resort for the rich and successful making use of the lake and surrounding area for fishing and hunting in doing so he created the south fork fishing and hunting club but for this new elite playground to be a success the old and partially failed south fork dam needed to be rebuilt rough set about reconstructing the south fork dam but some of the changes to the design would prove to be fatal the five cast iron discharge pipes were no more as before the sale to rough John Riley who was making a loss in his deal with benjamin had removed the metal to sell it off a scrap although i should say this accusation has been disputed over the years the new and so-called improved south fork dam sported a lower crest by two feet no discharge pipes and the failed portion being replaced by fill that consisted of clay brush mining wastes and strangely hay to add further structural issues the dress stone originally placed on the upstream face was not replaced leading to the water to come into direct contact with the main structural material hiding the risk of erosion and seepage with no outlet works the only method of reservoir control was by means of the spillway which if you remember from earlier was already too small for its application on the south fork to protect fishing profits the south fork fishing and hunting club decided to use netting over the entrance to the spillway to prevent any valuable fish being lost to the flow of water but it would not only stop the fish and allow for a buildup of debris reducing the spillway's efficiency all of this made the dam not very resistant to storms and flooding eventually the material used to repair the embankment settled creating a low point on the dam's crest increasing the potential for over topping which would create flow over the already weakened section of the structure after the dam was rebuilt the lake it held back was two miles long about one mile wide and 60 feet deep but a reconstructed structure would cause no end of headaches for the new owners with constant leaks springing out requiring spot repairs of hay and mud jon's town's history spans all the way back to a settlement established in 1791 as the 18th century gave way to the 19th the town saw growth along with the use of pennsylvania mainline canal in which it was a port and key transfer point but things would really start to pick up for the town with the demise of the canals and the rise of the railways almost like a direct opposite to the life of the south fork dam the town which called home to the cambria iron company of jon's town was the leading steel producer in the united states outproducing both steel from pitsburg and cleveland by the 1880s cambria works had grown to become a huge enterprise sprawling over 60 acres in jon's town and employing around 7 000 people this boom had been fueled by the company being the country's main supplier of barbed wire allowing the town's economy to support a population of around 30 000 the area had become known for flooding hotspots towards the end of the 19th century as increased rainfall led to rising water levels in the valley and the rain would blight the area again in 1889 when the streets of jon's town once again could be seen with the sheen of pooling water towards the end of may a low pressure area formed over nebraska and kansas on the 28th of may 1889 two days later the weather was now over western pennsylvania and causing record-breaking rainfall between six and ten inches of rain fell in 24 hours over the region swelling the banks of streams into large torrents some of jon's town's streets were beginning to become flooded in the rainfall leading to many residents being stranded inside their homes on the morning at the 31st of may 1889 the lake conima had become swollen after a night of heavy rainfall the lake level was now near cresting the south fork dam alias unger president of the south fork fishing and hunting club assembled a gang of men to try and save the dam they went to the now clogged spillway which had caught debris in its netting and tried to clear the blockage but a little success unger sent out a messenger to the nearest telegraph station to inform the residents of jon's town below but this would not reach his destination despite the efforts to save the dam the writing was on the wall and unger ordered his men to retreat to high ground at 1 30 p.m the men could see the inevitable begin to unfold as the dam breached between 250 and 255 p.m sending a deluge of water down the valley towards jon's town it would take just over an hour to empty lake conima's 3.843 billion gallons this effluent traveled down the 14 miles towards jon's town picking up debris with the flow the water was slowed down at the conima viaduct but after just seven minutes this failed adding renewed force to the flood waters enroute to jon's town the small town of mineral point was completely washed away the flood next hit cambria ironworks at the town of woodvale picking up with it railway carriages scrap metal and barbed wire just under an hour after the breach of the south fork dam the flood hit jon's town the torrent of effluent traveling at speeds of nearly 40 miles an hour hit buildings people and vehicles the debris that consisted of barbed wire rubble and other material crushed anyone out in the street and bombarded the town's standing structures the water reached stone bridge this became a pinch point where debris was pushed up against it creating a small dam pushing water out in different directions causing other parts of the town to flood eventually the build-up of debris caused a fire adding to the carnage hundreds of residents were stranded and hundreds of the dead were swept away with some reaching as far as sincenaty 777 bodies were never identified and a total of 2,208 deaths were linked to the dam breach around 1600 homes were destroyed and 99 families completely wiped out the cost was approximately 17 million dollars in property damage including four square miles of downtown johnston completely destroyed the cleanup would go on for years but essential services were quickly put back to work within a few days including the railroad and parts of the steelworks although the latter would only resume full operation some nearly 18 months later early rescue and cleanup efforts were hindered by the vast amounts of barbed wire amongst the debris which cling to the ground and caused injuries to any would-be emergency worker on the 5th of june founder clara barton of the american red cross made it to the town leading to the disaster becoming the organization's first major mission the rescue and relief efforts would mean barton would stay at johnstown for five months the disaster had the benefit of being the subject of a large number of photographs which helped in raising funds for the town and its victims but with such destruction and death left in its wake the root cause had to be found and if possible discover who was responsible clearly the cause of the torrent of water was the south fork dam and its severely weakened reconstruction but the conclusion of an investigation at the time hinted that even in its original fully functional state the dam would have failed strangely the report from the american society of civil engineers went unpublished to the public for two years after their initial findings for not wanting to be dragged into any potential litigation the results essentially got the highly wealthy owners of the south fork fishing and hunting club off the hook of responsibility but the public knew differently the club never had to face any legal ramifications being able to write off the event as an act of god but in 2016 a reevaluation of the disaster proved that the extensive and improper modification to the dam was the root cause of it failing although this is long after those responsible could have been given their legal just desserts although legally dodging the liability many of the club's members did pay significant amounts to Johnstown including club co-founder Henry Clay Frick and millionaires like Andrew Carnegie although the victims of the accident didn't feel like they received justice the event became etched into the country's culture leaving a legacy for more than a hundred years this is a plain difficult production all videos are produced by me john in a currently western windy suburban southeast corner of london uk all videos on the channel are creative commons attribution share and like licensed help channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check up my twitter for all sorts of photos and onto the sods as well as hints on future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so if you fancy supporting the channel financially you can check them out and all that's left to say is thank you for watching addiction is the curse of the human condition we seem to almost be pre-programmed to latch on to anything that makes us feel good for many our enjoyment of certain activities are manageable but for others it can lead to a downward spiral take work for example many are able to leave their job at the door when it's time to clock off but for others one's career can become an obsession where all they do and think of is their occupation the daily cup of coffee may seem harmless but the headaches and grumpy demeanor would beg to differ when you don't get your caffeine fix because we as a species are so susceptible to addiction scientists have sought out to find out why one such study towards the end of a very drug-influenced 1960s would seek out to find out why we seem to fall so hard when it comes to substance abuse after all we are faced very regularly with the risks of drug use and addiction and yet so many don't heed the warnings the experiment rather than studying human addiction would focus on the animal kingdom and would make use of a bizarre contraption that allowed monkeys to self-administer highly addictive substances such as cocaine, vitamins and opiates the experiment would result in terror for its subjects where overdose bodily disfigurement and mental anguish were just some of the outcomes but the results would only end up proving the obvious that addictive drugs are addictive and as such the study would go down in infamy for its unethical use of its test subjects my name is john and today we're looking at the 1969 self-administration of psychoactive substances by monkey study better known as the 1969 monkey drug trials you're watching the dark side of science it is the 16th of June 1969 and three scientists release a controversial research paper the trio have set out to delve into the darkest depths of addiction but study rather proudly showcases a device that allows their animal test subject to self-administer drugs intravenously but our story starts many years before the controversial study with the budding career of Maurice Severs Maurice Severs was studying for his doctorate in pharmacology in 1928 under the tutelage of Arthur Laurie Tatum at the University of Chicago during his time there his interest was sparked in the study of addiction and its psychological and physiological impact his professor moved to the University of Wisconsin in late 1928 and Severs would follow two years later after completing his PhD and MD during his time with Tatum the two studied opiates cocaine and novel barbiturates sedatives during the late 1920s Severs would release several papers supporting a new theory of opiate addiction his experiments to support his theory involved testing on dogs cats and monkeys to explore the phenomenon of psychological tolerance and how it is linked with physical dependence this theory was coined as dual action theory knowing that human addiction is linked to the high of the drug and the aversion from withdrawal Severs took on the suggestion from Harry Harlow but addiction in animals is a delayed condition response where animals learn to associate the administering of the drug with positive sensations Severs combined Harlow suggestion with his own theory of addiction as euphoria from the drug combined with relief from the draw in order to create addicts in his experiments Severs employed a seven day doses schedule with only a large enough dose to create a small reaction from the subject the dose was incrementally increased and it was found that after a month noticeable behaviors were exhibited by the subjects such as excitement when it was injection time the subjects would even show sub dominant body languages towards the administrator during this period of the 1930s Severs developed a scale to quantify the effects of withdrawal in his subjects which by now included dogs rats and monkeys this included noting certain behavioral traits such as clutching at the stomach and chasing the hand holding the hypodermic needle before administration during the 1930s the National Research Council set out to try and find a non-addictive morphine derivative which pushed Severs studies into the forefront and also helped out with funding but as the 1930s drew to an end and the decade gave way to the 1940s this search would be put on the back burner due to the Second World War and as such this affected Severs during the 1950s Severs research was becoming less relevant and as such he sought out to revamp his experiments to try and simulate the more behavior-driven model of addiction instead of a regimented single daily dose model Severs set out to mimic a more human form of dosage for example multiple doses in one day he would also further modify his experiments to allow the animals to stealth administer and that leads us onto the infamous monkey drug trial Severs teamed up with another two scientists Gerald Diano and Timojo Yanagita and planned the experiment to take place at Michigan University the substances to be explored were morphine, codeine, cocaine, amphetamine, pentobarbituril, ethanol and caffeine the experiment set out to explore drug addiction of non-physiological substances i.e drugs that don't give you a physical withdrawal but can cause psychological addiction at the time being able to model this type of addiction was difficult when working under Severs dual action theory of euphoria of the drug and feared the pain of withdrawal as drugs such as cocaine don't create a physiological addiction but are very reinforcing in humans leading to a psychological dependence in order to test this a method of self-administration was needed and this had already been tested on rats in 1962 by a scientist called Weeks Weeks had pioneered a method of conditioning rats to self-administer morphine with the use of a lever which delivered a dose intravenously to the animal interestingly the animal would continue to self-administer the drug maintaining a dependent state similar to the way in which a human addict would do so another study in 1964 by Thompson and Schuster also employed intravenously delivered morphine but in monkeys that had been restrained this study set out to see the reinforcing capabilities of morphine versus food but they didn't look to see if they could produce an addict from just a spontaneous lever pull the Severs new study this method would be used as a basis for a drug delivery in monkeys but with a wider variety of drugs crucially the new experiment would try and find if after the first injection of any drug by spontaneous lever press would the participants continue to seek reinforcement by increasing the number of lever presses and maintain a pattern of self-administration over longer periods of time thus if a continued behavioral pattern of self-administration was observed then a psychological dependency could be demonstrated each monkey was housed in a small cubicle 36 inches high 30 inches wide and 26 inches deep the floor had a mesh screen with a pan underneath that facilitated ease of cleaning with it being flushed every four hours there is also a panel with two switches mounted on the back wall of the cubicle these were key to testing the animals drug dependence the first when activated administered a dose of the drug to the animal the second made all the same sounds as the dose but just re-delivered the drug back into the reservoir this was to see if the monkey was seeking the drug or just playing with the switch both switches would be swapped around at random intervals there was also a drinking fountain next to the switches for water and thus most of the monkey's basic needs were met the infusion machine could also be programmed to deliver a dose as well as a manually controlled on top of the operant control from the switch the monkeys were intravenously connected to the drug infusion unit via a catheter which terminated at the right atrium of the animals heart to hold the animal and catheter together the monkeys were attached to a metal harness which itself was attached to a restraining arm which allowed movement around the cubicle 25 seconds was required to administer the drug and another 25 seconds was needed to refill the syringe this helped restrict the number of doses the machine could administer a dose in four different ways one by monkey alone two by automatic timer three by the timer if the monkey fails to press the lever within a predetermined time and four by the monkey with a timer blocking the circuit after injection preventing the monkey from taking the next injection until predetermined time had a lapse each monkey was taken from a pre-established breeding colony at the university the experimenters aimed for weights of subjects to be around three and a half to four kilograms the subject is placed in the harness and restraining arm and on average an acclimation period of around two to four days was required for each monkey to get used to their new situation then the catheter was to be surgically implanted into the jugular vein under barbiturate anesthesia post-surgery saline solution was injected into the catheter every three to six hours until the wound had healed this roughly took five days after which the subject was ready for experimentation after fully recovered the monkey is introduced to the switches in its cubicle at this point the active switch that is the switch that can administer through the catheter is only able to give a dose of saline solution a signal light is placed above the switch to give a visual indication to the monkey that pressing the switch will result in a dose but the next few days a baseline is recorded of the amount of times the subject presses the switch for the saline dose after the control period the test drug was introduced for the first time it was found that most subjects would either keep on pressing the switch for saline or after a few days lose the novelty interest in the case of the former the introduction of the test drug was pretty easy as the monkey would self dose as it had done with the saline however the latter would require a little more incentive this was a raisin taped to the switch after the first dose of drug was received positively then only two to three raisin incentives were needed to condition the subject to believable equals drug mechanism as multiple monkeys were being employed for looking at various different drugs understandably not all responses to the drugs were positive this is where the automatic dose function of the dose machine comes into play if the monkey didn't take to the test drug initially a potential dependence could be made by timed intervals of the drug administration if the animal began to have a positive preference for the drug then an increase in self administration would be seen however if after one month the monkey still didn't show a preference for the drug then it would be deemed that the animal hadn't developed a psychological dependence now the experiment was really multiple individual experiments with its own group of monkeys free substance and as such the length of the study varied by drug I'll go through each one in a different order to the 1969 research paper and instead of order of outcome for the participants best to worst Nalafine this study lasted a month as none of the participants initiated self administration and after automatic doses ended withdrawal only lasted around two days caffeine two of the four monkeys failed to initiate self administration of caffeine one initiated and one failed to initiate self administration although priming with automatic injections caused the latter to begin self administration the pattern of self administration of caffeine was in all cases sporadic and irregular resulting in no deaths or noticeable withdrawal effects morphine this experiment lasted a long time and was a substance the experimental team had the most experience with 11 monkeys were used and three failed to self administer but after a little encouragement all became drug dependent during mechanical failures the monkeys showed withdrawal symptoms and were observed rapidly pushing the lever frantically trying to get another hit this part of the study lasted 16 months and apart from being morphine addicts and being dopey compared to their control counterparts the general health of the participants was good it was seen that for the first seven to eight weeks the participants increased their dose eventually evening out although one increased the dosage for 30 weeks no one died during this substance study amphetamines all five of the monkeys initiated self administration and not long showed signs of hallucinations plucking the fur off their arms but none died however by the end of the study period the participants were noticeably distressed cocaine four monkeys were used to study the effects of cocaine initially only half began to self administer they found that after 30 days one of the monkeys had died of an overdose in order to increase the length of the study limits to amounts of cocaine was implemented after the 30 day period the monkeys began withdrawn stopped eating and showed signs of hallucinations some bit off their fingers and scratched off their skin they pressed both levers and were noticeably confused ethanol four of the five monkeys in this experiment initiated self administration but for the first few months self administration was interrupted by days of voluntary abstinence these gaps would reduce as time went on and the reactions from the animals was similar to what would be expected in a drunk human drowsiness lack of spatial awareness and tiredness when withdrawal was tested the animals became sick experienced tremors and even showed signs of hallucinations two would die but not from overdose instead asphyxiation during their sleep from respiratory obstruction coding this involved five monkeys and only lasted for eight weeks four started self administration with only one needing to be initiated by the use of the automatic doses the dose rate increased as each subject continued to self administer but after six weeks the first monkey died due to convulsions because of overdose and by week eight all of the others were dead also from severe convulsions now the experiment highlighted some interesting results because previous experiments had made use of psychologically dependent animals i.e. they had been exposed to the substance by operant conditioning the 1969 study however by using non psychologically dependent animals who were naive to the effects of the drugs showed that addiction in this case was chosen by the subjects to keep themselves under the influence much like how humans can continue their dependency even after the face of negative ramifications such as familial social and monetary problems stemming from their addiction although a course of withdrawal also acts as punishment for not continuing to take the drug what they also found was that not all monkeys began self administration and needed the automatic doses to become hooked this shows that some are more predetermined for addiction than others much like in humans by making use of cocaine and amphetamine in the study it was shown that addiction is more likely caused by a psychological rather than physiological means as both the substances don't create a physical dependence now these results are very interesting and help provide a greater illumination of drug addiction but it was controversial not in its results but in its method the experiment isn't cited in multiple most unethical studies lists for a reason now i did mention harry harlow earlier in the video and the criticism of this study and harlow's work follow pretty much the same lines that is the unethical use of animals where they essentially were tortured and killed during the experiment through the creation of long-term drug exposure although the experiment hasn't had as much exposure as say the pit of despair and the monkey mother the trauma inflicted on the animals is no lesser an affair see this career wouldn't be negatively affected by the study and he would continue to use a similar setup to explore the link between nicotine and addiction the study has become one of the keystone cases in anti-animal testing movements as the experiment seemingly ignores the hellsinky declaration where the welfare of animals used for research must be respected this is especially saddening as the results were essentially in its most simple term drugs known to be addictive are actually addictive i'm going to rate this subject around a four my ethical scale do you agree let me know in the comments this is a plain difficult production all videos on the channel are creative commons attribution share alike licensed plain difficult videos are produced by me john in the currently bright and sunny southeast and corner of london uk help the channel grow by liking commenting and subscribing check out my twitter for all sorts of photos and odds and sods as well as hints and future videos i've got patreon and youtube membership as well so check them out if you fancy supporting the channel financially and all that's left to say is thank you for watching it is the morning of june 8th 1998 and for the workers at the debruce grain elevator wichita kansas it is like any other day they work at the guiness book's world record holder for the largest grain elevator the structure is truly an impressive site with 310 grain storage silos and being roughly half a mile in length reportedly if storing wheat exclusively it can supply the wheat for all the bread consumed in the united states for nearly six weeks however this seemingly ordinary monday morning would be the backdrop to a disaster an explosion would spread a fireball across most of the vast structure killing and injuring several workers on site the disaster would become another in a long list of events linked to from an outsider's perspective a rather innocuous item dust but for those in the know grain dust is a horrific fuel for fires my name is john and today we're looking at the debruce grain elevator explosion our stories beginnings go all the way back to the start of humans becoming an agrarian species okay maybe for brevity i'll start a bit later on