Welcome back to the NPTEL lectures on animal physiology. So, in the last class, we started with the section 5, where we started with the nervous system. So, the first lecture on the nervous system, we dealt with the structure of the neuron, the way action potential is being generated. And we talked about how it is getting transmitted, because of the voltage gated potassium channels, voltage gated sodium channels, especially the voltage gated, fast activating voltage gated sodium channels and delayed rectifier potassium channel. So, today I will just take a slight detour, because coming to section 5, this is nervous system, this is lecture 2. So, what we will do today? So, if I go back, so this is what I showed you. So, the signal comes like you see, if you see the signal is coming here, signal is coming here and then this is getting processed and then signal transmitted and it moves on to the next target, which will be a neuron 2 or neuron 3 whatsoever. This is how the signal or the messages are being transmitted all along this path. It moves like this. So, at this point, I will highlight one more thing. If you remember, while I was drawing the structure of the neuron, I told you that there are some neurons, which are like this. This is the terminal, where the message is being transmitted to the next neuron. This is where the message is being received by the dendrites. So, we talked about that some of the neurons have an insulated covering like this, which is called myelin sheet. If you go back to the lectures, let me see if I have the, let us see which one is the one, where I talked about the myelin sheets. Yeah, look at this. This is the myelin sheet, what I was telling, what I am trying to tell you. Now, what is this myelin sheet? This is where comes, if I go to one lecture even further back. In the classification, we did not talk about, as of now, about the neuroglia. What I will do before I come back to the nervous in electrical impulse transmission and the synapses, I will take a slight detour and I will talk about the neuroglia and how this neuroglial cells are involved in formation of myelin sheets and all other things. So, let us go through and move on to our current lecture, where we will be talking about the glial cells. So, we will start with the glial cells. So, in the nervous system, we started with there are two kinds of cells, the neurons and the glia. Neurons are of different types based on their position, they may be in the peripheral nervous system, they may be in the central nervous system, they may be in the specialized sense organs, whereas the glia too has a wide range of classification. They may be in the central nervous system, they may be in the peripheral nervous system based on their functions, they have a wide variations, what we are going to talk about it. But, broadly speaking, till 2013 when we are at this point, it is as of now also believed that most of the communication major electrical signal transfer is taken care by the neurons. The glial cells are the ones which modulate those signals, but all by itself glial cells as of now has not been seen that could govern a circuit, they are modulators. It is just like say for example, there is a circuit, you have certain capacitors which store charges, you have resistors which act as a current flow stopper, they create resistance against the current flow. Likewise, the glial cells are the ones or you have like heat sinks which removes the excess heat from the IC chips. The same way, the glial cells are the supporting very vital supporting structures, but do they involve in direct electrical communication and they do they involve in a information storage is still a very debatable issue. There is enormous research taking place across the world, there are some well-renowned glial biologists across the world who are extensively working to figure this out that what are the final and maybe in the next 50 or 100 years, we will come to lot more about the glial cells, but for now let us do the classification of the glial cells like this glial cells and sometimes this is also called neuroglia. Neuroglia is classified into two broad classification, the one which are present in the peripheral nervous system just the same way as the neurons, the one which are present in the cell nervous system. Within the peripheral nervous system, you have the Schwann cells stage and we will come at this point just note down all the names, you have the Schwann cells and you have the satellite cells. Within the central nervous system, you have oligodendrocytes, O L I G O D E N D R O C Y T S oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, you have microglia. Now, what these individual cells are the role to play? So, we will take up these two cells first the Schwann cells and the oligodendrocytes. Both Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes are involved in myelination coming back to the previous slide. So, this myelination what you see out here what I am shading now this myelination is done by either it could be a Schwann cell or it could be an oligodendrocyte. So, if the neuron is present in the central nervous system it is by oligodendrocyte, if the neuron is present in the peripheral nervous system then it is by Schwann cells. So, is the pattern of myelination the same? So, let us see how exactly it is being taken care first of all we will talk about myelination by Schwann cells. So, in other word we will be talking about myelination in the P N S by the Schwann cell how this looks like. So, here is a neuron a peripheral neuron present outside the central nervous system the endoretic arbor and here you have the here you have the myelination like this. There is a slight gap here the way I am drawing it just do not get let me redraw it one second this is the now let me redraw it you see there is a slight gap I am drawing and there is a reason for that I will come to that. So, this is how the basic architecture looks like within this you have these are called nodes of Ranvier. These nodes of Ranvier are the places where maximum electrical signal is transmitted. So, in other word while I was trying to draw that in the previous slide if you go back to the slide like this the transmission this transmission takes place this is the kind of transmission in an un myelinated neuron there is no myelination. Whereas, in a myelinated neuron like this one or like this one the signal hops like this this is called solitary transmission of electrical signal. And these are the zones if I had to amplify these zones where there is a gap these are very rich presence of voltage gated sodium channel. I am just putting V G as the voltage gated voltage gated sodium channels voltage gated potassium. Sodium channels they are very pronounced in these zones and this is where the major transmissions takes place these are the zones or this is the zone which is called the axon hellock. This is another zone where you will see a very high density of voltage gated sodium channels. So, if you have some marker that you can locate the spatial distribution of sodium channels in an myelinated neuron this is where you will see in most of the neurons in axon hellock you will see a lot of sodium channels out here out here as well as out here. So, this is called myelination result in solitary or hopping electrical transmission or coming back to. So, this is called the nodes of ran via. So, how this is structured this green color structure what you see how it is being formed. So, how it is formed is very important very interesting. So, it is something like this. So, imagine this is the axon hellock. So, what exactly happens in the beginning. So, initially series of cells called Schwann cells which come close these are the Schwann cells these are bipolar cells and these are the glial cells they come close to the axonal body of the neuron once they come close the next thing they do is these cells. So, these cells come close and get on top of these axon like likewise at this stage stage 3 these cells starts dividing on top of each other likewise and in that process they form all the different gaps and everything. Then these dividing cell mass it is kind of what it does it forms an encapsulation all around it goes underneath and it form a complete cavity something like this. This is the part then it forms something these cells eventually start secreting something called myelin protein and they form start forming something like this and this is how the nodes of ran waves are formed. So, eventually what you see if you look at this if you look at this. So, imagine that that this is then this is an axon if this is an axon which is travelling say for example, this is one end the other end. So, this is what happens it forms a wrapping like this. So, this is the wrapping. So, this is the glial cell glial cell mass which forms a wrapping. So, in other words if I had to open this up it looks more like that these are the individual cells. If you look at this structure there are pointed ends out here and it forms a wrapping on top of it likewise. So, this wrapping is this or this wrapping is something like this. So, this cover if you see the cross section of the neuron it will look like this a cross section of the neuron will look like this. If you cut the cross section you will see the wrapping of figure this out. So, the cross section look something like this. So, this is the pen which is pointing out is the axon and this is the wrapping. So, in the back you see this is the wrapping. So, if you draw the cross section it will look like this in the center you will see the axon and on the side this is you will see the wrapping of the. So, this is how it looks like, but is this the same thing which is being followed in the peripheral nervous system. So, this is being done by the Schwann cells. But is this the same geometry followed by the oligodendrocytes which is the second side. In the case of oligodendrocytes the formation of the myelin sheet is entirely different. It follows a very different protocol or a very different root modus operandi while forming the myelin sheet how it works is this. So, what I will do I will make a central nervous system network of neurons and from there I will try to explain this. So, imagine this is the central nervous system network of multiple neurons. For example, these are neurons like this. So, which is a very dense network of different kind of neurons likewise. So, imagine there are just for the simplicity sake I am keeping 3 neurons or maybe I will have few more out here. So, and this is in central nervous system which is much more dense network. So, we will introduce the oligodendrocytes with a different color here at the oligodendrocytes. So, the oligodendrocytes here what it does oligodendrocytes are sitting here much more smaller cells out here likewise. So, these green spots are oligos these oligos are if I have to have a bigger picture of an oligos oligos are something like this very different kind of like they have multiple imagine a neuron without an axon almost like that it is a much more denser structure. So, this denser structure what it does see it is making contact and on the other side maybe an oligos instead of wrapping the cell it forms contact likewise like see these are making contact and these contacts actually act create the myelin sheet likewise. So, it is totally different if you remember while I was trying to explain how the Schwann cells are forming the Schwann cell coating on top of the axon. Here if you look at it the cells are in close proximity with the cell body or the axon or something, but they are only in close proximity they are and they are sending out their processes with these processes creates that insulated layer on top of these axons and the cell body the way you see. Now, the interesting question arises say for example a cell. So, if I go back to one of the pictures which I tried to explain into this picture. So, they are our neurons which from here say for example from the periphery say for example they are moving all the way into from the peripheral they move all the way into the spinal cord and their processes may end up into the brain or. So, what will happen to this neuron think of it will this neuron have because see try to understand the situation. So, this cell is sitting in the peripheral nervous system this is all up to this this is all in the sorry let me this is all. So, this is all in the peripheral nervous system whereas it is entering into the central nervous system. So, will it have a complete Schwann cell myelination or will it have a oligodendrocyte myelination. So, interestingly those cells which have this kind of long processes part of which it is in peripheral nervous system is this their cell body is sitting in peripheral nervous or vice versa even think of the reverse situation say for example a cell is sitting here and not somewhere in the lower part especially the motor neurons. So, these motor neurons are what is they are coming out and the all the way they are reaching to their targets out here. What will happen will this neuron have a oligodendrocyte myelination or a Schwann cell myelination actually these kind of cells have dual myelination. So, what will happen up to this point up to this point likewise they will have the Schwann cell myelination the very moment they enter into the into the spinal cord and the brain they will have oligodendrocyte myelination. So, in other word the very context dependent where the cell is located and this is very very important for you people to understand that depending on the even one cell could have two kind of myelination based on its location and based on its geometry at specific point. This is exceptionally important for you people to understand and appreciate this is what is happening the CNS and the myelination. So, I think that is what I wanted to highlight there are diseases like I do not know how many of you heard about these like you know multiple sclerosis multiple sclerosis MS sometime this being called these are the diseases where your insulated insulation layer of the neurons are being compromised they die out for some x y z reason these are the people who have enormous problem in there you know. So, in other word what is happening there are two bear wears like this you know like one and likewise and there is a kind of a short circuit between the two because there is no insulation layer. So, these are the people who suffers very miserably who suffers from multiple sclerosis and as of now we do not have hardly any cure for this kind of diseases. So, and these are all disease of the glial cells. So, talking about let us come back to the classification we have talked about two component the oligodendrocyte from the central nervous system and the Schwann cells from the peripheral nervous system and we talked about the geometry by which they are forming the myelination sheet from here let us move on to the other classification in that category which includes your glial cells. So, we talked about within the p n s we talked about satellite cells what satellite cells does the satellite cells are the ones which are ensures oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal this is one of the major task it does. Then within the central nervous system you have the astrocytes have wide wide role to play and as more and more research is coming up we are realizing they regulate excitatory neurotransmitters like glutamate and we will come to that we will come to the transmission transmission classification and all those things they regulate excitatory they in other road what exactly let me tell you what that exactly means is say for example, this is a neuron this is the cell board this is the axon of the neuron and say at this end it is transmitting signal to the next neuron and it does using a bunch of specific chemicals which falls under the broad category of neurotransmitters neurotransmitters from one neuron to another they are transmitting signals. So, these chemicals have to be regulated very tightly excess of those could lead to disease like epilepsy or other mental disorders whereas, lesser quantity of those could lead to paralysis or something like Parkinson and all those kind of things and will come in depth what that means. So, it has to be very very tightly regulated and how it is being tightly regulated it is being tightly regulated by a series of enzymes and the surrounding cells which are present. So, if you see a network of neuron it is something like this. So, let us draw a simple network. So, here is a network is forming from here the neuron signal goes like this. So, they have the dendritic arbor. So, even within this if you look at it the complexity of the situation a signal may start from here. So, for example, here it may move like this or it may move like this if there is a connectivity between the two and move like this they may come here or it may move like this or it may move like this whereas, the glial cells are all sitting in the surrounding just putting them like this out here out here out here out here out here already we have talked about their role in myelination. So, these say for example, this is the zone this is a very hot zone where basically all the information transfers are taking place like here like here. So, this is the zone where there is a lot of chemicals involved these chemicals have to be regulated. So, one of the key component which helps in regulating these different chemicals are astrocytes. They help in maintaining the homeostasis of the nervous system and the balance within the nervous system and this is very important and we are learning more and more about astrocytes as the research is unfurling some of their most vital and beautiful roles in this area. Then we have another group of cells which are called within the CNS called ependymal cells ependymal cells what are ependymal cells these are the cells which lines. So, let me again take a slight detour for your understanding what is so challenging about the central nervous system. So, in terms of its drug because there is something called a blood brain barrier. So, let me draw it that will make you realize. So, remember in the first picture I was drawing that like if this is the brain and this is the brain stem and this is the spinal cord and these are the ganglions from where central nervous system and peripheral nervous system and all these things are happening. This is how the signals are all the neurons are coming into the central nervous system and coming out of the central nervous system likewise and so on and so forth.  So, this whole all the cells out here they are not in direct contact with the blood vessels all the blood vessels which are coming close or coming on top of the brain something like this. So, all the blood vessels which are coming out in the into the brain or anything between the brain and between the tissues out here at the cellular level if you have to understand it because this is I am kind of drawing say at the cellular level what is happening. So, imagine this is a neuron in the central nervous system. So, most of the time what we believe is that if there is a cell like this say for example, here is a cell somewhere else the blood vessels are the capillaries are all over this and the capillaries are involved in all kind of you know the CO 2 intake oxygen downloading uploading and we have already studied about this. But in the case of neuron the capillaries are not in the close proximity likewise no this is not how the neuronal architecture is especially in the central nervous in the central nervous system what is there instead is this. So, for example, in the central nervous there is a barrier. So, the capillaries are somewhere out here they are in not in direct contact with the neuron. So, in between there is a layer of another tissue which is filled with a specific kind of fluid likewise and all the capillaries are on the periphery likewise all throughout it. So, this fluidic barrier is called blood brain barrier. So, this is very important this is important for 1001 reasons. So, the major reason is that if. So, what we do what a doctor does you have to see the practical situation a doctor injects a drug either you take it orally if you take it orally it goes to your gastrointestinal tract from there it is being absorbed by the blood vessels or if it has to have a very fast action the doctor does the injected inject the drug directly into your blood vessels fine or the inject the drug into subcutaneous somewhere in your muscles and from there the blood vessels picks up the drug this is how most of the drugs are being injected. So, end of the day every drug if it has to go at any part of your body it has to be injected into your blood finally it has to travel through the blood vessels unless it is some specific on the spot some muscle or something other than that it has to travel through all the blood vessels and the blood vessels while delivering oxygen and taking away the carbon dioxide ensures the drug is delivered at a specific spot of course this is the problem a drug cannot decide which is the specific spot. So, it kind of gets delivered and that is why we see the side effects because a drug goes all over your body say for example I have a pain out here. So, technically speaking I would love all the pain all the drug should come here, but how you could decide that it is not possible because it is travelling all over your body. So, it will keep on downloading and that is why instead a drug which could have actually acted with you know say 5 micro gram or you know 1 pico gram you need to take a pill of say you know 50 milligram why because rest of the 50 out of that 1 pico gram or 1 micro gram or 10 micro gram or 100 micro gram rest of the drug is all over your body and they do some unusual things. So, that is what we talk about you know why we should avoid too much medication because you have other complications because the drug is not needed by rest of the body it is needed by some specific spot. So, there is no localized way of you know telling the drug hey you know what you have to go here because this is where you are needed there is no way. So, this problem becomes even more complex while we talk about the brain why is it so because. So, as of now if you see this diagram it is that will clarify your situation. So, in this diagram you see so the drug is present here. So, the drug is being taken up by the cell which is perfectly all right, but think of it now this blood vessel is not in direct contact with this green cell what will have happened with the situation like this think of it.  So, that is why I had to all the detour, but it is good that I discuss this blood brain barrier with people that will help you to realize why a drug because. So, what happens along this if you see this diagram. So, what happens at this zone there are specific boards pretty much a molecular boards which carries the specific molecules there are glucose carrier there are of course, the gases moves through by the simple diffusion, but there are for the glucose for fructose for x y z molecules there is specific carrier which helps them to travel to the other end of the brain. So, your only other option left is that if you want to directly deliver then you have to directly inject something directly to the neuron or that neuronal mass there is no other way a neuron can reach or sorry a drug can reach directly to the neurons till it crosses the blood brain barrier. So, that is the role of the ependymal cells. So, now as I am progressing through you must be realizing that how important these glial cells are and one more in that same line we have not talked about this. Let me get back to that one is the microglia these are microglia these are some specialized cells and there are lot of controversies whether we should call them whether it should be part of the nervous system or they should be part of the immune system because these are the cells which can be termed as the immune cells of the nervous system. What they do is whenever there is a scar or something at some point say some point in the circuit there is a scar or something see this is the scar. So, these microglia rushes to that site and ensures to clean it up it is just like on the road there is some form of accident or something. So, as soon as there is an accident very soon there are convoys which come which ensures that you know clean up all the stuff from there. So, that the traffic can move on. So, it is exactly what microglia does it is the cell series of cells which comes there and clean up all the chemical debris the eat away everything and ensures that the traffic is continued and at times they even form very specialized structure out there and will come to that in spinal cord injury and all the things. So, in order to summarize what we talked about the neuroglia. So, we talked about neuroglia could be on two sites in the p n s as well as in the c n s within the p n s they could be satellite cells which are regulating carbon dioxide and oxygen. And there are Schwann cells which are forming the myelination sheet on the c n s side of the oligos which ensures the myelination process in a totally different fashion as compared to the Schwann cells. And you have the astro sites which regulates neurotransmitters and few when several other things it is it helps in the homeostasis of the nervous system and they are in huge number.  So, these are some of the very important aspects of the glial cells and one more thing glial cells are the dividing cells of the nervous system and neurons do not divide. Of course, there are some controversies here we will come back to that while we will be talking about some of the diseases do all neurons do not divide or there are some neurons which is the ability to divide. But quote unquote it is just we will come to this because there are some specific type species where a group of brain neurons do divide, but they are very specialized cases studies especially in the canary birds and few other biological systems where they do divide and we will come back to those while we will be talking about the different diseases and deviation from the what we see normally. There are deviations indeed.  So, it is the unregulated unchecked division of the glial cells which leads to any form of brain cancer or brain tumor or any other those kind of diseases where the cell division control or the check points are being compromised and we land up with troubles. So, from here I will come back. So, this was the detour I wanted to take before I move on to the next slide where we will be talking about the synaptic activity. So, what is the synapse? So, this is where we are going to concentrate now. So, if this is a neuron and this is the axonal end and this is the second neuron out here sitting here or it could be any other target tissue as a matter of fact it could be a muscle. So, let us draw that also. So, neuron here you have the muscle. So, this junction what you see out here this junction these junctions where the information are being transmitted or this junction any other such situation these are called synapses. This could be between neurons to neurons or neurons to the target tissue it could be muscle. So, this contact is called neuromuscular junction or neuromuscular synapse neuromuscular synapse neuromuscular synapse and these are called normal regular synapse. There is no such term called regular synapse, but these are just the synapse. So, synaptic activity could be electrical as well as chemical. So, what we meant by electrical and chemical? So, electrical synapses are very rare and very few in the body electrical synapses means say for example, here is a contact point. So, between the axon terminal and the dendritic part. So, if I amplify this. So, this is the axon terminal out here and these are the receiving dendrites out here. So, this is where the synapse is forming. So, between these if I further blow it up between two processes there are gap junctional connection the electrical connection which allows the flow of information, but such information flow is a very local information flow something what you see in cardiac cell it is in within a very enclosed structure where all the cells are you know transmitting. But when we talk about a nervous system which has huge network within our body these electrical synapses are not very successful and they are very very few and very located in very specific areas of the brain the basket cells and some of the I think the purkinje cells they have those kind of synapses, but not very many. What is more pronounced is the chemical synapses what is a chemical synapse. So, it is something like this it is a neuron it receives and here is another second neuron which is sitting here moving on. So, here is the signal coming and moving. So, this is the zone where this neuron transmits its electrical signal to this neuron and it does. So, using specific set of chemicals called neurotransmitters. So, this is what a chemical synapse is all about and we will talk more about the chemical synapse in the next lecture. So, closing on this lecture at this point and we will talk about the dimensions of the chemical synapses and what are the neurotransmitter molecules which are involved in it how those are being regulated by the surrounding glial cells and all other things what are the enzymes which are involved in that whole process and how the informations are being collected converge or diverge and all those things we are going to talk about. So, thanks a lot thanks for your attention.


Welcome back, we're live here from Supercomputing 22 in Dallas, Paul Gillan for Silicon Angle in the Cube with my guest host, Dave. Excuse me. Our guest today on this segment is Kim Lanar who is a storage performance architect at Broadcom. And the topic of this conversation is networking, it's connectivity. I guess how does that relate to the work of a storage performance architect? Well that's a really good question. So yeah, I have been focused on storage performance for about 22 years. But even if we're talking about just storage, the entire, all the components have a really big impact on ultimately how quickly you can access your data. So, you know, the switches, the memory bandwidth, the expanders, just the different protocols that you're using. And so, and the big part of it is actually ethernet because as you know, data's not siloed anymore. You have to be able to access it from anywhere in the world. So wait, so you're telling me that we're just not living in a CPU centric world now? Because it is sort of interesting when we talk about supercomputing and high performance computing, we're always talking about clustering systems. So, how do you connect those systems? Isn't that kind of your, your wheelhouse? It really is, it is Broadcom's wheelhouse. We are all about interconnectivity. And we own the interconnectivity.  Or just go in here and just allocate yourself more. So what we're seeing is these silos really of, hey, here's our compute, here's your networking, here's your storage. And so how do you put those all together? The thing is interconnectivity. So that's really what we specialize in. I'm really, you know, I'm really happy to be here to talk about some of the things that we do to enable high performance computing.  Is that something that Broadcom is working on alleviating? Absolutely. So we work with a lot of different, there's a lot of different standards that we work with to define so that we can make sure that we work everywhere. So even if you're just a dentist's office that's deploying one server, or we're talking about these hyperscalers that are, you know, that have thousands or, you know, tens of thousands of servers, you know, we're working on making sure that the next generation is able to outperform the previous generation. Not only that, but we found that, you know, with these siloed things, if you add more storage, but that means we're going to eat up six cores using that, it's not really as useful. So Broadcom's really been focused on trying to offload the CPU. So we're offloading it from, you know, data security, data protection, you know, where we do packet sniffing ourselves and things like that. So no longer do we rely on the CPU to do that kind of processing for us, but we become very smart devices all on our own so that they work very well in these kinds of environments. So how about, give us an example. I know a lot of the discussion here has been around using Ethernet as the connectivity layer. Yes. You know, in the past people would think about supercomputing as exclusively being Infiniband based, but give us an idea of what Broadcom is doing in the Ethernet space. What are the advantages of using Ethernet? So we've made two really big announcements. The first one is our Tomahawk 5 Ethernet switch. So it's a 400 gigi Ethernet switch. And the other thing we announced too was our Thor. So we have, these are our newer controllers that also support up to 400 gigi each as well. So those two alone, it's amazing to me how much data we're able to transfer with those, but not only that, but there's super, super intelligent controllers too. And then we realized, hey, we're managing all this data. Let's go ahead and offload the CPU. So we actually adopted the Rocky standards. So that's one of the things that puts us above Infiniband is that Ethernet is ubiquitous. It's everywhere. And Infiniband is primarily just owned by one or two companies. And it's also a lot more expensive. So Ethernet is just, it's everywhere. And now with the Rocky standards, we're working along with, it does what you're talking about, much better than predecessors. Tell us about the Rocky standards. I'm not familiar with it. I'm sure some of our listeners are not. What is the Rocky standards? So it's our DMA over-converged to Ethernet. I'm not a Rocky expert myself, but I am an expert on how to offload the CPU. And so one of the things it does is instead of using the CPU to transfer the data from the user space over to the next server when you're transferring it, we actually will do it ourselves. So we'll handle it ourselves. We will take it, we will move it across the wire and we will put it in that remote computer. And we don't have to ask the CPU to do anything to get involved in that. So it's a big savings. Yeah, I mean in a nutshell, because there are parts of the Infiniband protocol that are essentially embedded in RDMA over-converged Ethernet. So if you can leverage kind of the best of both worlds, but have it in an Ethernet environment, which is already ubiquitous, it seems like it's kind of democratizing super computing and HPC. And I know you guys are big partners with Dell as an example.  But let's say somebody's going to be doing Ethernet for connectivity. You also offer switches? We do, actually.  That's a big piece of the puzzle. So we just released our Atlas II switch. It is a PCIe Gen 5 switch. What does that mean? What is Gen 5? What does that mean? Oh, Gen 5 PCIe. It's a magic connectivity right now. So we talk about the Sapphire Rapids release as well as the Gen OI release. I know that those have been talked about a lot here. I've been walking around and everybody's talking about it. Well, those enable the Gen 5 PCIe interfaces. So we've been able to double the bandwidth from the Gen 4 up to the Gen 5. So in order to support that, we do now have our Atlas II PCIe Gen 5 switch. And it allows you to connect, especially around here, we're talking about artificial intelligence and machine learning. A lot of these are relying on the GPUs and the DPUs that you see a lot of people talking about enabling. So by putting these switches in the servers, you can connect multitudes of not only NVMe devices, but also these GPUs and these CPUs. So besides that, we also have the storage component of it too. So to support that, we just recently have released our 9,500 series HBAs which support 24 gig Sass. And this is kind of a big deal for some of our hyperscalers that say, hey look, our next generation, we're putting a hundred hard drives in. So we're like, you know, so a lot of it is maybe for cold storage, but by giving them that 24 gig bandwidth and by having these mass 24 gig Sass expanders that allows these hyperscalers to build up their systems. And how are you supporting the HPC community writ large? And what are you doing this exclusively for supercomputing? Exclusively for, so we're doing the interconnectivity really for them. You know, you can have as much compute power as you want, but these are very data hungry applications. And a lot of that data is not sitting right in the box. A lot of that data is sitting in some other country or in some other city or just the box next door.  And then there's another kind of, you know, the other way is move the data around, which is a lot easier kind of sometimes, but so we're allowing us to move that data around. So for that, you know, we do have our Tomahawk switches. We've got our Thor, Knicks, and of course we got, you know, the really wide pipe. So our new 9500 series HBA and RAID controllers not only allow us to do, so we're doing 28 gigabytes a second that we can trans through the one controller and that's on protected data. So we can actually have the high availability protected data of RAID five or RAID six or RAID 10 in the box, giving in 27 gigabytes a second. So it's unheard of. The latency that we're seeing even off of this too, we have a right cash latency that is sub eight microseconds. That is lower than most of the NVMe drives that you see, you know, that are available today. So, you know, we're able to support these applications that require really low latency, as well as data protection. So often when we talk about the underlying hardware, it's a game of, you know, whack a mole, chase the bottleneck. And so you've mentioned PCI-E five. A lot of folks who will be implementing five, gen five, PCI-E five, are coming off of three, not even four. I know. So they're not just getting a last generation to this generation bump, but they're getting a two generations. They are. How does that, is it the case that it would never make sense to use a next gen or current gen card in an older generation bus because of the mismatch in performance? Are these things all designed to work together? That's a really tough question. I want to say no, it doesn't make sense. It really makes sense just to kind of move things forward and buy a card that's made for the bus. And however, that's not always the case. So for instance, our 9500 controller is a gen four PCI-E. But what we did, and we doubled the PCI-E, so it's a buy 16, even though it's a gen four, it's a buy 16. So we're getting really, really good bandwidth out of it. As I said before, we're getting 28, 27.8 or almost 28 gigabytes a second bandwidth out of that by doubling the PCI-E bus. But they work together. It all works together. It all works together. You can put our gen four and a gen five all day long and they work beautifully. We do work to validate that. We're almost out of time, I want to ask you a more nuts and bolts question about storage. And we've heard for years of the aerial density of hard disks has been reached and there's really no way to make the disk any denser. What does the future of the hard disk look like as a storage medium? Multi actuator, actually. We're seeing a lot of multi actuator. I was surprised to see it come across my desk because our 9500 actually does support multi actuator. And so it was really neat after, I've been working with hard drives for 22 years. And I remember when they could do 30 megabytes a second and that was amazing. That was like, wow, 30 megabytes a second. And then about 15 years ago, they hit around 200 to 250 megabytes a second and they stayed there. They haven't gone anywhere. What they have done is they've increased the density so that you can have more storage. So you can easily go out and buy 15 to 30 terabyte drive but you're not going to get any more performance. So what they've done is they've added multiple actuator. So each one of these can do its own streaming and each one of these can actually do their own seeking. So you can get two and four. And I've even seen a talk about eight actuator per disk. I don't think that that, I think that's still theory but they could implement those. So that's one of the things that we're seeing. Old technology somehow finds a way to remain current even in the face of new alternatives. Kim Lay and our storage architect, storage performance architect at Broadcom. Thanks so much for being here with us today. Thank you so much for having me. This is Paul Gillan with Dave Nicholson here at Supercomputing 22. We'll be right back.


All right, now let's take a look at some basic security on how to secure computer for personal internet use. Now, some class topics on this here is we're gonna look at the online risk. See what's available on there. And we'll look at the hackers. They kind of came about to be. And look at identity theft as well as some end user security best practices. Now, more specifically on password and password attack countermeasures as well as setting up security protocols such as internet security suites and our spyware, et cetera, et cetera, et cetera. So what are the risks? Well, you may already know that viruses are bad. Spyware is bad. You may have heard of something called adware which could also be bad but more annoying than anything else. But you know, it always comes down to what you don't know will probably hurt you at least in this field. So let's take a look at some of the things that we know about and hopefully get into some of the unknown. So some of the known risks that we have, right? But did you know that you could actually be helping hackers with getting your information and using it for their benefit if you happen to use email? And the likelihood of 99.99% of you all using email is most likely, right? Do you use some type of auto fill in when you go to your browsers and use the internet explorer or Firefox or Chrome or whatever it is you're using for internet exploring? And usually comes with a nice little feature called the auto fill in. This is where basically you go to a form that you fill out and you get to put in your information and then if you go to another form somewhere else it will then have that information that you've already put in so you don't have to refill it in every time. It's a nice little convenience. However, very dangerous to have on your machine. Very easy to get to as a hacker. Do you shop online? Likelihood is probably. Whether it be both private or via the business that could definitely put you at risk. Do you use a messenger or instant messenger program? All right, so IM program such as AOL, instant messenger, Yahoo, MSN or Link or something to that effect that could possibly put you at risk. Do you clear your cash and cookies regularly? If you do, that might be actually a good thing. If you don't, that could possibly be a cause of concern because hackers will actually get access to those cookies and to your cash which is basically where your temporary internet files are stored and so forth. Now do you also allow ActiveX controls? And sometimes this can be controlled through what we call a group policy. So whenever you log into the system it sets this group policy that says do not use ActiveX controls for certain sites and so forth and only use it for internal sites which we call the intranet and such. Now did you know according to a recent survey only less than three minutes, less than three minutes for your computer to be attacked once it's connected to the internet? Now my personal opinion is that it takes a lot less than three minutes. I mean we're talking literally 30 seconds that you could be attacked from the internet once you're connected. It all just depends on what type of security you already have in place before you connect onto the internet. If you have no security and you connect to the internet it can be literally less than a minute of time before your computer is attacked. I used to teach back when Windows 2000 first came out a Microsoft course where we installed 2000 professional. This was before Windows XP. And while we were updating, looking for updates online, while we were doing the updating we were getting attacked. So it didn't take very long at all even back then to be attacked and mainly had to do with what kind of security measures you already have in place. If you have a firewall then you're somewhat secure.  You have lots of different options there that you can implement and that your organization most likely is implementing to help protect against that. So again what are the risks here? There are ways of accessing the system with attackers pretending they're legitimate companies like Microsoft and so forth and learning your private information often without you knowing it's even happening. They will then have possibly remote access to your machines. They can remote to your machine whenever you're connected to the internet. It could be coming through bogus Microsoft updates for instance. So instead of going through the Microsoft update site you're going to some third party site and downloading updates that way. It could be recording cookies which a cookie is basically a text file on your system that is stored in your cache file isn't in your temporary cache, temporary files that actually stores information about you. So next time you go to a website it'll have like your name and say it's welcome back and it'll have your name there and it's all stored within a cookie and that's how it knows who you are. And of course we also have root kits and keystroke loggers and these of course are very hard to find at times and they can cause a lot of damage. Specifically too they cause your machines to generally slow down and cause them to crash every so often and use up a lot of your resources just as your memory and your processing power. So things you need to know, did you know that if someone were to access the internet from your home and a crime was committed the odds are that you will be held responsible. Here according to the infoworld.com a recent article if someone commits a crime with your internet connection you could be held responsible and some others say that you should be held responsible. This is a very true actually a lot of the advanced hacking and such that I do with mile two some of it comes through the wireless side of things and you probably I'm assuming you would have some type of wireless access point which is a wireless router that you connect to your internet through and if somebody got a hold of that router or was able to get onto your machine onto your network via that router because you either one didn't secure it you left it unsecured or you have very weak security such as web security for instance with a weak key then somebody if somebody does get access to that and then commits crimes because it is your equipment you may be held responsible for that and there are definitely cases out there where that was the case so just be very cautious that because it's your equipment you have to be careful you have to keep it protected so make sure you put some good passwords on it make sure you secure it with higher encryption levels so when it comes to wireless for instance you want to use WPA or WPA2 as part of your security encryption and you want to make sure that everything is nicely password protected with nice long complicated passwords now complicated password doesn't necessarily mean that it has to be up a lowercase symbols and everything and sound all like 3G explanation 0.52 uppercase D lowercase B number 8 the at symbol and so forth but it can be simply something like Mary had a little lamb but you just use the first initial of every word and then you maybe add a number or a symbol there and that could be it as well something easy to remember we refer to that as a past phrase and it could be something like that make sure it's plenty of characters long as in eight or more or even 10 or more characters all right now if we look at the hacker there's basically different levels of hackers all right now when we look at the term hacker there's different levels of hackers and even within the hacking community they have their own little system own reasons acts of the commit and so forth such as like your vandals that basically do out of curiosity or personal fame these would be called your script kitties and the script kitties are generally what we call the noobs or the new newcomers they basically will download a tool and then just execute the tool without really knowing what the tool is doing or how to execute the attack without the tool and such so these are generally gonna be maybe your preteens your teenagers and such that are out there causing a little bit of havoc and maybe they're just doing it for personal fame or anything else right you also have your trespassers and these are gonna mainly maybe do it more so for personal gain you know there might be money involved there and they can range from you know being more like a hobbyist to expert hacker considered within that realm we also have course within the personal gain also lost a largest area lost with the dollar amount and if we move on up we have our thieves and these are gonna have the largest area of dollar lost also fastest growing segment and this is gonna be what the identity theft people are basically and these are gonna be the ones stealing your credit card numbers and you know swiping your card it could be as simple as somebody you know at the restaurant that you give your credit card to and they have another card swiper that they use and that will just record your information all they have to do is swipe it as simple as that and they may even do it in plain sight in front of you without you really knowing so again it's very very dangerous and such out there but it's also very profitable for them if they gather enough credit card information with everything else about you and also the largest segment spent on dollar amounts spent on defense of course would be your spies these are gonna be your experts, your specialists and of course they might have more of a national interest in it, they might also be the hacktivists which may do it more for a cause than anything else but again largest amount of dollar spent on defense against it is definitely there so keep that in mind as you know you kind of see things going on and so forth and just know that it's very real and very very current so what is identity theft? Well identity theft occurs when someone uses their personally identifiable information like your name, social security number, credit card number without your permission to commit frauds or the crimes and the FTC estimates that as many as 10 million Americans have their identity stolen each year and you can actually go to the consumerftc.gov website to check that out and it's amazing on some of the things there. It's becoming more and more each year and it's very easily done until you have to be very cautious, check items, make sure you do a lot of different things there to get things going. All right, fighting identity theft. Now awareness of course is an effective weapon against identity theft, you need to be aware of what's going on, what are these bad guys doing out there? How are they actually committing this? What are they doing to get your information and things like that? And they do everything from stealing your mail from the mailbox to just swiping your credit card at the local restaurant. I mean this is very very straightforward, very easy to do. It just depends on how desperate they are and so forth that they're in, situation they're in. So awareness also how information is stolen and what you can do to protect yourself whereas also of the need to monitor your personal information, uncover any problems quickly. Again, very very interesting. I did a little project where I actually used somebody else's credit card with their permission of course and I spent over $4,000 using that credit card. I did everything from purchase things online to physically go to the store and purchase items to go to a restaurant and I was never asked for ID. They never checked the signature to match and nothing like that and it was just amazing how much money I was able to spend and I ended up giving the credit card back. Of course everything that was spent and so forth was reimbursed and so forth but needless to say it was a nice little project that I was able to see firsthand that it doesn't really matter. As long as you have a credit card you can spend money, it's crazy. If you ever lose your credit card or think you lost it make sure that you let your bank know or your credit card company know that you might wanna put a hold on it or make sure at least that you monitor it until you locate it or something. It's always better to put it on hold and then find it later and then have them open it back up then not say anything at all and wait a few days because within a few days your card might be maxed out literally. So you gotta be very cautious and aware of that. Also awareness of what to do when you suspect your identity has been stolen as something I just mentioned there. You can also check out the Consumer FTC website to check out some of those features. Now we have some little practice links here for you that you guys can check. And basically here there's little online games that you basically go through that actually ask you questions and take you through the process of what to do and so forth to see if you're aware of the different scenarios. So I've put a few different of the links out there, everything from auction, if you're doing any kind of online auctioning, if you know stuff about spyware or even using Friend Finder, ID theft, Face Off, we have Invasion Wireless Hackers I mentioned here a minute ago, right? If you're doing any kind of investment online, if you have any type of laptop that you just kind of have around, I was at the library not too long ago and there was a lady there that was sitting two tables down and she had her laptop up and running and everything and then she just leaves to go to the restroom and leaves her laptop right there, not even locked, not even locked and just leaves it there and is literally gone for at least five minutes and comes back, everything's course is fine but you could imagine just being gone for 20 seconds could be if nobody's looking, right? On how easily that laptop could have been stolen or compromised because she didn't lock the computer so it made it vulnerable to lots of attacks but be aware that that definitely is doable. Of course you're doing any kind of peer to peer sharing, phishing scams via email, spam scams and so forth, right? And things like that. So why don't we take you guys through some of these and then if you get an opportunity you can check out some of these other ones as well and go through it and kind of test yourself on that. So why don't we give that a shot and give it a go? All right, hopefully you had lots of fun going through some of those exercises there and again it seemed a little silly but it does come through and show you that there are definitely things out there that you're like, oh, I didn't know about that and hopefully that was the case on some of those and hopefully it was also a little fun to go through and kind of get yourself a little bit more awareness. So let me show you guys some other types of identity theft resources that you can use, some different websites in particular and so forth that you can check out and take from there. So let's go ahead and take a look at a few of those. All right, so hopefully that helped you out a little bit with looking at some of those sites and keep in mind overall, don't panic. This is just a short introduction to some of the matters and simple fixes, of course, that we'll be discussing and defending against hackers is as easy as playing solitaire on your PC. Once you know what you're looking for, the rest is gonna be pretty easy, right? So it's just a matter of getting what you're looking for and finding it and knowing what to do, of course, about it and so forth. All right, awesome. Well, great, let's go ahead and take you on to the next section. Let's go. Let's go.


Everybody forced here up in 22 23 optic choice basketball hobby 10 bucks. I'll take choice back. There's not hobbyist choice I guess it's choice hobby. I don't know optic choice 10 box number 23 tiered find the results anytime elite sports cars calm Let's do it. It's Steve. What you talking about? I'm talking about Steve Everyone hates Tottenham. Is that you're saying nobody hates Tottenham? Everyone just laughs at Tottenham Never won anything I'll be laughing at Steve When I got to reboot him eight times in one match tomorrow Reboot vans gonna break reboot him so much. I Couldn't believe that that one that one game we played today You know I'm talking about we were hopping around we almost died like 18 times. That was insane I couldn't believe that we did not die. The other team probably so mad All right. Anyway, hollow miles Turner and Tyrese Martin Redemption to start us off on the autos is a Trevor Kiehl's that goes to the Knicks rated rookie signatures choice. That'd be an on-card for the Knicks Got a red to 88. Hit me butler For the heat. It's a piece of dust. I believe to the left there. We'll get that off 86 E5 88 I think red and green is Blake Wesley blue choice Cameron Johnson net Low number there for Brooklyn through five at 24. I believe three of 24 It's hard to see they have that they have the numbering on like the photo on the back So it's not in the clear spot. Sorry, Eason and Isam Obley rated rookie choice Did I need to activate my dental insurance tomorrow as well and my vision? I don't think I got vision Hollows Simons and Davis put on Donnie's tab dude. Donnie didn't have any money gail Goodrich auto. Yeah Donnie's tab. We don't he's not allowed to have a tab. Yeah, there's no such thing. We won't allow that Lakers gail Goodrich auto there Red to 88 bucks. Yeah, that's onto the kumpo. That's how we know You're making it up Shane way to go, buddy Yanis to 88 bucks got blue time lords Celtics to 24 There's a red Yovet rated rookie for the heat solid pack here solid box 36 of 88 It's not my problem. I mean, all right, sorry, Eason David Roddy Adam feeling getting her already His head is in the medical tense, so I don't know what I don't know what that means I don't know why I got a notification for someone go to the medical tense. I can that can be a lot of things Hollow Cameron Thomas Nets Bryce McGowan's for the Hornets Anton Jameson wizards optographs choice The auto there T Wolves red to 88 is a Jaden McDaniels Red and green Kawhi Leonard Clippers Red Walker Kessler rated rookie for Utah free solid 83 of 88 jazz Choice rated rookies Peyton Watson nugs Mark Williams Hornets. Oh my god Has she never been timed out he's about he might get timed out The hollow hawks the auntie Murray and E. G. LaDell pelicans Redemption Patrick Baldwin jr. Rookie optic optics autographs choice Patrick Baldwin jr. Is a warrior Red to 88 Anthony Edwards T Wolves that must have been something happened in chat last night Nice Edwards green choice dragon Steve has avoided saying something so far be nice to force Shane's not doing anything to me. He's gone after Sean, but I guess Sean liar a team right now So you know what they're watching Dylan Terry rated rookie for the Bulls and Oshak Bozzi jazz Steve man Steve when we play with Steve we're just gonna leave him Like oh, we couldn't get your card not getting him up. Oh, yeah, I couldn't get him shame Kick him out of the lobby before we win turn friendly fire on drop him What's using as bait like decoy You stand out here jumping around shooting and we'll wait for the other team to come along Hollow Clarkson jazz ready Jackson for the nugs Dale Ellis red choice auto for the sonics go to the thunder Red to 88 for the clips is Jason Preston Green choice ready rookie is Tyrese Martin Hawks Red and green Chris Paul Sons Rookies of Ryan Rollins warriors and Max Christie Lakers Keep in mind guys personals right now in channel two with Max personals on channel two Kyle on fanatics in the morning 10 a.m. Eastern start time we got some pristine some tops chrome some NC football maybe some more stuff I don't know. We'll see we'll see fanatics burner Hollow Harris for the Sixers and Malik Monk Kings Benedict Matheran rookie optographs choice auto going to the Pacers That's cool. Shane. That's that's that means nothing to us red 88 is Dorian Finney Smith nets Well, at least you're staying busy though, you know, keep this guy out of trouble Right and green Donna Mitchell cast I can Got blue choice to 24. Terry was your hornets And rated rookies up Kendall Brown and Bryce McGowan's Will oh we should live stream Shizniz Yes, Almanac sold out a super super fast Hollow Randall Knicks Zion pelicans optographs choice John Stockton jazz Red to 88 clips Paul George Nice a Matheran also numbered to 88 rated rookie Pacers Nice break so far for the Pacers 54 of 88 running green Grayson Allen for the the Bucks Grated rookie choice when no more junior wolves and Dyson Daniels pelicans Thank You remorse Heck, yeah Finally someone that's respectable in this chat No reboot for Steve exactly Dustin exactly at least one time Depends on how good he is though.  He's got to stay He's got to stay up Sean. Yes, it's Sean Sean moment Sean Kemp Sonic's auto going to the Thunder Red to 88 Nirkage Blazers red and green ready rookie mobly calves and a green choice KD sons green dragon Ready rookies is during for the pistons and shade on sharp Blazers They were for sure going live here. We'll get Cortes Can't get laying he's out He decided to go to a show on the new season debut, so that's a that's a bot move Should have just taken his PlayStation to carry on got Jimmy Butler heats when no more junior wolves Grated rookie red it's a 80 not to 88, but just ready rookie red David Roddy Memphis On the auto there Raptors autoporter junior red to 88 red and green Denny FD Red and green Josh Giddy Red rookie choice Walker Kessler Jalen Williams. All right, come on black and gold or or Nebula here. We need it We need it. No, I think we're gonna do trash this trashes on Sundays now We're doing Sundays from now on Hollow Bertans For the Mavs Scotty Pippin jr. Miles Turner Pacers optographs choice Red to 88 dwelling beads 76ers There's a black and gold there we go calling shots that I man Black and gold Rudy go bear for the T wolves nice card Minnesota Black and gold eight six of eight on the go bear red and green herder and rated rookie choice of Jabari Walker Blazers And Blake Wesley for the spurs to a really quick auto recap guys We had Miles Turner David Roddy Sean Kemp sonic scale into the Thunder a John Stockton Benedict Matherin Dale Ellis redemption Patrick Baldwin jr. For the Warriors rookie optics autograph choice Anton Jameson for the Wizards Guild Girdrich Lakers and Nick's Trevor Kiehl's All right, that'll do it. Thanks again everybody. We are moving on now to We're basketball Thanks again, y'all


Live from Washington, D.C., it's theCUBE, covering AWS Public Sector Summit 2018, brought to you by Amazon Web Services and its ecosystem partners. Welcome back to the nation's capital, everybody. You're watching theCUBE, the leader in live tech coverage. My name is Dave Vellante, I'm here with Stuart Minerman and we're covering, this is day one of the AWS Public Sector Summit, hashtag AWS PS Summit. Got that right, right Stu? You did Dave, Lynn Martin is here. She's the Vice President and General Manager of Government Education and Healthcare at VMware. We got news, Lynn, welcome to theCUBE. Thanks for coming on. Thanks for having me. It's our pleasure. So let's start, before we get into the news, let's start with VMware and Public Sector. You were kind of explaining us off camera. Talk about VMware and its role in Public Sector. So VMware has been ingrained in the government agencies and education across state, local and federal government for the beginning of VMware. There's billions of dollars of investments across all the different parts of Public Sector. So we have a trusted partnership, 90% share wallet across those agencies and the different entities across state and local government as well. And today, I'll pivot a little bit towards the announcement, today's announcement, we were partnered with AWS around the VMC on AWS GovCloud. Today, we offer VMC on AWS. That is a commercial offering that supports all of our customers that do not require the same levels of security that the federal government and some of our state and local customers require. Yeah, Lynn, I'm just wondering to you know, we're intimately familiar with VMC. John Furrier was at the announcement with AWS and VMware when announced, but for our audience that's not maybe just the short summary as to what that solution is. Sure, so VMware cloud, that's VMC on AWS allows you to leverage the VMware suite of product sets that are already being used and running your data centers today, and then be able to move your workloads into the public cloud. So we call it hybrid cloud technology, utilizing the tools of the software defined data center that are already running in those customer environments and give you the flexibility and agility to move workloads in and out as you need for your business demands at a high level. We were just speaking to the former CTO of the CIA and he took us back to sort of the initial impetus for the CIA moving to cloud. And he gave four things, velocity, efficiency, drive innovation and security. If I think about the early days of VMware and the impact it had in the data center, I could have listed those same four things. It's now we're just taking it up another level in terms of everything is higher velocity, the drive for efficiency is even greater, innovations like we've never seen before and security is more important than ever before. So you got that dialed up, but you also now have to your point, the hybrid factor used to be all on-prem. Now we've got this morphing into public and private. So I wonder if you could talk about sort of those four pillars, they're similar issues for IT people today as it was yesterday. I don't think they've changed, to be honest with you. That's what you're hearing from customers. So I would say, part of the desire to move forward with the VMC on AWS, GovCloud is what we've heard from customers. So the solution will provide that flexibility even at another level for them public cloud because today, as most people know when you go to move your application, CIA is a great one, they started that endeavor I think three years ago plus, maybe four. It's coming on, yeah, three to four. To get those workloads moved is heavy lifting. So with the flexibility of the VMC on AWS and I think that's what's interesting in the partnership between Andy and Pat around this is really being able to take that software layer and being able to move much faster. So a great example would be the MIT had built an on-prem solution with VMware. Just recently, we've moved them to VMC on AWS. Those workloads got moved in days. The first time it took months and months and months in a year before we could move all 900 workloads. Literally, that was then less than two weeks and it could go back and forth. So the flexibility for new things when they come up and then when you wrap that around with the security layers, I think that's what really creates a unique value proposition. So I think public clouds here, I think you're going to see in the future over the next three to five years more and more different cloud providers and hybrid cloud technology with that layer that allows you to figure out where you want to go, when you want to go. Unique situations, if you think about the government and missions that come up, that gives you a flexibility to move at a speed that doesn't exist in the marketplace today. Yeah, Lynn, I remember last year at VMworld, I talked to a customer and there was a group inside the company that was like, we need to do more cloud, we need to move faster. But from an administrative standpoint, it's like, oh, I need to retrain, I need to do things to talent. And they're like, when I told them it's a full VMware stack, they were like, they actually opened up and they were able to move forward. And that was step one in making changes as to how they were building their applications. Teresa's keynote today had a side on the people piece. And I think one of the biggest benefits today is that your talent is already trained on the VMware tools. So you're not really getting through that mindset of doing everything different and retraining and trying to figure out how to get the expertise in. Those same computer operators that run the VMware environment can now run your cloud environment. That's a really important point. I remember when Hadoop first kind of hit the scene, everybody wanted SQL because they didn't have to re-skill. Exactly. And that was a game changer. And this is part of the, I want to bring in the Modernizing Government Technology Act. So to the extent that you don't have to completely re-skill, you're going to be able to- Modernize. Modernize faster, right? Right. So I think today the differentiator from the beginning of VMware was, we still had to teach a lot of the workforce how to use the VMware tools. Now, everybody was behind that. If you worked at HP or Dell or IBM, anyone selling hardware for server consolidation, they learned quickly how to spin up a VM and then move. Today, those organizations have invested in other software-defined data center tools, whether it be our networking tools, our storage tools, and then you got the compute layer and you can abstract that up and then have a management feature that allows you to make your hybrid cloud decisions and look at price points across the market as well. So with the same people that know how to work, that environment and manage it. And I think part of the issues when you look at server virtualization in the early days, I happened to work at another company back then, the challenge we ran into was to change management processes at the government sites. And it took years to transform the workforce into that type of an environment. So an example would be maybe security or backup, would be, I would think of- Easy, DR. Yeah, DR, right, data protection, right. Or new missions for things or a postal service for the Christmas mailing system instead of spending millions of dollars and spin up infrastructure. You spin out to the cloud, then in January you come back in to your on-prem database. Okay, Lynn, I wonder if you can help explain a little bit, you know, what goes into getting VMC on GovCloud? We heard from Teresa there are certain things that was like, oh, Aurora's on there. It's like, oh, we've been talking about Aurora for a while. So, you know, why isn't it ready day one? What's the process to get through it? And can you give us a little business ability as to when this will launch? So, what we announced today was our intent to enter into the FedRAMP process jointly. So the engineering teams both are working right now on the solutioning. The differentiator is we already have VMC on AWS, as you guys know, and it's available in quite a few places and more are spinning up and being announced of the AWS locations. It's taking that through the security accreditation processes that the government has. And we will be pursuing FedRAMP high as well as DOD impact levels. So we are going for the highest levels of security because then you can do everything else after that. Okay, but it's not a days or weeks kind of initiative. This is a months plus kind of thing. But once you enter into the FedRAMP process, which we're looking towards fall this year, once you enter in, you actually can start going after procurements in there because you're in process. So through that. I mean, it's early, you just announced it, but maybe you talked to a few customers beforehand. What's the reaction been? What's the feedback? So we have a list of customers that are fighting to be our sponsor. We have more customers wanting to sponsor it than we can have. So how do you then? So when I, and I would say the driver from the market really to push this with VMware was customers. Yeah. Customers were like, VMC on AWS is great, but these customers here that we're talking to are public, they're all like, we need it on AWS, CuffCloud. Just saying how things have changed so quickly. It was like VMware and AWS are kind of adversaries. There was a lot of fear that, oh, the public cloud is going to kill. And then all of a sudden these two companies come together and you see this huge momentum. Well, and I think it's a unique value proposition that isn't offered in the marketplace combined.  I could go count by count and there's some they're keeping in house. This allows you to afford the flexibility of the cloud environment, utilizing what you have there on-prem. Well, and your share of wallet. True hybrid. But your share of wallet makes it different as well because you have such a huge footprint. Other, you know, cloud companies have relationships or other companies have relationships with cloud companies, but VMware is the standard. For virtualization. Right? So that's kind of, you know, those customers talking. You know, Angie Jassy always says we're customer driven. We're not, you know, competitive driven. I mean, I think the culture- And I think for us as well, I'm sure you guys have talked to Pat. So we've been with us. I think we've realized that's a good marriage for us too and our customers. It solves a problem that no one else has solved that's very unique. Has the Dell acquisition, what has that changed if anything or expanded or, you know, culturally?  So I would say that the culture between Dell, legacy Dell and VMware are very similar. EMC a little different, but the culture between those two were very, very similar. I think the good news is, and I give Michael Dell a lot of credit for this, with the Dell Technologies, which is a collection of all the companies underneath that. So VMware, Pivotal, Secureworks, RSA, Dell EMC, et cetera. He really has tried to put together a business model that customers get the benefit of that. So when VMware was owned by EMC, we kind of said, oh yeah, you can get EMC, VMware together, but then customers had to write two contracts. Customers had to deal with two different. Here, Michael's allowed and created frameworks to allow customers to get the benefits of Dell technology. When they want to, they don't have to. VMware still is an independent company, and we work with all different companies. But he's created an environment that really is conducive for the teaming, for customers' best interests. So then what should we be watching? You know, near term, mid term, long term, in terms of just adoption in federal, maybe partnerships, ecosystem growth. Yep. So I think you'll see what we're already beginning to see across the marketplace with non-gov cloud adoption. And I would say that the public sector team is actually driving a faster rate of adoption than other parts of our business already. Really, okay. Very interesting to see what's going on in all our joint planning meetings with Amazon and VMware and looking at the adoption we're seeing from the government as well as state and local and education. And then I think you'll see the ecosystem. So, you know, Teresa and I've worked through who's the right ecosystem? What does that look like? Who are yours? What are ours? And you know, that's been a big emphasis for AWS. So it's very complimentary. We've got distribution set up to be able to enable us across this market because that's important for the markets. And because of the way they procure we have to do everything uniquely for them. So I think there's going to be a lot of exciting stuff. And then as soon as we can get in process there's a lot of activity in the market to respond to. And you also, you touched on it, but you do healthcare and education as well. Very quickly, what are the sort of similarities and differences there relative to those things? I see a lot of similarity between all three verticals. They're all unique in their own way. But because they're unique there's benefits of it being together for VMware. So a great example would be our commercial healthcare business may not have FedRAMP but they have special certifications for patient records and things that require engineering to build special products a certain way to support our healthcare market. So you can take the same processes and things that we put together and applied for federal and state and local and then apply it to the healthcare market. The other piece I would say as some of the things we're doing first and I would compliment AWS on this is they really did a good job of standing up the government business and it provided benefit to the rest of their business as a result of that emphasis in government. I think the same thing applies across VMware as we start to look at the verticals that have special needs. And then because you can handle different kinds of security requirements and things that are unique it's easier to scale that back towards the other business. As a benefit, like financials, think about it. If it's good enough for certain customers, CIA and things like that, it's good enough for them, right? Or patient care records, things like that. So there's actually application of all that to the other pieces. And then there's this 20% that feds different because they're fed, sleds different because they're sled and then healthcare is different because it's healthcare. So we see a lot of great synergy that's relatively new. Last year we merged the healthcare team into the new organization. It's kind of like our kids do. Yeah, that's right. Lynn, thanks so much for coming to theCUBE. It was great having you. I enjoyed it. Thanks so much. All right, keep it right there, buddy. We'll be back with our next guest. Dave Vellante for Stu Miniman. John Furrier is here as well. You're watching theCUBE from AWS Public Sector Summit and we'll be right back. All right.