In part 2, we are going to look at more features of VR diagram. The first feature we are going to look at is weak entity set. This is sometimes a confusing concept. Conceptually, a weak entity set is any entity set that does not have a primary key. Now, this may sound weird. Primary key is something we define for it. So, why would it not have a primary key? I will explain that in more detail in a little bit. But, another way to think about it is a weak entity set is one where the existence of an entity depends on the existence of another entity which is in a set called the identifying entity set. This is actually a better way to think about it. So, in our university schema, there is a notion of a course. A course may not have been offered. It is a brand new course. The course has an existence. It has a syllabus. It has a number of credits and so forth. But, can a section of a course exist without a course? It does not make any sense to have a section with no associated course. So, section is existence dependent on course. And therefore, it might make sense to model a section as a weak entity set, not as an identifying entity set. I will come back to this section issue in a moment. But, a few more terminology. The discriminator of partial key of a weak entity set is part of a primary key. So, we do not have a real primary key, meaning we do not have enough attributes to uniquely identify it. But, there are some attributes which are used to distinguish different occurrences which are related to the same identifying set. Now, what does all this mean? Let me show a figure and explain all these concepts. First of all, course is a strong entity set is one which is not weak. Course is a strong entity set. It has a primary key course ID. It has a couple of attributes. Section, we decided to make it a weak entity set and related to course. Now, what are the alternatives? We know a section is dependent on a course. So, it has to be identified with a course. So, we could have created several alternative diagrams. One alternative would be to give a section ID which is like a globally unique integer. And then, a diagram would have looked like this. Instead of section ID being dashed line here. A dashed line means it is not a full primary key by itself, but it is a discriminator attribute. And a section is uniquely identified by the course ID of the identifying course and section ID semester here. These four things put together only form a primary key. These three by themselves are not sufficient as a primary key. The other notational thing here is that we draw a double diamond to indicate that section is identified by course. The fact that section does not have a underline here means it is a weak entity set. There is no primary key. And therefore, it must be identified by some other entity set. And which one? The double diamond is what helps you to understand which is the identifying strong entity set. Not also that there are a couple of other constraints. A section must be identified with a course. Therefore, there is a double line. A section can be associated with only one course. It cannot be associated with two courses. Therefore, there is a arrow on this side. So, that is the summary of this. Now, why did we choose section this way? We had two alternatives. One we could have put course ID also as an attribute of section. And then the primary key would be course ID, section ID, semester here. Let me repeat that. One alternative to this one would have been to add course ID as a field of section. Now, this has a problem which we discussed earlier. We have a course entity. If we store course ID as an attribute here instead of as a relationship, we are losing this connection. We are losing the ability to say that course ID here must be a valid course ID in this entity set. We lose that. So, we do not want course ID as an attribute here alone. Supposing we store course ID as an attribute and have this relationship, both section course and course ID here. Now, you have duplication. This relationship already identifies which course. The course ID stored here must also be for the same course. So, then you will have written an information. Therefore, we chose not to put course ID here. We chose to in effect inherited from the identifying course and this became a weak entity. So, this is the design decision we chose. The alternative design decision would have been to have a globally unique section ID. Just an integer which is created internally in the database and then that would become a primary key and that has no other meaning. Then, you associate that section with course as we have done here. Except now, it should not be a double-diamond. It would be a single-diamond because this is now no longer a weak entity set. It is a strong entity set. This is also perfectly valid. There is nothing inherently wrong with this design. Many people do create schemas like this where every entity set is a strong set and you just create artificial IDs. In the actual implementation, these IDs are generated within the database. There is a downside to this. If you want to export information from such a database and import it in another database, these IDs have no meaning externally. So, when you export that information, you are going to export an ID which has no meaning elsewhere. When you want to import it there, that ID may clash with something else there and become a mess. Whereas, if you do not create artificial IDs, all the IDs are things which are actually visible, then what you export is clean. There is no internally generated stuff there. So, there are trade-offs. If you do not care about exporting information from here to somewhere else, maybe that design is okay. Our design does not have any hidden new values. So, it has some benefits. We have already covered everything in this slide. I will just let you read it for a moment. This slide simply repeats the points I made earlier. So, moving ahead with this extra notation, there is a diagram which you cannot possibly read on your screen. So, font is way too small, but you can look at it offline. So, this is the ER diagram we have used for the university. We have seen bits of this earlier and I will again cover some bits of this later. But let me just mention a few things. Even if you are not able to read the details, this is student over here. This is department and this is a relationship student-department between student and department. Similarly, section is a weak entity. We just saw this section and course. This is exactly what we just saw. Course has a relationship pre-rec from course to course, but course also has a relationship to department which is this relationship called course department. Note that student does not have a department name, instructor does not have department name, course does not have department name at this stage. All of these were there in the relations schema, but here they have all become relationships. And here you have time slot as an entity with time slot ID as a primary key and then the times when this time slot meet. So, those not familiar with time slot in IIT as in many places, we have certain pattern. So, time slot 1 will meet at a certain time on Monday, a certain time on Tuesday and a certain time on say Wednesday. So, what we want to record here is time slot ID 1 is on it has a multi set here, a set rather. The curly brackets if you can see it, there are curly brackets here. That means there is a set of these things. Each thing here has a day start time and end time. What is this? This is basically composite thing which says day Monday, start time 830, end time 930. Day Tuesday will be the next value in that set with start time say 930, end time 1030. And the third thing in the set may be day Wednesday, start time 1030, end time 1130. So, time slot ID 1 is now associated with this set of days, start time and end time triple. That is what is represented by the entity set time slot here. Entity set is time slot, its primary key is time slot ID. Note that this is not how the relational model looks. This is the ER model. Now, a section we already saw is associated with the course, but it is also associated with the time slot and it is associated with the classroom. Again, classroom has building room number capacity and section is associated with the class. You cannot see it very well, but there are some constraints here. This double line means section must have a time slot. The arrow here means at most one time slot. This double line means section must have a room. At most one room is this arrow here and so forth. The next major task is if we have an ER diagram like this, can we just use the ER diagram directly and build an application using the ER model itself? Now, if you look at history, the relational model is what we are using to build stuff. There is a query language for the relational model, but somebody had asked this question on chat. Can we use ER diagram directly, ER model directly? This is definitely a very valid question. Can't we have a database that directly implements the ER model and just specify the model and then have a query language which works with this and leave all the underlying details of how the data is stored as a lower level detail which the database deals with. Maybe we can control it, but at the logical level, we do not need to worry about the lower level details. My lower level details here I mean the actual relational schema, but that is not how things evolved. The evolution was the relational model came, the relational database came and then people who are doing design realized that jumping straight into relational database design is counterproductive. What you want is a higher level view of what is going on. After that, only you should move to the relational model. So, ER diagrams came as a modeling tool not as a database implementation, which is why you do not see any database which says I am an ER model database. They say I am a relational database, but nobody says I am an ER database. Well, not quite true. Some years back, Microsoft decided to push what it called the entity data model and build a database implementation which supported this model directly. Actually, underneath they store it as a relation, but the model that they exposed to programmers is directly this entity model. It is not exactly the entity relationship model, but it is very closely related called entity data model and then they defined their own query language and what not for it. But to the best of my knowledge, this EDM has not taken off that much. They had some nice features. They have nice integration with programming languages, something called link, li and q, language integrated query. So, they did a lot of nice things, but unfortunately, it is tied totally to Microsoft and people have not warmed up to it that much. So, yes, you can directly build a database on a ER model and it has kind of been done, but very few people actually use those. So, it comes back to using ER modeling as a design tool and then we convert the design to relational database. So, how do you do this conversion? So, here we are going to show how to do it manually. Again, there are some tools which can help you with this. Somebody had asked a question. Are there tools for converting an ER model directly to relational table? And I believe ER win offers such a tool. I have not used it myself. So, I cannot say much about it, but there are tools to do this. But usually, this is not such a big deal. So, doing it manually is not major problem. So, here is how we convert ER schema to a relational schema. So, we will start with entity sets with simple attributes. There is no composite, no multivalued, no derived attributes. So, this is actually very, very straightforward. In fact, it is very, very straightforward for strong entity sets. If I had a strong entity set course, what I will do is create a relation course with course ID, title and credits as I will be able to do. This is not exactly the final relation because department name is not yet in it. That will come about later on. Similarly, student strong entity set would turn into relation student ID name total credits. Note that the primary key in the entity case will become the primary key in the relation also. The student relation has ID as primary key. What about weak entity sets? Section is a weak entity set. What happens to it? We form a relation section with first of all the primary key of the identifying entity sets. In this case, section is identified by codes. The double diamond indicates that. So, we will take the primary key of this, which is codes ID, take it in there. Then, we take all the discriminator attributes here, the ones with the dash underline and stick it all there. And the primary key for section will be this thing plus all the discriminator attributes. There may be extra attributes here. In this particular case, there are no more attributes right now. So, the primary key contains all four attributes, which are currently there. So, I hope that is clear. So, it is very straight forward to convert entity set simple attributes. We will come back to complex attributes later. Now, moving on to relationship sets, what do we do? So, any relationship set, what we do is we take the primary keys of the entity sets that relate. In this case, advisor relates student and instructor. So, we create a relation containing the primary key of student ID, the primary key of instructor, which is also ID. We have a name class here. So, we renamed it to SID and IID. Now, we have to choose the primary key for this. This particular thing seems to indicate that the primary key is SID and IID. But actually, that does not match this diagram. In this diagram, there is an arrow in the direction student to instructor. What does that mean? A student cannot have more than one instructor as advisor. Therefore, the primary key for this advisor relationship should be just SID. IID should not be part of the primary key. This is a mistake. Now, let us see what happened to those department name attributes. We had student, we did not have a department name attribute here and we had a relationship between student and department. Similarly, we had a relationship in step between instructor and department. Note that the relationship is total, double line and many to one to department. One option would be to create a table for instep. What would be the attributes of this instep table that we create? Instructor ID and department name. But the basic observation here is that we are creating an extra table unnecessarily, just increasing the overheads. Because each instructor can have at most one department and in fact, they have exactly one department. So, it actually makes sense to merge the relation which we might have created for instep. We could have, we already saw how to create a relation for a relationship and a relation for instructor. This one for this one for this. We can merge those two relations into one in the case of many to one and one to many relationship or also for one to one. We will come to that later. So, in this case the table for instep is merged into instructor which side on the many side. It is not merged into the table for department because there may be many instructors in a department. But there is only one department for instructor. So, when we merge the table what do we get? ID is already present. So, the extra attribute is department name which comes from this thing. So, the table for instep would have had ID department name. Now, what do we do? We take the department name and stick it into instructor. This is the schema which we got. In our schema, there was no instep table, there was only an instructor table and instructor had this extra attribute department name. Similarly, student had the extra attribute department name. So, that is what happened here. What about the advisor table? We could have stuck it into student, but we chose not to. Now, one of the reasons we chose not to is that this relationship is not total. If it is not total, what does it mean? A student may have no advisor. If it has no advisor, what would happen here? The advisor ID field of the student relation would have had a null value for advisor. So, we prefer not to have null values unless forced to. Therefore, we kept this relationship as a separate relation called advisor and then there are no null values. We avoid the null value. Now, moving on to one-to-one relationship, either of the two sides can be chosen as the many sides. That is the relationship for a, sorry. If we have a one-to-one relationship, when we convert that relationship to a relation, that relation can be merged into either of the participating entity sets relations. Which one? It is up to you. Either would work. The next bullet here is if participation is partial on the many side, replacing a schema by an extra attribute would result in null value. This is exactly what I told you. If we had folded advisor into student, we would have had null values on the many side. And the last bullet here, say the schema corresponding to the identifying entity set, that is this one. This one, set course. This, it turns out is totally redundant. We do not have to create anything for it. Because, if you think about it, what does it say? That a particular section is associated with a particular course. But if you see the section table we created, it already has the course ID as a primary key. So, there is no more, any need to create this relationship as a relation. So, this is simply ignored totally. Not needed to be explicitly done, because course ID from here is copied into section. In fact, you can think of it as, you know, many-to-one case, where the primary key from the one side is copied into the many side. And then this relationship is redundant and thrown up. It is really the same thing. So, that wraps up the basic constructs, entities and relationships. Now, the next construct is composite and multi-valued attributes. What do we do for this? Composite attributes are actually very easy. So, if I had name with the field inside it first name, what do I do? I can replace it like this instructor. ID is the first field. The second one is first name becomes directly the second field. If there is a name conflict, supposing there is one more attribute here with the same name inside it, I could have said name underscore first name, name underscore middle initial, name underscore last name. But, here it is not needed. So, first name, middle initial, last name directly become attributes of the relation schema. You are basically flattening the whole thing out. They were in separate parts. Now, we are simply quishing it together into a flat schema. Similarly, address, what happened? Street numbers, street name, apartment number, they are all here. Street number, street name, apartment number, city, state, zip code and date of birth is here. What about phone number? It is not in this schema. It is a multi-valued attribute. Now, we cannot store it in this schema because our basic assumption is that relations do not have set valued attributes. The relation model does not allow this. There are extensions which allow it, but there are good reasons not to use it, which we will see later. If you did that, it would not be even in first normal form. Therefore, what do we do about multi-valued attributes? The answer is we create a separate relation for multi-valued attributes. So, I will come back here. We have instructor with a multi-valued attribute, phone number. What do we do? We create a new relation, inst phone. What does inst phone have? It has the primary key of the instructor, which is id and then it has all the attributes of the multi-valued attribute here, multi-valued attribute here, phone number. Here there is just one attribute. So, that becomes an attribute here. So, inst phone with id and phone number. That is what we end up creating. So, every multi-valued attribute is turned into a separate schema called EM, in this case inst phone. Now, what is the primary key of this relation inst phone? The primary key of instructor is not enough, because there may be many phone numbers. So, this plus this together forms the primary key and every value of the multi-valued attribute results in a new couple here. So, for example, if I had an instructor with id 22222 and two phone numbers, this and that, we would end up creating two tuples. This is one 2222 with the first phone number and the second tuple, same id and the second phone number. And these two tuples would be in the inst phone relation. So, I hope this is clear. Any multi-valued attribute, we create a new relation. Every value in the multi-valued attribute set turns into a new tuple here and the primary key of the entity set becomes one of the attributes here. Now, what about time slot? What did we do there? We actually, if we did it exactly as described, here is what would have happened? Time slot is a entity set, which has a multi-valued attribute with day start time and time. What we would have ended up doing is creating two relations. The first relation is a time slot relation with a single field time slot id, which is a primary key, because I know the field here. The second one is a relation corresponding to the multi-valued set. What would its attributes be? The primary key of this thing, which is time slot id, day start time and time. So, that is this relation, time slot id, day start time and time. According to what I just said, the primary key would be all of these attributes, but actually there is some extra information here, which says that given a day and a start time, the end time is automatically, you can infer it. And therefore, what did we do? We made the primary key as time slot id, day start time. It did not include end time. So, that is an extra step, which was not in the basic thing, but we could infer it and the primary key does not include end time over here. Now, we would have created two separate tables. Let me draw it on the white board to explain what we would have created. If we would have created this section, we would have created, let me call it time slot master, just to distinguish it from the current time slot table with time slot id. And then we would have created the existing time slot table, time slot id, day start time and end time. So, these are the relations, which we would have created. There is some glitch here. Section would be one table. I have not shown all the attributes here, but let me just show the one relevant attribute. So, section has an attribute called time slot id, which would be a foreign key referencing this. And here, again this would be a foreign key referencing that. And the primary key for this would be these things. So, this is a design, which we would have generated if we applied whatever we have seen so far. But this is not the schema we created. And the reason we did not create this schema is we would end up with two tables, time slot master and then time slot. We could have called it maybe time slot details to make the name a little more clear. Sorry, spelling mistake there. Time slot details. So, we could have done that. We did not partly to keep our schema simple. If we had done this, then this could have time slot id to time slot master could have been enforced as a foreign key. What we cannot enforce though is that a time slot id here actually has some time slots associated with it. So, we could put in a value here, which has which never meets. Time slot 11 never meets at all. Is that reasonable? I do not know. Maybe it is in some context, because you have like self study courses, which do not have a formal meeting time. So, maybe you have a special time slot for self study courses, which never actually meets. But we chose to go the other way partly just like that, just to show you some alternatives. So, this is an alternative we could do. There are some trade-offs. The benefit is we have one less table. We do not have this extra table time slot master. We just have a single time slot table. The drawback is we can no longer enforce a foreign key. So, that is a trade-off. We just chose one of these things for simplicity. Coming back to our slide, this is just completing what I told you. So, the last two features which I want to cover are specialization and generalization. And aggregation I am not actually going to cover in detail here, but I have a slide. I will just briefly mention it. What I am going to do though is first cover specialization generalization. And then let us go back to the ER model, which we have been doing for Moodle and then see how to apply those concepts. And then I will come back to converting specialization and generalization to relational theme. So, what is specialization? The idea is we start with some higher level entity, let us say person.  There are some persons who are instructors, some who are students. Now, can a person be both an instructor and a student? Maybe or maybe not. That we can decide later. The key thing to notice, we have an entity set person and we decide there are going to be subsets of this called instructor and student, which may have extra attribute. Person has a set of attribute. Instructor may have some extra attribute. Student may have some extra attribute. But instructor and student are persons. So, instructor definitely has all the attributes of person and a student definitely has all the attributes of person. This is called attribute inheritance. Diagrammatically, we show it by a triangle and I will show it to you in the next page. So, this is the notation. We have person. In fact, here what we did is instead of just instructor and student, we create a deeper hierarchy to illustrate the possibilities. A student is a person. So, here we are following the UML convention for showing specialization, where we have an arrow pointing up that way, an arrow with an empty arrowhead. An arrow with a filled arrowhead means something else in UML. We are not using that here. Note that this is a single line. It is not a relationship. But if you had a solid arrow here, you might think that UML actually allows binary relationships to be shown by a single line without a diamond. And if you put a solid arrow, you might think it is a relationship with a many to one relationship. The hollow arrow removes that ambiguity. So, anyway, student is a person. Employee is a person. Instructor is an employee. Secretary is an employee. These are artificial. It is cooked up. Employee must have a salary. Student must have credits. They have completed. Instructor must have a rank. Maybe, you know, S10 processor, associate, full processor, so forth. And persons, all persons must have ID, name and address. Now, here also there are some constraints. First of all, which entities can be members of a given lower level entity set. So, you could, this could be user defined. That is, there is no rule to it. When the user creates an entity, the user says this entity is a person and a student or this person is also an instructor. In condition defined, the decision is made based on some condition of the attribute.  Now, which people are senior citizens? Well, there is a rule for it. Anyone above 65 may be senior citizens. So, the condition is that all people above 65 are in the senior citizen entity set, which is a specialization of the person entity. The next constraint is whether or not entities may belong to more than one lower level entity set. What do we mean by this? Going to a previous diagram, can a person be both a student and an employee? Yes, we do in general want to allow that. There are many students who are also working and then there are people who are working who are allowed to do a part time degree and therefore, they also become students. So, a person can be both an employee and a student. On the other hand, can an employee be both an instructor and a secretary? Probably not and we have imposed that constraint in our notation as follows. We have a single arrow and then from that, there is a branch, two way branch, which says that this indicates that an employee cannot be an instructor and a student. This is again not standard UML, but in UML you can actually add a tag here saying disjoint to indicate that the specialization here is disjoint. The converse of disjoint is overlapped meaning an entity can belong to more than one lower level entity set. So, in our case, the person specialization to employee and student, this one, the specialization of person to employee and student is overlapped. So, somebody can be both an instructor and finally, there is a completeness constraint, which says if it is total, that means every person must be, everything at one level must also appear at a lower level. So, for example, if you said that the specialization of person is total, that means any person in a database must be an employee or a student. You cannot have a person who is neither. Does that make sense in a university? Maybe. If you are looking at only instructors and students, yes, everybody should be one of these. On the other hand, IIT, IIT security specifically keeps track of all IIT residents. So, there are some who are not employees or students. They are just there is absolutely no other information. So, there is no use creating a specialization of person and that, so they can be persons without being employee or student. So, there the specialization is partial. Somebody can be a person without being student or employee. The next few slides talk about how to represent specialization via schemas, but maybe what I will do is come back to this after a break where we can discuss the design. So, what I want to do to start with is use some of these concepts which we just saw. What are the concepts? Week entity sets, specialization, generalization. I want to see if we can apply it to a model schema which we have been creating.  So, let us see this particular diagram. In this case, is there any specialization possible? Not really. These are all different kinds of things. We cannot say a submission is an assignment. A submission is for an assignment, but a submission is not an assignment by itself. Submission has the students whatever the student has done. It does not have the original assignment specification. So, there is no scope for creating a specialization or generalization with this set of things. But if we decided to have maybe different kinds of users in Moodle with different rights, different extra attributes about them, then maybe we would break this up and have specializations of users. So, I do not think Moodle has such a notion, but if you wish to, we could create a specialization of user called, I do not know what administrator may be with some extra attributes if you wish. So, that was for specialization. There is no good example here. The other part, weak entity sets actually could make a lot of sense here. The first part is is assignment a strong entity set or is it a weak entity set? That is a decision we have to make. Now, in our diagram here, we are showing assignment as a strong entity set. We have shown assignment as a strong entity set by having an ID which is a key for it, primary key for it. Similarly, submission we have shown as a strong entity set. Now, that we know about weak entity set, we could revisit our decision. Supposing we want assignment as a weak entity set identified by the course for which it is used, then the ID for assignment need not be globally unique. It only has to be unique within the course. So, you can say assignment 1, assignment 2, 3 and so forth. Another course could also have assignment 1, 2, 3, 4. So, then what would we do? If we chose to make it a weak entity set, instead of having underline here, this would become a dash. So, in ID we would replace by ID. I hope the font is visible with a dash underline under it. So, there we are signifying that it is a weak entity and the ID is only unique within assignments for a course. So, now we have to give it an identifying relationship. So, moving to the next diagram, since we chose assignment to be a weak entity set, we have to identify it and this diagram, I am sorry my paper is not properly aligned here. So, my diagram became a bit twisted. So, course assignment now we have a double diamond indicating that it is an identifying relationship for assignment and it is identified by course of here. So, now we have a weak entity set with an identifying entity set course and an identifying relationship course assignment. Now, in fact, this can be nested. We could have done the same for submission. Submission is identified by assignment. We will not give a overall ID to submission. It is only relative to an assignment we want to see which is the identify the submission. So, what we could do is make submission also a weak entity set and identify it by the assignment. So, now we have made submission assignment and identifying relationship for submission which we have chosen to make weak now. In fact, you can do something interesting here and submission can have two identifying relationships. One could be the assignment, the other could be submitted by. So, let us try that. So, now submitted by is a double diamond and submission is identified by submitted by and by submission assignment. Now, what attributes what discriminator would submission need in this case? Do we need any other discriminator within this? The answer is no actually assignment plus who submitted it uniquely identifies the submission unless you want repeat submission actually Moodle allows you. It will allow you to submit multiple time and you can keep track of all the submission in which case you may have a discriminant called version number. So, let us go back to that. Submission has an ID here. So, instead of ID being underlined I will just if I do not even need an ID. So, I could get rid of ID and maybe the timestamp could become the discriminant meaning a submission is now identified by which assignment and which person submitted it, but the discriminant is the timestamp. So, the three things together are sufficient to uniquely identify a particular submission. So, that is what we lined up with. So, here is a new modified diagram for the same Moodle scenario, but now using weak entity sets and identifying relationships. Let us see if there are any other features of the Moodle thing which we missed. We had posts that is the feature which we did not fully model at so far. So, let us try modeling that. What is a post? So, first let us think about what a post is in Moodle. A post is done by a particular person. It has a title and sometimes a post is a new post. Sometimes a post is a reply to an earlier post. So, let us see how to model this. So, we have a post which is an entity. How do we identify a post? Again, let us for simplicity make it a strong entity set by giving it a unique ID. This is fairly standard. So, there is a post. A post is associated with a user. So, we have post by user. A post is also in the context of a course. So, it does not have an existence outside of a course. So, there is also a course and we have posted in this course posted for a particular course. What else do we have? It has to have some text. So, we have text. It has a time when it was posted. So, time and finally, we said that it is a post might be in reply to another post. So, how do we track this? Should we have a field called in reply to? No, that basically loses track of the fact that it must be related to another post not to something completely irrelevant. So, instead of making it an attribute called in reply to, we will have a relationship in reply to is a relationship from post back to post. So, this is like a pre-reg. Both the sides of in reply to are the same relation post and same entity set also. And therefore, one of them should be maybe post id and then reply to. So, the other edge we have given it a tag which in this case is the same as the tag of the relationship, but you could give it any name you want. So, the two edges from in reply to have to be given role name. So, that when we create a relationship out of it, there are meaningful attributes. So, otherwise what would happen? If we did not have role names, when we create a relation for let us say post by, we are going to have a id here. Let us call it p id to distinguish it from other id. So, if we create a relationship, a relational schema for post by, what will be there? For user there is an id. So, the schema for post by would look like p id comma id. So, that I think covers all the things I can think of for post except that we have not put in constraints. Post must be by somebody. Therefore, we have a total participation constraint there and only by one person. Therefore, we have an arrow head. Similarly, a post must be in a core cannot be by itself and only one core. So, there is an arrow head there. So, we have these extra constraints. Now, given these constraints, what is the relational schema you would create? We just saw that if you have many to one relationship, in particular one which is total, you might as well hold that relation schema into the many side. So, what we would end up with is a relation post with attributes p id which is a primary key and then we have an id that is the user id. Then we have a course id and then we have the remaining attributes text and time. Now, what about this in reply 2? Can this be folded in? Well, a particular post must be in reply 2 at most one post. So, this side of in reply 2 does not look very good, but imagine this is an arrow head here. So, the in reply 2 is many to one from the post id side to the in reply 2 side. What does this mean? For a given post, there may be many replies, but a given post is in reply 2 at most one post. So, even though it is a relationship from post to itself, it can still be many to one on one of the side. So, now we have the option of folding this also into the post itself. So, we can have in reply 2 as a field here. So, what is happening here? The in reply 2 field can be null. Why? Because the in reply 2 relation is not total from post. Not all posts are in reply to something else. The first person who creates a post on some topic, that particular post is not in reply to anything. Only the subsequent ones on the same topic are in reply 2. Therefore, for the very first post on a topic, in reply 2 is going to be null. So, that is how we convert this schema to a relational schema. So, I hope that has given you some idea of how we can do these things.


In this video, I'm going to talk about finding a counter example. So in geometry, you make certain conclusions you use inductive and deductive reasoning. And so in this case, actually, what we're going to do is we're going to find counter examples. So we're going to look at different statements and try to find where these statements are not true. And this is what we call counter examples. Counter example is proving a statement false by coming up with an example. We call it a counter example. All right. So finding a counter example, show that each conjecture is false by finding a counter example. All right. So I got two different questions about this, two different statements. Here we go. For every integer, okay, so hold on a second. For every integer, starting out with the vocabulary, integers are numbers like negative three, negative two, negative one, zero, one, two, three, so on and so forth in both directions. So those numbers. Students usually like to work with your whole numbers that are both positive and negative, usually those numbers. So those are integers. So for every integer, n, so n is these numbers here. n is these numbers here. So usually variables usually represent just one number. In this case, this variable represents a bunch of numbers. So n is all these integers here. All right. So for every integer, n, n to the third is positive. So when I take that number and I cube it, I take it to the third power, it's always going to be positive. That's what this statement says. So for every integer, so take an integer, take any one of these numbers, cube it and it's always going to be positive. Hmm, okay. So let's take a couple, let's do a couple of examples and try to figure this out. So let's take some of these integers, okay, so let's take the number one. What if n is equal to one? Well then n to the third is going to be one to the third, which is going to be one. Okay, that makes sense. One times one times one is one, so n to the third is positive, okay. So that makes sense. That's not a counter example, that's just an example that makes it true. I don't want an example that makes it true, I want an example that makes it false. Okay, so let's try something else. So one is a small number, one's a very small number, so let's try something a little bit larger. n equals 12, too big, too big. I don't know what 12 to the third is. So that was a bad choice, bad choice. So let me do the third power. Let's see, let's try something a little bit better, a little bit simpler. Let's try three. Three's a small number. I can do that very quickly. Okay, so that means n to the third is equal to three to the third. So three to the third, that's three times three times three, which is three times three is nine. Nine times three is 27. So you can see why I chose that one to be a little bit smaller, to make that number a little bit quicker to work with, okay. So 27, okay. So 27 is a positive number, so n to the third is positive. Dang it, I found another example that just makes this true. I don't want something that's true. I want a counter example. I want to find when this is false. But notice the numbers I'm picking so far, n is equal to one, n is equal to three. Let's try something different. I'm just choosing the positive integers here. What about zero? What about these negative numbers? Let's try these. Okay, so what about n equals negative two? Okay, so let's not use three, let's not use one, let's use negative two. So n to the third is equal to, hold on here. When you use negative numbers, you got to remember to use parentheses because you're cubing the entire number. You're cubing not only the two, but you're also cubing the negative. We didn't really have to worry about that over here because they're positive numbers. Positive numbers are easy to work with. Negative numbers on the other hand, you got to use parentheses with this. So what this is equal to is negative two times negative two times negative two. Okay, we do that three times. Okay, so let's just worry about the number part of it. Two times two times two is eight. But then a negative times a negative times a negative, that's three negatives. Two negatives make a positive, but three negatives make a negative all over again. So in fact, negative two to the third is going to be negative eight. And in this case, n to the third is a negative number. So what I just did is I just came up with an example where n to the third is a negative number, not a positive number, but a negative number. So what I just did is I just found a counter example. We're supposed to find a counter example to show that this conjecture is false. This right here is my answer. n is equal to negative two, and here's the math that proves it. That n to the third is a negative number, not a positive number. Okay, so there's my counter example right there. And I'm using a little bit of notation, a little bit of math to prove that. So notation with n's, here's the variable if n is equal to negative two, which is still an integer, it's still an integer, but if I take negative two to the third power, it's going to be a negative number, not a positive number. So there right there is my counter example. Okay, so let's go on to the next, let's go on to the next example, next example. Two complementary, complementary, excuse me, two complementary angles, two complementary angles are not congruent. Okay, so complementary angles, what are complementary angles? Remember, complementary angles are two angles, two angles. That add up to 90 degrees, can shorten it out a little bit. Two angles that add up to 90 degrees. So two complementary angles are not congruent, okay? So they're saying here that if I have two complementary angles, I got two angles that add up to 90 degrees, they are not congruent. They're never gonna be the same, they're never gonna be the same measure. Okay, so let's go over a couple of examples. So I don't know, couple of angles that add up to 90, 10 and 80. Okay, 10 and 80, there's a good example. But that's an example that actually helps, excuse me, that helps this statement. 10 and 80 are two, I should say 10 degrees and 80 degrees. Two complementary angles that are not congruent, well these ones are not congruent. So that really doesn't help me at all. Okay, so let's try something different. Let's try to find something that are congruent, okay? So 40 degrees and 50 degrees, I mean those are pretty close, but they're not congruent, I mean they're complementary, they do add up to 90, okay? But we're getting close, how about 45 degrees and 45 degrees? These two are the same, they are congruent, and they add up to 90 degrees, they are complementary angles. There we go, this two complementary angles, these are two complementary angles that are congruent, are congruent, okay? So they're right there, is my counter example to this statement. There's my counter example. Okay, so in that video just to kind of conclude, kind of wrap things up, this is finding a counter example, finding an example that proves a statement wrong, that proves a conjecture false, okay? By finding a counter example. Now counter examples can be numbers, they can be decimals, or excuse me, degrees, they can be little equations saying the number is equal to negative two, therefore, n to the third is equal to negative eight, okay? And there's lots of different ways to write counter examples. You just got to find a good one and you have to make sure and write it down so that whoever's reading it knows what you're trying to say, knows what you're trying to relay. So anyway, that is finding a counter example. I hope this video was informative.


OK, well, thanks for joining today. And this is not the first time I'm doing this, but actually in this format it is. So it's nice for me to be able to get to present what we do in terms of development studies and our online program in particular. But I teach on campus development studies programs. And I just thought I would give a very broad topic today, the politics of development in an increasingly unequal world. And first of all, this is who I am. Navtej, or Tej as I'm called, for a while. I am a professor of political sociology at SOAS. And I have been in the Department of Development Studies. This is my second year in development studies before that. I actually was a graduate of SOAS in 1992. I came from the US to study kind of development studies, area studies then. And then after all these years, I came back in 2014 and became the Deputy Director of the South Asia Institute at SOAS. And we have a number of regional institutes and that one. And I now am the convener of the MSc International Development Program in Development Studies, which is a new program, but is one of the larger, I believe, programs in SOAS, where I teach the core module, political economy and sociology of development online. Also, actually, I don't have that here, but I'm also committing a new module in October, which is going to be on the politics of gender and feminism in development, which is actually going to be leading into some of the things I'll be talking about today. And on campus, I also teach the undergraduate first year module, Introduction to Global Development, and then our on-campus gender and development. I'm involved in a lot of kind of team modules at SOAS as well. So you can see there's a breadth that we offer, and we kind of do a lot of that kind of team teaching, which I think adds a lot of richness to the kinds of materials that you, those of you who are thinking of coming to SOAS or already at SOAS, can get an idea of my work on structural violence and inequality. So I'm really interested in the structural factors and what uses inequality and not seeing inequality as a byproduct of development. And so it's actually asking questions like why does the 1%, you'll see this data around, why does the wealthiest 1% of the world own 50% of the world's assets and resources. We might even, in the coming year, we're going to be looking much more at race, racialization processes. And I also teach on racial capitalism. And this last year, obviously Black Lives Matter is not something new where we looked at the 13th Amendment and histories of migration, of slavery and how they become embedded into how places that you think are developed like the United States actually are shaping international development policy. And those are the kinds of interesting ways that we like to think about it, that it's not just about this formally colonized third world global south, but looking at the dominant as well and hegemonic parts of the world and how they actually structure inequality too. So I'm interested in a number of different questions, biopolitics, reproductive rights, population, structural violence, race. I've written a book you can see here in the bottom that came out last year, which was on the India-Bakistan border and looking at religion and caste. So I'm quite interdisciplinary. And I hope those of you who are interested in the online program can see that actually, how that comes into the teaching on the core module. So here are some debates in development studies that you might find interesting, or just to give you an idea of how I approached this in the module in particular of the MSE international development. And I might do this by, and you might wanna ask at the end or in between, is what some of the debates in development studies, how they get presented in a kind of more mainstream, I will say, way and how we might think critical about it through structures. So it's rather than being an outcome about it in terms of structures. So the first question is, what do different measurements and indicators of poverty and inequality tell us? And importantly, what do they conceal? So I'll be showing you a couple of graphs in a moment to kind of give you an idea. What are we looking for? What the people who produce this data and this graph, what are they trying to communicate to us? And what does it say? And what might it not be showing? The second point is, does neoliberalism represent the triumph of capitalism? And if so, what is neoliberal development? Is it an oxymoron? How can you put capital development to side by side? And what does it produce? Third is development by definition colonial and can it be decolonized? And if you're aware about the decolonized, the curriculum movement, of course, the statues, mobilizations around bringing down statues is all connected to the coloniality of this idea of what development also is. And we're engaging with that actively too in our curriculum. And then finally, how is gender instrumentalized in development discourse and policy? So these are questions which aren't necessarily round thing, but when we could look at all of these kinds of areas in slightly different ways, we might look at them in terms of thinking more practically about using a particular policy instrument to measure. We might look at why is gender important or why is gender equality important as opposed to why how and why is gender instrumentalized? And I'll hopefully be hinting to you here why the way we've posed these questions, why that, how that actually gets down to the next level of the structures. So our core module in the MSE International Development covers a range of topics. And I'm not going to go through those here. I just want to give you a background and idea around how we don't take the idea of development at base value. It's actually questioning what it means. And actually there's a huge emphasis on ideology as well. So our asses know the critical perspectives and we have to do that. And it's not to say we only will show supposedly radical approaches. We'll also talk about neoclassical and other kinds of more mainstream approaches. And we also look at capitalism as a system. But of course, we analyze it very critically. And we also look at it in terms of global institutions, in terms of policies, in terms of social movements and change. And then of course kind of unpacking it for in terms of the colonial backdrops of development, which of course, so has is known for also having very strong ties to it, having been set up as a colonial training school. And now in its contemporary context of 21st century, Sawas is playing a different kind of role now in terms of that we have a lot of peace students coming from all over the world, faculty who've come from all over the world who come from the countries that we're actually studying also. So there's that way of approaching development that we pride ourselves on the diversity of perspectives. So what I wanted to do today was actually highlight an area of mine, which is looking at gender and development. And you might have heard of all of the acronyms of women in development, women and development, gender and development, so weird, bad, bad, lots of acronyms, which actually show how institutionalized gender policies have become. It's become what many people have called a common sense that gender equality makes sense for everyone, that it should be something that every country, all policies should be implementing and working towards. So I'm just gonna highlight a few ways in which we might up this. One is thinking about how gender has historically featured in development interventions, which has a slightly more cynical or maybe a sinister view on gender as in terms of how it's mobilized. The second is actually questioning and challenging universal principles. The universalization of those kinds of high level. So for instance, the final point here I have on CDOM, Platform for Action 1995, trying to ratify, trying to get countries to sign up to universal principles is can on the one hand sound very good for global agendas in terms of local agendas and also for local progressive movements or women's organizations or feminist movements who are trying to question the status quo that can also have detrimental impacts. And those are kinds of places that we would like to also engage with. What does mainstreaming gender signify in the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals? What does it mean to mainstream gender across the goals that we see? Yeah, they've kind of seen ubiquitously globally. And then the fourth point here is trying to understand the backdrop of neoliberalism and the West rising to this position harmony within international institutions. Very interestingly, as you can see as the COVID situation is evolving, we've seen international institutions like the WHO, being questioned, funding, threatening, member countries who have been historically funding and were part of the establishment of organizations are now threatening to cut funding. And that says a lot about the kind of ways in which the kind of post World War II context of development and the development of those institutions like the World Bank, WHO, the World Food Program, so many different institutions that emerged as being the kind of agents of development or coordinated international development are now finding themselves being marginalized by the nation-states who have been funding them. And it says a lot about how the global stage is not, it's not an empty kind of canvas. It's a place where ideological battles are also fought. And gender is very much a part of that. Can you see the next slide? There we go. Okay, so if we look at gender across time and think about capitalism and policy discourse, this is an important kind of, I think three images to maybe consider what this would mean. The first is obviously on the left looking at the advertisement from the Ceylon Tea Company. And here it's, you know, you can see, you can obviously, this is, we're not doing a kind of analysis of the image in itself, but if you look at the kind of rhetoric and the kind of ways it's trying to mark two cups in one, it's kind of marketing the, and also looking at the worker, I'm looking at the female worker here, who someplace in, you know, what is now Ceylon, you know, produce strength, flavor, aroma and purity is celebrating these products that are being produced, the resources, the raw materials that are emerging out of the imperial colonial plantation economy. To the right-hand side of the women who, again, working, you can see the tea leaves in their hands are showing and looking as though they're having a good time working, but they're also working in the tea plantations and looking at that regime of production, the way that it's almost a seamless kind of continuity across, which is in both of these images, instrumentalizing gender, where capitalism, you know, was driving the colonial endeavor to go and find new resources, new markets, and women were not always seen as victims. They were being included through the civilizing mission, of course, in terms of banning certain cultural practices. So in this context, in the South Asian context, we'd see the banning of practices such as child marriage or dowry or bride burning or female infanticide. The late 19th century had many kinds of legal interventions that were there to kind of show that the British colonial state was bringing civilization to these parts of the world while the economy was being reshaped and it was being reshaped and molded for the global political economy, which was, of course, under the colonial direction. Now, if we say that these two may show some continuities, if you look on the bottom right, we look at this as being this, this is also part of the Unilever advert as the same as above, which is also tagging on the SDGs. So a company of multinational corporation like Unilever is simultaneously tapping into, and it's part of the continuity of the colonial economy, as we know, but it's also part of global discourse on sustainability. It's not talking about gender explicitly here in terms of the SDGs it mentions, but it's certainly instrumentalizing the idea of gender and women as workers and bringing them into the economy as active contributors to the economy. Now, in another context, we might look at biopolitics and these are kind of some theoretical ideas which we apply to different places in the world. Okay, so this is an area of research that I've done, which is looking at the sex ratio, and behind that is this idea that sex selection, the performance of sex selective abortions might be resulting in increasing masculine sex ratio and this line here shows us on the bottom in the graph that as the total population average is kind of showing an improvement in terms of the sex ratio, we can see that at the age of zero to six, it's going down. Now, why am I showing you this? The reason I'm showing it, because it's actually a very stark example of individual sex ratio, it's a very stark example of intervention. So when we think about development and intervention, oftentimes you'll think, okay, this is social policy. We're looking at a post 2000 Washington consensus point where the human face of capitalism was being implemented through social ministries of social development. So most countries ended up setting up in some form or another some form of social development if they didn't already have these bodies. And in the Indian context, the ministries of social development and the departments for women and child welfare became part of the kind of projection of this idea of the girl child. And it dated back to 1990 when UNICEF, you can see the stamp there, set up the decade for the girl child where it was identified that the girl child is the most deprived, the most excluded, whose life chances were the most depleted. And therefore the state came in and said, we will do a number of different regimes, we can't have time here to explain, but to come in and make certain interventions. And the places at which this intervention took place were in 1994 and 2003. And those are the point where we see the two lines crossing is where we see the interventions actually having a negative effect. So as the state comes in and criminalizes, for instance, sex-selective abortion, you can see that in fact, the practice is likely to have occurred in more underground pathways. On the other hand, we see on the top, there's a banking scheme that the government introduced. It started in 2015, which is called, say, the girl child, educate the girl child, which brought in the private banking system as natural partners. And so this is an example of neoliberalism so it's bringing together biopolitics, the state control population, but it's also bringing in private actors, such as the private banking sector in India, to incentivize the birth of girl children by giving a payment at the time of birth to the parents at the point when she would be carrying on with her education from the age of 10, 11, before she'd go, which is the dropout rate where it's the highest at the age of 10, 11. And then finally, age of 18, when girls would be either at 18 or 21 when they'd be at the age of marriage. And the scheme very clearly showed that this is going to be the state's contribution to the dowry, which is a kind of cultural, or the gendered kind of ways in which women are tied to patrimony. So it's not progressive. It's not arguing we're gonna end dowry. It's actually working culture and very gendered notions of the half-family and womanhood all into capitalism. And this is really what we're looking at now. And so the picture becomes very muddled when we see that neoliberal development is now a thing. It's now a concept, which is here, there and everywhere. So when corporations are also on board, NGOs are having to look for funding. We can see that it's a very mixed picture. And when we think about neoliberal development, to just give you a definition about what that is in neoliberal turn, it's the withdrawal of the state from welfare and a shrinking role of the state in terms of provision in a public health care education and social services. So the state over the last few decades through structural adjustment, there are a number of other packages which have seen a real overhauling of the post-colonial state, the state that post-colonial state that had been struggling in many ways to recover from colonialism and to build national economies is now being shrunk even further. And so here we see a heightened presence of private forces in traditionally public realms. And it's here that the neoliberal state can often also take on repressive features. So another example, and I'm sure most of you would have heard of this before, the number of corporate social responsibility campaigns where the corporations are actually required to show that they're doing something for a society. And so corporate social responsibility, CSR, is people would say is a way for corporations or otherwise doing things very unethically are able to funnel their profits into work that is doing good for society. So on the left, you can see the kind of sweatshop with many documentaries on that. The clean clothes campaign, for instance, is another which highlight the ways in which trainers, other kinds of apparel are produced in sweatshop contexts in special economic zones where labor laws are not abided to, where trade unions are illegal. And where labor is seen, feminine labor is further feminized but also undervalued. And these are the places where corporations are also maximizing their profits. But simultaneously also be seen to be engaging in the campaign that common sense I mentioned before, girls being likely, and this image here on the right as being the key symbol for development. Not all of the slides are showing here. I'm sorry there, I had another image but it's not there. Okay, that's all right. So there are a number of things when we look at them. I've given you some examples that are out there in the world in terms of corporations and the neoliberal context that is really everywhere. Neoliberalism as a concept is capitalism in its kind of sharpened heightened state but it is the system. And so for those of us who are studying development and we do study dependency theory and structuralism, a number of different competing frameworks. But what we're finding increasingly is that we are operating within a neoliberal global context and therefore we need to share our tools and our skills in order to be able to understand, how do we work in this system in addressing structures that underlie the politics of development? So there are historical connections and relations of power between what's so-called global north and global south and lots of different other terminologies depending on how you are mapping whatever dynamics you're looking at. So empire, coloniality, they haven't gone away. And many economies are still locked into producing raw materials on very unfair and uneven terms of trade. We also see economic and political institutions that have been historically aligned to states that benefited from colonization and we can see the ways in which many countries are still paying back debts that are tied to those histories which are accumulating interest and how that impacts the ways in which any country is able to do its own planning. We also are interested then in looking at the social dynamics. So class, race, gender and how social dynamics are also a key site for the reproduction of inequality. We can see a persistence of systemic processes as a result. So when we don't question the underlying politics or the underlying structures, then we're all we're doing is making a superficial kind of intervention which will just continue to reproduce and perpetuate those. And I think that probably if I wanted to say in a nutshell kind of talks about how and why doing a critical approach towards development and not just doing development studies but doing understanding it through the political economy and the politics of development is absolutely essential. So I'm just gonna now briefly just talk about the program in particular. Why study development studies as class and why do it online? I've got an image here of our lovely Senate House and we're hoping well it's going to be due to be opening again soon in the next couple of weeks is that our online programs reflect the kinds of critical approaches and perspectives in the same way that our programs on campus do. We have a really good pedagogy I think in terms of the distance learning which I mean you're free to ask afterwards about how it works with distance learning is that people are all over the world and we work with an assumption that people are based and might be busy at different times or available at different times so that you are able to benefit from being in that kind of in that learning space. So we have a global network of students many of whom are already working in international development and are working while they're studying also. And I think that also enriches the engagements and interactions in terms of our discussion forums that you participated. The people are coming from lots of different geographical places but also from very different points of perception in terms of understanding the problems at hand that we think about. Overall, it's a guided curriculum if I had to just in any way with flexible self-learning and it's through this then that we set up a kind of structure through our virtual learning environment where it's activities which are basically assignments or assessments which are broken down as kind of building blocks and they eventually, as we've seen very successfully that students become equipped very quickly with very good analytical and written skills. Okay, so I've kind of rushed through that. I wanted to just give you a taste of some of the kinds of questions that we look at but I'd be more than happy to answer any questions if anyone has.


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Five years from now, more than one-third of the skills or jobs we believe are essential for today's workforce will have changed according to the future of jobs report from the World Economic Forum.  Today, the world of work has changed when the first sew-in machine was made some hundred years ago. The fashion industry, timming with thousands of sim-stresses who sew clothes by hand knew they were in for trouble. As the world keeps changing, and more so at a rapid rate today, because of the advent of technology, you can be certain that the future is nearer than you think. Years ago, you were into school to study a course, and you were certain to get a job when you graduated. Schools have always been valued for this reason in many countries, but that strategy is fast becoming ineffective now. Many IT professionals who basically work from home with almost no educational background earn far much more and live far better than most university graduates. In fact, the present day work seems to belong to skilled workers rather than those who go about with school certificates. What does this mean? It means nothing in this world is certain. Today's in the man job, work or skills may become absolute tomorrow. If you want to secure your future in work, then it behooves you to learn the skills that will be relevant in the future so you can better prepare yourself for it. Here are the top 10 skills that, in 11 years, which is 2030 and beyond, will be needed to secure your financial future. 1. Complex Problem Solving Problem solving is a crucial skill in any context, with technology steadily becoming more intricate and complex, employees will be required to have the mental flexibility to think outside the box and tackle any issues that may arise. It's crucial to sharpen your ability to find solutions to complicated problems in preparation for the future workplace. 2. Management The job market is becoming increasingly competitive with new talents entering the workforce every day.  To achieve this, you need to possess a balanced combination of other skills too. This includes emotional and social intelligence, empathy, leadership and negotiation to yield the best results from your team. 3. Virtual Collaboration Remote work options are becoming increasingly common in most businesses, then having the ability to collaborate with your virtual team using technology-mediated communication will be a must. As companies are seeing the benefits of sourcing talents across the world, the virtual workplace is becoming more and more of a reality every day, from meetings and discussions to projects. You will need to be ready to complete your task and work with a diverse team on a virtual basis. 4. Active Learning Workers will need to be adaptable to respond to the changes happening around them. As the workplace evolves, so should your skill set. To do this successfully, you will need to become an active learner and keep up with new development in your field. Most people are prepared to retrain and sharpen their existing skills to integrate themselves into the future workplace. It's also very likely that companies will facilitate lifelong learning opportunities for their staff to avoid a possible skills gap caused by emerging technologies. 5. Programming Programming is steadily becoming an ordinary professional skill, especially among the younger workforce. In fact, a study found at Gen Z years take the lead in programming skills compared to other generations. With computers already holding an integral role within the workplace, the ability to code will prove to be essential. Indeed, programming will enable workers to minimize their time spent on manual tasks by automating them, which will significantly improve their efficiency and productivity levels too. 6. Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is all about being tuned into people's fillings and surroundings. This allows you to navigate different situations, manage behavior and make decisions that achieve personal results. In a future setting, this is one of the most critical soft skills to have, especially as a manager or supervisor, since it will allow you to create a positive atmosphere in a dynamic workplace where machines and humans coexist. 7. Technology Systems Analysis Mainly, systems analysis involves troubleshooting, redesigning and analyzing existing systems, a crucial skill that is required for companies to maintain their performance levels, as businesses continue to become more and more reliant on machinery and automation. The need for professionals with technological skills and knowledge will surge. Indeed, companies will have an increased demand for people who can upkeep the systems and eliminate operational disruptions. 8. Service Orientation Being a service-oriented person means that you can anticipate and meet people's needs and expectations. This is a particularly useful skill if you work in an industry that involves customer service. However, service orientation can benefit any professional as it allows them to foresee the future needs of a business, client or team. In other words, you can resolve potential issues and offer solutions to future problems, placing yourself and your company a few steps ahead of others. In a highly competitive economy, this is a must. 9. Negotiation With automation, AI and machines infiltrating the workplace, social skills will be more important than ever. Negotiating is something that only us humans can do and do well. However, some occupations have allowed us to climb into our shell and let our interpersonal skills decline. Nonetheless, negotiation as well as other soft skills will be even more important in the future as we will be expected to engage and negotiate with clients, colleagues and managers to take on more active roles. 10. Entrepreneurship Thinking outside the box and coming up with fresh concepts and designs is a skill that will secure you a job in the next decade. With machines freeing us from menial and repetitive tasks, we will be able to take on more active roles and pursue our entrepreneurial aspirations. For that, you must possess the ability to think on your feet and run your project, department or business. If you want to climb the career ladder, don't settle on one thing. Continue to expand your mind by exploring different avenues. If this video inspired you, like the video, we love you.


We was told that, well his mom told me this a couple of like a week ago that the judge was when he was released, he was supposed to get the tattoo removed off his forehead. Whoa! So why is he removing the tattoo? That's what they said, look, I'm not saying he's removing it, they're gonna get that right. Because if there's a court order, it only means the court is ordering it. It doesn't mean he gotta abide by the court rule. Yeah, we on boss talk, one on one, one on one. Yeah, we gonna talk. So 40s, 46, 48, 5, 5, 5, 5, 7, 5, 8, 6, 7, 6, 7, 1, 11, 9, 0, 1, 11, 11, 2, 7, 5. That's all West Side Inherits, that's our blocks. But I'm from 5, 7, we from the 50s, me and Mack, Mack from 5, 5, 5, 7, we from the 50s, we from all the 50s. Wow. So it's like, we from a big organization, we got smaller sections in the organization, you know what I'm saying? Have you talked to Krip Mack since he been locked up? We want the Krip Mack update right now. I talked to him about three months ago, two months ago, about two months ago, because you know me and Lupe, he put him on the phone, what's up with that nigga, man? You know what I'm saying?  I sent him the numbers in the shit, too. What's the conversation like? Right now, he got coronavirus, so he locked down, there's no conversation right now. Wow. But about two weeks ago, conversation was more likely, coming home, crying again, what I got up next, you know what I'm saying, what you think is best for me, all that type of shit, you know what I'm saying? You think I should try to sign a deal, you think I should just stay like this, how I should do, what I should do, you know what I'm saying? But that's what the typical conversation is, you know what I'm saying? But we was told that, well, his mom told me this a couple of, like, a week ago that the judge, when he was released, he was supposed to get the tattoo removed off his forehead. Whoa. So what, why is he removing the tattoo? That's what they say. Look. I'm not saying he's removing it, they're going to get that right, because if it's a court order, it only means the court is ordering it. It doesn't mean he got to abide by the court rules. But if court ordering it, I thought you had to. You can, I can say no, I just want to go back to jail. I say I'm not abiding by the court order, and you can violate me, you can do what you want to do to me, I'm not taking it off. And you're going to go back to jail and stay in there indefinitely? Not indefinitely, not indefinitely, because it's only so long they can keep him in jail. It's like, you understand, he got a controlling case, so it's like whatever controlling case holds, being on parole or whatever that holds, because even though you're on parole or whatever, when you violate, you still, your proxies continue. You still just use it in the jail, not on the streets, doing it on the proxies. So I see, keep going, violated, he's parole on counsel. But why did they say that he had to take that tattoo off? I don't know. There's no law to say that, because that's free speech, so you can do whatever you want to your body. Well, and out here, it's not like, it's not unseen. Well, it's other people that it happened to before. Oh, really? So tell them that you had to take that off, court order? Yeah.  They don't, they don't be going for it a lot of times. But some judges don't even care. Some don't, you know what I'm saying? I just see a lot of times it's juvenile, though, a lot of juveniles, people do it, try to catch you before you get an adult, so they can take the stuff off your face. But a lot of people, a lot of people did that before.  So.