So the Maker Spaceship is a 39 foot mobile maker space and we drive it all around San Jose to bring technology, STEM learning really out into the community. A lot of people don't have access to technology that's created in their very own backyard. We might be at a school, we might be at a senior center or a preschool, or we'll be at a more public event kind of like you see here today when we're at the movable feast, which is where the food trucks come and gather and people can come out for a family night of dining and give people an opportunity to play and make and learn. So today we're doing green screen photos and so there's actually a built-in green screen and projection screen inside the vehicle, people can take their photos and then use Photoshop and manipulate the photos that they just created. There's a monitor at each of the stations and power and ventilation but otherwise it's all flexible. There's 3D printers, laser cutters, CNC's, we have cooking equipment, we have sewing machines, soldering irons, robotics, pretty much anything that you want to be able to make and do programming with, we have available and can load onto the bus. The responses from the community have been really wonderful. You know, when you don't even have a computer at home and this bus pulls into your neighborhood, it shows that the library isn't just a building someplace far away that we're here in the neighborhood, we're working with the community to find out what their needs and wants are and then providing them. So I'm very fortunate to work as the Innovations Manager for San Jose Public Library. I like it, it's really cool. It's a fun job, that's for sure. I get to work with an amazing group of people to build big, beautiful things. You're dragging it because you're trying to get all that green out of there. When I look at myself I don't think I'm somebody who's necessarily going to change the world but I can make an impact in San Jose and the more lives that you go out and touch, then the bigger impact we all have and together we can change the world.


So this is what we're dealing with today. What question is Mill trying to answer? And if you remember, all the philosophers we looked at this semester have been trying to answer the question How should you live your life by answering a different question? And then Mill is no different in that regard. So let's recall, shall we? We had Hume and we had Sumner, and they were trying to answer the question How are moral beliefs justified? And remember, Hume said your moral beliefs are justified by your passions, what you want, and Sumner said your moral beliefs are justified by the culture. After that we had Glaucon and Hobbes, and they were trying to answer the question Who's interest in most important? Now they both agreed that one's own interest in most important and interesting difference between them was that Glaucon said since your interest in most important justice is bad, Hobbes said since your interest in most important justice is good. All right, then we had Aristotle and Epicurus. At least the first part of the Aristotle reading we had, they were both trying to answer the question, what has moral worth? What is actually worth pursuing? Epicurus, if you remember, said pleasure is what has moral worth. This is a view called hedonism, and Aristotle said what has moral worth is unimmonia, which is this kind of good spirit, the different parts of which you are working together in kind of a harmony. The first reading of Aristotle tried to answer the question, what has moral worth? The second reading of Aristotle dealt with the question, how does one acquire what has moral worth? Now remember Aristotle's claim here is that virtues, these habits that conform to the relative mean, these produce the right kinds of states in you that then produce eudaimonia. Okay, well then we had Locke, Locke was trying to answer the question, how should you live your life by answering what are your rights? And remember his answer to that question was that your rights are determined by natural law. You can live your life as you see fit, as long as you lived according to natural law. Okay, now this brings us to Mill. So what question is Mill trying to answer? Is he trying to answer one of these previous questions, or is he trying to do something different? Well you might think he's trying to answer the question, what is happiness? Now he spent some time giving us an account of pleasures, okay, but he's not giving us happiness. He's certainly not doing exactly what Aristotle is doing, as far as eudaimonia is concerned. He's not trying to give a full exposition of happiness. It's going to be sort of involved in his project, but it's not the main point overall. He's not even trying to answer the question, what is utilitarianism? Now utilitarianism is going to fall out from his discussion. Okay, that's fine. But he's not trying to give an exposition of one of the moral theories. He's advocating a particular view. And what Mill is doing, he's actually trying to answer two questions, just like Aristotle. He's trying to answer the question, what has more worth? And the question, how does one acquire what has more worth? Now he differs from Aristotle on both these points, incidentally. He sides with Epicurus. When it comes to answering what has more worth, he says pleasure as well. And he has some differences with Epicurus. He's not advocating a pure Epicurian position, but he is trying to say that what has actual more worth is pleasure. This is what's worth pursuing in your life. And how do you acquire it? Aristotle is going to talk about acquiring more worth through character, through virtue. Mill differs. He says how you acquire more worth is one act at a time. His is a consequentialist view. The consequences of your action determine its moral worth. Not your character, not your rights, not your wants, not your desires, not the culture, nothing like that. The consequences determine whether your act is moral or immoral, and the consequences that matter is pleasure. And what sums us up together in the greatest happiness principle. The greatest happiness principle states that an act is right to the extent that it promotes pleasure, and wrong to the extent that it promotes its opposite. The maximization of pleasure is the point of every act, or should be, is what Mill says. Maximization of pleasure is the, should be the pursuit of every act, should be the consequence of every act. Can you excuse me? I misspoke that. Should be the consequence of every act. This is what you should aim at. Your intent doesn't matter.


We are not in Switzerland. This is Israel. My name is India and today I'm taking you to the coldest part of the country. Mount Hermon. You see, Israel isn't just all sand. There is snow, too. Well, at least once a year in the winter. Mount Hermon is located in north Israel in a region called Vigolan Heights. It will take us about three hours to get there by car from Tel Aviv. But what you are about to see will amaze you. We just made it and this is what it looks like. Mount Hermon is on the border of Syria and Lebanon. And Israel actually shares ownership of this mountain with Syria. Behind me is Syria and to my right is Lebanon. Because of its location, Mount Hermon is a very strategic military point. In fact, not far from us there is an army base securing the border. This mountain here is the highest point in Israel and also the coldest. Right now, it is zero degrees Celsius. For the Middle East, that is pretty chilly. And right now, you are looking at Israel's one and only ski resort. For 160 shekels, you can rent ski equipment and go up the mountain. And for less money, you can just ride up. Although this place looks like a lot of fun. It has been a battleground in the past. Parts of Mount Hermon in Syria was captured by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967. But six years later, Israel lost it to Syria during the Yom Kippur War. Miraculously, Israel regained their part of this mountain before the war ended. So we are standing on a place of great significance. After all, Mount Hermon is even mentioned in the Bible as the northern border of ancient Israel. I hope that one day you too will come and see this wonderful place. Come to Mount Hermon. This is Mount Hermon. This is Inside Israel. Thanks for watching and I'll see you next time.


So it gets a bit tedious to keep to have to write those proportionality factors all the time. So what is that if I could say that the probability of being in state A, well we know that that should be proportional but say let's say equal to, let's say that is the e raised to minus eA divided by kT. Couldn't I just normalize this by summing over all states and e raised to minus eI divided by kT. Yes, if I know all the states I can do that. And this is so common that in physics we call the entire denominator here for Z, the partition function.  But you know what, it's not so much the sum that's the key thing that, but the process of performing the sum requires you to have information about the energy of every single state. And that will of course mean that we know the relative weight of each state. So if we know the partition function that means that we know every single microstate in the entire system. And then we know everything about the system. Because let's say that I would like to calculate something specific. I might want to get the energy, the energy of the total energy of the system. Well, that just corresponds to the sum of the energy in state I, multiplied by the weight in state I. I can call this the weight of state A divided by the partition function to normalize it. This goes for any property that I can calculate in each state. I know what the energy of state I is, right? So if you want to average anything, say over molecules or something, as long as you can enumerate this over states, you're done. Statistical mechanics will tell you everything. This is great in a world where you're playing with toy models and you have four states. Unfortunately, we tend to have more than four states and things we're working with such as proteins, like a quadrillion states. This is not possible to enumerate even for a computer. So on the one hand, it won't work. But if we look at this, there will be some weights here with very high energy. And if the energy here is very high, the weight is going to be very low. We can probably ignore those. And the trick here is that if I know the partition function exactly, then I can calculate all these properties exactly. But if I know the partition function approximately, I can calculate things approximately. And in many cases, computer simulations will work quite fine because they're much better than I am at sampling things. And if the computer simulation can at least sample the 90% most relevant parts of space, then I can get something that has a pretty good approximation. And you're going to be doing this later on in the class, although you won't get anywhere close to completely sampling a system. But any time we're doing computer simulations in physics, where you, at least statistical mechanics, it's not necessarily a matter of predicting a trajectory, but you're really sampling states from the partition function. One thing that we would like to calculate, though, is entropy. And the problem is that what is the entropy in a particular state? We don't know, because that has to do with the probabilities of organizing things in that state. And if I put the molecule in this state, how many molecules can go in the other states? And to derive that, we're going to need to look at one second derivation here where we involve a bit of equations. But it's not going to be super difficult.


I'm Kit Healy, I was mentioned just a minute ago. I also, so I have two jobs, I have many jobs at the moment, but two of them are relevant to right now. So I'm the grants advisor for the Michael Fields Agricultural Institute, as well as working for Dr. Dawson at the University of Wisconsin as an outreach and research specialist. The project that I'm telling you about today was actually the project I did for my master's research with Dr. Dawson, which I finished up last spring. And this project is ongoing, so I have a couple of new results that I've thrown in here, even though they weren't technically part of my project. But to start, we'll just start with a couple of facts about tomatoes. First fact is that everyone loves tomatoes. This is an objective fact, scientifically proven now. But so basically, we decided to work on tomatoes because they're a very popular crop and they're a very lucrative crop for a lot of organic farmers in the upper Midwest. Tomatoes are the most consumed vegetable in the United States. The certified organic tomato production has increased 277% since between 2007 and 2011. So there are a lot more people growing organic tomatoes right now. And in a survey that one of my colleagues, Alex Lyon, did in Wisconsin, she found that tomatoes tied with winter squash were the top priorities for organic vegetable breeding in the state of Wisconsin. I imagine that that is similar for the other states in the North Central region in the upper Midwest, although they're Packers fans, so I don't know if we can trust them. But I think we might give them the benefit of the doubt. And the reason why that's important, why we wanna know what organic vegetable growers are interested in doing breeding work for is this quote or this statistic here on the bottom. I don't know if you guys can see, am I in your way? Okay, cool. Which says that 95% of crops grown on organic farms worldwide, approximately, were not bred for organic conditions. So that means that even if you're buying organic seed, that crop might have been selected or most likely was selected in a conventional input environment. Which means that, and then there's other follow-up research to show that crops that were not bred in organic environments lack really important traits for organic farmers, like the ability to scavenge nutrients from farther down in the soil strata, so that you, because you're not applying a whole lot of readily available nutrition to the plant right at the top of the soil. So that's just one example of many, there's lots of research on this coming out now, especially, about the importance of breeding crops specifically for organic systems. Making selection in organic systems so that we know that those crops are well adapted to the environment that you all will be growing them in. Okay, so after talking to organic farmers in Wisconsin and in other parts of the upper Midwest, we determined the following trait priorities for tomatoes. Disease resistance was a really important trait that people were interested in, especially foliar diseases. So this is, I think, a picture of our dear Sceptoria leaf blight, which we have a lot of in Wisconsin. Alternaria is another one that's early blight, late blight, and then some of the other kind of speck and spot diseases that tend to be very, very common. So that was one thing that we were looking at is is there any disease resistance that we can capitalize on to help breed some tomatoes that are better for organic farmers. Yield is always important. That's kind of a no-brainer. If it doesn't make tomatoes, it's no good. And then physiological issues, like anyone who's ever grown a sun gold thinks that splitting is a problem because it is for a lot of tomato plants, especially there's a common perception, which is often true, that heirloom tomatoes tend to split a lot more than the kind of red round modern slicer tomatoes. So we wanted to look at that, the splitting growth habit. That means whether it's a determinant or an indeterminant that's rangy and all over the place, that matters to a lot of farmers. People who grow in high tunnels tend to like the indeterminate ones so they can string them up, and then people who grow in the field in multiple successions tend to like the determinant tomatoes. But interestingly enough, the most important thing for people was flavor. So that makes a lot of sense. I've heard somebody say it doesn't matter if the tomato can shoot lasers out of its petioles. If it doesn't taste good, people aren't going to buy it and it's not going to do the farmer any good. This is another way of representing basically the same information. This is from a national survey that we did recently in preparation for another project. Basically we asked farmers, what are the qualities of different fruits and vegetables that you need to know before you make your variety decisions? So what are you curious about before you start growing a new variety of tomato? And the larger words had more answers and the smaller words had fewer answers. So it was pretty consistent with what we had found a couple of years before. That flavor is really important, followed by disease resistance and yield, and then people want to know days to maturity more as a practical consideration. So that led to our research questions, which are which varieties and breeding lines, so we weren't only working with finished varieties, we also worked with some earlier generation material, exhibit superior performance in organic production environments, and then we also understanding that a lot of organic farmers grow their tomatoes in hoop houses, greenhouses, high tunnels, wanted to add a season extension element on top of this variety trial element. So we also asked how does organic hoop house production compare to organic field production in terms of yield, disease, and flavor? So I'll move very quickly through the research design. We basically had a side-by-side field and hoop house at the West Madison Agricultural Research Station on certified organic land there. We had 42 varieties in 2014, the first year of the study, 37 varieties in 2015. I think we're still somewhere in the 35 varieties range. Two plots of each variety in each environment, so we had replication in the two different environments and then replication within environments, and then we tried to manage them as identically as possible without being ridiculous. So basically if it rained a lot in the field, we would not then overwater the hoop house to try to compensate for the rain in the field. We wanted to manage both the field and the hoop house as a farmer would manage them and try to see what kind of results we got. So for management, we used a rye cover crop and compost and pelleted chicken manure to achieve our desirable rate of fertility. We drip irrigated, used plastic mulch in both the hoop house and the field, and then we sprayed EF 400, which is an organic blend of essential oils that smells wonderful, and supposedly prevents late blight. It's a fungicide. It was moderately effective. We can talk about that later if anybody wants to. There's the label if anyone's curious about EF 400. So we used the single string trellising system, which a lot of people use in the hoop house, a basket weave in the field. We pruned the indeterminate varieties and did a little bit of pruning on the determinants, but not very much just for airflow mostly. And then we harvested twice weekly in 2014, but reduced that to once weekly to save on labor in 2015. And we found actually that that did not change our, it did not increase our rate of unmarketable tomatoes to harvest less, so that worked out very nicely for us. And then we'll get into some of the results. So one of the important results that will not be surprising to anyone is that there was a temperature differential between the hoop house and the field. The hoop house on average was about 10 to 12 degrees higher, but it's not really the averages that matter in this situation. It's the spikes, which I don't have on here, but the hoop house, because we did not have automated sidewalls, the hoop house occasionally would get into the hundreds, 110 over 110 degrees. And that, we'll see how that played out in our yield data, which was important. So if anyone is considering doing hoop house and you have the capacity to do automated sidewalls, I would highly recommend doing that, because if you don't get there right in time, temperature spikes for tomatoes above about 95 degrees can cause blossom abortion and pollen, a reduction in pollen viability. So it's really important to try to keep your tomatoes in a good range. But that being said, if it's warmer earlier, you can plant earlier, which is great. So looking at our yield data, we found a significant difference in yield between the hoop house and the field. You can see the hoop house is the red bars and the field is the blue bars. And then what you see in this section is basically how we analyzed the data, looking for what was the cause of that difference? Like what was the cause of the variation that we saw in the field? Using our statistical analysis, we found that management was the most important thing. So more than whether we were growing an heirloom or a slicer or a cherry tomato, whether or not it was grown in the hoop house or the field mattered the most for how well a variety yielded. Yep, let's see. So hoop house production significantly better than in the field. Now, what I wanted to point out here brings us back to temperature, which is that, so we could start getting yield from the hoop house earlier, which you would expect, and then we get yield from the hoop house a little later, because the hoop house is the red line and the field is this blue line here. And then on the bottom we have date, so that's the progression of time. And then grams is yield on the y-axis there. And so that drop off in the middle there where the field spikes above the hoop house, that was about two weeks after we got the spike temperatures in the hoop house. So I think that's what happened is that we ended up with some blossom abortion and not as much fruit, which is something that you would observe working on a farm, but I think it's kind of interesting that we have a graph about it too, even though it's a pretty obvious thing to think about. So one of the questions that I had was this higher yield that we're seeing in the hoop house, is that just because the season's longer? Is that just because we started harvesting three weeks earlier and kept harvesting a week and a half later in the hoop house? Or is there an extra effect of season extension? So beyond the extra time that you have to harvest, does having a hoop house help increase? And what we found in 2015, working out the math, is that yes, even if you account for season extension, even if you take that out of the equation, you still get an extra bump in yield from growing in a hoop house. And there are lots of different reasons that that could be. One of which I believe is being able to control the water. So tomatoes are very sensitive to water, too much water and they split, and also if you have a lot of water on the foliage, you're gonna have a lot of disease problems. So being able to control the moisture levels I think really helps. But we didn't do research on that, that's just my professional opinion. Interestingly, we got the opposite result in 2014, because we had some disease in the hoop house in 2014 that balanced out that extra bump that you might get from growing in the hoop house. The effect of the hoop house in 2014 was primarily the longer season. So seasonality is different every time. So here's yield broken out by market class just to talk about the different things that we grew. We grew heirlooms, large slicers, which are kind of like your big beef type, paste slash ox heart, which are the more elongated tomatoes that have more flesh and less gel. And then the small slicers are kind of like the defiant or a smaller version of the big beef tomato. And so as you would expect, the heirlooms overall did not yield as well. But what's interesting is that there's not really any statistical difference. What these bars mean on the top, those little black bars. If those overlap, that means that there was a difference that we could see, but it's not a difference that we might expect to repeat. So that's kind of interesting because I think there is a lot of kind of maligning of heirloom varieties that they're not as productive. And our research shows that while that still may be true, it's not something that you would expect to be true every year all the time as kind of a natural law of the world. So I'm pulling for heirlooms still. Okay, so getting to the varieties, because this is the fun part. Okay, so we took yield measurements on all of the varieties by weighing every tomato that we took out of the hoop house and the field all season long for two years, which was a lot of work. I got really strong. So, but we learned a lot, which was great. The highest marketable yield. So basically the way that this breaks out, the H and the F are hoop house and field. If it's italicized, that means that it was in the top three of yielders two years in a row. So for both years, and then if there's a star, that means that that difference was statistically significant. So again, we would expect it to be repeated in the future. So Plum Regal was a big winner. This is, that's Plum Regal. It's a variety that we got from Johnny's, but also Bejo offers and a couple of other seed companies offer in organic seed. It's a plum type tomato that has also not plum, sorry, a paste type tomato that has also been bred for good fresh eating quality. So it's also pretty flavorful. It doesn't have that mealy texture that you get from a lot of paste tomatoes. It's a nice tomato. It wasn't a favorite on the flavor spectrum, but it was really great and it yielded like crazy. And it showed some disease tolerance. So we didn't test for disease resistance, which would mean actually looking at the genetics of the plant and seeing if it actually had an ability to shut down disease, but it did a lot better, continued to yield, survived a lot more, lost fewer leaves than a lot of other varieties did when faced with septoria and early blight and things like that. So big thumbs up for Plum Regal. The one with a bunch of numbers and letters, that's a breeding line from Vitalis, which is the organic branch of Enzazaden. That one is a ox heart type tomato that had really, really high yield and not so much disease resistance and not so much on the flavor, but really high yield. Japanese black trifle is here. This is a really cool one from Territorial Seeds that also yielded a whole bunch. It's kind of a really cool bell shaped variety. It has a nice green shoulder on top and then a purple, like dark brown purple base. And it's also very, very flavorful. Also just yielded so many tomatoes that I was grateful for now, but when I was weighing them, I wasn't that happy about. Yes. So, yeah. Azurian crown is a new variety from Keith Mueller at KC Tomatoes in Missouri. He's awesome. You look at the time, okay. It has some brandy wine lineage, but is a hybrid. It's got pink flesh and then this really beautiful dark purple indigo blush on top that stays after it ripens. So a lot of, I don't know if anyone's grown the indigo line of tomatoes, but they get dark, but then they turn really red and by the time they're ripe, they're pretty much all the way red. Azurian crown keeps its dark purple kind of inky color on the top and it's really pretty. So, right down KC Tomatoes and look it up on the internet. He doesn't have, he's not in any catalogs and he pretty much only will send you seed if you contact him directly, but it's pretty good stuff. So, just a plug for Keith Mueller at KC Tomatoes. Garden gem is the last one that I'll talk about here. I'll mention genuine just very briefly. Garden gem was another really kick butt tomato. It yielded a whole heck of a lot, which I'll tell you what that means later. So garden gem, if it was a bigger tomato definitely would have been the top yielder by, but because we measured by weight, the fact that it was a small tomato brought it a little bit farther down the list. But it is a hybrid from Harry Clee at University of Florida. It is also, he's looking for somebody to carry it right now. So hopefully next season you'll be able to buy garden gem. I think you can buy it from somewhere small in Florida right now. This might be the first year, but I bet by next year it's gonna be in one of the major catalogs. It's a hybrid between a, the consumer favorite flavor favorite over here is a small heirloom, and then I think it's an early girl or something related to an early girl that's the production quality parent that's the modern variety. So it's a cross between those two or between those two parentages. It has a really great flavor, very high yielding, also shows some disease tolerance in the field. Definitely one of the favorites that we're gonna keep in this project for a long time. And then genuine had a high marketable yield. I'm not sure why or how because it got really bad blossom enderite. So that's just what the stats say, but I don't really recommend that tomato. So if you come across genuine, that's just my opinion is that it was hard to manage the blossom enderite on that guy. Okay, so notable varieties for disease resistance. This is pretty much the only one that gave us anything statistically significant when it comes to disease tolerance, where we could actually say this is a candidate for having some kind of actual genetic resistance that you can then breed with was this breeding line from the organic seed alliance. If you're not familiar with the organic seed alliance, they're definitely worth checking out. They do a lot of really incredible breeding work specifically focused on organic direct market, vegetable growers, and they're developing this line of tomatoes that doesn't have a name yet. But if you check them out online, if you send them an email and say, I'm interested in your tomato varieties when you release them, they will let you know when they come out. But the 404, 405 line is really, really great and also has really had a lot of flavor preferences too. So people really like the flavor, which we'll come to. Okay, so how did we measure flavor? Basically we did what, if anyone was in Matt Roboyne's session earlier today, he talked about bricks and it's actually the name of his cider company, which is measuring sugar in solution. So we measured bricks by putting tomato juice onto a digital refractometer and checking it out to see if there was a sugar difference that you got from growing in the hoop house versus growing in the field. And we found that there is a statistically significant higher sugar concentration from growing in the hoop house than growing in the field. And part of that could be that you can't control the water in the field. So there could just be that there are watery tomatoes growing out when there's a rainstorm, things like that. Although we did test each of these multiple times throughout the season. So it wasn't like we just got it right after the rainstorm and then there was this difference. This is consistent. And also the higher heat in the hoop house could contribute to sugar fixation. I think that's probably a lot of it as well. So that was more significant than variety. So what that means again is that the difference in sugar concentration was more controlled by whether it was grown in the hoop house or not than it was by whether it was an heirloom or a slicer. So that's really interesting for people who are trying to decide, should I grow some heirlooms? Is it really worth it?  I just use big beef as my go-to, like red round slicer tomato. Okay, I'm not gonna get too much into this graph because it's kind of complicated. But one thing that we found was that people usually think about sugar as a way to anticipate what something's going to taste like. But what we found by doing some background research and research that other people have done who look at flavor all the time is that the acid to sugar ratio, which we can measure, is actually a better predictor of whether or not somebody was going to like a tomato, whether or not the flavor is going to be acceptable. So we did titratable acidity for citric acid content and then used the ratio of the citric acid content to the bricks to create this graph, which basically tells us that the, I'm not gonna get into this graph too much, I'm just gonna say that knowing the acid to sugar ratio is important. Okay, so looking at the acid to sugar ratio, the ones that had a favorable acid to sugar ratio, which actually turned out, one of the reasons it's complicated is that it turned out to be that the lower acid to sugar ratio was preferable. That was more correlated with people liking tomato flavor, but the correlation wasn't very strong. So these are the ones that had that lower, more preferable acid to sugar ratio. You can see Garden Gem and Plum Regal are both on here. But with the exception of a few of these, so Garden Gem A6 and the 45L 2.3, I'll talk about those in a minute, those are the only ones from this list that also then came out in our taste tests as being favorites. So this is something we still need to work on, is whether or not this ratio of acid to sugar is actually gonna be predictive of whether or not people like the tomato flavor, or whether it's kind of a nice thing to know, but really isn't gonna tell us very much. So that's something we're still working on, which is why I didn't wanna spend too much time on that graph there. So what we'll look at instead are the ones that the people really liked. So we did flavor evaluations with our crew four times throughout each season, and then we also got a panel of chefs together for this project called The Seed to Kitchen Collaborative, which I'm gonna be talking about on Friday, how that all works, to do flavor evaluations of our tomatoes and a lot of other vegetables. They're very generous with their time. So what we found here is that this variety, 45L 2.3 was definitely a flavor favorite. All the chefs really liked it. It got high ranks for flavor intensity, balance of flavor, and overall good flavor, which are pretty much what we looked at. And that's this variety over here on your left of the screen. It's a small orange tomato with green stripes. It has some green zebra parentage that comes from KC Tomatoes in Missouri. Keith Mueller, he's brilliant. Like everything he does, basically. And then some of the other good ones that we'll just go through. Amish 6, A6, is a open pollinated, kind of brandy wine-like tomato from Craig Grau, who used to be a professor at UW-Madison and now is a hobby tomato breeder. So Craig Grau, his last name is spelled G-R-A-U, and this is kind of his main project. He works on this A6 tomato. Garden Gem, we already talked about. University of Florida, it's great. I think I have a picture of A6 on here. Hold up. There it is, it's big. It's big and delicious. Genuine, that's the one that got really bad blossom menrot. That's from ball seeds, but it did have a really great flavor. So if you have good ways of managing blossom menrot, if that's not a problem for you, I would check out Genuine. It's got a great name because it's a cross between a Genovese-type tomato, which are those kind of ridged tomatoes that you see, and a Brandywine, Genuine, which I thought was clever. But anyways, it's got great flavor. Again, the chefs really, really liked it, as well as our field crew. And then the line demarcates what are some of the results from this year of things that people like. Although OSA-404 was also a flavor favorite in the previous years, but this year, it's kind of knocking it out of the park. People are really excited about it. And we do all of our taste tests blind. So basically, if something is recurring, if it keeps coming up in people's flavor favorites, then we know that it's really something special because they're not getting attached to the name. They're not remembering, oh yeah, OSA-404, I tried that last time. It's all blind and it's all brand new every time. Crimson Sprinter is one that many of you have probably heard of. It's kind of an older red-brown slicer that has really good flavor. It didn't do so well yield-wise, but people really like it. Bolsero is new to us this year. It's a Johnny's variety. Bolsero, I think it's Bolseno actually. I think that's a typo. It's a Johnny's variety that is both very high-yielding according to our preliminary data from this year and has been very popular with our taste panels. And then this one at the bottom, OSU-P2322, that's a breeding line that actually has some of the indigo rose as its parentage. So if anyone's grown indigo rose here, it's a very popular tomato now, but it oftentimes doesn't taste very good, or at least that's what we're finding in the Midwest. So we gave some of that input back to Jim Meyers, the breeder, and he started using indigo rose as a parent to create a new line of tomatoes that don't have that indigo blush, but have a darker flesh all the way through. And this one actually tastes fantastic. I didn't know that it was his tomato and I brought this to the chefs for one of our tastings, and they were so excited. They were fighting over the leftovers of this tomato to use as a garnish in their restaurants that night. So I have a list of breeders to pay attention to in a minute, but Jim Meyers at Oregon State University is definitely one of them. He's the originator of the indigo line of tomatoes, and he keeps doing wonderful things. Oh, that's both Saino or Bolsero, whatever it is. Okay, breeders to follow. Jim Meyers at Oregon State. Mark McCaslin is another plant breeder working on tomatoes for organic systems. He used to be an alfalfa, or he still is an alfalfa breeder for Land of Lakes, I believe, but he's a hobby tomato breeder, a secret organics enthusiast on the side. And so AP Whaley Seeds is the name of the company that he's working with right now to breed some really fantastic, cool, stripy, very, very flavorful tomatoes from lots of different genetic backgrounds, including some that are gonna stay on the vine and stay ripe longer than your average tomato that have a ripening inhibitor gene that's totally natural, no GMO at all. So he'll come up with some really cool stuff. The organic seed alliance, again, check them out if you haven't, and then I forgot to put Keith on here. I don't know why. KC Tomatoes, just KC, good stuff. Okay, final thoughts, just overview. Higher marketable yield from the hoop house in the field, season extension may not always be the cause of higher yields, but if you're having a rough year in the field, it can be very, very helpful. Higher sugars in the hoop house, and we need to do some further research on whether or not this acid to sugar ratio actually means anything in terms of flavor. So here is my contact information from the UW and my advisor slash boss now, Julie Dawson. This is her email address, and so we can send you our more complete reports, including lots of data that you can then look at and play with yourself if you're into that. Thank you very much. Just a quick question. What was the breakup of determinant versus indeterminate in your tomatoes? They were pretty much all indeterminate. We only had a very few number of determinants. I don't think any of which are mentioned on here, but some of the breeding lines were semi-determinate, which was really nice. So it meant that they grew tall, but they stopped at some point. So, but pretty much, we're pretty much dealing with, well actually, there are two on here that are determinants. So I'll go with those. Plum regal is determinant and garden gem, but the rest of them are indeterminate. How come the grocery stores can't get the flavor that we can on the farm? I do have answers to this. Okay, so as far as I understand it, there are two big reasons for that. One is that most grocery store tomatoes are picked green. So under-ripe in Florida, Mexico, California, wherever they're grown. And then they're ripened either in a truck or in warehouses once they've been transported to wherever they're going, probably many thousands of miles away. They're ripened using ethylene gas, which will help the tomato look ripe. It'll help the, you know, it get the red color. It'll help the carotenoids develop, but it will not help the sugars develop because you need sunlight and photosynthesis to be going on in order to get the sugars to develop. So that's one of the reasons. You're just not gonna get the sugar fixation from ethylene ripening on a tomato that's been picked green then you'll get from a tomato that's fresh from the vine. The other reason, which there's only a little bit of research on this, but it just makes tons of sense to me. I think the researcher's name was Powell and he published in 2009 that, so your conventional grocery store tomato has been bred to turn red all at the same time. So if you think about a lot of heirloom tomatoes or some of the stranger varieties, they have the green shoulders for a long time after they ripen, right? Or they, you know, still have some discoloration. So they wanted the grocery store tomato to turn red all at once. Like it's red, it's ripe. We know that. We're not having any green shoulders. There's no inconsistency. It's your archetypal red tomato. That cluster of genes that controls uniform ripening is actually linked to the genes that control sugar fixation. So not only are we picking the tomatoes green and then before they have a chance to fix sugars, we're also genetically limiting their ability to fix sugars by breeding for this uniform ripening. Because the more uniform the ripening, the less ability in some ways, and there's probably a lot more nuance here that I'm missing, but in some ways it contributes to less sugar fixation and less flavor. Yeah. Sure. Yeah. So there's, and it's not just one. It's like a cluster of genes that control uniform ripening, which is having it be all red instead of having it be to have green shoulders. That cluster of genes is linked to the genes that control sugar fixation, which again is a lot of genes. It's just they influence each other. It's not like a one-to-one thing. There's a lot of complicated interaction, but looking at things that have been bred to have uniform ripening, and then you can actually look at the DNA and see how close together that gene is with the main ones that control sugar fixation, and the ones that control sugar fixation are very closely linked. So there's some relationship there, most likely. Other people need to do some science on that, because you can't really base it on one publication, but I thought that publication was very convincing. And it actually has borne out in other people's flavor evaluations too. That tomatoes that have the green shoulder, even though you have to cut off half the tomato because it's green, the part that's good is really good. Tomatoes over the winter, as long as they ripen properly in the greenhouse. You might have some day-length issues there, because they do need a certain photo period during the day, so a certain number of hours of sunlight. But we're growing tomatoes, so I also work for AP Whaley, one of the companies that I mentioned before, and with Mark McCaslin, and we're growing tomatoes over the winter, but we have lights in the greenhouse that then will give the tomatoes the impression of it being summertime. I haven't tried them yet, but yeah. Yeah, but I imagine they're probably not getting the heat either. You know, we're keeping them at a decent level, but they're not gonna get that, like, good heat that you get in the summertime. But I will be tasting them in a couple of weeks, so we'll have to exchange information and I can let you know how it goes. Given this research, we would expect that they would taste good, but a lot of that probably has to do with heat. What are your favorite heirlooms that aren't splitting? Oh, favorite heirlooms that aren't splitting. Large size. That's a good, okay, so this dear friend, Keith Mueller, Casey Tomatoes, he's brilliant. He also has a tomato called Gary Osena, which is Gary spelled G-A-R-Y, like you'd expect, and then it's, the O is on the end of the Gary, it's really weird, Gary, capital O, and then S-E-N-A, Sena. That's a big, beautiful dark purple with green shoulders, tomato. That is not an heirloom, but it's an OP. It looks like an heirloom, it's open pollinated. It's just, so an heirloom basically just means that it was, most of you probably know this, so sorry if I'm repeating what you already know, but an heirloom just means that it was something that the variety was established before around 1940, 1950. But we have a lot of modern open pollinated varieties that people have been selecting and saving in the same way as heirlooms, they just happened to be more recent. So Gary Osena is a version of that. It's a really, really good one. Let's see, what else? A6 is really good, but it does have the splitting issues. The Azurian crown doesn't have a lot of splitting. That's the one with the, that's also from Keith Miller. I know, this guy should be paying me. That has the dark purple top, but sort of the pink brandy wine at the base. I really like, I'm kind of biased. I know people don't buy green tomatoes, but my favorite heirloom tomatoes are green tomatoes, like the German greens, the Cherokee white, then those hardly split at all, but those are some of my favorites. We also, Bear Creek is another one that did pretty well. That was high on the flavor spectrum and because it's a bit smaller, it's also a dark kind of purple tomato, and that is an heirloom, I think. Overall, people prefer the high acid to sugar or lower acid to sugar ratio in your taste tests. People prefer the lower acid to sugar ratio, which was kind of surprising, I thought. It was actually the inverse of what some other people who did this research found, which is why we need to study it a little bit more. So there was a little bit of correlation between that lower acid to sugar ratio and preference, but it wasn't very strong. You mentioned the importance of using varieties that are bred for organic production. So first of all, how did you select the varieties and do you have any information as to how more conventionally bred varieties compare? Yeah, so we did not do a comparison in this study of how more conventionally bred varieties compare, and not everything in this study was specifically bred for organic systems. They were all things that had organic seed being offered and we asked the seed companies to send us their varieties that they were working on either breeding or adapting to organic systems. So it's kind of in that intermediate stage of we're trying to see what does well in organic systems so we can then give that information back to the breeding, back to the seed company or to the individual breeder and say, this does well, this is a good candidate for you to continue to work on your adaptation to organic systems. It was breeder's choice for the most part. And so, but other things that we asked them for were things that had good flavor and things that, as you said, had been at least trialed in organic systems before, if not specifically bred, because there are really only a few people who right now are currently actively doing breeding, looking at not only selecting varieties in organic systems, but actually focusing on certain traits that organic farmers say they need. So those are kind of two sides of the organic breeding coin that you have to have both of in order to know that you're gonna get a good variety. So we just said seed companies, breeders, the farmers that we're working with are interested in really good flavor. They're interested in yield and they're interested in disease resistance. So send us what you've got that you'd like to trial, preferably things that you have trialed or bred for organic systems and or things that are kind of new and coming through the pipeline because that gets people excited. They don't wanna try the same old thing. I keep saying big beef too because that was our check variety. We did not necessarily choose to grow big beef but we compared everything else to big beef.