Welcome to Start Up The Storefront, presented by Aurobora. All right, welcome to the podcast on today's show. We're talking to Eric. Eric is back. He's got a new book. The first time he was here was the Almanac of Naval Ravicant. One of my favorite books. I got a tattoo of an image from that book and hopefully maybe this is my second tattoo on your second book. So what made you want to do this one? Man, I was so blown away by the response to the Almanac of Naval. It like surpassed my wildest expectations. And so I had a short list of people that I was also interested in to the same degree and biology was on that list and people were kind of proposing that I do it. And actually, biology DM me as a response to one of those random tweets that somebody sent was like, do biology next. And he's like, he's like, I'd love for it. If you're up for it, I was like, all right, man, let's go. Let's go. Wow. And it was at the same type of structure where it's like you and give people a window and tell you how you did Naval's also. And then obviously the tweet download. Was it similar? Yeah, I got a little, I think I'm better at it this time around. So I honestly like the editing process was a little easier, but man, I just start with a mountain of content. Like I've built a giant spreadsheet of like everything I can possibly find of biology's appearances and material and books and blog posts and everything. Get the Twitter, get the full Twitter export and just start like pulling out pieces and organizing and making buckets and it would probably look like boring work. Like if you watched me do it, but I feel like I'm just learning so much in the process and like having a ball.  And what did the publisher say? And so how, you know, from the first time you did this to the second time, what are the things that you tweak maybe or what are the things that you saw that work and we're like, we got to double down on this and continue like almost like a series, which it feels like it's becoming a series. Yeah. I mean, the first book, I was so uncertain because it felt like a new medium, right? Like I hadn't, I'd seen compilations before, but I wasn't sure. I just didn't know what the final form looked like. And then when I saw the, I was really, I was proud of the work, like the Almanac and Neval feels like a really solid book to me. And then when I saw the response to it, I was like, oh, damn, like this is people respond. It's not just me. Like people respond to this. They think this is cool too. And so I knew at least what the final form felt like and what it felt like to do the work, you know, like the first time it was just a lot of uncertainty. There was a lot of second guessing. The second book, it was a little, I was just a little more confident, I think. And so in that, I could see around a little, a few more corners, I guess, than I did the first time around. But it was a whole new person. It was a whole new adventure. It was a whole new set of ideas. So from that perspective, it kind of, it felt fresh to think about new stuff and try to like organize new thoughts. And for people who don't know him, give people a window into who he is because depending on where you are in the world, you can know him for several things, all the things or none of the things. And so he can be a new individual to some people too. For sure. Yeah. I mean, he's, he's also somebody who's like very widely followed in Silicon Valley in particular, I would say, definitely in crypto. He, so his background like grew up in New York, went to school at Stanford, got a bunch of degrees at Stanford and then became a founder of this clinical genomics company that he had a PhD in, I think, computational biology or something like some overlap of like chemistry and computer science and biology. And so he started this like very technical bio company.  He was a partner at a 16 Z for a while. He started a few crypto companies. One got acquired. He became the CTO of Coinbase. So he's had like a really wide sort of ranging career and he has now written the network state and he's basically like full-time investor and content creator in this thesis of like starting new countries and sort of figuring out how to like create a new frontier outside the establishment, which is like a very fascinating thing. But the foundation of all of it, which is really what this book focuses on is his fundamentals, which are like the fundamental importance of technology and like the value that it plays in our lives and how critical it is and how grateful we should be for it and how we can support it and lean into it and how difficult it is to sort of determine what is true and the different types of truth and how we sort of navigate that world. And then the last part is really like his handbook to building, which is, it feels a little like zero to one for people who love that book. I don't know if you've read that, but it's like he was a very tactical kind of practical set of ways to go build something. You know, whether whether that's a nonprofit or a business or a media company or a social like even a social group, right? An organization like that's what this ended up becoming to sort of me searching for what was his most foundational, most evergreen, most universally applicable ideas that I wanted to share with the world. And then I thought people would be able to use on their own. As I was reading the book, I wanted to I wanted to get into your head around because you spent so much time with both of these books and so both of these suites both so much, basically two entirely different data sets. I think Naval does a really good job of distilling hard ideas into simple words. I think when it comes to your new book, it feels much more practical.  It's more of like, I get it and I'm going to go do something with that. Right. It feels more like actionable. I don't know if that was sort of how you went about. I guess what you spent so much time with it. So what were your two takeaways and sort of how Naval's tweets go versus how the new book and how his tweets go. Yeah, it grew out of it really well. I think like the novel book is very philosophical, like almost spiritual. It's it's very high level. It kind of tells you how to think well, but there's not it takes a real leap for somebody to read that book. Put it down and go build, right? Like it's very high level and for people who have the framework already, they can probably put it down and go build, but I got a lot of questions and follow ups and a lot of the chatter that I saw around that book was kind of like, okay, how like, how do I find my specific knowledge? How do I decide what to work on? How do I pick what's a good opportunity or what's not? How do I decide what's important? Like this book answers a lot of the kind of questions, a lot of that gap, right? And so I think it's a really if you read them back to back or a year apart or something like that, I think it's a really helpful way to sort of turn this like new philosophical knowledge into tactics and like a list of execution and the ways to sort of put the tactics into the strategy and execute on them. You know, I haven't been in tech for a little while. I do real estate development now, but it really made me miss tech. Like it made me miss being part of that ecosystem and made me miss being part of sort of around those people who see the world forming not so much in the physical space, but how the digital space is changing everything via like crypto via social media and how you can maneuver these things to work in your favor and and how they you get a world into how they impact and control humanity also, right? And so it made me like obsessed again with tech and I was like, Oh, God, am I really going to go do this thing again? What are the practical things that you took away from it? Like how did it change your life in a real way? Like did you start an easy one? Did you start maybe investing in Bitcoin or double down on Bitcoin, right? He's got big expectations for Bitcoin. I think he says by twenty four to be some crazy number. But what things did you do personally in your life that, you know, stemmed from the book? It definitely pushed me much more similar to you. It sounds like pushed me much more in the direction of technology. And that is like I would say I've been in tech most of my career, but also like I've been in software and marketplaces and stuff like that. And it really changed my definition of tech. So my I run a small sort of early stage venture fund and we went from, hey, like we invest in startups to a really much more aggressive filter on like I want to see really high tech, like I want technical risk over market risk or execution risk like every day of the week. Like I want to, you know, it pushed me in the direction of investing in nuclear fission microreactor startup or emerging battery tech or there's a bunch of other things that we're looking at like that are much more cutting edge like a aerial drone construction company is like just on the edge of possible. But if it works, it'll change absolutely everything. Right. And I think tech as an industry just got a little muddled. Like we talk about tech and we think about 20 30 year old companies that are basically building software. We're not thinking about really cutting edge stuff that's coming out of papers. That's a brand new discovery that is like pushing the balance of physics. Like that's really what technology is and it should be changing what's literally physically possible. Another example is like one we just invested in Adam limbs. They're building like a mind controlled robotic prosthetic arms truly like capabilities that humanity has never had before at a cost that's one tenth of what the current state of the art is which is terrible.  I hope more people who read this book aspire to do that kind of stuff. But even if you, you know, stay in an industry like real state development, every industry has technology and just a question of like the winners are going to be the people who figure out how to get the most leverage out of their organization do the most with the least and that naturally pushes you towards using more technology and finding out or finding out what 10 year old technology is actually applicable in your industry that nobody else is bothered to use yet like that's where the edges come from and that's really that's a huge shift in my thinking. So the construction example you gave was amazing. I think because in the book even he mentions like how everyone's going to have like almost its personal robotic drone, right? And it's just so absurd to even think about that where it's like you can just travel to different places via your generally you just hop in and and if you break them, it's okay. You can like buy another one or you have several because the cost is so low. And so to think about tech in that way, it's just so fascinating. And when I think about construction because I'm you know, I'm kind of close to it. I'm like, there's no way that could happen. But it's still like illuminating in the sense of like or could it right? Could it actually happen? And in what capacity? It's amazing. I mean, it really really and so the drone construction company tell me more about that. Yeah, this is the thing about apology, right? Is this why I loved living in his head for a little while is because at first blush he's he's crazy. Like you're just kind of like no way. And then the more you think about it, the longer the seed sits with you, the more you're kind of like, well, damn, actually like in 30 years, like technology has grown a lot in 30 years and like 30 years isn't that far away. Like where's my career going to be in 30 years? What can I start planning for now? So just getting practice thinking in longer terms is so awesome. The drone construction company is it's called Terran Robotics Terran like Earth and they build these giant I call them sex copters because they're six rotors, but they're like 10 feet across big aerial drones and they fly and they've got like changeable tools on the bottom of them and they'll basically build any Adobe structure autonomously. Like it's early days. This is not like a perfectly polished fleet yet, but the final form of this company is like design a building in CAD down to the windows, benches, fireplace, anything that is Adobe and like a set of drones will operate autonomously or with minimal supervision to build this structure on its own and that turns what is currently like four trades in especially in residential construction, which is like framing, insulating, drywall paint into like this is one almost entirely low marginal cost like high capex trade that you can you can get done all at once. So I think there's going to be a ton of applications for stuff like that and I don't know their vision is just huge. It also captures more carbon. It's it's a cheap material. It's thermal regulating. So it reduces like the cost of the operating the building. I just need to really like bold awesome vision and the guys are brilliant and I'm excited to see what happens with that. Yeah, the drone component so interesting. We had somebody on the podcast they do a zoo or it's called a zoo or 3D printing homes and basically they created a technology where it's like a resin that they just but they have this like big machine arm in like a warehouse and the thing creates these one to two bedroom units, you know, for maybe like $50,000 and it's pretty amazing and they can like pump them out pretty quickly. It's interesting. It's just interesting to see some of these things and again like so when people think tech I think they think software to your point, right? And so yeah, you're totally spot on about that where it's like this is technology. It just looks different feels different. Everything is technology, man. That's a good like it's a good biology line is like there is no technology industry.  It's just a question of how well each individual company inside uses it. You know, technology is a frontier not a stagnant static like group of companies that are or are not technology, right? It's kind of an insane piece of nomenclature that we've just like gotten used to. So how do you go about getting this book out? So from the first on that you learned how do you go about getting this book out to the open? It's released. I think on the 24th that comes out October 24th. Yeah, October 24th. All right. So what's what's on your agenda this time? I mean, the way that I publish books is a little unique and ties into another story. So I use scribe media which is a professional publishing company. So I basically bring them the manuscript which is like I finished writing in Google Docs and I say I've got a book in a Google Doc and they say awesome. Like we'll take it from here and they do all of the copy, editing, proofreading, page layouts, cover design, all of the publishing like getting the ISBN and all the distribution set up to get like this really polished professional book out into the world and unlike a sort of a traditional publisher where you have to give up you know, you take an advance and give up your royalties or most of your royalties. I basically pay them a flat rate and they do all that work and I retain a hundred percent of my copyright and all the sort of creative control. That's great. So as somebody who kind of like wants to bet on myself like this is like the ideal form of publishing for me. I'm a huge fan of them and have been for a long time. So this is this is definitely like my path and I think it makes sense for a ton of creators like more and more people now already have the audience and have like de-risked their content. So if you want to like I did recently become CEO of that company. So I'm talking about they but I'm also a part of it now. So we can talk about that if you want but no it's also a little off the path for for the book talk. I do like the model. I love the betting on yourself thing. That's interesting too. I mean that's how I think entrepreneurs were just wired that way which forces you to do stuff like this podcast and speak to the community at large. If you do think of a book like a business with traditional publishing you're basically selling 85% of the equity of your business before you even start it in exchange for you know whatever that advances. It's a fascinating thing. Most people you know I don't think most authors like think of their book as an asset or as a like as an equity based business. There's like a funny Reese Witherspoon video where it's like someone explains her podcast to people where she basically tells authors to come on the podcast in exchange for them coming on the podcast she gets the book rights for a certain number of years and then she can sell that or publish that and or create a TV show movie and basically her podcast is a form of like do people like this and it's really smart. It's intelligent for Reese but I yeah, I don't think most people most people are just so happy to probably meet her that they'll sign anything because they think that gives them some sort of credibility when a reality it's just that the asset they've they've miscalculated the asset or maybe like I mean she's a like king or queenmaker in the market like if Reese Witherspoon can take your book from 10,000 copies to a million copies sold like maybe that's worth it like that's that's every individual's decision but yeah definitely know what you're signing and you know do the homework to see the options yeah how many books did the last one sell of the the the vault rabbit can't how many copies a lot more than I thought I would yeah a lot yeah I think we're I think my napkin math it's hard to know for sure I think we're over a million copies wow and is like audible or Amazon the most thing or is like the paperback version Amazon is the most combination of like well the combination of eBook in paperback I'm surprised at how probably 20 20 25% of sales which is like a much bigger number than I think people would expect or would certainly would have expected five years ago like audio is growing like crazy it's funny if I really enjoy a book I'll do both but the first one is sort of like yeah it's interesting where it's like the first one is more of like it's like an app or teeth where if it's light listening I like it and then if I want to take notes on it I have to buy the book so I can physically take notes in the book and be like okay this is this is the I want to submit this idea or play with this idea yeah I kind of go back and forth both ways right it's like if I read a book and I love it and I want just like cheap reps of it to kind of remind me like keep the ideas fresh like I'll go listen to it over and over again and vice versa I listen to a book that's like oh damn this is like more nutritious than I thought like I want to be able to reference it I want to pull highlights I want to like want to be able to search it I'll go by the other formats like keep it on the shelf and have a Kindle version so I can command F it and I mean that's the difference between 15 bucks and 50 bucks and to really like own a book and have it in all the formats you want like obviously I'm biased as an author like I love that I love people who buy all the versions but like I've done it for a ton of books and I think it's it's still a no-brainer it's still super useful we had Matt Higgins on the podcast who wrote Burn the Boats I don't know if you've read that book great book one of the things that Matt did strategically when he was selling right yeah, when he just started came out coming out with the book it was like he gave people an option to you could buy 50 copies of it let's say and you can get like an hour zoom with him or if you buy like 25 copies you get 15 minutes with him and if you I don't buy like 2,000 you get sometime with him and Gary V it turns out he's the majority investor I guess in the Vaynerchuk business and so obviously having having a voice like Gary so he announced the book on Gary's podcast and he's a lot bigger of a figure and way more involved in the technology than I thought from an investor perspective and so he has all these relationships that nobody really knows about but it was really intelligent to me the way he did that and so many people you know now he's just like touring the world he was just with Kim Kardashian on the book tour he's exhausted but it's worked like it's like it's really that's the dream right Kim Kardashian on your book tour that's the thing I think once you're like once you're there I mean everyone's buying the book at that point people who can't read people who can't read it doesn't matter that's the crazy part you know they met at Harvard he's also a Harvard business school professor and so she came and gave a speech to the class but it was just interesting the way you know to see him maneuver in that way just from a a releasing perspective especially and so when I think about you here you are you have a fund right and so it's almost like people will want to hear from you people do want to pick your brain probably on things and there's a lot of interesting networking like for me personally we'll buy a lot of copies of it and we'll give it to our guests as like a as like a thank you as like a hey look you know we're all entrepreneurs we're in this game together here's here's a little digestible bit that did something for me and so this is my way of sort of thanking you to be on the podcast but in turn also thanking Matt Higgins who was on the podcast or Eric who was on the podcast and so then it just lives on which is great and then they share it and it's just it's like a thank you basically and give people 30 minutes of their time and it worked it was wild yeah I remember I think Tim Ferriss did that for one of his earlier book launches I can't remember which one but yeah there were like tears it was kind of like you know buy three and get a hat you know buy ten and get this I remember James Clear being when he did Atomic Habits saying I can't remember exactly what the tears were but he was like yeah for you know five hundred books or something like I'll come give a talk and he's like I respect people but I will not be doing that again I had to like fly to Malaysia and like give some talks in very foreign countries and that math did not math but good for you guys we're getting a good deal that's gotta be awful too that's the thing too when he's when he put it out there I was like oh man so many people are gonna buy 50 bucks and just annoy him or bother him or it be a very useless exercise yeah you want to do the math right I guess I don't have anything like that set up yet but it's something to consider maybe the next book you're on your way for sure how many of these do you do you want to put out do you hope to put out I got another one in the works but it's not gonna be like I don't want to do 20 of these probably and does it end with you does it end with like you're the capstone no no no no no actually the one I've got in the works is Elon oh wow and same thing same same model the tweets yeah same format same sort of feel like I think it's a really I just think he's such a fascinating guy and he's he's a really again kind of to the question of like how does the anthology of biology like follow from the Almanac of Naval I think Elon is like even more sort of insanely ruthlessly tactical like that's kind of where I focused on in that is like literally how does he do what he does and so that's still in the works but I think you know the questions lingering maybe from the outcome of the anthology of biology which is will be like man I get the tech is important and you give me some ideas but like help me help me more I started my company but I don't know how to like I'm not quite recruiting I'm not quite managing I don't have the like so the Elon book is a little more little more hardcore play like what's the hardcore playbook like how does he land he does alright so let's go back to the book give people a window into into like the things they can get out of it because it goes through so many dimensions it goes through social media we talk crypto we talk about the future we talk about this drone thing we were mentioning before and so yeah give people like a window into it alright so there's there's a as you say there's a lot in there because I tried to take you know ten years of all of the best ideas he's ever had and distill them and organize them until they this one well-threaded thing so basically there's three big parts part one is about technology part two is about truth and part three is about applying both of them to sort of build the future so the first section is really almost kind of novel philosophical level unlike the incredible importance of technology like it's almost a religious like please please understand and deeply appreciate that like everything that is good in our lives today is the result of generations of compounding improvements in technology like if not for this we would be very hungry very wet and many of us would probably be very dead I actually like just got back from a vacation to South Africa where I was on a on a safari and I was like sitting in the middle of the bush at night like watching lions eat a carcass thinking there is a very thin line of human cooperation and human knowledge that has built up over generations that is between like me sitting in this car watching this very safely and me being that fucking carcass like getting eaten by a wild animal I feel like we take it for granted man like we absolutely take it for granted and so that whole first part I think is a really helpful way to sort of just revisit the basics of like man can we appreciate what we have and think about the moral obligation that we have to continue to invest in technology continue to improve it like let's see the fact that we invented nuclear like fission energy you know more than 50 years ago and then just basically shat the bed on implementation for political reasons for decades for decades like we could have energy that is you know so cheap and that is such a critical input to so many other things like we could have we are owed a next industrial revolution and we have not been acting like it so that's an important foundational thing and that is really why he's doing everything that he's doing about the network state that's why he's talking about starting new countries that's why he's talking about sort of building technology that that continues to give people new opportunities and why he's focused on sort of meritocratic education and capital allocation and all these things I think that's the most important section my favorite is the third part but I'll get to that in a second the second is really about truth it starts with the different types of truth the scientific the political the economic truths the role that the new technology called blockchain can play in helping us determine the truth and how that carries forward and then there's sort of the interplay of like the media is not incentivized to create the truth you know they may run billboards that literally say like we are truth and that's not true you know like there's a good line in there like what is popular is untrue and what is untrue is popular and just learning to learning to see through bullshit and think for yourself and understand like what the fundamental truth is because without understanding that it's gonna be tough to build the right thing it's gonna be tough to build it in the right way to progress so if you're reacting to if you spend your whole life sort of interacting with that layer of bullshit on top of everything instead of being able to see through it and like reach into the source code of reality and do the real work and manipulate the real things I think that's gonna be tough and then you know the third part is really practical tactical very strategic very like line by line like here's how to go through researching an idea determining which is the best version of building first products launching hiring growing really building whatever it is that you're setting out to build like how and why and exactly what to do the truth part I think is so relevant today because of the war going on or the wars going on or the verge of World War 3 going on and it's like you could I was having this conversation yesterday a friend of mine is an Apple executive we were at dinner and it was like the amount of desensitization that has gone on because of Instagram is absurd you know and then I'm looking at a Palestinian baby that's barely surviving because of a hospital bombing and that's like absurd it's an absurd thing for humanity I think it's just and then I scroll up and it's an ice cream cone and it's like this doesn't that shouldn't exist it doesn't feel like that those things should exist in the same three seconds we are not built to process all of the world's tragedies being delivered to us like hundreds of times a day we are running last thing before we go to sleep like that is a recipe for misery and it's not that those problems aren't real and don't need to be addressed and solved but like man there's so many people who are so incentivized to just get an emotional reaction as quickly as possible or to intentionally hide the truth from you and get you to believe their agenda instead of the real thing like there's a few stories in there like there's a chapter called and this is an old example but there's literally like a whole article from the New York Times saying like it's a literal physical impossibility that rockets will ever fly they should pull this guy's funding we should stop the research and like a few years later like Apollo and then they issue a retraction right and there's a book actually that biology recommends reading called The Grey Lady Winked it's by Ashley Rinsberg and I had it on my podcast and it's about ten times in history that the New York Times specifically not just other media but New York Times specifically like caused or inflamed global conflicts including reporting on like that Poland invaded Germany as Germany was invading Poland during World War II just insane that you're like no way like no fucking way and he's done all the research he's got all the stuff like it's just it is hard work to like question everything it's fucking exhausting but it's gotta be done on a couple boards I'm on we've been getting emails like we should make a statement we should release a statement like a pro-Israel statement and then we're also getting emails from some people who are Palestinian saying like thank you for not saying anything and so it's just like you're getting these emails and it's crazy you know and it's like I don't think this is our position to send anything out because at the end of the day I think people should know like we're pretty much pro-terrorism I don't think I need to say that I don't think anybody needs to say that but once it comes becomes like choosing sides yeah sorry anti-terrorism yeah exactly right we're anti-terrorism no I said that right but it's an absurd thing you know in today's world you have to clarify that you're not a asshole like it's like what is happening here you know it's interesting if you again go back to the incentives like nobody who's in the conflict wants to see anybody on the sidelines and so everyone is incentivized to pull everybody in and there's another great biology quote from the book if it enrages and engages you are constantly being like poked and prodded and tweaked and pushed to be angry because that's how platforms that's how people get the desired response out of you which is to amplify them or engage with them or spend more time on the platform and it doesn't serve you it does not serve you like 99 times out of 100 so just and not only does it not serve you but it probably doesn't serve the kind of future that you want to live in and so that's another I guess another way that I've sort of changed as a result of writing this book and living with these ideas is just it's changed my filter for how I spend my time and the problems that I want to work on and what I think is important you know Brian Johnson's an amazing like he's also a crazy outlier on this but he's literally thinking about like what is going to matter about this century when we look back from you know the year 2500 and like that's closer to how biology thinks it's closer to how Elon thinks these people just see a long arc of history that don't get caught up in the scuffles of what's happening week to week or year to year there's a couple of my favorite quotes in the book so the one is like you are what you read that's a that's a banger so simple the other one is I think your email inbox is that to-do list other people write for you something to that effect I've been saying this to my wife for a really long time where it's like even your calendar can be that even your calendar can be just really just a to-do list that people glorify as a function of making them feel productive it's hard to say no yeah it's hard to say no yeah and I don't think that's the even if you are productive like the act of doing something I don't think sometimes there's a low yield on those things and then my favorite one was do things as fast as you can or doing things as fast as you can often means doing them one at a time and that at least hold so true in real estate development it's so unbelievably true and I bet it's hard because there's so many times in development where you're where you're just in a waiting period and you're like it feels wrong to do nothing start something else it becomes a distraction yeah no I think that's the whole game where it's like you it really focuses for it it forces you to focus on one step at a time and like one foot in front of the other but one foot in front of the other could be three months and so it's a good thing and a bad thing you learn how to leverage it right and so it's like if my whole project is going to cost me nine million dollars to do I don't need nine million dollars on day zero I don't need a day 100 and so therefore it's like well how much do you really need and you could basically say I need 200 grand a month for a little while and then at some point I'll need a bigger amount but it it's sort of you just dissect it and then it becomes a super solvable problem you're like oh that's that's not as that's not a nine million dollar problem I'll just say that's my personally there's always a fascination for me to figure out how does how does the physical space change like in real estate development and I think there's a couple of them to mine for me within the book one is like today if you're an investor in a real estate development project the process goes money comes into it let's call it a Chase Bank account you're an investor so you have a percent allocation I have to tell my accountants to send you a wire or I automate that and so we have like people that are involved in that and then at the end of the year you get a K1 a human being makes that K1 which is absurd to me and then you get you know you get your money in your bank account and I just think like blockchain can solve all of that in in seconds like you don't I don't need four humans to do this process right so I think like that's a real one the thing I always struggle with is like in today's world society is created in a way where it's like the way I induce FOMO is if you're at an event and you post it on Instagram and it looks like a really cool event it could be a six in real life like the event could just be like not fun but on Instagram it's like a 10 right and you and there's like this FOMO that's that sort of created and so it's almost like in real estate you have to create these moments so like a magic show is a good example of this or like burlesque or something like that that plays really well on Instagram in real life you could be bored you could be crowded you could be warm but on Instagram it plays into a 10 and and so it's almost like it's interesting to think about the future of that where a lot of restaurants today are going away because they haven't figured out a way how to adapt into creating this FOMO or like getting people to commit and so people commit in a way where it's like when you go to a wedding you dress up when you go to a sports game you might put on a jersey and so just the act of doing that is you committing to two three hours of expected fun that you'll probably put on Instagram and it's like change the way people interact with physical spaces that's why like the movies don't work and that's why Barbie did so well right where it's like all of a sudden you saw heaps of people wearing pink walking somewhere and they're like oh they're going to see and you already knew you didn't need to know that they're you didn't need to know anything you just knew they were going to go see Barbie and it's just interesting you know but it's like the act of committing and then Barbie was smart to obviously have a ton of marketing all around it but it's just interesting to see how technology changes the human experience in a physical and real time and a lot of people aren't seeing that in an obvious way yeah and it goes back to the discussion about truth I think and with Instagram in particular like about you know there's a quote from the ball like desires a contract to be unhappy until you get what you want like if desire is the source of unhappiness man Instagram is a desire manufacturing machine like if you were to engineer something to make someone miserable it is to create as many desires as possible in a shorter period of time and that's pretty much what the Instagram Discover page does right there's like here's all the most delicious food in the world as you can imagine here's the most beautiful people here's almost beautiful places and like you're not in any of them and then like you go to a you know Schmanzy bar in like New York or LA and you see the people who are taking those photos and they're like sitting in a booth by themselves there's like two of them there when there's like a 10 people in our booth like and having a good time and everybody has their phones away and then like those two people are like sitting there staring at their phone editing photos like take it they're having the least fun possible in that bar but you know that like when you see that later on Instagram it will still create a desire in you just like remembering to overlap those two experiences and be like and that's actually not like they're optimizing for the wrong thing that's true what are your favorite quotes let's wrap on this what are your favorite quotes of the book or your biggest takeaways I mean what I really hope people do and I think I said this in my intro is like I hope they put this book down and get to fucking work like I hope they change what they work on or how they work on it as a result of reading this book I hope people feel a little more empowered to understand reality a little more like more permission to question what they see more permission to think longer term permission to go build something like go put a dent in the universe and a little more confidence in what they have to do to get there I think you know there's a lot of business ideas in this book I think it'll generate like whatever industry you're coming from or whatever your career is like I think you'll I think you'll start to see new opportunities as a result of reading this and I think you'll sort of start to see the world a little bit differently and especially if it really like worms its way in your head over a year or two like I think you'll you know even if you stay right where you are I think you'll do your job differently I think you'll build your business differently I think it'll have great results for people Having picked it up and not put it down until I was done with it I'll tell you that it's certainly done that for me and and it's like continuing to do that and thank you for putting this work together I mean really really well done just like the last book and this is something I'm probably gonna pick up like in a few weeks and do it again and play with it digest it and then maybe even do an exercise where I play in different verticals and sort of put his framework and say okay let's use the real estate vertical is the most obvious one but you can choose different verticals and see how these principles would apply to this space in a really untethered way right so it's like the drones in construction is a good example where it's like that sounds so absurd or does it and so almost playing with like an absurdity in a practical way and just seeing what comes up from it because I think that's really really cool. Thank you there's nothing I love more than hearing that people read it in one sitting or that they are gonna reread it just seeing filthy dirty tattered dog-eared underlined copies of my books is just warms my heart and there's nothing I love more so thank you for reading it thank you for having me like I do think these are so so important and so useful for people and I wouldn't have written it and I wouldn't have published if I didn't really believe that and lastly just tell people where they can get it I assume Amazon but unless you want them to get it directly from you your website No, Amazon is great you can get it wherever you normally get books if you want to find me and my other projects that's all at eachorganson.com The anthology of vloggy thank you so much I appreciate it Eric Thank you Diego Thank you for tuning in If you enjoyed this episode share with your friends your family or anyone you might think might benefit from the conversation we've had today and if you haven't already please take a moment to leave a review on your favorite podcast platform we'd greatly appreciate it your feedback helps us improve and reach more people who can benefit from our discussions the best way to stay connected with us and get the latest updates on future episodes is through our social media channels you can find us at Startup and Storefront we'll be back next Tuesday with another great episode see you then


Fyelch yn rhai o'r cyhoeddiol, ac r�sgwyr. Rheidion i fynd i'n gweithio'r 14 ystod o'r Cymru COVID-19 ystod yn 2022. Y gondol ym M1 yw'r cynhyrchu gyda'r dyfod yng nghymru o'r parlymwynt o'r 13 diwrnod 2021 i 12 diwrnod 2022. Y cwmif Weinidde y dyfodol ymlaen i'r cyhoeddiol oherwydd y tyn ni wedi'i arnoed o'r cyhoeddiol mewn cyfrif yng Nghymru, ac rwy'n ddysgu'r cyhoeddiol And if you have any comments on any of the paragraphs, please just raise your hand. So we will start with page 1. Members happy with page 1? Yup. Okay. Let me get to page 2. Happy with page 2? Yes. Yup. Page 3. Yes. Yes. Okay. Page 4? Yes. Page 5? Yes. will be updated to include the relevant statistics from our meeting this morning prior to publication tomorrow. The committee's next formal meeting will be on 26 May, when we will take two evidence sessions as part of our Covid-19 communications on public health information inquiry. I would just like to ask members if they would like to make any comments or reflections on the past year. I would like to make a comment in our annual report that we just approved, but we should register our grateful thanks to our committee advisers, who were a tremendous assistance to us throughout the past year. All of them were very accommodating. All of them brought really interesting and quite distinct perspectives on different issues, such as public health and epidemiology, and I think that our work would have been very much harder as a committee had it not been for their input, so I think that it would be good just to see that recorded. Thank you, I totally agree. Any other comments? No, okay. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank all the clerks for your support and hard work in the past year and also all the committee members for all your constructive and collaborative working. Thank you very much. I now close the meeting.


The study aimed to investigate the neurophysiological correlations of multiple sclerosis MS, symptoms by probing corticospinal tract integrity using transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS. The results show that PWMS differed from non-clinical samples in MEP latency for upper and lower extremity muscles, and that altered MEP latency was associated with higher EDSS functional scores. TMS slash MEP latency findings classified PWMS as the same as EDSS functional pyramidal scores in 70 to 83 percent of cases and were similar to the MRI results in 57 to 65 percent of cases. The study provides preliminary evidence on the correspondence of MRI and TMS corticospinal tract evaluation results with EDSS functional pyramidal score results in MS. This article was authored by Maya Rajikvidikovic, Anakar Kovic-Kaddik, Sonda Pavlin, and others.


Former vice president Atiku Abubaka says his enduring persistence in contesting for the office of the president of Nigeria is born out of his passion to rekindle the Nigerian dream. Abubaka stated this while making his official declaration for the 2023 presidential election on the platform of the PDP in Abuja. He said his dream for Nigeria was that there should be not be any limit to what a Nigerian wanted to achieve if he was willing to work for it. He also pledged to increase the welfare and number of all security forces, as well as use modern technology and intelligence to combat insecurity. He added that if elected, he would create alternative sources of foreign exchange supply to Nigeria and reduce importation to increase the value of the Naira. I want to focus on five key areas. The unity of Nigeria, security, economy, education, and developing more resources and power to defend Nigeria. The unity of Nigeria has never been threatened as it is today. Nigerians are losing hope in the wonders of this country. Please do subscribe to our YouTube channel and don't forget to hit the notification button so you get notified about fresh news updates.


Welcome to the journey today. We'll be talking about the best home businesses with low startup cost You may have been wanting to start your own home-based business for some time now with the power of the internet It's easier than ever to start one. Yeah in your pajamas. So we're gonna be talking about four different categories First writing. Oh, I love writing. You could be a freelance writer a poet Editor blogger or even self-publish your own Kindle book. Oh, yeah I heard you can earn up to 70% of the royalties you guys Lucrative so Emma if you were to write a book, do you know what you were right about? Way to put me on the spot. Um something that I enjoy something that I know a lot about Vegan cooking because then I can incorporate pizza and also like I do it from home all the time So yeah, maybe it's just vegan cooking fast easy efficient fun and healthy And I like that and especially the fact that this is something you know about all right So next category Services you could be a virtual assistant or a social media manager. Oh, yeah, definitely I mean think about that. That's something a lot of people don't want to do and they know it's important So you offer to do it for them Make some money you're saving people time one of the most important commodities I think yeah, I have but never have enough of the virtual assistant You can schedule people's appointments. You can book things for them like their travel Get all these things done so that they can actually spend their time being more productive doing other things I spent so much time organizing and reorganizing my calendar They're like I feel good about what I'm getting done in the day But I don't know if I'm thinking like if someone just did that for me and yeah a virtual assistant Yeah, it'd be a lot more productive and the great thing is you can do it from home You don't even have to leave your couch or you can do it from wherever you want We could do it right now Good and speaking of working from anywhere the next opportunity you can have is the data entry You can do this at home coffee shops by the beach that makes data entry a little more fun Now it can be something that's routine mundane It's it's all right at the same time You can don't have to put a lot of effort into it But you can also do other things at the same time listening to a podcast catching some rays Exactly and you believe it or not we have a video on being a digital nomad. Oh, that's right right over here Next graphic design or even web developer again something that you can just do from home If you have a love for graphic design and being on the web These are areas that you can actually jump into also which falls under services a couple my friends do this They're pet setters or dog walkers. I mean what a fun job to do. I love animals. I have three dogs Three dogs. Do you have a pet sitter or a dog sitter? We do while I'm here making these great videos for you all Someone yeah, so next event or wedding planner These are very good if you are savvy at getting things together being creative Taking charge making sure that things that happen on time and hopefully under budget. Yeah I mean for me I'm all about the great party or walking down that aisle one day But I don't want to play on the whole thing throw me a good party. I'll hire you but I'm just gonna do the falling in love part And it does take away some of that time Frustration for planning from others along with the budget constraints So you can actually focus on just doing a wedding planning business or you can open it up to all kinds of events Yeah, oh and another great one in the services a private chef or cater I think about that sometimes just when I'm at home whipping up meals and my friends will stop by They're also like remote and like oh you should do this like for bigger that would stress me out But for anyone else out there who's great at cooking This is a great service that you can offer from your home If you in fact are skilled in the kitchen and you can have one client that you prepare multiple meals for that's a good point Or you can have different families that you're serving at different times of the month Oh, and another great one that my mom's best friend recently started doing is have an Airbnb Yeah, you know lives alone in this beautiful Victorian home. It's painted purple. It's got a ton of character I know why your color is purple. Oh, well, if you're ever in Indiana Go check out Luanne's Airbnb. Anyway, it's a beautiful home And she so kindly opens her doors for an Airbnb And she meets amazing people from all over the world that come through surprisingly Indiana crossroads of America So this is just another great idea and also now it reminds me My mom helps out there being B because she has such a skill set of cleaning like this woman actually likes to clean enjoys it So she helps her best friend with Airbnb with that skill set of just hey, I like to clean So after your guests leave, I'll handle that nice next category selling now If you are really creative and you can make things with your hands and it's very unique Etsy could be the place for you and it could give you an opportunity to be have an outlet to actually make that income from home Can you make anything? No, I cannot nothing nothing. I'm trying to think what I would do I could paint you a picture, but I can make these videos. Yeah, ooh Sam Here's another one of my favorites online consignment. Oh my gosh You could go just through your own closet or your parents and find some old gems that you could sell for money Also, you could go and actually thrift You know find that great leather jacket or that designer shirt or shoes and then put it online There's a ton of apps to sell Use clothing consignment high fashion. Yeah offer up You can go on Facebook marketplace and even offer your items there as well And if you are pretty good in the kitchen similar to that private chef and caterer You can also sell your baked goods online. This is something great to do because a lot of coffee shops They don't actually bake their own goods. Oh, that's a great point when I worked at a coffee shop We had a cabinet of doughnuts to scones to bagels and they all came from other People or business right a lot of these businesses use other vendors to supply them with these baked goods and last category teaching You can be an online teacher or a tutorer. It gives you a lot of flexibility and it's definitely in demand You can be teaching Others that don't have English as their first language you could teach them English true. Have you ever taught something? I did what do you teach math? How was that? Hated it. Hated it. Next you can actually create online courses. Oh good point. Everything that we just talked about Yeah, baking graphic design Blogging whatever you are good at you can make a video and instruct people on how to do it That's very true, and I love that. I like taking in a lot of information skills From the privacy of my home on my couch. I want to learn another language that way. I don't want to go out somewhere Give me an online course. I'm a millennial My wife is actually a fitness instructor and she's able to do a lot of different things She's passionate about either working in a gym or even having your own clients on the side Didn't she like pick up a client when she was here? She did and you guys live in Austin, Texas We're in Kirkland and she picked up. Okay, just check. I thought that happened It gives you a lot of flexibility You don't have to be local to one area, but you can do it wherever there's parks that you can actually work out at There's people's homes like we said before you can go in actually have different classes or personal instruction there I've done some yoga classes that way. Yeah, so like I decided in 2019 So you're the hamstrings. Oh Yeah, I want to work on my hand strings and I want to focus on it But I want to do it from the privacy of my home and not spend a time membership So I watch online like little videos classes if you will on how to do this next is music teacher Can you play an instrument? No, I cannot can you sing? No, I cannot okay carry on So on that same note Sing but anyhow if you know how to instruct people to play an instrument This is something you can do or if you know how to give voice lessons people help people to sing like myself carry it Soon that's also something you can you can go to the nonprofits like churches or you can go to schools Teaching elementary, you know kids a lot of parents love to get their children involved in those things They're looking for someone that can spark that creativity in that young child's life. Yeah, that would really help my karaoke game Oh, yeah some voice lessons So in order to get a lot of this started you can join freelance websites like Upwork Fiverr Guru freelancer.com There'll be a great opportunity because you already have people there looking for services So you might as well use it to market yourself. So that's a wrap today You just learned the best home-based businesses with low startup cost. Make sure to like comment and subscribe Oh, also be sure to ring that bell. So you are the first to know when we have another video coming out Thanks for watching. This is the journey. See you next time


Hello and welcome to the session. In this session we will discuss a question which says that Steve chooses 3 cards without replacement randomly from a pack of 52 cards. What is the probability that the first card drawn is a queen, second is again a queen and third is a jack? Now before starting the solution of this question you should know a result. And that is when events A and B are dependent then probability of the event A and B is equal to probability of event A into probability of the event B following the event A. Now this result will work out as the key idea for solving out the given question. Now let us start with the solution of the given question. Now with the question it is given that Steve chooses 3 cards without replacement randomly from a pack of 52 cards. Then we have to find the probability that first card drawn is a queen, second card is again a queen and third is a jack. So let event A is drawing a queen and event B is drawing again a queen and event C is drawing a jack. Now it is given that the cards were not replaced. It means when he choose first card he did not replace it and chose the second card. So in the first row there were 52 cards. In the second row cards left were 51 and in the third row cards left were this means events A, B and C are dependent events. Now first of all let us find the probability of event A that is we will find the probability of drawing a queen randomly from a pack of 52 cards. Now we know that in a pack of 52 cards we have 4 cards of queen. So in the first row probability of drawing a queen that is probability of the event A is equal to number of favorable outcomes which is 4 upon total number of outcomes that is 52. Now in the second row 51 cards are left. Here we have to find the probability of drawing another queen. Now in the first row a queen is chosen randomly from a pack of 52 cards and this card is not replaced. It means in the second row we are left with 3 cards of queens. Now in the second row number of queens left are 3 and total cards left are 51. So the probability of the event B following the event A is equal to number of favorable outcomes that is 3 upon total number of outcomes which is 51. Now the event C is drawing a jack and in this third row we are left with 50 cards. Now in the third row number of jacks are 4 and total cards left are 50. So probability of event C following the event B is upon 50. Now we have to find the probability that first card drawn is queen, second is again a queen and third is a jack. Now from the key idea we know how to find the probability of dependent events. Now here the event A, B are dependent events. So here the probability of the event A, B and C is equal to probability of event A into probability of event B following the event A into probability of the event C following the event B. Now this is the probability of event A, this is the probability of event B following the event A and this is the probability of the event C following the event B. Putting all these values here this is equal to 4 upon 52 into 3 upon 51 into 4 upon 50. Now 4 into 13 is 52, 3 into 17 is 51 and 2 into 2 is 4, 2 into 25 is 50. So this is equal to 2 upon 5,525. So probability that the first card drawn is a queen, second card is again a queen and third is a jack is equal to 2 upon 5,525. So this is the solution of the given question and that's all for this session. Hope you all have enjoyed the session.


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Hands on Tuscaloosa is an initiative for college students at the university to get involved in their community. You know, the students are reaching out to other community members and actually engaging in understanding, like, what's going on in their local surroundings. When I saw Jeremiah's Garden, I'm a city girl, so I knew that I wanted to do something that was different for me. Gardening is something I've done very on a small scale, but nothing as big as this here at Jeremiah's Garden, so it's really nice. Jeremiah's Garden is a fresh food, a fresh vegetable community garden. Pretty much the problem is that you're towards giving food to people that you need. The vegetables that we raise goes on into the community. We have basically five different entities that we serve, so we have been able to give food to people who otherwise won't have the ability or the resources to actually purchase food, fresh vegetables for themselves. I think serving the community is incredibly beneficial for students because I think it's easy to get caught up in the bubble of the university. It's a positive reinforcement that kind of keeps us motivated and also allows us to meet, you know, different community partners and to help others. It inspires me, the youth coming out, because hopefully at our age now, I'm 72. Hopefully we can leave it in good hands once we no longer here.


Hello and welcome to today's lecture on main memory optimizations. In the last lecture, we have discussed about the organizations of main memory, different types of main memories that are used and how they are organized. Just like we have discussed various cache optimization techniques, today we shall focus on various techniques for optimizing the main memory. Now, as we know one of the very critical bottlenecks in high performance processing particularly when you are trying to interface a high performance processor to the main memory. As we know dynamic RAM is used as the main memory and that situation has not changed over the years, although the static RAM is size of static RAM is increasing, cost of static RAM is increasing, but as main memory dynamic RAM is the choice of the day. Main reason is cost and second reason is high packaging density that is possible in dynamic RAM, you can have a single package with 256 kilobits or more on a single chip. So, this has led to the use of dynamic RAM as the main memory almost in virtually all systems. So, whenever we say main memory optimization, essentially we shall see how we can improve the performance of dynamic RAM memory systems. This is that performance gap I mentioned and this gap is increasing over the years, because the processor performance is improving at the rate of 50 percent per year, dynamic RAM performance is improving at the rate of 9 percent per year. So, this gap is increasing, how to bridge the gap that is the main question and we shall try to address it by using different techniques. Another one technique that is used is to increase the bandwidth, higher bandwidth that means the rate at which data transfer will take place between the processor and the main memory. How we can increase that rate, rate of the transfer that is known as higher bandwidth and that can be achieved in three different ways which we shall discuss. One is the use of wider memory, second is the use of interleaved memory and third is the use of independent memory banks. So, these are the three commonly used techniques for increasing the bandwidth of the main memory systems and after that we shall discuss about advanced dynamic RAM organizations. The many innovations have taken place to improve the organization of dynamic RAM with the objective of making it faster and so that the gap between the processor speed and the rate at which the data can be provided by the dynamic RAM is reduced. So, one obvious way to improve main memory performance is to have a higher memory bandwidth. By that we mean this increasing the memory bandwidth that will bring in more bytes per unit time from the memory up to the hierarchy. So, first we shall focus on wider memory, wider by wider memory means we shall increase the we shall make the memory bus wider normally you know the width of the bus is same as the size of the word of a processor. So, if it is a 32 bit processor width of the bus is 32 bit, if it is a 16 bit processor width of the bus is 64 bit. Now, we would like to make a wider bus say maybe that will transfer more number of words and the that can be done to improve the performance. Since the CPU needs one word at a time there needs to be a multiplexer between the CPU and cache. However, as we try to do so I mean increase the width of the main memory bus you will see that you will require some multiplexer because the processor in any case will need in terms of words it will fetch word by word because the cache memory main memory bus is only in terms of words. So, we can explain it this way normal situation we have got your CPU here there is a bus and this bus is connecting to the cache memory and bus with the same as the word size and here also you have got another bus that is connecting to the main memory and having the same width of the bus. So, this is the word size bus this is also word size bus. Now, what we are trying to do is to have a wider bus between cache and main memory so CPU will be there and having the word size bus and here you will have your cache memory. Then you will require a multiplexer between this bus which will transfer in terms of words and a wider bus that will be coming from the memory. So, here you will be having a multiplexer multiplexer can be 2 to 1 or 4 to 1 depending on the width of the main memory. So, main memory is now is having wider bus and this bus will transfer at a much I mean more number of bits will be transferred. So, if this is a 64 bit this can be 128 bit or 256 bit depending on the width that there is a choice we can use. So, let us consider how the miss penalty is reduced because of the use of wider bus. So, for that we assume that one memory clock cycle is needed to send the address that means the CPU has to send the address and that address will be to send that address associated with other I mean along with other control signals that will require one cycle. Then 20 memory cycles for each DRAM access that means the whenever data transfer is taking place between the and this is the main memory dynamic RAM after receiving the address it will take 20 cycles not one cycle, but 20 cycles and one memory clock cycle to send the data that means per one memory clock cycle data can be sent from the after reading it from the main memory to the processor. So, that is what is being shown and we have assumed that the we are using a block size of 4 words not really words that means the cache memory is having 4 word block that means you have to transfer even if this if it is word size you have to transfer 4 words before you can provide control to the CPU even in this situation. So, in such a situation whenever you have got one word wide DRAM bank that is transferring between the cache memory and main memory. Let us see what is the miss penalty for standard memory first one clock cycle that is needed to provide the address then 4 clock cycles in the 20 that is required to transfer 4 words of data from the main memory to the cache. So, 4 word that will be required that means 1 plus 4 into 20 for transferring from the main memory to the cache and after that you know you will require 4 more cycles to transfer from the to write it into the cache memory. So, this is the total time you will require 85 cycles memory clock cycles 1 plus 4 into 20 plus 4 into 1. So, 85 memory bus cycles bus clock cycles are needed in the standard situation. Now, let us assume that we have made the main memory bus to 2 wide 2 wide means this is say if it is 64 bit this is 128 bit not 256 bit this is 2 wide that means we can transfer at a time 2 words simultaneously and by doing that you can see the how the reduction in miss I mean means miss penalty occurs miss penalty occurs. So, in this case you will require 1 plus 2 into 20 because you are sending 2 words at a time. So, you will require 2 into 20 and again 2 cycles of 1 clock cycle that is for transferring the data to the cache. So, this is the miss penalty that is required 1 plus 2 into 20 plus 2 into 1 that is 43 memory bus clock cycles. So, by having wider memory we can see it is roughly I mean there is a speed up of about I mean close to 50 percent 85 by 43 that is very close to I mean may be 100 percent increase in performance you can see the transfer rate becomes double almost double. So, this is the miss penalty reduction by using a 2 wide bus if you make it 4 wide then this will be 1 into 20 and this will be again 1 into 2 into 1. So, still improvement is possible, but you know more wider wide is the bus it is very costly to implement that is why the width of the main memory bus is not made very wide may be 2 wide or at most 4 wide. Now, let us consider another situation where we can use interleaved memory. What do you really mean by interleaved memory? Here as we know main memory consists of multiple memory chips therefore, each chip could be meant to serve part of a request at any time. So, what we are trying to exploit here? Although we are considering a single memory system we know that memory system comprises a large number of memory chips. So, each chip may be provide only 1 bit or 8 bit at most, but not more than that. So, why not exploit that and that means several memory chips are there and that parallelism can be exploited and how we shall see. For example, this is the typical memory bank here it has been assumed that your memory chip is organized as 2 to the power 16 into 1. So, this is how it is organized. So, it is the memory chip is bit organized. So, what you are doing? You are transferring the address simultaneously to all the memory chips. The chip select signal to all the memory chips. So, that means all of them will get ready at the same time to provide data on the data bus. So, this is a 64 K memory bank of 8 bit worth. Now, this can be extended. This idea can be extended to realize multiple memory bank in interleaved memory system. So, here what has been done? Instead of having a single bank, we are having the CPU that is interacting with the cache memory. Now, between cache memory and main memory, we have got several banks. So, this is bank 0, this is bank 1, bank 2, bank 3. So, let us have this. So, this is the assume we have got 4 banks. What is being done here? The cache memory will apply the address and other control signals simultaneously to all of them. So, since it will be supplied simultaneously to all of them, they will require 20 clock cycles to get ready to provide data. That is the access time. As we have seen, access time is 20 clock cycle. So, after 20 clock cycle, all the memory banks will be ready. Now, after that you can transfer one after the other. You read from memory bank 1, then you read from memory bank 2, then you read from memory bank 0, then memory bank 1, then memory bank 2 and then memory bank 3. So, this one, after they are ready together, you will transfer one after the other. That is what is being done in an interleaved memory. So, how the mispellent is reduced? So, in this case you can see you require one clock cycle to supply the address to send the address. Then 20 clock cycles are required for the memory banks to provide data. Then, of course, you will read one after the other. So, you will require 4 clock cycles and total of 25 memory bus clock cycles are needed to transfer the 4 words to the main memory to the cache. So, you see the reduction in this case is 25 memory bus clock cycles instead of 85. So, instead of 85 clock cycles, in the normal situation you require only 25 memory cycles. So, there is a significant improvement in performance. You can say speed up is roughly 4 times. So, you can use this interleaved memory. This idea can be extended to have independent memory banks. So, this is a generalization of the concept of interleaving. So, multiple memory controllers can be used, multiple banks can be used, multiple buses can be used. So, like having multiple memory systems, as if you have got multiple memory systems and each of them will work independently and simultaneously in parallel to provide the response to the CPU. Each memory system can itself be composed of interleaved memory banks. So, what we are considering here? We are considering independent memory banks. Each of them can be interleaved inside and each such memory has a distinct use. For example, in case of input devices where you will require independent memory banks from where it will be read simultaneously, they will be responding to the request from the processor. So, this is the concept of independent memory banks. Now, I mean the dynamic ramps, the way they are organized is shown here. They are organized in the form of dual inline memory modules. So, those are known as DIMM. DIMM is usually contained 4 to 16 DRAMs. So, you can see here you have got a 4 into 1 DRAM chip that provides you 4 into 64 kilobyte. So, in this way you can have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8 into 4, 32-bit wide bus you can have. These DIMMs are used for realizing nowadays in your desktop and servers and workstations as the main memory system. So, each DRAM will provide 4-bit and then you can have 4 to 16 DRAMs on a single printed circuit board providing the 8-byte wide bus for the desktop and then you can have several such DIMMs in your system. Now, we have seen how you can enhance the direct transfer rate. Now, we shall consider advanced DRAM organizations. Dynamic RAM has gone through a number of innovations to provide less and less access time or in other words to provide data at a faster rate and we shall consider them one after the other. The first technique that has been used is to have SRAM cache, use of a static RAM cache memory built in as part of the dynamic RAM. So, SRAM cache was the traditional way to improve the performance of DRAM. So, basic DRAM is dynamic RAM is unchanged since the first RAM chip was enhanced. So, how it is being done? Let me explain by drawing a diagram and how the static RAM is incorporated as part of the dynamic RAM. So, as we know we have got column decoder. I am not drawing the entire DRAM memory chip, but part of it highlighting the incorporation of static RAM. This is your column decoder, then you have got your, this is where you have put your 514 bit into 4 bit SRAM. This is the static RAM 500 into 4 bit SRAM. This is the static RAM 500 into 4 bit that is actually available on a single row and then you have got the other things like the typical functionalities that is required in static RAM, dynamic RAM, sense amplifier and column write select signal and then here you have got your DRAM array. So, DRAM array is 2048 into 512 into 4. So, this will be 512. So, this is the, this is how the DRAM is organized into dimensional array from where it goes to the sense amplifier and column write select and from there a single row you can see you have got 2048 rows 2 k rows and one row is transferred and that is available in the form of a cache in the static RAM. So, this is from here it goes to the external world. So, here is your I O I O control total H S. So, this is for external control and of course, you will require the row decoder here. So, the address A 0 to A 10, 11 bit address comes here. Similarly, here the, you will have the column address latch. So, this is the main idea here is what is happening instead of reading it from the dynamic RAM, you are latching one row here and then by changing the column address you are reading it, I mean you are transferring it to the cache memory. So, that will make it faster because you know because once you have transferred to this static RAM, the access time will be much lower compared to reading it from the dynamic RAM. That is the basic idea and so, you have got a small RAM and S RAMs access a cache holding the last line. So, because of the principle of you know locality that the you will be reading sequentially from sequential address locations and the which are available in your this in a single row. So, from that single row you will read one after the other. Now, extension of that idea is to have cache D RAM. So, instead of a small D RAM, you will be having a large static RAM say here you have added only 512 into 4 bit. So, that means 2 kilo bit instead of that you can have 64 kilo bit. So, larger cache can be used and which will really act as you know cache that means first you will transfer from the dynamic RAM to this large static RAM and that large static RAM from the large static RAM you will read it one after the other as long as it is available there. So, the way the cache memory works you transfer from the main memory to the cache memory and from cache memory it is transferred to the processor in the same way it will work. Only difference here is that from dynamic RAM it is going to the static RAM and from static RAM it will be read by the external world. So, this is the cache D RAM concept that is used in many situations, but this enhanced D RAM this is very popular. Now, this enhanced D RAM it operates based on the idea of first page mode. So, allow row to remain available for multiple column at accesses as I mentioned and holds row data in sense amplifier for longer period. So, that sense amplifier in this case is acting as a kind of cache. So, we are not using this static RAM we are not using it, but what we are doing we are transferring one row of data and this sense amplifier at the output of the sense amplifier one row is available and which will act as a kind of latch. So, in this case without using static RAM you are able to read it, but in this case you have to restrict to reading from the output of the sense amplifier and by changing the by holding the row address select signal while changing the column address select signal. So, the sense amplifier function is cache for D RAM rows. So, multiple column address select signals can access multiple words in the same row again this exploits special locality via successive accesses to the same row. So, basic idea is same, but in this case you are not using static RAM. Then another concept is first page mode short and cycle time by allowing processor to use the same row address, but a different column address as we have discussed. So, this removes one step of addressing sequence one state of addressing means we have seen normally a row address is provided, then column address is provided only after both addresses are available data is read from the dynamic RAM, but in this case only row address is provided then by changing only the column address you will be reading one after the other. So, that is the difference and the data of a single row is referred to as page and extended data out and data out allows processors to overlap data read cycle with the right of the next column address. So, in this case we are overlapping operations data read with the right for the next column address. So, idio results in savings of approximately 10 nanosecond for each read within a single page. Single page means in this case we are referring to one row and if we look at the this timing diagram this will be clear as you can see this is the row address select signal and that has been I mean kept stable. Now, you are changing the column address select signal and you can see this is the row address when the row address actually it is row address strobe not the select. So, row address strobe signal will latch this address in the row address buffer and the column address strobe signal will latch the column address in the column address buffer then the data will be available after some time. So, this data out you are reading this data and this data out and at the same time you can have another address that column address that can be read by using activating another column address strobe signal. So, this data reading and column address generation is over getting overlapped and which is essentially lead to the data to be read in the next clock cycle. So, you can see this is how by using EDO that extended data out this allows overlapping of data read cycle with the write to the next column address. So, write to the next column address and the data out both are taking place simultaneously. Now, you can also use burst mode in the EDO RAM timing. So, in this case basic idea is you have generated a row address and that row address strobe signal has latched it that remains in the buffer then you will keep on changing the column address one after the other. So, here the column address you have applied and again you will subsequent column address select signals are generated and a burst of data is coming out one after the other in each cycle from the same row and that data is getting transferred this is the basic idea of burst mode of EDO dynamic RAM timing. So, this will also make dynamic RAM faster. Now, let us consider synchronous dynamic RAM SD RAM which is nowadays used in almost all workstations, desktops and every file. As we know traditional dynamic RAMs are asynchronous what do you really mean by asynchronous? By asynchronous we mean what happens in case whenever we access traditional dynamic RAM the address will be address along with different control signals will be made available to the dynamic RAM chip that means row address strobe column address strobe and various things and after that the RAM chip within the RAM chip various operations will take place. There are you have seen there are very large capacitances that various large capacitances present inside the dynamic RAM chip that those bit lines and various other I mean row lines and so those capacitances get charged. Then there will be a sense amplifier that sense amplifier will sense the data and that will be transferred through the I O to the outside world. Now, this operation will take some time for the CPU does during this period. So, there is some multiple weight cycles I mean you will require multiple weight cycles before you can read data. For example, 20 clock cycles as I have told is the access time for traditional dynamic RAM that means the CPU will weight has to weight 20 clock cycles to read one word of data from the dynamic RAM. So, that means if you are reading it successfully one after the other if you have to spend 20 clock cycles then another 20 clock cycles and so on. So, because it is taking place in a synchronous manner. Now, in synchronous DRAM this is overcome by providing an external clock. So, access is synchronized with the help of this external clock. So, the processor or you may call it master issues the instruction and address information to the dynamic RAM. Then dynamic RAM responds after a set number of clock cycles. So, here it is synchronized that means the processor will generate address and clock cycles at which is synchronized by clock. Then there is a kind of synchronize that external clock will do the synchronization after fixed number of clock cycles the RAM will be ready. So, the processor does not in this case what happens the processor or the master need not weight. So, can do other task while the SD RAM is processing the request. So, the difference between the previous case and in this case is earlier the processor was continuously checking the status of the dynamic RAM whether it is ready or not and weight cycles were being generated, but in this case the processor is no longer waiting for the data. It is simply after providing the address and control signals it gets busy in other things. So, it can do it can perform other operations or tasks. In the meantime the SD RAM will that dynamic RAM will get ready and SD RAM employs a bus mode using a mode resistor to set up a stream of data to be synchronously fed on to the bus. Then after that set number of times the SD RAM synchronous will provide data in a bus mode. Bus mode means in each clock cycle one word one word one word in this way the data will come and this is again synchronized by the clock. Now here we are making use of a resistor known as mode resistor. What is the role of this mode resistor? Mode resistor is set up to set up a stream of data to be synchronously fed. So, mode resistor will contain two information will you can the user can you can actually set the mode resistor which will decide what is the latency. That means how much clock cycles how many clock cycles the dynamic RAM will require to get ready to provide data. Another thing is the bus size how many words to be transferred in a single bus. So, these two can be set with the help of this mode resistor and then a stream of data can synchronously be fed on to the bus. As it is shown in this diagram you can see here the processor is providing two information row address and column address with the help of these signals and after that sorry this is the synchronous DRAM timing which I have already explained. Now let us consider the synchronous DRAM timing. So, the synchronous SD RAM will send this command read a this is the address is generated and after that it is weight it is skipping few clock cycles. This is the no off that means the it is generating say three clock cycles in this case. So, latency is two. So, it will generate these no offs it will continue to generate no offs after providing this address and then data will be available after a fixed latency. So, this is the column address probe latency after this column address signal is obtained after two clock cycles the data will be available. So, this is the after this latency after two clock cycles data is now available and now in this case the bus length has been set to four. So, you will get four words of data from a 0, a 1, a 2 and a 3 obviously from consecutive addresses. So, this is how you will transfer data one after the other. So, instead of this asynchronous DRAM timing I mean the way the you are reading one word then another word and for each of them you have to spend 20 cycles here you can see initially there is a latency, but that latency is decided I mean is dependent on the cache memory access time sorry dynamic RAM memory access time that you are using and accordingly you can modify the mode register. So, the SDRAM has multiple bank internal architecture providing on chip parallelism. So, you may be asking how you are able to provide this one after the other that is possible because of the use of multiple banks that is provided inside the chip. So, that means here you have got four banks and for each bank you are getting one data I mean one data in four consecutive cycles. So, that is how it is made it has been made faster and obviously this will lead to faster average memory access time. Now, there is another innovation that was provided which is known as DDR SDRAM and DDR stands for double data rate. So, double data rate SDRAM double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM in this case it allows data to be sent twice per clock cycle. So, normally you know you have got a clock usually data is transferred either by using this positive edge or by using this negative edge. One of the edge is used that means on this edge one data is transferred then on this edge another data is transferred that is the normal DDR that happens a normal SDR that happens after that initial delay. So, instead of that in case of DDR double data rate SDRAM this allows data to be sent twice per clock cycle. So, you are using leading edge and trailing edge both the edges are used to transfer one odd of data that means you are transferring data here this is normal SDRAM. Now, in your DDR SDRAM you will be able to transfer at this edge as well as at this edge as well as at this edge and also in this edge and so on. So, that means your data rate is becoming double because you are transferring on both edges. So, this is another innovation that was incorporated in dynamic RAM and that has helped to provide data at a faster rate. So, this is the typical SDRAM organization you have got a memory controller and as I mentioned you have got multiple banks. So, here four banks are shown and four banks are getting the different control signals coming out from the controller and actually this is a very simplified diagram a more realistic diagram or a more for a real life process memory that was developed by IBM 64 MB SDRAM is shown here. Here you have got 14 bit address buffer then you have got different four banks of sale array as you can see this is a sale array 2 MB into 8 here also 2 MB into 8 2 MB into 8. So, in this way you have got 2 plus 2 8 MB into 8 that gives you 64 MB mega bit of dynamic RAM stored and various control signals generator data memory control circuitry and here is your data and eye buffer. So, here you are reading data 8 bit at a time that means here you have got 8 bit bus for external transfer. So, using this IBM 64 MB SDRAM you will be able to get 8 bit at a time and you can see various pin assignments of this SDRAM. You have got a 0 to a 13 address inputs then you have got clock input clock enable signal chip select signal read address probe column address probe write enable and data input output dq 0 to dq 7 dq m data mask. So, these are the various signals which are shown here for external interfacing. So, this SDRAM is very popular then you can make that dual in line memory module can be made by using these chips. So, you can see the first synchronous DRAM DIMMS has the same bus frequency for data and address and control that means here you are using I mean not using the double data rate. So, this here you are using single data rate on a single edge. So, PC 66 gives you data at the rate of 66 megahertz PC 100 gives you at the rate of 100 megahertz that means you will be getting 100 into 8 bit at a time and if you form from that DIMM and here PC 133 that will give you 133 megahertz. So, these DIMMS can be used in parallel to realize the memory system. And here DDR1 SDRAM DIMMS that uses double data rate and this is achieved by clocking on both rising and falling edge of the data strobes which I have already explained and again you have got a different types different modules PC 1 600 that gives you at the rate of 200 megahertz data and strobe, but 100 megahertz clock and address. So, data rate is double that of clock and address and control similarly PC 200 gives you at the rate of 266 megahertz clock data and strobe and 133 megahertz clock for address and control and that PC 2700 gives you 330 megahertz data and strobe and 166 megahertz clock and clock for address and control and PC 3 200 gives you 400 megahertz data and strobe and 200 megahertz clock for address and control and in addition to that you have got DDR2 SDRAM. So, you are going from one generation to another generation technology is improving speed is improving and as you can see here these DIMMS are also double data rate and it is starting with 400 megahertz that PC 2 series 400 megahertz double data and strobe, but 200 megahertz clock for address and control. So, in this way it goes up to PC 2 6400 where you can get at the rate of 800 megahertz data and strobe and 400 megahertz clock for address and control. So, you can see you have got a variety of DIMMS available nowadays commercially available these are commercial available DIMMS which you can procure and depending on the speed requirement of your computer system you can use them in your computer. Another innovation that was in the dynamic RAM was the use of Rambus DRAM. So, developed by Rambus. So, it takes standard DRAM as the core. So, inside you have got the standard SDRAM as the core. So, you have got typical DRAM array, you have got the row decoder, column decoder, sense amplifier and various other things that is required in a standard dynamic RAM, but you have got a kind of bus. So, which is known as packet switch bus. So, it is provided by a bus interface called a packet switch bus. So, a single chip acts like a memory system. It should not be considered like a memory chip, it is a memory system that means lot of control and other functionalities have been built in as part of the chip. So, through the bus, 28 pin bus it will interact with the processor and it has got 28 pin and various pins which are provided as shown here. The data bus is 18 bit, then that RC 8 bit, RC clock 2 bit, T clock 2 bit and so on. So, you can see, you can have up to 28 pin to 300 RDRAMs that you can have in a single system and you can have a number of RDRAMs up to 300 RDRAMs can be, you can have in a single system that can be interface to your computer systems. So, between sending the address of the request and the return of the data it allow other accesses over the bus. That means this is another features that is provided in RDRAM and also internally it does the refreshing. Since you are using dynamic RAM, it will require that refreshing of the memory. That refreshing as you are doing the writing or doing the reading, that time in writing in any case it gets refreshed while reading also as you read it, it gets refreshed. So, that reading is used for the purpose of refreshing and controller and these are the various components controller and RDRAM modules 16 bit data and 2 bit parity cycling twice the clock rates and 8 lines for address and control. So, 8 lines for address and control. So, this is the RDRAM memory system that is available and this was adopted by Intel for Pentium and Atenium processors and this is this Rambas RAM is the main competitor of SDRAM and it is available in vertical package. That means all pins that 28 pins available on one side Tata exchange take place over those 28 wires and that width of that is less than 12 centimeter and bus address up to 320 RDRAM chips as I mentioned I mean I mentioned wrongly as 300, but it is 320 RDRAM chips at a rate of 1.6 gigabits per second. This will be not BB GBPS gigabits per second. So, asynchronous block also it work in asynchronous block or inter protocol where the access time is 400 nanosecond and all then after this access time it gives you at the rate of 1.6 gigabits per second and this is the typical RDRAM with the pins various pins the heat sink integrated heat sink. So, it has been found that RDRAM is I mean compared to other contemporary standards Rambas. So, significantly increased latency heat output because of you know that various control circuits built in as part of the Rambas RAM it generates lot of heat. So, there is a long latency heat output manufacturing complexity and cost. So, Rambas RAM is much costlier than the SDRAM and RDRAM requires longer die size requires to house the added interface results in 10 to 20 percent price premium. So, as I mentioned it is much costlier than SDRAM and these are some other issues related to RDRAM. Few DRAM manufacturers ever obtained the license to produce RDRAM those who did license the technology failed to make enough rims to satisfy PC market demand. So, this means that it is less popular than SDRAM and during RDRAM decline DDR continues to advance in speed while the same line it was still cheaper for RDRAM. So, while RDRAM is still produced today commercially it is still produced, but few motherboards support RDRAM and between 2002 to 2007 only 5 percent market was captured by RDRAM. So, essentially all we are trying to tell is that SDRAM is more popular than RDRAM although it is being manufactured. So, this is a typical main memory organization here you can see the IO bus this is the processor this is the processor bus and this is the memory and IO bridges and you have got the read queue, write queue, response queue, cellular buffer and here are those various banks, bank 0, bank 1 and deems are connected to realize the memory and IO banks. So, this is the hierarchy that we have already discussed I mean this drive main memory on chip L2, on chip L1 register file. So, various technologies that are used magnetic DRAM SDRAM main memory is DRAM and bandwidth as you can see 2 gigabits per second 1.6 we have seen nowadays it is 2 gigabits per second and latency is 50 nanosecond for main memory compared to 2 nanosecond for on chip L2 cache and cost is significantly smaller than the cache memory. So, later in the next class I shall discuss about another hierarchy that hierarchy between main memory and the secondary memory which is known as you know that virtual memory system. So, in the next lecture we shall discuss about that. So, to summarize we have discussed about the enhancement of main memory, main memory optimization techniques by using wider memory, interleaved memory and also we have discussed about various dynamic RAM specific optimizations like the use of SDRAM and the RAM bus RAM. So, with this we have come to the end of today's lecture. Thank you.