Okay Hi, first of all, I want to introduce myself. My name is Bernie Wu I'm with Memverge and I want to thank you guys for sticking around for the last presentation of the evening What I want to do is talk quickly about software-defined memory And how we've started to integrate it with Loki to run big memory workloads I'm gonna repeat this presentation tomorrow at 940 and actually I since I have a little more time I'll actually talk about I have some more material to cover also for tomorrow Very quickly our company is Started in 2017. It's based in San Jose, California And the three founders came from Caltech and we're currently a series B company and we have strategic investors there as you can see And What we're about is breaking down this since we're here in Berlin I figure I'll use this symbol here, but we're here to help break down the memory wall and free memory bound applications and And what I mean by that is that memory capacity and bandwidth haven't kept up especially with HPC and AI ML applications and The DDR Bandwidth that's on a typical server also hasn't kept up with the core count So if you look at that that's been going the wrong direction also And then also the the other trend you see is that computes becoming more diversified. There's there's GPUs There's TPUs or DPUs CPUs FPGAs there's a lot of accelerators Memories becoming more diversified as you'll see in in my next slide and there's in the second half of this year there's a new class of memory coming out called CXL memory and That memory will actually be part of the CXL fabric the initial instantiations will be running on the local PCIe gen 5 bus for the newest Intel sapphire rapid and AMD Genoa servers and So over time with starting with CXL Version 1 of this year 1.1 this year and then late next year and the following CXL 2.0 We will see memory becoming Disaggregated from the CPU so become an independent what we call first-class citizen like storage or networking or anything else on in the data center and Memory itself is getting more complicated. There's there's HBM memory now There's DDR RAM that's been around for a long time. There's persistent memory that also runs on the DDR bus That's produced by Intel sometimes called Optane memory and then there's also this CXL memory That'll be introduced later on this year so to manage all those different tiers and they all have different latencies and and Properties Requires a new a new layer of software and that's what Mem Verge has been working on So what we do is we create we do virtualization and auto tiering to help Applications transparently consume this memory this stack of different types of memory and then also we provide data services to Allow this your application become more mobile even with this memory stack so Just to give you an idea what our platform looks like our software platform We run in user space Above the Linux, you know in the Linux user space directly below these applications shown in orange And I'll talk more about those applications and what we do is we first we virtualize the memory below us And it create memory pools So in many ways is similar to software-defined storage except this is think of this in a memory context And then we do automatic intelligent auto tiering. So we profile the applications that are assigned to us and automatically promote demote hot and cold pages memory pages and then and The key thing is we deliver all this transparently to the application. So a lot of HPC applications are working with they were written in the 1970s we don't change a bit of them and we can still run them and run them better actually We also implemented something called a memory snapshot that does a copy-on-write Snapshot and also captures the machine state So this allows us to do a rollback of an application or a cloning of this application and actually move it to even to another System so this could be useful for for operators that need to do some sort of maintenance and things like that And also gives us higher mobility and the ability to do what we call a transparent checkpoint and restarting of applications We've also spent a lot of time working With some of the outside orchestration tools. We have Ansible. We have slurm LSF UGE We've integrated with the various storage APIs for snapshot at coordination on AWS Acer and now Loki These are some examples of data intensive use cases. I'll go through these in more detail. These are ones that we've already been working on Our our forte of these quite honestly the the one we've done the most work on is genomics We just won the best of show award a month ago at the bio it conference But we also doing things in EDA AI ML median entertainment when it comes to simulation and rendering With things like blender and Houdini HPC modeling financial services and in-memory databases and then Now I think there's an opportunity to work with you folks here in the cloud to do things like Increase dense density of virtual machines containers lower costs lower and reduce energy costs as well And then also help HPC workloads run better on on these kind of open-stack clouds So I'll go through some of the quick examples of these use cases this is an example here of Comparing my sequel running on a KVM in a KVM virtual machine and we're running sysbench looking at the queries per second This first column here is 128 gigabytes of DRAM So it's a hundred percent DRAM and then these other columns are just mixtures of DRAM and persistent memory and By varying the ratios We you can see Nearly the same performance This is the the second column here is a hundred percent PMM So that's the worst case situation with persistent memory versus DRAM. So persistent memory Typically, maybe on the read cycle, maybe three times slower than DRAM. So you're seeing that in this benchmark But if you use blends of it and we are our auto-tearing algorithms, we can pretty much mass the performance difference And then also another example of a use case that we have Outline with our memory machine architecture is again this this problem of crash systems crashing So the bigger the memory The bigger the memory the longer it takes to rewarm the memory if something crashes and so our in-memory snapshot really drastically improves that what we call recovery time recovery point objective Because we could take the memory snapshot and then a synchronously either stored and persistent memory or a synchronously dump it to something like an object storage for for safe keeping and That is much faster than other conventional ways of checkpointing Applications where you have to serialize and deserialize the memory and it takes it takes a long time So this is an example here with a redis database 300 million keys Normally to drain this thing out of memory or a normal Serialization process takes 15 minutes If you just dump it to persistent memory, we could do it in half a second Another use case that we have is in genomics as I mentioned so a lot times in genomics there's there's a highly iterative process and So there's there's calibration going on and so a lot times there's we're showing that iteration here stage 3a 3b 3c And and a lot of times these applications were written as a single threaded pipeline architectures and what we've been able to do in some of these cases is parallelize those things by cloning Memory snapshots of the application and running them in different with different parameter settings or calibration settings in parallel So we can drastically Reduce the wall clock time. We also can allow people to do forensics on why if they had a problem their application They could look at intermediate checkpoints So these these checkpoints or snapshots can be Programmatically implemented. So if you have something like our studio or something like that that we could give you an application Interface programmatic interface where you can insert checkpoints where you are appropriate in your pipeline. So Overall, this what this does is reduce. This was a 12 state. I'm sorry 11 stage a Genomics workflow for for a cell for a single cell RNA sequencing and The blue the higher these lines The worst the performance is so the lower the better those are in seconds So bottom line is you can see for each stage how much we improved the Execution time or runtime and overall we reduce this runtime by 60% using our our memory tiered operations using Intel Optane Same with rollback as I mentioned earlier rollback is extremely fast using our persistent memory to store the snapshots So I think we've discovered a member what we consider to be a killer application for persistent memory Which is to store memory snapshots and you can see this drastic reduction Everything's down to less than a second basically Another example is metagenomics research this kind of Application that is called metaspase creates a giant graph and graphs It's a de novo. It's a de novo genomics Alignment exercise and so the graph can be enormous it can be 200 times larger than the original input data and This job takes also 11 days to run typically and for the first time We've been able to run it on a commodity Intel Ice Lake system with six terabytes of DRAM and PMM So that actually we actually only needed In this case actually we only needed two terabytes So what we did was we basically created a 20 to 1 ratio of gigabytes to cores on this system We're able to for the first time able to execute this whole program successfully on a single machine So we feel that helps to democratize Metagenomic research and metagenomic research if you guys don't know is used to study the human biome to study Soil agriculture has got a lot of broad reaching Applications if you want to know more about it. There's a link. I've included down here below and this is a quote from this paper We're publishing that basically says, you know that this is a this is a good use case This is we're giving a talk at the ISM be next week on this Sorry next next month on this and this is another example with vehicle noise Nastran, which which was developed space shuttle error We've reduced wall clock time by 25% While holding cost equivalent mixture of DRAM and PMM and this is a nice tool We have where we can Before you even deploy our software you can profile your applications By by process ID or whatever and the green envelope shows you the total memory consumed the red area Shows you the hot memory. So when you look at these two graphs this obviously this first graph here It's not suitable for memory tearing because there's random access is going all over the place On the other hand you look at this application. You can see a lot of this memory is idle It's not it's not hot and and this is an ideal for memory tearing Use case so this can help you identify which applications to move to a memory tiered architecture So now I like to quickly talk about Loki and our software to find memory integration So the value we see to the local community for the operators are increasing VM density and container density plus memory noise isolation and lower total cost of Ownership PMM is only half the cost of DRAM To give you an idea per cost per gigabyte standpoint and then also I think this PMM also only uses one tenth the power of DRAM because DRAMs are based on leaky capacitors And so there's also a sustainability benefit here carbon footprint benefit and then also I think HPC applications Aren't can be attracted now to the HPC to clouds and then we can also do this off-peak check pointing So we do this right now in the public cloud where we we take snapshots Applications that weren't fault tolerant can now be run on spot instances in the cloud We can do the same in the open stack community and for the users they they get to Put more of their HPC applications on the on the cloud have this checkpointing benefit and then also we can do things like bursting and Mobility of applications that are memory-tensive Increase the mobility of those things. So this just gives you a quick idea Again PMM at 512 Gigabyte Sizes is one tenth the power of DRAM and then also Again densification is possible So you can cut the total cost total numbers servers down total number of Of DRAM consumed and then also here's an example of noisy neighbor There's these are all Multiple processes each with four threads. You can see with memory machine. We have a very flat profile. These are these are measuring Ios or memory accesses. So we we don't have a noisy neighbor problem or architecture isolates all the memory objects for each process and Then from a deployment standpoint, there's a multiple ways as we're user space We can deploy bare metal we can deploy underneath the KVM hypervisor Which is our current open stack integration and then provide memory services to the hosts the guest VMs We can run inside of a we can run inside the Kubernetes architecture as a container Using a Kubernetes operator to deploy or we just run in a guest OS inside a virtual machine. So there's a variety of ways to control deploy the granularity So it only has to be implemented on an incremental basis into your data center We did a quick modification of Mo Nova We we could talk about later to get it to work an open stack But we want to work with somebody else to bring it bring that further along make it more automated And also we're certified with red hat the Kubernetes operator also works with the the open source versions so my last ask for you guys is to Partner with us to help break down the memory wall and help free memory bound applications, especially for this community and for further reading I've got a This is a white paper we published with Intel that talks about us Kubernetes and containers and then this is the metagenomics paper that Will be delivering a presentation on next month at the ISMB conference on computational biology So with that I'll stop and I think I'm out of time So But tomorrow if you guys come back you want to hear this again at a slower Baud rate or whatever. I will talk about another project. We're working on called DMTCP Which is for for MPI based HPC workloads that allows us to checkpoint across across an entire synchronous cluster. So Okay Thank you. All right. I think I Don't know if I could take any questions, but I'll just I'll hang around here for a few minutes. Thank you


Hey guys welcome back to my channel. My name is Sonali if you guys didn't already know me and today I'm gonna be giving you an iPhone 7 plus review. I couldn't wait to unbox it So, you know, it's already been in use for like almost a week now So I've gotten a good feel for like the new update and just some cool things about the iPhone 7 plus I wanted to share it with you guys So if you guys want to hear more about it then keep on watching So this is the packaging of the iPhone and what I found really weird was that it just said iPhone and not like iPhone 7 plus or anything like that. It just said iPhone and then it has the picture of the phone, of course I got rose gold. I had the 6s plus and the rose gold too So I didn't really want to stray away from that color just because I really liked it and a good way of telling the 6s plus and the 7 plus apart is this dual camera back here Unfortunately the iPhone 7 doesn't have it. I don't know why but that's exactly why I got the 7 plus because I really wanted That dual camera looked so amazing and I'm so into like photography. So of course I had to get that But yeah, that's the box and of course they have like the little Gentle slide. So first you see this little thing. It's just like kind of like covering everything and then Apple is savage sometimes guys like look at this by looking at this packaging You would think that you got the AirPods included with the iPhone Psych there's like a cord in there. What the heck? How can they do that to me? There's so just like Cruel, so you get the savage normal headphones. I mean, I don't think they look that much different and then of course you get a charger and the Cube that it goes into the cube So the newest thing that comes with iPhones now is the adapter the aux cord adapter Honestly, the most important thing in that package other than the iPhone itself But I know everyone and their mother hates that the iPhone doesn't have a headphone jack But honestly guys, I'm pretty sure if you have a headphone jack like that's the thing that makes it Not waterproof. So to make it water resistant you kind of had to take away the headphone jack and honestly I'm not complaining because I'd rather have this little thing then get a little splash of water in my headphone jack And then my whole phone is just messed up and then I have to pay a lot So I personally don't mind it products are always changing and we always have to adapt to them It's not gonna be that big of a deal Like you can even just put this right on your headphones if you wanted to and that's probably what I'm gonna do I'm gonna get another one and put one in my car and just like stick one on the end of my headphones But I do think it's weird that you can't charge your phone and listen to music Although I don't do that very often because I actually don't listen to music unless I'm like going to the gym or something But I see the problem there But again, which one would you rather have like a water resistant phone or a headphone jack? I'd say water resistant phone, but that's just me personally So this is the iPhone 7 plus and obviously it's not that much different from the 6s plus And I actually noticed the girl in sprint put a 6s plus screen protector over my phone But if you're wondering can I use a 6s plus case for the 7 plus the answer is no Unfortunately the camera will be blocked a little bit. This is a 7 plus case So it's not blocked right now, but I did measure it with my other case and the flash would be blocked So I mean if you don't care about a flash, I don't know. I didn't really put it on So I'm not sure if like everything is gonna fit But pretty much if you're gonna try just buy a 7 plus case It's cuz it's gonna like block your flash and make your photos like really weird Like I said the biggest physical difference is the dual camera at least for the 7 plus because on the 7 It doesn't have a dual camera, which I don't really know why and personally I don't know why people like don't buy this one like it's so much better So I'm just gonna talk about the dual camera while I'm on the topic the dual camera helps wide-angle photos and zoomed photos like Turn out better and also I watched the keynote and this is actually the only reason I wanted this 7 plus Okay, so apparently it's gonna be an update later this year Which I don't know why it didn't come with the phone like that's so weird It's an update when you see a really nice picture taken on a DSLR You can see that the background is blurry you can see that the lights are a little bit blurred and just like that really nice bokeh look and That is what this is gonna do when that update comes out, which makes me so mad I really wanted to like just play with it already So it's gonna detect the subject and then detect the background as well and then blur the background Which is gonna be so cool because that is like one of the reasons I use my camera for the blurred background I'm just so obsessed with it So I'm so excited for that update and if like the beta comes out or I think that's what it's called You can like download it for free and like test it out and be the testers I really want to do that for that update because I want to know So for the specs of the camera compared to the 6 plus the back camera has 12 megapixels Compared to the 6 plus which was 8 megapixels So that's a pretty big jump and the front camera is 7 megapixels compared to the 6 plus Which was 1.2 megapixels that sounds really low. I don't know I did have the 6s plus, but I didn't have the 6 plus I'm not sure if they're like super different as you can tell I'm just really pumped about this camera and the update just needs to get here already Another big difference is the home button. It literally doesn't push in. It's basically like when you put your finger on it and you tap it's a vibrate and Not like a push in because when your phone is actually turned off and you try to touch it It's like it won't push in it won't vibrate or anything So that's really weird and something to definitely get used to I'd rather push it in because it feels stuck to me That doesn't feel like a good feeling so now I'm just gonna go through some really cool features I found on the new update the first one being that you can create bulleted lists and notes Which is really cool because I've always wanted to do that like I always make my own bullets And it's just like really time-consuming the thing that I found out is that it only works in the iCloud section of Your notes and then if you press done and click the check mark then it just starts a bulleted note so for instance, I am flying back to Georgia today need to make a packing list and We're gonna just write some things that I have to bring with me that I have not packed already and Then you can actually check them off. Which is like so cool. I don't know I'm just really amazed by that because I've always needed it next thing that I found is that you can unsubscribe from email lists Just in one button like literally it says unsubscribe at the top of every like email list So for this one, it's just 17 all I have to do is hit unsubscribe and it just unsubscribes me And I never get emails from them again It is so useful Usually I have to scroll all the way to the bottom of an email and then click unsubscribe Go to their website click another unsubscribe. It's just so many buttons, you know But this makes it so much easier so the update with the messages is probably one of the biggest updates that I have Experienced it's really messing with my head for some reason, but it's also really cool at the same time So if you want to text something you want to say hi and hold down the blue arrow and then you can send it with invisible ink You can send it gently you can send it loud You can send it with the slam you can also click screen and this is what I really like you can send it with balloons So if you were saying happy birthday Then you can send balloons with it or you can send it with confetti and lasers This is probably my favorite because it's just so cool next you can finally delete those apps that you never ever have Touched in your whole entire life and will never ever touch so for me that would be like News and if I wanted to read the news I'd probably go to like a specific news app So I don't really want to use that sometimes it's just like taking up space on your phone now You don't have to have that problem overall I don't think it's incredibly different from the 6s plus that I had But I think once the camera update comes out then it'll be a lot different just because of that camera So if you're still thinking about getting this phone and you're upgrading from a 6s or 6s plus I Would just wait till the next phone just because it isn't that much different But if you are upgrading from anything else, then I do recommend it If you guys have any more questions about it then comment down below and I'll be sure to answer also If you guys want a what's on my iphone video then make sure to give this video a thumbs up I will see you guys in my next video. Bye guys


So one of the useful things we'll be able to do is to find the square root of an integer mod n. And a definition for square roots is the same as we have for the integers. If the square of y is congruent to k, then we say that y is the square root of k mod n. And as with square roots among the integers, not all numbers have square roots. So it would be nice to have some way of identifying whether a number had a square root, and if the square root existed to find what that square root is. And as usual, the starting point is our fundamental theorem, the Euler Fermat theorem. If two numbers are relatively prime, and phi of n is the Euler phi function, then a to the power phi of n is going to be congruent to one mod n. Now we're particularly interested in the case where n is a prime number, so in general, in that case, phi of n is just going to be n minus one, and so I have a to the power n minus one congruent to one mod n. Now if n is prime, in general, with one exception, it will be an odd number, and so that means that n minus one will be even, and that means n minus one over two is going to be some integer. And so let's think about that. Suppose a square root exists. Suppose that y squared congruent to k mod n actually has a solution. Now if I raise both sides to power n minus one over two, guaranteed to be an integer, then I get y to this and k to the same thing, and over on the left-hand side, I get y to the power n minus one, and I know from our fundamental theorem, our Euler Fermat theorem, that anything to power n minus one is going to be congruent to one. So that tells me that k to the power n minus one over two is going to be congruent to one, and joining our starting point, y squared congruent to k has a solution to our ending point, k to the power n minus one over two is congruent to one, gives us a useful result. If y squared equals k mod n has a solution, then k to the power n minus one over two is congruent to one. So for example, let's take a look at the problem y squared congruent to 17 mod 23, and so we might make the following chain of arguments. If this has a solution, then 17 to the power 23 minus one over two will be congruent to one, and we can check to see if this is true. So evaluating that, that's 17 to the 11, that's 22, and well, what does this tell us? This says that this is not congruent to one, so we take our counter positive. If this has a solution, then this is congruent to one. If this is not congruent to one, this has no solution. Let's take a look at another example. So again, if y squared equals k to the power n minus one over two has a solution, then 31 to the power 83 minus one over two is congruent to one, so we'll check it, and we find it's congruent to one, and since 31 to the power 41 is congruent to one, we know that 34 to the power 41 is congruent to one. Our result is that if the congruent has a solution, then k to the power n minus one over two is congruent to one. It does not tell us what we get if k to power n minus one over two is congruent to one. In general, remember, we cannot rely on the truth of the converse of a statement. It might be true, it might not be true. However, we are in luck this case, because we can actually prove the converse, and so this gives us what's known as the Euler criterion, but n be a prime number greater than two, y squared congruent to k mod n has a solution if and only if k to the power n minus one over two is congruent to one. So we saw that if we had a solution, we knew this was true. We also, in this one particular case, not in general, but in this one particular case, we know the converse is also true, that if this congruent is true, then this congruent has a solution, and all we have to do at this point is figure out what that solution is.


Ready to start understanding how to hit the rotational shot put and transition to big throws? We're going to talk about in this video, so check it out. Hey everybody, it's Eric Johnson from Arte Throws Nation. In today's video, we're going to go behind the scenes, another three day training camp, and we're going to look at kind of some key tweaks start to finish. Devon Martin, he had come in and we were looking at a few things. When we did day one, like you said, we've talked about before with the throwing chain reaction, we're going to plug every athlete in. We're going to evaluate and go through their progression. So first thing that we taught him, he was too far forward in his throat, which is going to make the reverse and the efficiency of the finish compromise. Second thing we look at is how we move into that. We're adjusting things like the rewrap, and then when we went to the full throw, we're looking at the sweep action and how he's setting up his chain reaction. So the key thing here was that he tended to be too far forward. The rewrap was lacking somewhat and he would shift. And so we were trying to show him how that timing would work and how that would change. And that was a really key thing. And this was a good example with that rewrap. He's too active with the upper body and that had to tie into his sweep leg issue. And that was something that we figured out all these things in day one. So then as we plug him through his six pillars in day two, we would start to apply the fixes and the changes. That was a lot better. Not bad. As we start day two, we're immediately going to be focusing on how he's going to be loading the delivery leg and being able to rotate and move into the finish much more effectively. We're going to slow things down. We're going to be more mechanical. We're teaching him how to stay longer and connect to the shot. You can see he's still kind of going a little too far forward and coming over the board. So we did some preloaded throws. So this is where we're going to have the knees and hips preloaded into the direction of the finish. And what we're going to do is show him how to move the hip in time to get the lower body just that little bit ahead. Feel the block and apply so that he's extending to the board without coming out. But you're going to see in this video, he kept coming out. So then the next thing we're going to do is obviously we're going to be putting those things together, moving into the middle of the ring and stepping in. We like to do step ins. It's a very deliberate movement. It's kind of like a choppy or South African in the sense that we're going to really walk and emphasize how to get the hip ahead. At this point here, we're able to start looking at how he's activating the shoulder and the sweep and how that's leading to him turning the upper body too quickly ahead. And that's why you're going to kind of notice that his hips are going to kind of break shift. And that's what's causing a lot of that shift to go forward. So this was a big movement day. That looks pretty good. Day three, we're going to try to say we've got a ton to work on. He's got to go home. What's the game plan? And we're going to put some final touches on the things that we address on day two and the mechanical day. And then we make it super rhythmical. We want to focus on the rhythm, put it together, make it fluid so that he can feel the difference, think about less and apply. And that's the big difference here is that on day two, we're really being mechanical day three. Again, we're really trying to include that more smooth fluid motion. And so you're going to see he's starting to move. You're going to see that upper body kind of rolling. Again, that has to do partially with his sweep and a combination of how he's holding the left arm. So let's take a look at how it went over the course of three days. You can again notice these subtle little changes. You're going to notice that when he starts, he's going to be creating a little bit different position. And in the mechanical day and the rhythmical day, because we were addressing the issues, we're seeing a lot more closer similarities. So as we break down the six pillars, you're going to see these slight little shifts as he comes from here. Now he's starting to attack his sprint. So here you're going to notice the subtlety of the block leg. It's a little closer. It's getting down a little faster and just allowing him to stay back and kind of square up and get into the throw a little bit better. And we're going to compare first day thrower to a first week thrower to a multi-year 17 year old and a multi-year 18 year old. And you're going to see kind of the evolution and you're going to see that they're all working on the same thing. So one of the things if you're new to the channel or if you're new to our IGTV is that the way we look at the throw here is what we call as a throwing chain reaction system. We break the throw down into six pillars. The reason being is that the throw happens very quickly. Brand new thrower on day one, you're going to notice is going to be right around two seconds and an advanced under 18 thrower is going to be throwing about one and a half seconds. And he's thrown around 70 feet and the first thrower is throwing around 25 feet. Now one of the things that we want to do is we're going to be looking at the throw in terms of because it happened so fast was what we call our six pillars. We're going to look at basically the start and we're going to look at what each pillar does, right? Each pillar basically is a location in the ring. We have an objective. What are we trying to do at that point of the throw? And then we have positions to be able to achieve the objective. The first thrower up, we're going to look at young thrower. This was his first day. We're going to look at thrower number one and we'll just quickly refer to these as one, two, three and four. Kind of just let everything roll. You're going to notice again the speed of the throw. Again, the young thrower is the first day so he doesn't quite know how to reverse, but you're going to notice the movement is pretty good. So this is the benefit of taking the system, how we break down the throw and how we teach it to a young athlete. So now you're going to see it. We go through our pillar one, pillar two, and now we're looking at how we kind of move our pillar three, pillar four, pillar five and pillar six. So let's look at how that throw looks when we break it down. So one of the first things that we want to do is we have to understand that setting up the throw is really critical. And that's what we refer to as our pillar one position. As we've talked about with like the discus with the rotational shot, we still have to create separation and stretch reflex. And one of the key things is that we're setting up this entry axis, right? And so how we're going to be able to move around that this thrower number two is only had just made the switch and been throwing for roughly about a week with the rotational shot. Now you're going to notice that as we move the athletes to what we refer to as our pillar two, you're going to notice that we're going to be talking about how we move around the axis. This is going to be the key, how we are going to be able to get the body around here. So the position of this hip and the shoulder, right as we look. So if I look at thrower number four, we look at his entry side hip under the entry shoulder, we're going to notice these are the key things. You're going to notice this is one of the things that the new thrower had learned very well. You're going to see that thrower number one on his first day, right? He's got all the key concepts. So what we refer to on the first pillar is setting up the chain reaction. We're going to set up everything so the body reacts to be able to move into these positions a whole lot easier, learning how to move the feet, the arms, coordinating the lower body in the upper body. These are the things that are very tricky for the athlete. Here you're going to notice that thrower number one in some ways almost has a better entry hip than thrower number three who's throwing multiple years. So this is where as the athletes are going to be getting older, thrower number two is same thing. But it was again his first week throwing with the rotational shot, but hitting a very nice position and looking at where that hip is underneath that shoulder. So these are all some very good things. As we do this alignment, the point of this is that alignment is going to help you as a thrower move through. So what we want to do is make sure that you understand as you go from pillar one to pillar two, setting up maximum power is the goal, right? So we want to set that ability to create all that speed and balance and that's what the object of our pillar two. So pillar three is where we basically talk about how we're going to drop into the throw and apply speed. So we're going to drop in, we're going into the center of the throw towards the direction, the throwing direction, and we're going to be trying to increase as much speed and power as possible. Point here is we're going to be looking at counterbalancing. We have the sweep. We have the counterbalance arm. This is going to be real important to the rotational path into the center as you apply speed. And you're going to notice this thrower here is has a really nice counterbalance system has this thrower number three and number four. And so you're going to notice that our week one and our week two, they, these are going to be things that they're going to be continuing to develop. So as we create speed into the middle, we kind of work on our pillar four, we're going to do, this is where we call we're transitioning from the sprint leg to the delivery leg. This is where the upper body is going to kind of pause lower body and wrap in this. What we refer to as bringing it all together so that you're increasing that rotational speed, you're going to notice where they all land. So number three kind of goes a little too far and he's landing at three o'clock where we want to have that foot landing closer back to one o'clock. Obviously, if you look at number one, we'd be talking up here. Here's your 12 o'clock thrower number two. Again, really nice job hitting his rewrap getting everything here pulling the left foot into the power position. So we're going to set that up. So now we go into here. This is what we refer to as our traditional power position and we call this locking down power. We want to have both legs loaded up so that we can create that nice rotational speed into our delivery. And we're going to see that delivery side going this way out and around into our throw. You're going to see that nice long balance arm that's going to take the long path of the upper body to allow the thrower to come into the throw. And now you're going to set up that nice big squared up position. So you're going to notice that thrower number four has a real nice line. You're going to see everything's pretty straight through the back and up through the head. You're going to notice that thrower number three is kind of pulling off. And so that's going to be some strength number thrower number one. Again, day one. Heck of a great job. Really great position. And you can see he's pulling off a little bit. That's going to drop that elbow a touch.  Our next three part series coming up, we're going to go through each thing, go through a little bit more detail. But the key thing is how do you get thrower number one, this good quality of movement in just the first day? You can imagine where this athlete's going to be in multiple years. So the idea was we again, we broke down the throne to six pillars. It's a system that everybody can understand.  And one of the best throwers in high school history is we're working on generally the same things. But as the concepts and the positions become more learned, the details become more critical. But the first thing's first is when you're approaching, you're throwing the why that we created the system, why we're putting out this video is to help you understand that if you don't have a structure to follow and you're not clear on the objectives that you're supposed to be achieving throughout the throw from start to finish, you're going to have a much harder time understanding the throw. You can potentially develop a lot of unnecessary habits that are going to hold you back and limit your progress. But a pillar to start is where we're going to set our throw. What we're going to do is squat straight down. We're going to turn this foot to about 45 degrees. We're maintaining the hips. So we hinge. Notice I don't turn the hips. And so what I do is I hinge to about 45. I bring the chest forward on an angle here. So I'm in that point of pillar two. And what I'm going to do is I'm going to wind on the angle. I can't set back up. I'm on the angle. So you'll see this line here. You'll see how my hips are generally centered. The knee is not pushing this way. I'm straight down, turned, upper body comes over. And then what it does is it forces the long radius, right? And so I feel this and Tyson Jones, who threw 71 eight and three quarters multiple times and one new balanced nationals in 2018. We had a point in the fall where we probably spent about three weeks where that's all he did was pillar twos. He just got feeling that pillar two position, pillar two position, the timing of how to keep everything moving and driving in. And that's what set him up for that really good consistency dozen throws and competition over 70 feet. So very consistent. Again, we're going to review the pillar two is quite simple. We squat straight down, we turn the foot to 45, we angle the chest out. And then we get here and we open, we wind on the angle. So we feel that hip lock like a kneeling throw. And then we work the arm around. So we're going to feel the hinge and you're going to feel that now I'm on bounce, heads over the knee. I'm on double loaded legs. I'm going to be able to turn through, turn through and lift. Okay. So hopefully that feels good. Try it pillar twos. Usually people hate them because what it's really showing you is are you loading and moving around the axis, the easier it gets, the better the axis, the more difficult it feels and cumbersome, the more you're absolutely doing it incorrect. That's a quick thing. We have more details inside the system on how to do a pillar to start, but start here, try that in the next video. We're going to put the whole throw together and we'll help you again identify your drills and you will hopefully be feeling a good solid full throw and congrats on a big week. Here we go.


I'm Nathan Hill. I'm director of the Center for Asian Studies and I'm happy you're all here. And it's my pleasure to introduce Dr. Gerald Roche. Lived in China for a long time, 10 years, something like that. Originally worked among the Monguers who are called the Tuzu in Chinese. And then moved from descriptive anthropology into issues around language and language policy. He's been around. He was in Sweden for a while at Uppsala and then went back home to Australia where he's been now also a few years at La Trope where he's a senior research fellow. And he's published in a lot of good places like China Quarterly and American Anthropologist and was one of the editors of the Rutledge handbook of Language Revitalization. This afternoon, the talk is Language Oppression in China. What does it look like? Greetings, everyone. It's nice to be there virtually. I'll just begin with a short acknowledgement of country which is that I'm speaking to you from Melbourne which is the unceded lands of the Weirung and Boonurung people of the Kulin nation. And since I'm going to be talking about language, I'll also acknowledge their languages, the Weirung and Boonurung languages and ongoing struggle that those people are engaged in to revitalize those languages after long periods of severe repression. And it's also important to acknowledge as someone who works at La Trope University that one of the main agents of the oppression that those people historically faced was Charles La Trope who the university is named after, who was a colonial governor and established some of the first schools in Melbourne. So yes, I'm going to be talking about this question, language oppression in China, what does it look like? I will be presenting some empirical data based on field work in China with Tibetan communities, ethnographic field work, interview surveys and so on. But in order to answer this question, what does it look like? And I'm going to be really concentrating on that sense of look. What does it look like? I'm going to be engaging a bit more with theory broadly from what I call the new genocide studies. And that's all kind of new stuff for me. So it's a bit of a mixture of old results and new ideas. Hopefully it's interesting. So I'll just start off by talking about the motivation for this topic in particular about what does language oppression look like? And the impetus was unfortunately social media which you can see some of the examples here. What you can see in these pictures is three separate people, non-PRC citizens living in or visiting China, posting content on Twitter to combat what they see as false reports of ethnic repression in the PRC, specifically in relation to the so-called minority languages of China. And these posts exemplify a broader genre of social media witnessing that typically includes some form of visual evidence. And that's either videos or still images or references to the visible or seeing more broadly. And these social media witnessing practices aim to support the argument that minority languages in China and more broadly minority peoples and cultures and identities are being respected and supported. I'm not really interested in the arguments advanced in these posts by these people since I think that they're patently false, intellectually facile and morally bankrupt as arguments. However, what I am interested in is understanding why people seem to find these posts convincing and what role aesthetics play. And I wanna think about how investigating these issues of aesthetics and believability opens up new theoretical avenues for understanding language oppression and new possibilities for thinking about how language oppression can be resisted and overcome. So my talk this evening is going to be divided into three main parts. I'll start off talking about patterns of language oppression in China. And in this section of the talk, I'll provide the empirical evidence that enables us to know that language oppression is a reality in China, looking broadly at the national level and more specifically at the Tibetan context. Then I'll start moving towards answering my key question, what does language oppression look like? This question seeks to explore the visual presentation of the processes underlying the patterns described in part one. And this section is mostly a theoretical intervention to supplement the initial and empirical part. I'll argue that recent developments in what I call new genocide studies can help us think through this issue. In the third section of the talk, I'll discuss what I call the aesthetics of language oppression to not only answer the question, what does language oppression look like, but also to ask why it is so easy to visually misrepresent. Let's start by looking at patterns of language oppression in China. It's probably useful for me to begin by explaining what I mean by language oppression. So language oppression, when I use that time, I'm referring to coerced language shift that leads eventually, if left unchecked, to the elimination of a language. So this typically occurs when speakers of indigenous and minority languages stop transmitting their mother tongue across generations, and instead transmit dominant languages, usually the language of the state. We know that language shift is occurring through an analysis of patterns of intergenerational language transmission. And we can understand if this shift is coerced through a historically grounded analysis of relations of power that come to bear on decisions around language transmission from the standpoint of the affected population. So what do we know about language oppression in China? It's difficult to directly study or find information about language oppression defined in the terms that I've laid out in China for what should hopefully be pretty obvious reasons. However, we do have a proxy indicator in the form of language endangerment, which is basically just a depoliticized rendering of the idea of language oppression. Like language oppression, language endangerment is evident when rates of intergenerational transmission of a language decline, but this model stops short of looking at the political drivers of this process. Whereas language oppression centers that the political drivers of declining intergenerational language transition. So although we lack any broad understanding of language oppression in China, we have some good estimates of language endangerment. And in a variety of sources from people working in China and outside China, what we see repeatedly is that it's estimated that about half of China's languages defined as endangered. That means that half of China's languages are today being spoken by fewer and fewer people, a process which if allowed to continue will lead to half of China's languages disappearing. My assertion is that this pattern is driven fundamentally by political factors, by implicit and explicit policy and could be arrested tomorrow if there was sufficient political will. These endangered languages are therefore oppressed languages. So half of the languages in China are oppressed. So a cornerstone of the work that I've been doing in this area is the suggestion that a key driver of this language oppression is erasure. What I'm referring to here is the refusal of the state to recognize the existence of most of China's languages which manifests as the insistence that what are in fact independent languages are actually from the view of the state, only mere dialects. And through this definitional slide of hand, the state is able to justify denying the material and institutional support that languages need to produce and reproduce themselves. So out of a total of perhaps 300 languages in China, the state only recognizes some 56 languages that deserve the constitutionally guaranteed freedoms of use development and so on. Meanwhile, all other languages in China are abandoned to the destructive forces of state building, economic development, modernization and assimilation. In the Tibetan context, this gives rise to the hegemonic position that Tibetans speak only a single language and that only a single language can receive any state support for its use development production and reproduction. The reality, however, documented by linguists and recognized also by the Tibetans themselves in their practices and in their language ideologies is that Tibetans are a multilingual population. So with the linguist Hiryuki Suzuki, I conducted a survey of available literature on languages that are spoken by Tibetans but are raised by the state. We found that in addition to Tibetan, around 30 distinct languages are spoken and I'll be referring to these as Tibet's minoritized languages. Okay, so what do we know about language oppression amongst Tibet's minoritized languages? I'm gonna zoom in to talk about these languages now. Several years ago, I undertook a survey of linguists and community members who work with or speak these languages. I had to rely on the language of language endangerment in this survey, but as I explained earlier, I think this acts as a proxy indicator for language oppression. I was only able to collect information on about 20 of the approximately 30 languages spoken by Tibetans in China and the results from this survey suggest that all of these languages are endangered to some degree, varying degrees of endangerment, some more so than others, but all of them can be described as endangered. That means that all of them appear to have declining rates of intergenerational language transmission. In the survey, I also asked the experts and community members if they thought the language in question that I was asking them about would still be spoken a hundred years from now. And it was only in one case for one language that the answer to that question was yes. So not only are the languages endangered, the outlook for them is also bad in terms of their continued survival. In terms of the direction of language shift, what those languages are being replaced by out of the 20 languages that I could get information for, 14 of them are shifting towards some variety of Chinese. Three of them are shifting towards some variety of Tibetan. And in a final case for three of them, the population is split geographically. So in one valley, the community is shifting towards Tibetan and in the other valley towards Chinese. So to give a little bit more detail and specificity about how these patterns manifest, I'll give you an example of one language that I've conducted fieldwork with, Manikacha. So Manikacha is spoken on the Northeast Tibetan Plateau. You can see it up there in the top right of the screen. It's number seven, a little pink dot on the map right up at the top there. And Manikacha is spoken by 8,000 people who live in four villages in what is today Ching Hai province in part of the province, which is associated with the Tibetan cultural region of Ando. So I undertook household surveys in the four villages where Manikacha is spoken and found that somewhere between one quarter and one third of households in those four villages is shifting away from speaking Manikacha to speaking Tibetan. And that is they're not speaking Manikacha to their children anymore, they speak Tibetan and the children are not learning Manikacha, they're learning Tibetan instead. And importantly, an underlying pattern contributing to this trend is what I've here called village defection where an entire community, one out of the four shifted en masse based on a collectively enforced decision to stop transmitting Manikacha to their children. And there are other cases in other minoritized languages of Tibet where this village defection has occurred. So anyway, the overall picture we have is clear, language oppression is rife in China, at least half of the country's languages are oppressed. My work with minoritized languages of Tibet suggests that erased languages are particularly impacted but even larger formally recognized languages like Tibetan, Uyghur and Mongolian are endangered. And if you are already aware of the plight of these languages, it is because the people who use them have the affordances, the organizational capacity, the transnational reach and the international attention to make their protests meaningful. Whereas these conditions do not exist for the vast majority of oppressed languages in China. So to return to my original impetus for this talk, it's worth repeating that it is patently counterfactual to claim that minority languages in China are adequately supported, which brings me to the next part of my talk where I'm going to use new genocide studies to help us think about this issue of why those counterfactual claims seem to have so much traction and what its relationship is with aesthetics. So why should we consider language oppression in relation to genocide? I think that there are at least three good reasons for doing this. The first is historical. And I'll be referring to various some works throughout the talk, but the work of Tova Skvino-Kangas on this next part is relevant. So we know that genocide, when originally formulated by the concepts creator, Raphael Lemkin, linked language oppression to genocide, seeing efforts to ban, suppress and distort languages as belonging to part of an overall coordinated plan to destroy human groups. That was how Lemkin originally defined genocide. And we also know that language oppression was removed from the legal definition of genocide in the course of the debates that took place in the United States, in the United Nations, mostly due to advocacy from the United States and America and Canada. So historically, language oppression was considered an integral element of genocide. And that's one reason why I think we should consider them together. Secondly, as hopefully I'm going to show in this talk, I think that there are also developments within genocide studies that provide theoretical tools which enable us to meaningfully reestablish that historical connection between language oppression and genocide in ways that help us understand language oppression better. And I'll talk more about that in the next section. But finally here, I'll just note that I may or may not have time to come back to this at the end, but I think that there are also material connections between genocide and language oppression, by which I mean that the two are often connected to each other and occur together in the real world. And let's see if I have time to talk about that more. But for now, let's go on to talk about what I'm going to call the new genocide studies. So the label new genocide studies is my own. Different authors call this scholarship different things. So for example, Benjamin Mikes refers to this scholarship on this concept as a social genocide approach. Whereas Dirk Moses refers to a post-liberal approach to genocide. I'm going to be casting a wide net here in bringing together diverse scholarship and schools under the label new genocide studies. But I think that the following list of attributes justifies bringing this work together as a body. So what brings this literature together? The first feature is that these studies of genocide attempt to move beyond the focus on the Holocaust as the paradigm of genocide. And in doing so, also aim to refute the idea that genocide is reducible to mass murder. An important aspect of such studies is a retelling of the history of the drafting of the genocide convention. And the role that the Holocaust paradigm played in helping various actors reduce Raphael Lemkin's rich complex concept of an integrated plan of group destruction to a focus on mass killing. Importantly, new genocide studies scholars have examined how a focus on the Holocaust and an emphasis on mass killing renders other forms of genocide invisible. So for example, David Stannard, author of the book, American Holocaust has claimed that the idea of Holocaust uniqueness functions as a form of genocide denialism, denying the ontological status of genocide to other atrocities. So the second feature here is the goal of interrogating and revealing the links between genocide and colonialism. We see this not only in David Stannard's work that I've just mentioned, but also in a book by Ward Churchill called A Little Matter of Genocide and a recent book by Damien Short called redefining genocide amongst others. Instead of thinking about the Holocaust and mass killing as paradigms of genocide, from this perspective, we're encouraged to look at how differing techniques of eliminating human collectives have been associated with different sites, types and moments of colonialism. For example, in the classical settler colonial context of Australia, Canada, the US and so on, as well as in the exploitation colonies throughout Africa and Asia. So in these efforts to move beyond the Holocaust paradigm, to shift away from a focus on mass killing and to center the relationship between genocide and colonialism, new genocide studies has involved efforts to completely rethink the concept of genocide itself. This has included efforts to redefine what it is that lies at the heart of genocide, such as work by Claudia Card to redefine genocide in relation to the concept of social death. This scholarship has led to new explorations of who can be victims of genocide, beyond the genocide convention's narrow focus on national, ethnic, racial or religious groups to ask for example, whether political groups or specific genders can be targeted. Originally in the UN convention drafts, linguistic groups were included as potential and legitimate targets of genocide, but then no longer considered as such. Anyway, there is also an exploration of the different mechanisms used to pursue genocide other than killing. Seen for example, in Helen Fine's concept of a genocide by attrition and related concepts, increasingly expressed with reference to Rob Nixon's idea of slow violence and Lauren Ballant's work on slow death. And we also see scholars looking at different ways that genocide causes harm. For example, this is evident in recent work by Benjamin Meichs on genocide and the brain. Finally, we see explorations of how the perpetrators of genocide are identified, attempting to move beyond a narrow focus on evil individuals such as, which is an approach advocated in Alexander Laban Hinton's recent book, It Could Happen Here, White Power and the Rising Threat of Genocide in the US. Instead, efforts are typically made to identify, to provide structural explanations for genocide. And these approaches include historian Tony Barton's concept of relations of genocide and the genocidal society. Mark Levine's assertion that genocide is inherent to the modern nation state and the contemporary world system or Leo Cooper's assertion that the United Nations and the genocide convention itself imply a right of all states to commit genocide. So that's very briefly the new genocide studies. So I think very broadly that this new genocide studies literature raises a host of important and challenging questions that we should be thinking about in relation to how we understand language oppression. However, right now I just want to focus on one very small moment in this vast literature from a fantastic book by Benjamin Meichs called The Politics of Annihilation. Here he talks about how the Holocaust paradigm imposes particular aesthetic expectations on how we think about, perceive and even act against genocide. He suggests that the fact that the Holocaust takes up so much of our shared mental imagery and public representations of genocide has actually made it difficult for us to perceive other genocides on primarily aesthetic grounds. I think we see something similar going on with language in regards to language oppression and aesthetics and those tweets that I started out with. There seems to be an unacknowledged aesthetic profile that we think language oppression should conform to. And when cases of actually existing language oppression fail to live up to that template, we fail to perceive it as language oppression. So what is the aesthetic template of language oppression? What is the paradigm that forms the reference point that people go to when deciding if something is or is not language oppression? Well, I don't think that there is a single case that dominates the horizon of our thinking in the same way as the Holocaust has come to define genocide. However, I do think that there are certain aesthetic features that I think people expect language oppression to have and certain visual templates that they're expected to follow. I think the aesthetic expectations lead people to think it should look something like these images. So here on the left is a person wearing the Welsh knot, which as I'm sure you would know, was a device used to punish people for speaking Welsh in school and to enforce an English-only environment and which was part of a broader program to oppress and eliminate Welsh. We see in the top right here, a picture of an African slave muzzled in a cruel and shocking manner. This image was used to accompany a recent article on the topic of necro-linguistics by Professor John Muganey from Harvard to represent the figurative muzzling that accompanies language oppression. And although this kind of muzzling did indeed happen, it played no actual role in language oppression. This image is therefore a potent aesthetic model of language oppression without having any actual connection to practices of language oppression. In the final image there in the bottom right, of course, we see a Nazi book burning. And I think that this is also aesthetically how language oppression often appears in our collective representations. That is, it appears as explicit, violent, hateful, destruction. So what all these images have in common is an assumption that language oppression should be visually striking. It should be spectacular, violent and unambiguous. Pauline Wakeham in her article called the slow violence of settler colonialism, genocide, attrition and the long emergency of invasion gives us a striking metaphor that captures these sort of aesthetic expectations. To borrow her words, I think we want language oppression presented visually in such a way that it comes to us as a smoking gun on a silver platter. If this is what people are looking for aesthetically when they look for language oppression, what does language oppression actually look like? This brings us back to the question in the title of my talk, which I'll now attempt to answer. What does language oppression in China look like? So to begin with, language oppression is sometimes, often invisible. It doesn't look like anything. There's nothing aesthetically at all to appreciate. This is particularly true in relation to what I described earlier as the erasure of languages in China. Languages that are erased like the Manikacha language aren't visible anywhere. Although speakers have developed a writing system for this language, you will not see it on signs or printed in books or on the internet or on Chinese banknotes and so on because the state actively opposes its presence in public. And this is the case for not just all of Tibet's minoritized languages, but actually in fact, for the vast majority of languages in China. Not only will you not see these erased languages, but you will also most certainly not hear them anywhere. You won't hear them on TV. You won't hear them on the radio. You won't hear them spoken and taught in schools or overhear them in government offices. This is because their erasure also excludes them from all of these contexts. So aesthetically, these languages, these erased languages, present as invisibility and silence. And that is what language oppression in China looks like for the most part. However, at the same time, language oppression in China is also sometimes messy. I don't know if this is the right word here, but by that, what I mean is that language oppression is shot through visually, aesthetically, with contradictions that make it difficult to form a clear definitive picture of what is going on. So for example, in the case of written Tibetan, there are indeed Tibetan street signs. There is a Tibetan internet. There are Tibetan bank telling machines. There is a Tibetan publishing industry and there is Tibetan indeed on the national currency. There are Tibetan TV stations and DVDs and radio stations. You can even hear the language being used and taught in schools. None of this tells us that intergenerational transmission of the language is secure. None of this tells us that the language is not oppressed. That's what I mean by messiness. A language can still be visible and oppressed at the same time. And indeed in the case of Tibetan, that's exactly what is happening. So just to give, I guess, a visual representation of those two different categories and how they interact, you can see this picture here of this neon-lit Tibetan building here. This is a museum which is built in the town of Rungo, Rangong. And on the museum, you can see the Tibetan script at the top in bright neon lights, the Chinese script underneath it, larger, more visible, the lights on the Tibetan script you can see in the middle there have broken. No one cares, doesn't matter. There's an obvious iniquity in the way that those two languages are presented, which is indicative of the oppression that Tibetan faces. There's messiness there though in that the language is visible but oppressed at the same time. What we can't see, what you don't see in this picture is the Manikacha language. This building, this museum, the square in front of it, the place where the children are playing is built on land that was compulsorily acquired by the local state from a village where Manikacha is spoken. That sovereignty, if you like, has been obliterated, visually erased and the language has also been visually excluded along with it. And that's the way in which Eurasia manifests as invisibility. Finally, language oppression then sometimes looks invisible and sometimes messy but it always, always looks slow and unspectacular. It is diffuse in time and space and intensity. It takes place across the span of generations. It is rarely, if ever visible, in acute, intense, spectacular, violent incidents though these do erupt sometimes as with street protests or the self-immolations in Tibet.  It is utterly mundane and unspectacular. And because of this, language oppression is notoriously difficult to see. It is difficult to see for the people who study it and also for the people who experience it. In its invisibility, it's messiness and slowness, language oppression in China and in fact, language oppression everywhere in the world today rarely, if ever presents itself aesthetically in the terms we expect it to. We never get our smoking gun served up on a silver platter. So language oppression is difficult to see. It's hard to perceive and requires intense analytical work to render it perceivable and visible. Why is that analytical work important? And the reason why I think it's important is because of this link between language oppression and death essentially. So just very quickly, I'll run through a short list of the ways in which language oppression and death is linked. The point that I'm making is that we need to give attention to the aesthetics of language oppression and its invisibility, not because it helps us win arguments on Twitter, but because ultimately it's a matter of life and death. Avoiding language oppression, resisting language oppression, helps avoid state-sponsored killing to some level. So intense language oppression is sometimes a prelude to killing. We see this in a number of cases where a language is banned and then the people are killed soon afterwards. The two are often entwined, but there are more diffuse ways in which language and killing are involved with one another. So we know increasingly we see this in the literature that language maintenance is linked to health and well-being. A range of measures of physical, emotional and mental health are improved by language maintenance. And by extension, this suggests that language oppression is also bad for people's health. It makes their lives poorer and shorter. We also have research from translation studies and multilingualism and communication studies that shows that oppressed languages, which are typically excluded from major social institutions and planning initiatives and so on, they're typically excluded from critical services like health and disaster response. And this leads to increased race of sickness and death amongst people who use those languages. So taken together those three factors, they produce what I refer to as a necropolitics of language oppression, which links language oppression, physical death and the destruction of human groups. And that's why we need to do the analytical work to make language oppression perceivable. Okay, thank you. Thank you very much for this talk. There is already one question that I will slightly paraphrase. So you mentioned this Mark Levine who tied genocide or language oppression to the nation state as a social political form. Let's say conceptually speaking, we tend to distinguish, or I don't know, people's intuition is to distinguish like blue water, settler or colonialism from, I don't know, from what China is doing in Tibet, which might be more like, you know, Germany's relationship to the Swarps or England's relationship to the Cornish or France's relation to the Bretons. Should we call those kinds of relationships colonial or genocidal? What are the conceptual categories that are adequate to different instances of language oppression? Yeah, like this analytical separation between nation state building and colonialism, I enjoy observing the messiness between those two things. Like many of you would be familiar with this book, Peasants Into Frenchman, by Eugene Weber, which is a classical work on nation building from the perspective of modernization theory where he, you know, all of these French peasants didn't speak French and then they had to because of modernization, the rails, the roads, the labor markets and so on. And there's this fantastic moment towards the end of the book where he's writing and France for non has just published the wretched of the earth and he's saying, you know, this looks a lot like colonialism and people in France, these policymakers at the time, they would refer to these Breton peasants as savages and they would explicitly compare colonialism and nation building. And maybe we should do this because maybe France is just a big colony united by a single block of land. And then he decides not to do that. He just sort of steps away from it and says, like, well, actually, I think Fanon's overblowing it a bit. And whereas I think that like that analysis is correct that that nation, that state building, that nation, state building through nation building is colonialism, right? So those things are a spectrum of each other. You mentioned blue water colonialism. And this is, you know, like this idea of the salt water theory is just a fiction which enabled certain countries to retain colonial possessions that they wanted to keep a hold of, right? So if you look at the debate through the United Nations, the Belgians realized that they were going to lose their territories. And so they proposed this idea that, well, decolonization will mean also breaking up the states that colonialism created, right? Because if you're talking about the self-determination of peoples, those colonial nations were just random lines drawn around peoples. And so they needed to be liberated from them. The Belgians were very magnanimous in suddenly deciding that they loved freedom after murdering 10 million people in Central Africa. And so that led to this principle of that, well, then it's only colonialism if it goes in a boat. And that was promoted by countries like America and Australia in the United Nations because they did not want to be dismantled by the United Nations, right? Which is exactly the same reason why they opposed the inclusion of language and other aspects of cultural assimilation in the genocide conventions, right? On the one hand, there's that analytical connection between nation-state building and colonialism, which we need to not think about them separately in some ways, but at the same time, I do also think it is really important to look at the different forms of colonialism in the way that they operate. So for example, settler colonialism is absolutely and importantly a distinct form of colonialism that we have to think about differently from exploitation colonialism in India, for example. And you see the importance of this analytical distinction when people talk about China as a colonial state, right? China is a colonial state, but we can't just simply describe it as settler colonial, which is what people are increasingly doing. We see this in reference to Xinjiang, which is correct. We see this increasingly with reference to Tibet, which is not so correct. So on the one hand, I think that we need to say that nation-states and empires are the same thing, but at the same time, I think we need to separate them out. So then a very concrete question, which is when we talk about people switching to Chinese, there are lots of different kinds of Chinese. What does that mean, switching to Chinese? Yeah, so it's different in different contexts. So for example, in Sichuan, Western Sichuan, people would be primarily switching to some kind of Sichuan Chinese. In Qinghai, they would have in the past been switching to Qinghai, Qinghaihua. Increasingly, I think what you're seeing is that you're getting teachers coming through that have Putonghua as their strongest language. And so I think that you will start seeing a shift to Putonghua instead of those regional Chinese languages. And part of that, part of the reason for that is that those languages are also themselves being replaced by Putonghua, right? So there's work on the loss of synidic languages shifting towards gradually a complete eradication of languages like Qinghaihua, which is absolutely a unique language of that area due to prolonged contact with Tibetan, Mongolian and Mongolian. I wanted to ask about the understanding of, I was interested in that survey you conducted with speakers of these kind of unrecognized languages and their expectation that they're disappearing. And I realized you couldn't phrase your question in terms of oppression, but do you have a sense of their understanding of the reasons for that? Do they see that their language is being oppressed and that this is a deliberate policy or is there a, I believe that this is an inevitable accompaniment of your globalization, modernization, progress, whatever that could be taken to mean? Rather than talking about the surveys, I can talk a little bit about interviews I did with Manikacha speakers, but also like a host of informal conversations that I've had with people over many years around these topics and what you see in people's sort of interpretive models around why this is happening. So on the one hand, you see this idea of what like, what I call false protagonists, where it's like the something is eating the language, right? The globalization, the modernization and these kind of recourses to these sorts of arguments are just extremely common, right? The language is disappearing because the city is getting bigger. The language is disappearing because the economy is developing. The language is disappearing because the nation is becoming rich, right? This kind of inevitableism driven by false protagonists. But then at the same time, especially this came out when I was doing interviews with Manikacha speakers, you have this recourse to just complete social Darwinism, which expresses a form of politics in a way that is politically safe in China, which is that this is just the nature of things. The weak are defeated and destroyed by the strong, right? So Manikacha speakers would say, would like express this idea that, you know, the Chinese oppress the Tibetans. The Tibetans oppress us. That's how it is. What are you gonna do, right? And the same people would express the same ideas. So this like, like crystallization of language real politics with this complete deferral of agency and responsibility and inevitableization, just at the same time constantly. So there's a question kind of along similar lines that again, I'll sort of paraphrase in my own way, which is, it's unlikely that the political circumstances are concretely imaginable in which Manikacha would be a language that international diplomacy and scientific research and, you know, that sort of thing would happen in, maybe something better than what is happening on the ground. I mean, let's just say bracket what I mean by better, but is possible, but only within certain kind of material constraints. And that's people's intuition when they talk about the inevitability of progress, right? Yeah, yeah. So like in response to that, I would say that, like, you know, I perhaps gave this sense in the talk and you certainly get the sense from reading literature on language endangerment and language oppression, that languages are these inherently fragile things that will just go away in a whiff of smoke. But we actually have really good evidence from places like where I am that there is this remarkable robustness in languages where they live on in different forms that people don't expect. People have childhood these complex decay paths of languages, right? Like what used to be called language obsolescence, the way that it's kind of like whose paradox is it? Zeno's paradox? It never ends.  The language half-life means that it never gets destroyed. So that's true and that's important to acknowledge. But like the broader point is that what you're saying is that, okay, without substantial changes in the material conditions, something is going to happen and something bad is going to happen. And that is true, right? Without substantial change in the material conditions of people who speak these languages, the political material conditions, these languages, like that half-life process is going to happen and that half-life process is violent and destructive and it is going to happen unless something changes, right? But change does happen and we forget that that. We forget that that is true, right? The history of everything is the history of unprecedented things. The only way that those unprecedented changes are going to happen is by saying that they have to happen, right? They don't just spring out of a box somehow. Yeah, and I feel just compelled to mention, that was the story of Czech, right? Actually like very famously Marx dismissed Czech as on its way out and concerted political coordination on the part of Czech speakers. Yeah, and Joshua Fishman writes about this in relation to Yiddish as well, right? You know, I'm paraphrasing, but he says, never has a language had so many funerals as Yiddish. Like I think a very good word here is the word abandonment rather than neglect. An abandonment sort of ties what's going on into a whole bunch of political processes, right? So the idea of abandonment is to sort of cast out, to throw aside, et cetera, right? But abandonment is also linked to the idea of banishment as a political punishment to send someone beyond the community. And how it happens is by the state abandoning a language to what seems like natural processes that are caused by the state, right? Globalization, modernization, development, infrastructural expansion, electrification, et cetera, right? Commodification, urbanization, none of these things are spontaneous processes. They are all forces that are unleashed by the state. So the state unleashes all of these forces on the population at the same time. It withdraws or refuses to grant the resources that the community needs to weather that violence intact. And that has a corrosive force on those communities. And the state knows it, the state knows it because it deliberately provides those resources to other communities to enable them to survive the exact same problems, right? So we know that the state understands that this is a destructive process without sufficient protective measures. So it is, so there's this debate in genocide studies. So genocide studies addresses all of these issues. This is what I mean by the new genocide studies is that it looks at these kinds of processes where killing, where the destruction of human groups is via abandonment rather than direct violence and that distinction is important. And there's this distinction between also the ideas of culpability and intention, right? So intention is I'm mean to kill you. Culpability is that I'm responsible for your death because I have failed to protect you. And this comes particularly from the work of Claudia Card and her idea of social death. And so she says that genocide is mostly a matter of culpability rather than intention. This is exactly, this is absolutely the same with language oppression as well. It's something that the state lets happen knowing what the consequences will be.