Hi and welcome to the video courses for Windows Server 2016. My name is Patrick Loner and I'll be your instructor. Let's start with a little bit about my background. I've been in the IT industry for just about 18 years. I got my start with an MCSE on Windows NT and have sort of worked my way up through the ranks on every version of Windows that has existed. I began my career in a position of network administration at a training center where I handled just about everything. Imaging of PCs, hardware and software, troubleshooting in classroom environments, as well as for the business side of things.  I quickly got into training, some of the Windows 2000 courses and CompTIA courses and as they say, the rest is history. And I've been working as a Microsoft certified trainer now for the better part of 18 years. I've had a couple of positions, one with the training center, another with a network consulting firm for three years where we were involved heavily in projects for upgrading to newer versions of Windows Server, upgrading and migrating to exchange. For the past 10 years, I've operated as a freelance trainer and network consultant. It's my pleasure to be your instructor on these courses and let's get ready to get into the material. In the first topic, we're going to be dealing with planning and implementing IP addressing schemes for IPv4 networks. As I said, we're going to be dealing with some of the fundamental, not basic, but fundamental steps in configuring IP addresses. IP addresses are gonna be required for every host on the network and it's not as if we just assign an IP address off the top of our head. No, the IP addresses have to fit a particular structure. Each individual host on a single network segment has to have an IP address that works with the other host. It has to have an IP address that works with the router, which is their default gateway. There's a rhyme and a reason to why we assign these addresses. And some of us are gonna find ourselves in networks where we have multiple subnets and we have to take a single address and make network IDs for the multiple subnets and then assign individual host IDs in those subnets. Now, even if you don't find yourself in that situation in real life, you're going to find yourself in that situation on the exam. Microsoft will test your knowledge at every different part of the subnetting process. And so it's incredibly important that we're able to answer these questions and we are able to design IP address schemes for IPv4 networks. So let's start just by talking about the general networking requirements. What is required in order to connect a system to the network?  We just plug in a network cable and we're off and running. We're connected to the network or we are sitting at the coffee shop and we activate our wifi and we check a box that says we accept some agreements and we're off and running. We're on the internet. And the vast majority of society has absolutely no idea what's going on behind the scenes. Well, that can't be you.  That's why you're here. You need to understand what's happening behind the scenes. And so the three components that are required in order for a system to connect to the network are the NIC, the protocol and the client, all right? Now, why do we connect to networks? We could cover that initially. We connect to networks because we have to or because we wanna share resources, right? The purpose of a computer network is to connect systems together to share resources, files, folders, printers and internet connection, an app. Those are the reasons that we network computers. And we've been networking computers for many, many years and it's always required these three components. The network interface card is the first. This is the physical interface between the system and the rest of the network. Now the network interface card maps to a particular network architecture. So it connects you to a very specific kind of network. Now today, this has been simplified. You know, your network interface cards are going to either be ethernet or wifi. It's very unlikely for any of us to encounter a token ring card or an arc net card. Something like that. These are older and equated technologies that just simply aren't even used today. So ethernet is the predominant standard on today's local area networks, providing varying speeds anywhere from 10 megabits per second all the way up to really 10 and 40 gigabits per second. But the predominant speed on local area networks for clients and servers would probably be the one gig per second gigabit ethernet. This is a wired internet connection or a wired network connection, I should say. And then we have wifi standardized as 802.11 and various types of that exist as well. And that's just using radio frequencies instead of copper cabling to communicate. But in any case, and we're not quite getting down to that level, in any case, I have to have a network interface card. And it is going to physically interface with the network. But beyond that, we have to have a network protocol. And a network protocol functions very much like a language. So if you and I are, you're listening to me and I'm speaking English and you understand English, then we can communicate with one another. However, if the only language you spoke was French and the only language I spoke was English, then we'd have a problem. We wouldn't be able to communicate. And that's the way computer systems are. They have to have a common network protocol in order to be able to communicate with one another. Going back to that analogy, I could speak four languages and you could speak one. So long as one of the languages that we speak is the same, then we can find some common ground. And now a network protocol is more than just a language. It defines the rules and techniques for communication. But that is the best analogy. Now thankfully today, we've standardized pretty much across the board. TCPIP, Transmission Control Protocol, Internet Protocol is the standard protocol on the internet. And it's the standard protocol on nearly all local area networks and with all major network operating systems. TCPIP is a routable network protocol that uses IP addresses to identify individual nodes. So that's one of the parts of the protocol. A unique address for the individual systems so that they can communicate with one another. And we'll get far more into those addresses here in just a bit. The third component that you need is a network client. The two network clients that are installed by default on Windows systems are the client for Microsoft networks and then file and print sharing for Microsoft networks. The first one allows you to log in to a network and communicate with other systems. And the second allows you to make your resources available on that network. So these are the three components that you require in order to connect any system to a network. Now let's get into the details of the protocol itself. TCPIP, which right now we're just referring to as IPv4, there is an IPv6, but we'll cover that later. The current standard that's used on most networks is IPv4. So when you use TCPIP, you have another three components that are required by the protocol itself in order to provide network communication capabilities. The first is an IP address. It says an IP address that functions very similarly to a mailing address in that it's unique to that particular node. That term node just simply defines a system on a TCPIP network with an address. Okay, so just like if I want to receive mail through the postal system, I have to have a unique address that's the same on a TCPIP network. Without a unique address, then you can't communicate. You also need a subnet mask. And the subnet mask is gonna be used to differentiate between the network and the host portions of the address. Now we'll talk about this more as we go along, but you can kind of consider this like the house number and the street name of the IP address or of your physical address, okay? So if I live at 123 Oak Street, for instance, and the adjacent street is 123 Maple or is Maple Street. Well, there's another house, right? That has the house number of 123 on Maple Street, but the postal worker doesn't have any problem delivering mail because it's going, there's two parts to the address. There's the street name and then there's the house number and that's the same way that a network address is there's a network ID, okay, the street name or could be called the street name, I should say. And then there is the house number, which is your individual host ID, right? It's the subnet mask that's the component that is used to differentiate between those two parts of the address. Then you have a default gateway and the default gateway is your ability to route packets destined for remote network segments. So technically are you required to have a default gateway? Well, no, I mean, in reality, you need an IP address and a subnet mask. You don't have to have a default gateway, but the vast majority of us will want to communicate with the internet in many network environments and even in local area networks, you'll have multiple subnets. So you'll have a system that has to communicate with systems off of its local network segment, right? In the postal system, I want to send mail to my people potentially on my own street, but I also want to send the mail to people in other cities and maybe even in other countries. The postal system, my default gateway is my mailbox because the postal worker is going to come and pick up the mail. In the TCPIP network, my default gateway is my router. And so I send packets to the router and then the router is going to worry about where those packets go beyond that to get them to their ultimate destination, all right? So just like in the regular mail system, in TCPIP, I need that way to get packets off of my local network segment, and that's going to be the default gateway. All right, so let's focus in on this IPv4 address because this is incredibly important. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit binary numbers. The binary numbering system, as we will discuss, and as you may already be aware, is a base two numbering system, okay? That means it only has two values. So decimal as a numbering system has 10 values. Those values are zero through nine. In the binary numbering system, you only have two, zero or one, okay? So a 32-bit binary number would look like what we see here. Now, thankfully, because we're humans, the developers of TCPIP and the various operating systems decided that that would be a little bit cumbersome, making us write out 32 zeros and ones. We thank them for that. So we get to write IPv4 addresses in what's called dotted decimal notation. So it's a 32-bit number, but it's divided into four groups of eight bits, or bytes, and those bytes are separated by periods. So we get numbers like <IP_ADDRESS>, <IP_ADDRESS>. So on and so forth, all right? But each of those digits that are separated by the periods represent a byte, eight binary bits. And that's important because we will understand, if you don't already understand, that a byte only has certain possible values. So the minimum value of a byte is all zeros, which equates to the decimal number zero. The maximum value of a byte is all ones, and that equates to the decimal number of 255. All right, so you can never have a number in an IP address that is greater than 255. So <IP_ADDRESS> would be a valid IP address. 127.255.256.255 would be an invalid address. And it's just because it includes a number that is not possible in eight binary bits, all right? So 32-bit numbers written in dotted decimal notation. We, that division, and I didn't put this on the slide, but that division is referred to as an octet, okay? So you'll hear me say in the first octet, in the second octet, and so on and so forth. And so when we refer to octet, we're just talking about that grouping of eight bits. The first octet would be the first group, the second octet, the second group, so on and so forth. Now when we start digging in, we need to understand that the IPv4 address is actually comprised of two parts. And we've already discussed this a bit, the network ID and the host ID, similar to the house number and street name. So the host ID would be like the house number, the network ID would be like the street name. The network ID identifies the network segment that the node resides upon. The host ID identifies a unique identifier of that host on that particular segment. So just like my house number identifies me uniquely on my street, so does my host ID on my network ID. In other words, if you had two networks, <IP_ADDRESS>, a second network of <IP_ADDRESS>, we could have hosts that had the host ID of 100 on both of those networks, and that wouldn't be a conflict, just like 123 Oak Street and 123 Maple Street don't cause a conflict because the street name is different, right? So the host ID has to be unique within the network ID and then collectively that makes the entire number unique. So it does mean though that we need another component. In street addresses, we know there's the number and then there's the name, but in the IP address, it's all part of one 32-bit number. So how do we tell the difference? How do we know where the network ID stops and the host ID starts? We know based on the subnet mask. So the subnet mask is another 32-bit binary number, also written in dotted decimal notation that differentiates between the network and the host ID portions of the address. The subnet mask is a little different though in that it consists of continuous ones followed by continuous zeros. So the subnet mask always starts out with ones, but once the ones stop and the zeros start, the ones never come back, and we'll discuss this a little bit later, but in an IP address, you can have any valid value from zero to 255 because those are the values that you have in an eight-bit number. That's not the case in a subnet mask. In a subnet mask, there are only certain possible legitimate values, 128, 192, 224, 240, 248, 252, 254, and 255. And that is because those are the values that we get with continuous ones. To get any values other than that, we would have to have things like 111, 00, 111. You'd have to start stopping and starting the ones. And you can't do that in a subnet mask. So continuous ones followed by continuous zeros, essentially when the ones stop, that is when the mask stops and that is going to be pointing out the network portion of the address, but we'll get into that more when we can see it a little bit better. Now these can be expressed and written in dotted decimal notation, and they typically are, especially in the Windows operating system. They can also, though, be expressed in CIDR notation. CIDR is classless inner domain routing, and it is a mechanism through which we can specify the number of bits in the subnet mask that are set to one. So you might see an address listed as 192, 168, 1.100, slash 24, and that 24 represents the number of bits out of 32 in the mask that are set to one. So it's just another way of writing out the subnet mask. It's actually an easier, a simpler way. The third component that's required is gonna be the default gateway. As we said, this isn't necessary for general communication, but it's necessary to communicate off the local network segment. Your typical network clients are connected to a single network segment, and they're only able to communicate with their own subnet. So if they try to communicate off that local subnet, they have no idea how to get the packets to that location. So they require a network router. A network router is a device that is connected to multiple segments. Now the network router is not connected to every segment in the world, of course, but routers are strung together through the use of ISPs to get packets to their ultimate destination. Couple keys about the default gateway, which are really important for us to understand is that if the default gateway is my way off my local network segment, and I don't have the ability as a network host to communicate with remote segments without a router, then it would stand to reason that the default gateway has to have an IP address on the same network segment, aka subnet for proper communication. This is gonna be really key when we start troubleshooting because we're gonna look for the presence of a default gateway on a client that's, say, having trouble communicating with remote networks, but not only do we need the gateway to be present, but we need it to be accurate. So if my network is 192.168.1 and my gateway is on the 192.168.2 network, then I'm not going to be able to communicate. I can't, you know, and I think you probably get the idea. So it's gotta be on the local subnet, and it's often the first or last address in the range, <IP_ADDRESS> or 1.254, but the gateway is actually a router, or, better said, it's an address that's assigned to a network interface on a router, but it's configured on the clients, and the clients know that when they have any network packets that are destined for IP addresses that reside on a remote subnet, they must forward those packets to their default gateway. Now, originally when IPv4 was introduced, the Internet Assign Names and Numbers Association, IANA, organized IPv4 addresses into classes, and this is referred to as the Classful System. Each of these classes would have a default subnet mask. Now, this is no longer used technically. It was a very wasteful system, and so we've switched to classless routing, hence the old CIDR or Classless Interdomain Routing syntax, okay, but it's consistently referenced. So, you know, when we get in, we still have to deal with it because when we get into subnetting, you know, we'll say things like, okay, we'll start out with a Class C address and then create subnets, or start out with a Class A address and then create subnets. Well, there are no Class A addresses anymore, but we, again, the terminology is still out there, so it's important for you to understand, and it's not just a historical thing, it's just the way that people, network admins still communicate, okay? So, the class of the address was defined by the first octet. The value in the first octet. And then the class defined the default mask. Well, because the subnet mask differentiates between the network ID and the host ID, it determines how many bits are available for network IDs and how many bits are available for host IDs. And the more bits you have available, the more potential IDs, right? And so that's where these classes come into play. So Class A, the first octet would be between zero, or excuse me, one and 127. And the default mask is an eight-bit mask, 255-000. That means you only have the first eight bits for network IDs. So it's two to the eighth, which would technically be 256. However, we've got some reserve characters in there and we won't get into all of this, so let's just take my word for it. I mean, basically you can't modify the first bit, all right? So it's technically two to the seventh, and it's minus two because you can't use all zeros and all ones. So 126, 126 possible class A networks. Not very many, right? This is in the entire world based on the IPv4 address space. However, each class A network could support over 16 million host. Okay, how many organizations do you think that would need 16 million host? Well, not that many. ISPs would be about the only one. And so class A networks, few and far between, as to the actual organizations that would need that size. This doesn't mean these can't be subdivided, so we'll get into that later. That's called subnetting. Class B, 128 to 191 in the first octet, we need to recognize that as a class B address. It's got a 16-bit default mask, 255, 255, 00. A possibility of 16,384 networks. And on each of those networks, we could have up to 65,534 host. Class C, the first octet is 192 to 223. Default mask of 24 bits, 255, 255, 255, 0. So a little over two million of these networks, but on each network, you could have a maximum number of 254 host, okay? So as I said, the classful system's not used anymore because it was wasteful. We can really quickly see how it was wasteful. IPv4 was originally introduced with the goal of assigning public IP addresses to every system that was connected to the internet. So an organization would call up an ISP or a registrar and want a public address space. And they would say something like, okay, well, we've got 650 systems, okay? And we look at this table and we say, well, the only way that we can give you 650 public addresses would be either to give you three class C's or a class B. Well, the problem with giving you three class C addresses is it clogs the internet routing tables. These are the tables that routers use to make decisions as to where to forward packets. So you'd have three IDs all pointed at the same place and it causes clogging. The alternative though would be to give you a class B address when you only needed 650 addresses, you would waste nearly 65,000 addresses, okay? So the classful system works on those decimal points in the subnet mask. It goes from eight bits to 16 bits to 24 bits. And so therefore it was very wasteful. That's why we're not using it anymore. Having said that though, and as I said before, we've got to be able to look at the first octet, recognize the class, recognize what the default mask would be. That's gonna be important from a subnetting perspective. Now we've mentioned subnets a few times, exactly what is a subnet? Well, a subnet or subnetwork is simply a smaller network segment on a larger TCP IP LAN. And each subnet is uniquely identified by a network ID. You can use the term network segment if you want, it really means the same thing. Within a subnet, all the hosts are gonna share the same network ID and they're all gonna share the same default gateway because the default gateway is gonna be the IP address of the router that's connected to that subnet, all right? So at least one router on the LAN has an interface that's assigned an address for the subnet, it's physically connected. It's the way for those hosts to get off of that subnet. Essentially what some organizations are gonna have to do is begin with a single classful IP address and then create subnet ranges. Now some organizations that you find yourself dealing with will just have a single network segment. Okay, so I have a small organization maybe has 50 clients, for instance, where I started. We just had one subnet. There wasn't a need for multiple subnets. We had an internet connection, it came into a router, that router had one interface, it interfaced with network switches, all the clients connected to the network switches and that was it. Everybody was on the same subnet. There was, because we just didn't have that many systems but some organizations are going to have multiple physical segments, multiple router interfaces and each of those interfaces and segments has to have a unique ID. So what we typically do is we start with one address and we break it into multiple subnet IDs and that is the concept of subnetting. So when we talk about creating subnets, we're referring to the subnetting method and that is the method that an organization is going to use to take a single network ID and then divide it into multiple network IDs. And this can be a confusing process, okay? And it's confusing in some ways just because of terminology and other ways it's confusing just because we have to use binary math. Now we've just seen binary computation and understanding how the zeros and ones equate to decimal numbers. We know that the subnet mask differentiates between the network ID portion and the host ID portion of an IPv4 address. So the process of creating subnets is consisting of using bits that were formally associated with the host ID and now using them as a network ID, okay? And we do that in order to create a unique what's called a subnet ID. So we're technically adding onto the original network ID and we're now including more bits. Well, those individual bits that are included now are called the subnet ID, all right? So let's just look at an example, for instance, a 10.000 slash eight network uses eight bits for the network ID and then that leaves 24 bits out of the 32 for the host ID. So the process of subnetting would borrow bits from the host portion to create a subnet ID. And so let's just say we borrow three bits, all right? So we, in other words, when we say borrowing bits we're talking about extending the subnet mask three bits. So now it's 10.000 slash 11, okay? Now that gives IDs for up to eight subnets and it still leaves 21 subnets for the, or 21 bits, excuse me, for the host ID, okay? So we're 11 and 21 equals 32, right? Now you might be wondering how does that give IDs for up to eight subnets? We will discuss that. There's a mathematical formula for determining the number of subnets that have been created and it's all related to the number of possible combinations of zeros and ones. We've added three bits and in those three bits there are eight possible combinations of zeros and ones. So we've provided three additional bits for the network ID and so that creates the subnet ID, all right? The method of changing the purpose of the bits is actually performed by manipulating the subnet mask. We are extending the subnet mask and in extending the subnet mask we're saying, you know what, the subnet mask first said that only the first eight bits were a part of the network. Now it's saying that the first 11 bits are part of the network ID or reference the network ID and thus we give ourselves additional bits to play with to create these unique subnet IDs. Now let's walk through the actual process for subnet creation and then of course we're gonna take a look at this because without taking a look at it it's mumbo jumbo for lack of a better term, all right? So the process begins with starting with a classful network ID and it's subnet mask. Like we just did, a 10-0-0-0 network is a class A network and its default subnet mask is an eight bit subnet mask. The second step is to identify the necessary number of subnets as well as the appropriate number of hosts per subnet. Okay, so we gotta make sure that we create the correct number of subnets but we also leave enough host bits to still accommodate the number of individual IDs that are necessary on each network segment. Once we have those two figures then we can extend the subnet mask and we're extending the subnet mask using a formula two to the power of n. Now the letter there doesn't matter but it's two to the power of n where n equals the number of bits that have been added to the subnet mask. So using our previous example we went from an eight bit mass to an 11 bit mass so we added three bits. So two to the power of three equals eight, all right? So that means that if we extend it three bits we've given ourselves the ability to utilize or to come up with eight separate subnet IDs. Now I should say at this point that originally the formula was two to the n minus two and it was because in the classful system you couldn't have, or with classful routers you couldn't have subnet IDs that were all zeros or all ones. Well, when we extend that three bits two of the possible values would be 0000 and 111, right? So we always went two to the n minus two. With the classless system and modern routers they support zero and one subnet IDs. So the new formula is just two to the power of n. So you're simply adding bits to the subnet mask plugging it into this formula until you reach the appropriate number of subnets although you should probably always give yourself some room for growth. So once you've reached the number of required subnets we stop and then we convert the subnet mask back into its decimal form, okay? Along with that we need to make sure that the number of host bits left is adequate based on the requirements, based on the number of hosts per subnet that we had identified earlier. And then the final step would be to identify the individual subnets. Again, where the rubber meets the road as I said before, we have to actually come up with the subnet IDs. And not only do we have to come up with the subnet IDs but we have to come up with the range of addresses within each of those subnets. So this is a subnet creation process. And if this is the first time you're hearing it I can expect that you are completely confused at this point. Don't worry, that's understandable. The vast majority if not all of us were confused the first time we heard this. It is going to take looking at this process from start to finish for us to get an idea as to what we're talking about. All right, so now we've talked about binary addressing. We've looked at the process of subnetting. It's time to go back through some other fundamental concepts. And one of those would be the IPv4 address types. There are three basic address types although only two of them will we use predominantly. And so those are public addresses and private addresses. If you remember the original goal of the IPv4 protocol was to assign public addresses to all hosts that would connect to the network. That was the goal. They figured when they created TCP-IP with 32 bit IP addresses that it would provide two to the 32nd power, excuse me, number of available addresses. Well, that's 4.3 billion addresses and the developers of TCP-IP thought that that would be enough. It was not, not even close. And we've run out of IPv4 addresses. Hence our upcoming discussion on IPv6. But public addresses are globally unique addresses. These are addresses that are assigned by the IANA to registrars, like an ISP, which then assigns them to companies. Public addresses would be routable on the internet and are required for direct communication on the internet. So if you have a web server, for instance, that sits out on a perimeter network, it's going to have a public address. So that clients on the internet can connect directly to that address. On the other hand, the other type of address that you have is a private address. Private addresses are not routable on the internet. They cannot be connected directly. They would require network address translation, or NAT, which is a particular protocol that can be implemented and is implemented by the vast majority of organizations. These are assigned directly by the organization to clients. They don't have to be registered through the IANA. And technically, you can have, you can deal with multiple organizations that use the exact same address ranges. In fact, you most often will. There are three private address ranges that exist for IPv4. They are 10-000-8-172-16-00-12 and 192-168-00-16. Okay, now when we see those CIDR notations, I think the first thought is, wait a minute, those aren't the default subnet mask. You would be correct. 172 is a class B. And so the default subnet mask would actually be a 16-bit mask. Well, it's not the whole 172 range, or a whole 172-16 range that's reserved. The reserve range is technically 172.16-31. Okay, so it's 12 bits. On the class C range, it's just 192-168-00. That is the class C. The vast majority of organizations will utilize these private addresses. They're just more flexible, they're easier to use, and it comes down to the fact that, well, even though it was the goal of IPv4 to connect everybody directly to the internet, it's just not required. I don't need to connect individual client computers to the internet. I mean, I do need to allow them to have a connection to the internet, but they don't have to be connected directly. A network address translation device, in short, is simply a device that has two interfaces. One has a public address, the other has a private address. It's used as the gateway for all devices on the LAN. Those devices will, when they need to communicate with the internet, they'll send packets to the network address translation device, which can be a server, a router, a firewall, et cetera. That device will then use its own public address to go out to the internet and retrieve internet web pages, for instance, on behalf of the client, so it performs translation. It's not using the private address as the source address, it's using its own public address as the source. Now, the third type of address is APIPA, or Automatic Private IP Addressing. 169.254.x.x, and the xx means it doesn't matter what's in the last two octets. This is not an address range that is typically assigned to clients. That's why I said you'll use two out of these three. It is not assigned because it's not routable. It does not define a default gateway. It's a private range that was reserved by Microsoft for use with their operating systems. Essentially, APIPA is there as a troubleshooting mechanism. So if you have a client that is designed to obtain an IP address automatically via DHCP, and for whatever reason the DHCP server is unavailable, then that client will generate a 169.254 address. It is quite possible for you to configure multiple clients to obtain IP addresses dynamically and not install DHCP on your network. All of those clients would register or would try to communicate with DHCP, would not be able to, and then would generate a 169.254 address. When they generate the address, they would ensure that that address was not already in use on the network, and they would all be able to communicate locally. Now nobody does that, trust me. Nobody does that just because it's sort of senseless in that particular scenario. What this ends up being is a troubleshooting mechanism. So we typically have clients that are supposed to obtain IP addresses from DHCP. So you've got 50 clients on your network and 49 of them have valid DHCP obtained addresses, and one of them has a 169.254 address. And that one is unable to communicate with anybody else on the network. And so when we go to a machine and we see a 169.254 address, it immediately tells us that there's a problem. This machine was unable to obtain an address from DHCP. And there can be various reasons why that might have happened. The point is that it did happen, all right? And so it's an automatic giveaway. And I'm telling you that because in real life, if you see this or the exam you see this, if you ever see a 169.254 address, it's an automatic indication that this client did not obtain a valid address from DHCP. So we know exactly where to look to start troubleshooting the situation. All right, so there are three address types, but in reality, public and private addresses are the choices. Public addresses are used for machines that need to be directly accessible from the internet, of which most organizations are only gonna have one or maybe a couple, and private address ranges are used for all other systems. There are also a couple of different types of IPv4 networks that we're going to encounter, simple and complex. Now these are just general categories, but a simple network will use classful private IP addressing for internal host, okay?  When subnet mask stop on the decimal points, it makes life a whole lot easier for us because we don't have to do binary math, essentially. We know that if an address is <IP_ADDRESS> and it's got a <IP_ADDRESS> subnet mask, then we know the first three octets are the network ID and the last octet is the host ID. I don't have to convert into binary or do any crazy stuff. I just know that's the case because the subnet mask is stopping on the decimal points. It's also much simpler when all of the subnets have the same length of subnet mask. When you start getting into more complex network scenarios, you'll be using class less, excuse me, addressing. And you could be using private or public, although the private addressing is still far more common. The key here, though, is that subnet mask are created based on the required number of subnets and host. So we've extended the subnet mask, we've performed this process of subnetting, but we don't necessarily have to stop the mask on the decimal points and we don't have to make every subnet mask the same length. You're going to have certain subnets that only need two addresses, like a subnet that connects two routers, for instance. And so this is referred to as VLSM or Variable Length Subnet Masking. And it's advantageous when there are huge differences that exist between subnets in relation to the number of hosts. You can almost guarantee you're going to see these kinds of scenarios, both in real life, as well as on the exam. So we need to understand exactly how this process works. MUSIC


Next question is from Aaron Kirsch 7. What is better, raw or cooked vegetables? What are the benefits or detriments of both? This is so funny. The whole raw versus cooked debate, I think, is so silly because people don't understand the total context of assimilation and what you can digest. Well, it all came from when people started sharing the research around when you cook the vegetables, you lose some of the nutrients. And so when we study them like that, so if you look at something that's been boiled for 15 minutes and you compare it to it in its raw form, the raw form just looking at it like that looks like it's more nutrient dense. It's got more nutrient value, but then I know where sal's going to go right now, which is the whole digestive process has to come out. But at face value, it looks like obviously you've gotten rid of nutrients, so it's a worse option.  No, it'll destroy you. You know, here's the interesting thing about plants. So animals have, they've evolved to have their own defense mechanisms. You got to remember that humans are the apex predators on earth, and we have been for a long time. Animals evolved having sharp teeth, hooves, they can run fast, they can move, they've got good hearing, sight and smell. Plants don't go anywhere. So what kind of evolution, how did they evolve to defend themselves? Well, they evolved with compounds that made them difficult to digest or compounds that made them actually poisonous in many cases. For example, we eat wheat all the time. Humans have been eating wheat for, you know, tens of thousands of years, especially relatively recently. But if you were to go outside and grab some wheat, and you didn't grind it, mill it and process it, and you just ate it, it would shred you. It would totally shred your gut. Potatoes, we've been eating potatoes forever. Potatoes are one of a staple in most modern societies.  Though we cooked plants as a way of neutralizing a lot of these defense mechanisms. This is how humans were able to consume lots of plants.   And then we would cook it, and then we would boil it, and that's how we're able to unlock the nutrients and eat them. Plants, a lot of plants are this way. Look, you can even do this experiment. Go eat a cup or two cups of raw broccoli, see how you feel. Then go eat one or two cups of very well cooked broccoli and see how you feel. Notice your digestion, notice your bloat, notice how you feel. It makes a huge difference. So cooking vegetables is one of the best ways you can get to be able to consume a lot of vegetables and unlock those nutrients. Yes, you destroy a lot of nutrients in the plants when you cook them, but it doesn't matter. You're neutralizing a lot of these compounds that cause issues. It doesn't matter if you can't assimilate the raw ones. It doesn't matter if it affects you negatively. Now the plants that you can eat, raw and you don't need to cook, are fruit. Here's why. Why can we eat fruit without cooking them? Because plants evolved creating these fruits so that animals would eat them and then put out the seeds. It's like that's what they wanted. But roots, leaves, especially stems and roots, those are typically very difficult and not impossible to digest. If you look at animals that survive just on plants, they chew, look at cows, right?  And they have two stomachs. Four, I think they're four.  And they get gnarly farts. They get gnarly farts. So no, it's silly to this whole raw versus cooked debate.  And of course, some of them are fine eating raw. There's lettuce and stuff like that. But otherwise, yeah, otherwise you're better off cooking your vegetables.


Now, we're going to have lots of numbers coming out after the close folks, and what you did have coming into the close out here, you had the composite itself, basically, which has broken all time highs, that start coming down from the price point of $81.39, or $81.02. If we go inside the NDX100, these are the two strongest indices out here, bottom line same thing came down inside of that level. So it's going to be intriguing watching Microsoft come out after the close out here, because you do have, that is a large weighting structure inside the NDX100, and someone basically fired off 20,000 contracts coming into the close out here, at four o'clock close, by the way. So we were going to have that broke the trend out here today, no doubt about that. As soon as you got underneath this 7808, where it's 7805, has the volume down here, and we'll see whether it's Microsoft, whether it's Xilinx, Lamb Research, Chipolte, you're going to have a lot of them coming out after the close that are going to move that NDX100 around, and I suspect it's going to move around quite a bit. And my take on it, because of the way that we came into this close out here, it's saying there's going to be weakness in a few of those equities, bringing the NDX100 to a lower price, you've got to remember something, that's going to be open until 415. A lot of these are going to be coming out at 409, 405 to 409, 410, that will move those babies around. If we go over to the small caps, which had a big day yesterday, small caps out here today had a failure. Small caps, you know, got over the consolidation that was in there all of April, got up to a price point, the IWM got up to a price point today of 158.69, closed at 158.02, anything underneath 159.11 sets up that failure once again. So it's going to be intriguing, because yesterday you had volume of 23 million, today I guess what, 17 couldn't hold price, and you're still not at the highs. The highs inside the Russell, inside the IWM are 159.50. Stay right there, folks, lots of numbers coming out after the close. Three caps, we had that out on 58, Nasdaq off 18, S&P's down 6, come right back.


So, hello back everyone, this is now the last session of today, before the RAM session. And this session is about new exciting results on the AES, new cryptanalytic results. So the first paper is called New Yuyo Tricks with AES-based permutation by Diman Sahar, Mostafizah Rahman on Guten Paul, and Mostafizah will give a talk. Thanks for the introduction. What I may have to present today is a joint work with Diman Sahar and Guten Paul. It's New Yuyo Tricks with AES-based permutations. And in this work, we have tried to devise distinguisors for AES-based permutations. For this purpose, we have chosen two AES-based permutations, AES in the non-key setting, and AES-based permutation ask. This is a typical distinguishing setting where a distinguisor D tries to distinguish between random, uniform random permutation and given permutation. So, our distinguisor will work in the adaptive chosen plaintext and sabotage setting, and the attacks will look similar, quite similar to the boomenang attacks. They are the plaintext, they are the, we will give some difference to the plaintext and will get in the return pair some difference. So, these, we choose the two plaintext with some difference alpha, there are some special ways to choose the alpha, which we will discuss later in the slides. And we use round radius ciphers to encrypt them and get new pair of text C1, C2 with given difference beta. And now we use the function msof on C1 and C2 to obtain new pair of ciphertext C1 dash and C2 dash. And the relation between C1 and C2 dash is that C1 dash, the difference of C1 and C2 dash is equal to the difference of C1 and C2. And we, and this C1 and dash and C2 dash are decrypted using the round radius cipher and new pair of plaintext are obtained. Now, we look into the matter where, actually this work is done by Sondra Ranjum et al in 2017. And they showed that there is a special relation between this alpha and delta. And they found out that the zero difference pattern between alpha and the delta is equal for two generic SPN rounds. So, for the round radius ciphers, they use the two generic SPN rounds. And they showed this result that for two generic SPN rounds, the zero difference pattern of the P1 and P2 is equal to the zero difference pattern of P1 dash and P2 dash. And they generalize this work and use this result to find the first key-independently your distinguisher of AES. And also, they implemented this error to find the five round key recovery attack. So, how does the MSOF work? We have defined two things there, the MSOF function and the zero difference pattern. MSOF work, this is the typical AES super S-box. So, in the upper part of the super S-box, this is the diagonals. And the diagonals are the super S-box parts. So, if we want to implement the super MSOF function on the upper parts, so what we'll do, we will swap according to the diagonals. So, there are four diagonals. And in total, there are 14 combinations of the swapping functions. And if we want to swap in the last layer of the super S-box, we'll swap according to the inverse diagonals. And here also, there are 14 combinations of the swap functions. And this is the example of the swap, how the swap works. There are two AES states. And after the swap, there's only one diagonal swap between them. And this, the new states became. This is how the swap function works. And the zero difference pattern is we just draw two plain text and see whether some of the super S-boxes are active or not. If the super S-box is active, we denote it by zero, and otherwise it is one. So for this particular case, the ZDP becomes 0-1-1-1-1. And the weight is the number of inactive super S-boxes in the difference. So the UO game basically works with choosing new pairs on plain text and cypher text. And these are made adaptively. And while making these new pairs of text, a certain property kept invariant. And at the end of the game, we see that whether, we verify that whether the property is satisfied or not. So this work is basically done by Sander Rajanmada. We exploited their work and further extended the results. So our target is here, ask permutation, which is AES based permutation, and the AES in the non-key setting. This is the ask permutation, two round. You can see there, there are four AES states. Each of the states goes through two rounds of AES rounds. And after that, there is a permutation. And in the original ask, these steps are repeated 10 times. So there are 20 rounds in total. And to implement the SLS work of the UO game, we have to first identify the super S-boxes or some other non-linear construction in these results, in these works. So first we have identified the super S-boxes in the ask. We can see that this is similar to the AES super S-boxes. And there are 16 super S-boxes in this result. So now we can use the SLS, UO game on the SLS work in this result directly. And this is the mega S-boxes of AES ask, which was given by the designers themselves. It covers 3.5 rounds. And the super S-boxes also starts from the event rounds. And the mega S-boxes also starts from the event round. And in the last round, the mixed column is omitted. Now the first result, which is the direct implementation of the UO result. So first the four mega S-boxes, it starts from the round 2. So there are 3.5 rounds. The mixed columns completes the fourth round. And after that, again, the 3.5 rounds of mega S-boxes. So in total, there are eight rounds. And it starts from the event round. That's why it's the 2 to 9 ask, 2 to 9. And in this, we can directly implement the result of the UO paper. So for extending those results, which are already implemented in UO game, we look further into the super S-boxes itself. So like previous, where only the super S-boxes are denoted, whether they are active or inactive, we further look into the super S-boxes itself and denote that whether each of the bytes in the super S-boxes are active or not active. So for the first super S-box, it's all bytes are active. So nu square alpha 0 is 0. And see the last super S-box, that is alpha 3. Only one byte is active. So its value is 0, 1, 1, 1. So our first strategy to extend the UO game is prepend append strategy. So what we have done, this is the classical UO game. And this is the deterministic distinguisher. And because nu of beta goes to nu of eta with probability 1. Now to prepend, we have added one round to it. We have prepend some round with probability P. And same rounds are added at the end of the game with some probability. So alpha 2 delta now will not be a deterministic distinguisher. It will come with some probability. And we have implemented this for the R9 round, starting from round 1. So what we have done here, for the first part, we have chosen four. We have activated only one super S-box. And there are only four bytes. And after the one round, because there are shift rows and mixed column with probability to the minus 22, it will become 4 to 1 property will come. And only one super S-box, only one byte will be active in beta. That means one mega S-box get active in beta. So in eta, there will be one mega S-box active. And that means there are 16 bytes in each mega S-box with some probability. One of those bytes will be inactive in eta. And which in turn, in delta, make four bytes inactive. This is an example of this result. There are four bytes in alpha which are active. After first round, due to the property of mixed column, one byte gets active with probability 2 to the minus 22. And due to the EOO game, there are one mega S-box active here. And with some probability, we get one byte inactive in the active mega S-box, which in turn, in the delta, gives us four free bytes. So our strategy is composing impossible differential with the EOO game. For this, we have used the inverted EOO, like the previous EOO. We can play the EOO game in both directions. Here, we'll use the inverted one. So in this, we have first used the inverted EOO game. And then we have appended linear layer. And after that, we have appended S-desk layer. Here, S-desk can be a sub S-box, super S-box, or mega S-box, anything it can be. And after that, we get beta. And we try to impose impossibility condition of beta based on alpha. And we have applied this result to found the six round AES distinguisher, and ask distinguisher for nine, 10, and 12 rounds. This is the impossible differential for six round AES. So here, the SLS in the SLS, construction S means on super S-box. So SLS compose the 3.5 rounds in the left side. So 3.5 rounds, and L means they had the mixed column. And after that, again, 1.5 rounds. In total, it makes six rounds without the last mixed column. So it starts in alpha, we make one super S-box active. So in gamma, there will be one super S-box active. So that means that in each column, there are one byte active, at least. There will be one byte active. So after mixed column, all the four bytes will get active in one column, which in turn will activate all the super S-boxes. So in delta, for the AES case, we will have never the case that will get inactive super S-box. This is the impossibility condition, and this is how the AES six round distinguisher is devised. For ask, the same thing is done. We have used the previous result of ask two to nine. And after appending the linear layer, that is the MMC, mega mixed column layer. For 10 round, we have appended as simply the S-box to extend one round. For the 11 round, we have appended the super S-boxes to extend two rounds. And for the 13 rounds, we have appended mega S-boxes to extend four more rounds. And these are all the same conditions like impossibility conditions. Now the last one is the bidirectional yo game. Here we have used two yo game, and those are added by the linear layer. So this is the first inverted yo game. And then we have appended a linear layer, and after that we have used another yo game. Now we start from alpha, we start from alpha, get the delta, and try to impose impossible condition on delta based on alpha. For we have used the strategy to find the first, we have used the strategy to find distinguisher for eight round AES and 16 round usk. So these are distinguisers. So what I mean here, in the AES case, again we start with one super S-box active, and in alpha, in eta we get one super S-box active. So there will be one active bytes in each column. So after mixed column, all the four bytes will be active in each column, which in turn makes all the super S-boxes active. So in delta, all the super S-box will be active for the AES. So in AES we'll never get inactive super S-box. In the ask case, what we get? We are using, instead of super S-boxes, we are using mega S-boxes. So in alpha we are activating only one mega S-box, which in turn, in eta will activate only one mega S-box due to the yo-yo game. So in delta, due to the mixed column, all the four bytes of a column will be active. So this activates all the four mega S-boxes. So in delta, all the four mega S-boxes will be active, and the impossible condition is that in delta, we'll never have inactive mega S-box. These are the distinguisers on us, and our work report the first nine round distinguisers, starting from round one. We have also reported the eight round deterministic distinguisers, and all other distinguisers using negligible memory, very. These are the eight round neon key distinguisers, and again, due to the byte excel yo-yo game, we are using very negligible memory, and these are the distinguisers which are reported in this work. In total, we have reported eight distinguisers, of which six are related to ask, and two are related to AES, and all of the distinguisers are using negligible memory. So we have so new ways to extend the yo-yo game. We have composed classical differentials, and impossible differentials with the yo-yo game, and also we have composed two yo-yo games to show the byte excel yo-yo game. And our technique can be used for the public computations, and using these techniques, we have so far achieved the best results for ask, and we have also shown new known key distinguisers for AES, and all the practical distinguisers that have been reported in our work have been practically verified. Thank you. So we have time for some questions. Okay, I have a question. So when you look at AES queue, do you think you could improve its security by modifying the mixing layer where the wire mixing in between the AES rounds? Is it a weakness that you exploit in your attack, or is it optimal? I mean, could you make AES queue stronger by changing this mixing layer? No, we have not looked into that till now, but we'll certainly look into that. Okay. Thank you. Thank you. Let's thank the speaker again.


Hey guys shiver one thousand here and monkey and monkey all right if you haven't seen it we just did a review on some banana chips go check it out but this is not about the banana chips this is about this hat this is a real tree hat it's not made from a tree but it's a real tree hat so stick around and we're going to check this out okay guys so what is it one more today came across these hats here's one here and i still have the sticker on it i went through my whole last video with this damn sticker that's okay it looks part of the hat on my head part of the hat so um this one is mossy oak this is a what we call a summer hat okay so so this is just a stretch fit so there's it's not a snapback now this one is a snapback it is real tree as you can see the price on there maybe focus 1524 we did not pay 1524 i got these hats on clearance and i should have bought them out now that i'm centered think about because i could sell them this one was originally nine something we're called 10 bucks with tax got it for two dollars this one as you just saw the price 1524 got it for four bucks now i know it's just a hat right but what i'm going to do is show you something in here there's something there something there it's got lights in it okay this is a snapback so now it's a three click right under here is the button that you click it was clicking in the store there we go now the lights are not coming on so over here on this side we're going to pull out this little and this is the batteries i think the batteries are bad i don't see any sticker to pull off so what we're going to do is we're going to change the batteries it takes these button cell batteries what'd you say i thought you'd bring it down so i showed it to them it's a cr 2032 just one of these little button cell batteries here well we took again one i gave four bucks for this hat it was the last one this was the last one of the now they had them yeah they had them without the lights but this is the last one with the lights in the bill in our store now in our store yeah so let's go ahead and open these up like a blister pack now we're going to put these batteries in here we're going to see if this if this works if it don't i still got a decent hat for four bucks but that just bothers me when something has something like that and that doesn't work also this as you can see this is not netted like this one is no so this is more a cooler yeah cooler weather hat so you didn't i just mixed these bad wait one's energizer so where's the other one at there it is all right now let's see it's three clicks see there's one underneath the bill batteries we paid up for how much was the battery four bucks two bucks a piece i'm a still chaper sorry guys and then the third click should be yeah the bill and underneath the bill so what i'm going to do is take this out like i said it's just got a nice little just got a little pouch that this goes in and it fell curves up there i did try this hat on and i still got my damn sticker on this one i did my whole last video with this sticker on it and i can't seem to get it off yeah i gotta start to do this one has one on it usually i have to get to take this insert out of here but the other one i i forgot to take it in holy shit wait a minute what what's wrong there's two sets i did not see that okay so there's two sets all right well let's get this back in here it is working so so then it was the wrong one side must have been the battery must have been that's cool i didn't know you either okay i i did not know that guys so this just fell curves back underneath the uh underneath the edge there i'm probably somebody just played with it and left it on and well people do that they turn shit on walk away yeah so that's probably what happened so i'm going to get two more batteries on monkey picking up a couple more of those yeah because i mean these are going to die eventually yeah while that was weird i did not know i don't know it's called high beam okay and right there's real tree outdoor cap made in china i did not know did you guys know real trees made in china osfm oh shit what that's what osfm oh shit fucking more that's what it stands for it's got these little plugs okay so we got these in here and i did try this on and it felt pretty good okay maybe go one more snap one more click in for me now i wish this had that stretch fit that's the first stretch fit hat i've ever had in my life i've only owned other than you know my cowboy hats and so uh as far as ball caps and i've only owned snapbacks i've never owned a stretch fit okay it does feel good it's a good feeling pat and you don't even know that now what i'm wondering is what is this bottom one going to blind me especially since i wear glasses no it does not bother me whatsoever oh look at me oh these lights are not working okay well oh cool beans because there's two up there there's one here two up here so this is low this is i guess you would call medium and then oh neat oh so they work so good so because we didn't have any more new batteries um i still have this and i do i i love this i love this thing this hat here it's amazing but okay um because you're really not gonna see real far with this we can shut these lights out you want to go outside well that's what i was saying all right i guess we're gonna go outside i'll be back okay guys so i got monkey creeping in behind me here no so i got my other headlamp band here so what we're going to do is simulate i gotta change the batteries in this thing okay so i'm gonna do i'm gonna turn you down here and i want to turn this light on here whoa oh nice oh yeah yeah if you had to do that's just the one underneath the bill um i could see perfectly yeah i can see perfectly to change this light okay so i mean if i had to take this out and change batteries not just the one setting now let's go with two settings or that top one and not the underneath one there's the top whoa okay so the top one i don't know if i can see that because i'm behind the camera okay in front of it okay monkey's a whole game in front of it okay so yeah i can see it like if you lost the keys or dropped them on the ground yeah i don't know i don't know if they can see it though here look in the viewfinder for me oh yeah stay right there okay yeah you can see the ground come this way okay there that's good yeah you can see the ground yeah you can see the ground yeah very good so cool you know i dropped something yeah there it is and i did not know about this guys but look at that that is white reflective yeah see look at it oh yeah i didn't know so that helps because it's black band yeah so that helps if you're looking for you shine a light hell you can see that forever can you see it in the camera yeah yeah yeah yeah all right now okay i just leave that there and i'll turn both these on okay whoa there's like two can they see that um see there's yeah if you come this way a little bit no that way go okay well wait a minute can you see that i can can you see the headband yeah okay now can you see the headband yeah okay so that's pretty cool one's brighter than the other yeah well yeah once you can tell in the the underneath has one light the top one has two lights oh no so that's how you got low medium then high is when you have both on but that's pretty cool i don't know let's shine this out here towards the truck i don't know if they can see but on the ground because there's the top part there's the bottom one pretty cool so yeah so yeah um see there's there's the bottom and there's the top so that's pretty cool guys and like i said i did not know this reflex see that's me all right so like i said uh this is for like way out there at the vet that's pretty cool that's for walking like you know yeah so this is for like because i don't have to actually look down like this i'm kind of yeah if you can see i'm just kind of looking up just doing my everyday thing this is really cool guys yeah it's nice for four bucks man i wish i had more i would have bought them out and sold them for 10 bucks a piece people got i sent him a Walmart for 15 i'm buying them but yeah and then got the that one for looking straight out well they can't see it like fishing i don't know if they can see the vet or not there you got the camera oh you got the camera i don't think they can see the bed okay calm down no i shouldn't be able to see i can't look at them in because it blinds them so yeah i don't know but anyway there's the vet yes there they can see the vet okay yeah that's nice i like it and see i don't have this one on i don't have the big one on but see there you can see the vet as soon as this car goes by of course brought the camera outside see there's the vet now block it i'm blocked i got it blocked you cannot see the vet now you can see the vet pretty cool man we sell that vet we're gonna start using the boat i can see the boat that's cool because it's white and they can see it better in the camera but right uh so that's that's pretty good for like you know changing the tire again same with this it's not as bright as this i don't know how many lumens this is but you know i mean yeah and then i can do that set my bolts here and i got a light here and a light shining here so yeah yeah that's pretty cool um and i don't do not feel the battery packs at all guys okay let's go back in the house okay guys so we're back in the house as you can tell um i had which i don't understand why i used this because i can just plug it in in here but when we went outside i just hit the button on here instead of on there and it's still warm so i kind of run the battery down um while we was outside because it wasn't fully charged so let's see anyway it's yeah okay so in conclusion this hat here for 15 bucks i say two thumbs up now we may have to do well i don't know if i'll do a revisit on it or um what but like i said it takes four batteries i did not know that so it may or may not be brighter once i put the other two in it you know i don't know if it's so it lasts longer or if it's brighter but i'll let you know either way in an upcoming video if it's brighter if it is i'll show you how much brighter it is if not i'll just let you know that um you know that it doesn't make it brighter it just makes it last longer so all right guys there you go this this hat here yeah awesome hat that one shines way out further and then it's got the two no it's got three leds in it there's there's one led down here there's three up here and then on high you got four you got one shining down here and three up there like i said i don't know what the um um put on what it says on here i don't know what the uh lumens is on it but uh yeah it doesn't say lumens it just says three click illumination now it could have set it here this piece was ripped off so i don't have the extra piece so it tells you here what the settings are but it says it's great for hunting fishing it doesn't say it's great for but i just threw that in there because i really like that hat hunting fishing it is a warm hat though guys so but that's nice for like early in the morning fishermen and late at night fishermen like s anglers um when it's a little chillier i'm not saying they don't make them like this the cooler ones i'm just saying are walmart didn't happen so uh hunting fishing grilling and home safety uh it's got license information yeah it doesn't say it doesn't say how many lumens it it up to 50 hour replaceable battery so that's good to know so i'm thinking that might be why it needs four um uh ultra bright led lights the led life is 100 000 plus hours so you know that's give or take if you wash it i'm sure it'll ruin it but so in conclusion two thumbs up for me oh yeah i give that an eight out of ten um i really do that's that's awesome that's very nice and it is a real tree and this is uh what i say this one was mossy oak so um you know yeah for what we got for four bucks i mean if they had more of these i would have definitely yeah we'd be going back tomorrow and getting by just buying them out just even throw up on the damn shelf to have later you know this is going to get dirty from fishing and stuff like that especially you can't wash it i you could probably hand wash it but i would buy them out and maybe himself a couple so i am going to get two more batteries for this and we'll see if it's any brighter if it just makes it makes it last longer you know so nice huh now you like that and you probably wear it too won't yeah maybe i might steal it i wish i had another one we'd both have one yeah at least i think for fishing because we was looking if they had a couple more i was just going to buy them because i was like well i bought this one this one was two which was originally ten bucks this one fifteen dollars and fifteen twenty four men's four light baseball hat awesome so two thumbs up for me so if you guys have these you're in the hats or you know somebody that that likes hats you want to get them something yeah check your Walmart it's in the camping uh camping section is where we got these ones in our store so um yeah awesome two thumbs up for me this hat two thumbs up two bucks i mean where do you buy half for two bucks i got hats for sale right now red white and blue hats three bucks and they don't do nothing but look cool well that one does this one's mossy oak yeah but you look at that stuff that stuff's expensive mossy oak and real tree is very expensive yeah it is so i did not know these were made in china though the real tree i don't know if the mossy oak is or not but i remember that knife i made with the craftsman handle but the blade says china on it my niece my niece courtney she's into uh she's into camo she loves camo and she commented on my knife she was like too bad it says china on the blade wait till she finds out her favorite camo is made in china but um yeah i don't know what these made in china so now i don't know if the brand name is but these hats are definitely made in china you know so i mean there are some stuff brand names that are branded here in the states but but the everything's shipped overseas or you know it's overseas they put it together and whatnot make it overseas you guys know what i'm talking about i don't know but so yeah so i'll have to get a couple more batteries i did not know or we just picked them up and that's light i used to last night working on the core of that i'm having some issues with that core of that um last time i had it running everything was working fine now at once it's got some kind of wiring issue all at once uh i'm getting no fuel pump and injectors aren't firing and no spark so but i was using this last night to check fuses and stuff this thing's badass i forgot to get rechargeables for this although we did pick up a bunch more rechargeables i had to get some more double-way batteries because somebody ciped mine out of my little shea bear sign for for her mics i put them in her mics and i just left them there because you know we were going to buy new ones so yeah she she kept saying i get the old one i need to get them for my for my mics i said just keep them in there yeah and we also got a recharge uh a charger so that way i can charge four batteries at once and then we got the double charger i got another charger somewhere else i just don't know where it is so anyway guys that's what's happening today thanks for watching appreciate it two thumbs up especially for the price two thumbs up two thumbs up for monk so glad man said i'm gonna say shea bear the myth man legend i'm gone for now monkey monkey says stuff now y'all all right guys so in the meantime have a good one and stay safe and we'll see you guys soon bye bye