Hey everybody, in this video we're probably going to talk about lactic acid, but so we see here we've taken our six carbon glucose, we've split it in half during glycolysis. So then what? Well that question is answered by the presence or absence of oxygen as you can see here at the bottom. So if we have oxygen, then we're going to fully metabolize this through our oxidative phosphorylation system or cellular respiration pathway, which means that pyruvate will become acetyl-CoA in what's called the intermediate step, it'll travel through the Krebs cycle where a bunch of electrons are peeled off of it and protons and then it'll go through the electron transfer system and generate bunches of energy, which is why a human fully oxidizes a glucose that can generate 36 ATP for bacteria can be 38. So that's going to happen in the presence of oxygen. We talk about that all of the time. Let's look at what happens if, because we'll do separate videos on the Krebs cycle, etc. Let's look at what happens if we don't have oxygen or we don't have enough oxygen. So here, if oxygen is limited, then pyruvate is going to have to follow this anaerobic pathway. And you're going to see here that you're not going to get a bunch of energy generated here and you also see at the bottom that lactate becomes the final electron acceptor instead of oxygen because we don't have oxygen. But during this process, the anaerobic process, pyruvate is going to become lactate or lactic acid. Now we used to think of this as always a negative thing, like if I ask students about lactic acid, they almost always talk about the burning sensation when you're exercising. And certainly, lactic acid build up and can lead to that, you know, feeling the burn. It can also lower the pH to a point where your muscles can no longer contract. So it can lead to muscle failure. Absolutely. A trained athlete needs to be able to clear lactate if they're going to continue to perform. And there will be a limit where you just cannot perform any longer because of lactate. But it doesn't make it a waste product. We always talk about it like it's always a waste product, but there's a couple of key things to note here. Number one, why did we do this? In the absence of oxygen, why did we turn pyruvate into lactate? Well, the key is that you're actually recycling NAD. And this is not a huge deal to me, but a big picture to understand that if you didn't do this, you see at the bottom there, it frees NAD so it can go back and oxides and other glucose. So if you didn't produce lactate, glycolysis would shut off and we wouldn't have any energy. So in a low oxygen environment, we make a little bit of energy during glycolysis and then we can spare those NADs so they can go back and make a little bit more if we still don't have enough oxygen. The hope is we're going to reach an environment. We're going to stop pushing really hard. We're going to reach an environment where oxygen returns and then we can use lactate. But even before that, lactate is a brain fuel. So again, we've always talked about like a waste product, but your brain isn't the only tissue that can use it, but lactate certainly can. At least 10% of the energy that's used by your brain today is going to be from astrocytes, taking glucose and turning it into lactate. So again, don't think of it just as a waste product. And then another way to look at it's kind of cool is once oxygen returns, you have this side to something called the corey cycle where lactate can go back and become pyruvate, which means it could then generate glucose in a process called gluconeogenesis or the creation of new glucose. So it can be used for fuel. It can regenerate glucose and so these are all good things, right? And this is also where this idea of the oxygen debt comes from. Like when you're done, if you push really hard, you're exercising, training really hard and you're done, you have built up some lactate. This is also why you don't just immediately, your metabolism doesn't immediately turn to normal. You don't just start breathing normally, right?  What that means is you didn't have enough oxygen, which is where all the lactate came from. Now that you have oxygen, you're going to undergo this corey cycle, CORI, in the liver and it's going to turn that lactate. If it wasn't used for fuel already, it's going to be turned into something else. It's primarily turning it back into pyruvate or glucose. So it's kind of cool. So it's basically, if you think about it, it's a way to, in an environment where there's not enough oxygen, it's a way to temporarily borrow the energy you need to keep going, but you're going to have to repay that debt and that's what the corey cycle is all about. So okay, that's just a little information about what happens to pyruvate, especially in a low oxygen environment, well, the rest of our videos will be about what happens if there is plenty of oxygen because most of us, unless you train really, really hard, unless you're exercising hard, most of us are always in a situation where we have enough oxygen unless we're climbing a mountain or something like that. All right, I hope this helps. Have a wonderful day. Be blessed.


There's a little bit about me. So my name's James DeLuce, I'm with Ernst & Young, so one of the big four accounting firms. I have an interesting perspective. I lead our America Certification and Compliance Services. So technology companies that, for instance, have ISO certificates, such as Google and Amazon and Rackspace and those types of organizations. I oversee all that work, so it's been interesting to try to adjust our control programs to these technology organizations. I had the pleasure of writing and I tinker a bit in a kind of recovering coder. So the way I've broken out this presentation is to be very specific on facts, on what we see in an audit side, to kind of share some of the audit progression that happens so that you kind of understand how you can insert yourself into the process and make your environments kind of maybe not conform to the audit, but maybe communicate it and weave together better than before. So with that being said, I will kind of talk about audit speak a little bit and so my attempt will be to share some of the phraseology that we use on the audit side so that as you're a participant and not a victim of that process, perhaps you'll be able to better represent what's happening in the organization. And so when we go through this, if at any point, if something is a bit vague or it seems I guess too legal, please just kind of stand up and wave and I'll try to dive in a little bit more specific. My intent was to provide a format kind of the present as to the industry, business management and the requirements, kind of speak about hypothetical non-existent situations that they may or may not apply. And then of course, having analogies and translations as possible within the audit side and then kind of progress through there a couple of through some key indicators so that when you're looking at your organization, how does how that organization could look better from an audit perspective and then how it could perform and continuously improve. You'll find my hope is that this topic, it does not really steer us to how to just get by but through the audit, but perhaps how we can evolve our programs to continuously evolve better in that side. And I'm a little biased and come from the security side and we have things like the ISO standards where we talk about continuous improvement and so I'm really gonna try to advocate that flow through here. So right out of the box, when you think about audits, you have to think of it as assurance and so it's very particular if you've ever tried to engage an audit organization like an EY or another big four or another county, you were very particular in how we present the information that we execute and what those reports are used for. And the reason is if you've kind of seen the news over the last few weeks or over the last 10 years, you've noticed big four accounting firms that issue opinions that don't always line up to reality, either go out of business or people kind of lose their homes and houses as a result because they are directly personally liable for those statements that they made about the organization. So assurance is where our businesses are trying to form partnerships with other organizations, right?  If you are running a technology platform, you're trying to have trust in that the people that are providing you maybe the power and pipe at the physical layer are doing that at a certain level of competency and consistency so you can meet your customer's requirements. And so when you think about the trust between the parties, you have to think, what is everybody asking of each other? And so when it comes to audit, that's primarily what we're aiming to solve is if you are looking at the public markets, they are looking for a financial integrity. They're looking to have absolute confidence that the numbers that they're being presented and trading on at that moment are whole and accurate. And so that's why you submit things like SOCs and the SEC issuing guidance as to how that should be done. When you work with your partners to do business, you have to worry about the trust in the delivery of the materials, the consistency of the services. And to give an example, a very specific example, if you were working with a partner who's providing you just-in-time equipment and so maybe you are a cloud provider and you're receiving goods or you are a manufacturer, it really works in both scenarios. It's been in the manufacturing, but this client in particular had a supply chain risk where they were producing at a just-in-time level and they were asking for assurance from their vendors. And when they were asking for assurance, they wanted to know the operations would be consistent, that they had security controls in place and such things. And the reason they needed that is that prior to that date, they had a supplier who was attacked by a competitor who modified their shipping manifests so that our business received product and didn't receive product when it was supposed to and failed to meet our client deliveries. And so if you think about it, if you are making a car and you rely on brakes from a vendor, the attack hit the brake provider and the brake providers shipping manifests were modified by the attacker so they were not sending us enough brake pads to build their cars. And so it was a very interesting attack structure and it related to a much more sophisticated supply chain risk program. But when it comes to assurance, it is how do you trust the third parties and what are you representing in those reports? So you have to realize is that when you are a part of an audit, there are particular tasks that are being sought out in order to present that information to those third parties. So really think about it at that level and I try to, it's really OAuth for business, right? So how do I know I'm really handling how can I pass the tokens and how can I trust that that's the correct information and the information that I'm sharing at that time? So really think about the role of assurance and how it meets your business. The type of audit can vary. Like within an organization, you'll audit yourself, right? That's continuous improvement that will allow you to have integrity of the books. It allows for programs to mature. And also it allows for management to understand what's really happening, right? Because all the lights are on, does that mean it's all working, right? And you would say well just because the lights are on doesn't mean it's working, we have other ways of measuring that. And so as you go through the organization, you see that statutory regulatory items come into play. Scoping bounds is very important. So when you deal with financial reporting, you have to deal with the financial integrity of the systems, what's contributing to those systems in order to determine transactions. So it's very explicit, it's very specific hardware, specific systems, specific people. When you work on internal and external audits, third parties, when they're shipping manifests and product quality and all those things, those all come together. The recipient of the report is very important. Number one to the auditor, right? Because we have to conform to certain public requirements. And the reason I say it that way is when we put reports together, those reports have to match a quality standard and then we are audited nonstop by the quality boards to review our papers, our decisions, how they came to bear. And I actually included some of the observations that later on in this presentation to share with you to show the rigor and the adaptations, the adaptations that our programs take as a result of that feedback. Because it directly affects organizations as yourselves and ours and how we represent other organizations. So each type of audit has a unique concern and I say a right. And it's a right as in if you're representing the security or privacy of your organization is presented in that information. So really focus on the type of audits and how it fits your organization. When you think about the pieces coming together though, unfortunately or fortunately, depending on what side of the coin you're looking at, audit report trends, it's shifting. So when you work with organizations, we've done a couple surveys and we found that three fourths of organizations see an increased request of reports. So different types of reports, different integrities that are happening. And the bottom stat here is actually very scary. 45% of the existing audit reports do not satisfy the objective of the person requesting it. So think about that for a moment. You work very hard, you put together your control programs, you represent the evidence. Somebody comes in, puts their name on it, pushes the report out and 45% of the time it doesn't satisfy the objectives. That needs to shift as far as an operational change. And what's interesting is that there's another stat that we found that when we did the survey is that it's on average 40 hours per response time. For a per third party asking you for a question over, hey, can you represent how you have security? Or hey, can you represent that my data is safe or secure or integrity is there or I can trust this partnership? Average is 40 hours minimum. So that, and I say average minimum is, when you did the stats out, 40 hours is the lowest amount that on average we saw people having to reply to it. And so usually folks like yourself, people in the operations and in leadership positions that are responsible for building those systems. And so it's a big hit to the operation. We are seeing regulations and quality standards improve to catch up. As technology improves, we're seeing things come out more clearly. And again, we'll talk about a couple of those near the end. But as the standards are evolving to reflect, for instance, if you are familiar with ISO 27001, which is a security management program, they just released a new version in the end of September. Otherwise it was eight years and unchanged. So from 2005 to now the standard hadn't changed. And so we didn't have iPhones, we didn't have Facebook, we didn't have half the technology we have in this room. So think about the magnitude of shift that's happened. Supply chain has become much more important online applications when you weren't even called out in the old standards. So it's very interesting to think how we fit those together. And so why are the auditors asking for these things? Well, the birth of the audit requirements, I try to be a little coy here a little bit, but the idea is that regulations and other state risks and concerns and then they draw up control objectives. So when you are looking at your organization, there are control objectives and then procedures. Control objectives are thou shall do good. And then how are you going to do that? And then there's going to be sub parts behind that. The control objectives are very important because that is what you will use when you're trying to communicate to the business as to how your continuous improved and continuously deploying operations fit into this model. So when you're being audited, you need to think about it from that level. To be more specific, just Gene. Testing. One of the reasons why we're so excited about this presentation is that nothing freaks auditors more out than seeing developers do their own deploys. So in the absence of change manager and approval processes, separation of duties. And so James is a practicing auditor and we've asked him to actually establish from first principles not only why audit, but then go through risks to control objectives and controls and have to show how does an organization show that they have a control environment. They can prevent bad things from happening. They can't prevent, at least be able to detect and correct. And how do you evidence that so that you can show that to another auditor and have them, like James, be able to say, yeah, that's perfect. That's what I was asking for. So this is the reason for the first principles discussion. So thank you, James. Sorry to interrupt. No, no, it's good. It's actually allowing me for a technical difficulty, so. Oh, I see. Yeah, that's technical. No, it's good. Let's give this a moment, shall we? There we go. But yeah, good, clear, beautiful. Yeah, no? That's kind of interesting. Yeah, all right, that's good, beautiful. So separation of duties and development testing of operational environments. The control objectives here further elaborated out. Development tests and operations should be separated. What does it mean for you? And so I have to say this is for you to decide. And one thing we have to understand is that from an auditor's perspective, I'm auditing what management feels is absolutely required. And so the control objective that's designed here is unique. The procedures are put in place to document that control. So that is what the auditor is looking for. And so what I'm trying to show here is the linkage of how it impacts your organization. So when you sit there and you're being audited, they say, I need to see all the access logs for your control code. And I need to see that all the pushes are happening by people approved and change control happening every time. What they're really asking is that, help me understand this linkage? And how does it fit in your business? And so when you look at it from this level, you design the control objective. The procedures say the developers are not going to deploy code or they are going to deploy code, but they're going to do it in this manner. And then this is what the auditor needs in order to represent it. Because remember, when we're putting together these reports, we're trying to say, everything is working the way you say it's working. Think of it that way. So what do the auditors need? They need demonstrative evidence that it satisfies in a statistically relevant level. So think of it this way. When you have to show evidence, it needs to be something that you can preferably not print out the 300 pages of code, which has happened, which is a really fulfilling experience. Didn't work, but it was really fulfilling. Think about how you're representing that you are satisfying it and providing clarity to the operations. And it's a statistically relevant level. You have to understand is that when we decide on what evidence it's the population and the sample rate, if there are errors in the sample rate, then we have to ask for more evidence. And so it's a published standard. There's no magic behind it. We have to all follow the same rules. So when you're in an audit, they say, well, I need five pieces of evidence. Great. Five, what's the population you're working from? Work with them to understand and get that visibility. Because there's no secrets. And there's no hidden agendas during the audits. You can ask the questions the other way and say, what was your population? Why did you choose this sample? Because hopefully you'll come back and say, that doesn't make any sense. You're not even checking the control of the way it should be checked. And then the audit was like, fantastic. Help me test this correctly so there's no downwind problem. Because if you think about it, if we give them the wrong evidence, and it gets all the way to the end of the report, and then somebody in management says, that doesn't make any sense. I disagree with those findings. Then we start the cycle over again. And it's kind of like a debt spiral of pain. And we can get out of it just by being more clear and kind of go back to the communication. So I want to just kind of poke up. Yeah, please. Yeah. So James, in that last example with the separation of concerns, are you saying that as a client running a service, we are able to say, OK, out of so many hundreds or thousands of deploys to so many customers, that's your denominator for the statistical base. And here are the logs of what happened during those things where these procedures were followed. And here are the greens and here are the reds. Correct, yes. And we can provide that evidence to the auditor and say, so this is the demonstration that we are in compliance of the control objective? You're going to put me right in the box right away, aren't you? I like that. So any good person would say, well, it depends. And that's completely unhelpful. So the answer is, in certain scenarios, it's that easy. And so I would draw a couple and I like to say, well, it depends. But here are the variables that make it depend. It depends on the types of pushes we're speaking about. And I have one slide we'll get to. It'll be a nice review when we get there. But specifically, it says, usually I see people tear out the type of deploys and where you will come back and say, well, yeah, we do hundreds of thousands of deploys throughout a year. But 80% of them are minor tweaks. And so therefore, here's that population. And then 10% of this, 5% of this, 2% and 3%. And so the idea would you would present and say, the total population of what matters to this scope, for this control objective is 1,000, or it's 500 or it's 20. It may be very minor. And so the answer is, yes, you can represent, here's the total population, here's how we rolled it out. And here are the control procedures as it relates to that control objective to satisfy it. So I want to say yes. But I think there's some variables that have to be mindful of because I think everybody's organization might be slightly different. You want to help? So just to rephrase, you're saying, one is an argument of, is this a statistically relevant population? Yes. Right. That's what you're saying. And the second is, once you identify the population, then what is the statistically relevant sample size? Yeah. The sample size is actually a very specific formula that we're bound by. So that's much easier a question. It's the first, what is the population? And I would advise tearing out the populations so that you're not, for instance, looking at stuff that's just, oh, we just updated a piece of content or small push that was in production effective. Maybe this session should have been called ask an audit or anything. All right. That's between six and seven. All right. So let's talk about trains. I tried to, again, put down some analogies here. I've heard of anyone else that had any questions or were getting lost in jargon. I would say just pipe up and find the fastest way to get to the desired outcomes. Yeah. That is ideal. So jumping right in, again, I talked pretty fast because I wanted to try to give you guys as much content as possible. And since we're going to make the content available, it should be ideal. So key activities, coming down the tracks. So if you had to train, we have three different scenarios. We talked about the control objectives, the procedures, and the audit activities that result. But the risk assessments and the threats and vulnerabilities are very important. So think about your organization and how you quantify risk. What matters for you on a risk basis? And so the risk assessments help design the security program and the compliance program together. And risk assessments are very important. So a lot of organizations have a much larger risk program, and then they have sub-risk programs to evaluate kind of tactical areas. And it's important, I'll draw this for two points. One, it's very leading practice, and it's very in tune to not over-auditing and not over-putting safeguards in place that are unnecessary. But secondly, it actually aligns up to some recent audit guidance that just came out that speaks directly to auditors practicing this approach with you. And so that way, you're not being, I have to say, kind of getting audit fatigue because people are asking questions that are unnecessary. So when the train is coming down the tracks, meaning you've got a bit of runway, it's not audit season, it's not busy season, you guys can reach out to the internal audit department. You can reach out at the security group. You can work with management. Identify what are the risks that the business is trying to address at the program and the audit level. You have to understand that the audit plans are built a year in advance. So we're talking about the ploys, how fast it is and how much better of its smaller chunks when we go faster and its lower cost is more efficient. Audit programs have to be built a year in advance. So when they're already having it planned out based on last year's risk and they're coming to see you. So that's already too late. So you really want to plan this a year in advance of really trying to reach out to them, understand what the control objectives are and what risks do they assign? Because again, business assigns what are the control objectives to the procedures? So if you can become part of that process, the procedures that they're asking you to execute against are in line with your own business and your own responsive development structures. So really think of it that way. So if the train's already left the station, now we have to worry about things that are approaching us at this moment. And so I like to say, I wrote up here as a team, seek out the regulatory and common control objectives that we're managing against. And so, I think the last slide had it maybe. Yeah, so a common control objectives would be if you have PCI, HIPAA, FISMA, FedRAMP and all these other access control, segregation of environments, there's some consistency. And so usually your departments will have them pre-built. And so you don't need to try to manage against seven different standards internally on the development side. You should be able to reach out to those teams and say, what is the consolidated requirement you need me to achieve? And the scope and balance. And now what you're doing with one, let them come bring to bear the legal and the audit experience to say, here's the seven we need to do because we're in these seven markets and strategically we're gonna go in this and expand globally. So all those factors should already be considered by this point. So you should be able to reach out to them and say, I need a consolidated scope and balance of what we care about so I can make sure our deploy environments fit that structure. So it's really careful to think about that. And then when you started thinking about, I took about here procedures on already committed and developed the translation of those procedures to your environment, meaning that if we've already, we've already baked the procedures and we will represent our control environment by these 17 things.  What you've already done by doing that is now you have visibility across. And so when there is an audit, they'll say, well, how do we know that this was okay when we come back and we come with these findings? Well, management review will say we reviewed that. We already reviewed that. We understand that that was a variance and we've already addressed that. And so that's a very positive effect for the business. So can you get some examples of what those 17 control objectives might sound like? So that would access control, management signed off, things are finalized, things are published, control objectives. If you were in the government space with 853A, please. Oh, it was my five minute warning. So we're gonna talk faster if that's even possible. So I'll come back to break on that question. So finally, during the audit, it's now possible to change the audit control procedures. And it's very important that you focus on representing as carefully as you can without creating a negative event during an audit. Now, that doesn't mean come up with fake evidence. That means just be very specific as to what you're responding to, and no more, no less. But the idea here is the audit, you want to be a success with a high quality and just avoid any negative impacts. Negative impacts would be misrepresenting the control environment that then requires suddenly an SSC filing that we can't issue or an audit report, because the control environment wasn't correctly audited. We don't, that's a negative event. That's a lot of noise, we don't need more. Even if it's a great environment, it doesn't change. It's still a negative event. So really focus on that. I'm gonna jump to the challenging environments. So factor fiction, utilize the audit as part of your continuous improvement. I always say you should require the audit to come back to you with feedback as to what could be improved on operational improvements on the control procedures. After the audit, completely valid to request that. And it's very much in line with kind of the risk assessment approach that's expected. I'm actually gonna probably do a slide 30 seconds and then we can have a Q and A and we can go back. Change management, preventive versus detective controls, tear out your changes. So based on what? Based on your organization. So if it's only, if we're doing dev pushes and it's real minor, it's not gonna affect certain broader systems. That's one category. Maybe it doesn't require any sign-offs. Maybe there's very limited automated testing. As you tear up into the larger areas, I had a privilege of speaking with a lot of individuals in the last 24 hours about how they roll this tech out and everybody has automated testing and automated checks within the system.  So it's important to communicate that while dev is pushing to production, there is this intelligence in the middle that you've built and you have to take credit for that because otherwise people just think, so you're literally just pushing into production? No, obviously not. No, I would never do that. So you have to help with that concept. So change management, visibility and then how would you change an organization from two week change to two hour change has to do with that automated integration. Separation of duties, it is possible to have both worlds where you have separation and you do high throughput. We had a great example this morning with Netflix where they talked about multi-level counts and monitoring or you need a wicked good application in the middle to act as the promoter, which is what I was just referring to moments ago. I always highlight that a lot of the standards don't require separation of duties. So just be, again, get in front of the train. Why are you asking for separation duties? Rationalize that and close that out. All right, so just two more to go. I know we got the clock ticking in the back. PCA updated on 1024 as relates to financial reporting systems. I put this in here for your review later on. Risk assessments and the monitoring controls and the determination of the control procedures is what they actually advised that based on reviews of public accounting audits, this is what should change in our audits. How do they expect that? They want to try to make sure that we can test across a location and extrapolate that they're designed and implemented consistently across all the locations. So think about your systems and this statement. Electronically, how you're deploying it across large dispersed environments, this statement applies directly to you and this is how you translate these high deployment environments and these cloud and abstracted systems using the public labs and the other scenarios and technology we have in place. So really keep an eye on that. And then finally, what is a clean, audible world? Like what would you do to help the auditor and help yourself? Clarity, a lot of times, some of the stuff just doesn't make sense, right? Sometimes you are working at a light speed that some people just don't quite grasp and they want to walk in some place and see a wall of servers, right? Don't walk them into a room of wall servers and then say, oh, we also have 1,000 someplace else in the cloud because that's confusing. Give clarity, 100% awareness. An auditor is trying to gain comfort that you are doing exactly what you need to do for that time period, right? And so if you can confidently say, well, here are all the employees we do, here's all the people involved, here's how we monitor it, we have very little preventive controls except for this amazing intelligence in the middle and this is how we have confidence it's all working based on this trending. That is what they need. They need awareness that you can bring those pieces together and help line up the linkages to the risks in your own program. Multiple competencies are usually involved, reproducible, so that if you, this year, present something and the next year, present something different, last year's results are looked at, right? You review the stuff every year, so we have to review it too. So if something has changed year over year, that's a really big problem, especially if the facts go like this, okay? So be very clear, reproducible on how you put things together and then comparable and I put integrity and validity, nobody's challenging the evidence as it has integrity to it, but sometimes it doesn't measure up to what you're doing totally and so that's sometimes either communication with the audit program to the findings or just how the evidence was presented in the scope and balance. So that's it at a very rapid pace. I'll do questions afterwards, I know we're out of time, but thank you very much for your time.


Intuition is amazing and in recent years I've become much more connected to mine because you can.  We can daily decrease our intake of data and increase our connection to our intuition.


Welcome to All Hands Update, I'm Petty Officer Andrew Johnson. These are your headlines from around the fleet. USS Fort Worth practiced the Code for Unplanned Encounters at Sea, or CUES, with the Chinese Navy February 23rd. CUES provides guidelines for unplanned maritime encounters, standards for communication, safety procedures, and maneuvering instructions for naval ships and aircraft. This practice was an opportunity for the U.S. 7th Fleet and the People's Liberation Army Navy of China to enhance professional maritime relationships. Migpond Mike Stevens recently testified before Congress alongside other senior leaders from the Army, Air Force and Marine Corps to discuss the current status of the respective military branches. The topics of discussion focus mainly on quality of life programs and other issues that concern today's service members. For more information about these and other stories, visit navy.mil.


Hi again, in this lesson we are going to talk about that how to write your first C program or how to write Hello World in C language. First what we need to do is to open new source file into our DevC++ IDE, then we need to import or include our standard input and output library, which is located on our computer in a file stdo.h. stdo means that this library is for standard input and output and h extension means that this file is header. So our file stdo.h is included into our program, in this file we have a lot of functions to help us to print some text to the command line or to get some text from the command line and not just from the command line, but for example from some files and so on. Every C program needs to have main function, so we are going to write our main function followed by pair of parenthesis and pair of square brackets. Inside these square brackets we are going to write our code. We need to write one statement, which is going to tell to our program that we want to print some text to our command line. So we are going to use function printf, this function is function from stdo.h and this function will help to us to print our text to the screen. Next that we want to print on the screen, we are going to put it here between double quotes. We want to put text hello world and exclamation mark and after every statement in C programming language we need to put at the end semicolon, okay. Now let's save our first program hello world, let's call it hello world dot c, let's save it as csource file, then let's compile it and finally let's run it. And as you can see we have printed the result hello world, that's all in this lesson, thanks for watching, bye bye.


Today's lecture is now the second part of talking about data structures and databases. So originally I had these two next lectures titled as order-preserving trees, and I decided to rename them as tree indexes because what we're really going to focus on today is using these trees as indexes. Although we can use them in other parts like we talked about before, our primary focus is going to be tree indexes. So this is the same slide I shared last time when we started talking about hash tables and we want to talk about what are the different parts of the database system we can use hash tables with, right? So we said it was internal metadata, right? You guys are doing this for your buffer pool project, you have to build a page table to map pages to frames that's being done as a hash table, that's an example of an internal data structure used for metadata. We can use this for the core storage of the system so you can use a tree or a hash table as the actual place where you store tuples, right? So instead of having like the, like in the hash table example we had a key mapped to a value and the value would be like a pointer to a tuple, instead of having the pointer we just stored the entire tuple inside of the bucket in our hash table and we can do the same thing in trees. We can use them for temporary data structures so when we're doing, running a query, maybe we want to build a tree or hash table on the fly just for that one query populated with the data that we need, then do whatever it is we need to do to process that query and then blow the whole thing away, right? And that's actually, in some cases, much faster than having to do sequential scan over the table over and over again. And as I said, what we're going to focus on today is really using them as table indexes, right? Because when you're going to use a B plus tree, which is primarily we're going to talk about today, actually the only thing we're going to talk about today, when you create an index in your database you're almost always going to get a B plus tree. So we never really define what an index actually is. Most of you probably are, you know, from the first homework assignment doing SQL, some basic knowledge of databases, you might know what an index is, but now we can actually formally define it. So a table index is going to be a replica, if you will, in an auxiliary data structure that will contain a subset of the table's columns. And we're going to organize them in such a way that it's going to make it efficient for us to access the data at those columns, right? Again, the relational model says that tuples can be stored pretty much in any physical form, but for certain queries, having the right physical form or the right ordering of our columns and assorting of the data can make things be more efficient. So this is what table indexes are going to provide for us. The easiest metaphor to think about to understand a table index would be think of like your textbook in the class, right? It has a couple hundred pages. If I want to find every page where the word B plus tree is listed, I could just look at every single page one by one, right? That's the equivalent of a sequential scan, until I find all the entries that I want, or I can go to the back of the book, and there's a glossary, I just find the keyword B plus tree, and then it's going to give me a list of the pages that contain that keyword. That's essentially what the index is going to do for us. It's going to make us be more efficient to find data on a particular number of columns. So it's going to be the database management system's job to make sure that the contents of the table and the contents of the index are always logically synced. And so I'm using the word logically in purpose here to say that physically it may not actually be in sync, right? We might delete a key from our index, and we don't actually delete it from the actual data structure just yet, but logically when I write a query against that index or I look in that index, my application doesn't see it, right? So it's the job of the data management system to keep these two things in sync so that you don't have spurious reads, like false negatives, false positives, right? You see things that you shouldn't see or you miss things that should be there. Again, then the database system is going to manage all of this for you automatically underneath the covers. Sometimes you see in some tutorials for more primitive NoSQL systems that don't support indexes as the first class entity or first class component of a database system, you see people writing application code to maintain a separate table that's an index for your application. And it's up for the application's job to keep those two things in sync, right? That's a bad idea. Should let the database system do this for us because it can do it much more efficiently. It can know that when things change, what indexes it should actually update and just do it automatically for you. So we won't talk about this today, but this will come up later on when we talk about query optimization or query planning. It's up for the database management system to figure out which is the best index we're going to use to execute our query. So as the application programmer, I can come along and say, create index as much as I want, right? I can create redundant indexes. I can make indexes on the same column, right? Just in different orders. The database doesn't want to pretty much let me do whatever I tell it to do. But it may not actually be a good idea, right? So for actually some queries, some indexes are going to be better than others. And it's up for the database management systems query planner or the optimizer to figure out which index to use for a particular query. So we'll see this later on, right? Basically, what's going to happen is that the data system is going to maintain some additional statistics about these indexes. And it can know based on what your query wants to do, what indexes it has available. And it can try to figure out that's the one I want to use. And if all else fails, you just go back and do a sequential scan on the entire table. That's always the default option. But we can do better with indexes. So there's this trade-off between having index on everything one thing we could ever possibly need and versus not paying that maintenance overhead or storage overhead to have every possible index. So again, as an application designer, when I want to create my database and I define all my indexes, I sort of need to be aware of that indexes aren't free and we'll see as we go along why they're not free because you have to maintain them and we'll discuss today how you actually maintain them. And so just because you add indexes doesn't mean it's going to magically make your application run faster. So this idea or this problem of how to pick the right indexes for your application is an old problem. My advisor's advisor actually wrote one of the first papers on this in like 1976. He's dead, right? So people have been doing this for a long time. Now, maybe in the 2000s, there's been some tools developed that can automatically pick indexes for you. I know Microsoft and Oracle have this feature now in their cloud services and this is something actually we've been looking at here at CMU and the data system we've been building with my research group. So I'm happy to talk about how to automatically pick indexes, but for our purposes here in this lecture, we'll just assume that someone picked the right indexes for us. We don't care how. So today is really going to be focusing on B plus trees. So we'll start off with an overview of what a B plus tree is and we'll do a simple demo. And then we'll go over some design decisions you have to think about going beyond the basic B plus tree we'll talk about here at first. And then we'll finish up with some optimizations that you can apply that are used in practice in real systems to make these things go faster. So the way to think about it is the first third is just to understand what a basic B plus tree is. The second third will be, all right, here's actually going to build one. One of the things you need to think about. And the last one would be, all right, if I actually want to make this thing be usable and fast, what are some optimizations I can apply? So I'll say for the second project in the course, after the buffer pool, you guys will be building your own B plus tree. And you can get by with just the first two part of these. The third ones are nice to have, but not necessary for correctness, OK? OK, I forgot to open up the browser. That's all right. So the first thing to sort of address is the confusing naming of these trees. So actually, I don't remember what the textbook where they're called some B plus trees are B trees. There's a class of data structures called B trees. And then there's a specific data structure called a B tree. So now in 2018, people loosely refer to B trees what the sort of canonical definition or the formal definition is actually a B plus tree. So there's a class of data structures called B trees. B plus tree is one of them, but there's also within that category a data structure called a B tree. But people are sort of loosey-goosey with the term these days.  But from the best, what I can tell when actually looking at the code, it's not a B tree. It's actually a B plus tree. And my sequel refers to theirs as a B plus tree. But I think sequel server might refer to theirs as a B tree. So the main takeaway from this is like the whenever anybody says in a modern data system they have a B tree, I was guaranteed they have a really B plus tree. As far as I know, nobody actually implements the real B tree. But even more confusing about this is that there's the B plus tree defined from the 1970s. But the ones we use today actually borrow some of these ideas from these other trees. So there's the B tree, the B plus tree. We'll cover those. But then there's the B link tree, which was invented here at CMU in 1981. And then there's the B star tree. So there's some elements of the B link tree in the modern B plus tree. So for our purposes, we'll just say it's a B plus tree and I'll define what it is. I think the textbook might be a bit pedantic about this as well. But again, just when you go see other systems, they may say they have a B tree, but they almost always have a B plus tree. So a B plus tree is a self-balancing tree data structure. So the B and B plus tree stands for balanced. And what it's gonna allow us to do is have efficient searches, sequential accesses, and insertions, and deletions with all of our operations taking O log n time, where n is the number of keys that we're storing. Contrast this with the hash table. What was the hash table's asymptotic complexity to do a lookup? Anybody? What's that? O one, right? Hash something and I jump to it. Worst case scenario, it's n, yeah. So the B plus tree is gonna be always log n and that's pretty good, that's pretty fast. And so the definition of it is there's actually no one paper that describes the B plus tree. The one that usually everyone cites is this ubiquitous B tree that came out as a survey paper in 1979. But this is actually not where it was invented. So this 1979 paper goes on about how great B plus trees are, or B trees are, and how every single data system is gonna be using this because this is the greatest data structure ever for relational databases. But at this point here, they're talking about how ubiquitous it is. This is only about six or seven years after it was actually invented. So even early on, people figured out that the B plus tree was a really good idea. So in this 1979 paper, they refer to this IBM tech report from like 1973, where they seem to describe what is now known as a B plus tree today. So again, the main takeaway here is that people recognize early on that the B plus tree was a really good idea for databases. And even today, we'll talk about this on the next class, but even in modern in-memory databases or even with really fast SSDs, the B plus tree actually does almost pretty good pretty well. It's much better actually than any like modern lock-free data structure, right? So the thing that was super useful and made B trees be widely used back then was that it was originally designed for running in hardware where the sequential access to new reads and writes was much faster than random access. So by organizing our nodes in these blocks, the larger, the better, because you can read more data with a single seek on the disk, we can get much better performance. And this would be better than a sort of generic binary tree that we'll see in a second. So again, the main takeaway here is like, even though B plus trees were designed in the 1970s where the hardware is much different than what we have now, they're still really awesome now and very few things actually can beat it. So more formally, a B plus tree is an M way search tree where M is the maximum number of keys you can have in a single node. And it's gonna have the following properties. So the first is that it's gonna be perfectly balanced, meaning every leaf node, every node at the bottom of the tree will always be the same number of levels away from the root, right? So you won't have a leaf node be two hops and another one be 10 hops. They're always, they always have to be the same. Then every inner node, and we'll define what that is in a second, but anything that's not a leaf node essentially, is gonna be either at least half full. So again, we can have M keys in a single node. So it's always gonna have either more than half or up to my max amount. And then every inner node, if it has K keys, will have K plus one null children. So every key I have, I have, I have to have a pointer to children, okay? So let's look through an example. So this is a really simple three way B plus tree. So I can have three keys per node. And the top part is often called the root, but this is an inner node because it's not a leaf node. The leaf nodes are at the bottom because they don't have any children. But then I can, in addition to pointers now, from the inner node to the leaf nodes, I can also have pointers between the siblings. So again, this is an example. The original B plus tree did not have these pointers. The B link tree does, but a lot of people actually implement B plus trees with these pointers now, right? Notice also too, there's no pointers going in the opposite direction. There's no pointer from the leaf node to the inner node or the parent. Now there's nothing about the B plus tree that says you can't do that, but nobody actually does this because this becomes more difficult to maintain these pointers, right? If you have multiple threads trying to access things. Yes. Can you go like one slide? One slide? Yeah. Yes. I didn't get the last one. So if my node has K keys, then I have to have K plus one children. So if I, so if I go back here, this top node is an inner node, the root. It has two keys. So it has to have two plus one children. So it has three children, right? This is doing sure that's a balance. Right, again, so we have these sibling pointers, right? And we're gonna use these along the leaf nodes to do certain things like, if I want to do a range scan and find all the keys that are greater than three, I could use my index, get down the leaf node and then just scan across the leaves going from one page to the next, right? Again, this is what makes the B plus trees be really fast because if I, without these sibling pointers, I may have to go back up and go back up, traverse down and that's sort of doing random access into my page table on disk or the file on disk whereas if I'm smart about how I lay out these leaf nodes, I can maybe prefetch a bunch of them ahead of time because they're all gonna be contiguous, bringing them to my buffer pool and just rip right across without having any page faults. So now the way we're gonna do searches in the tree is through these sort of, these like separator keys in the inner node. So the way it works is that for every key, again, it's gonna have two pointers to its children, one on the right, one on the left and the way it works is that any key that is less than the key that's in the inner node, you would look for those keys down to the right side or your left and any key greater than the one next to it, you go down to the next one, right? So any key less than five, you go down here, any key less than nine, you go down here and then anything greater than equal to nine it goes to here. So now this is where also things get confusing is like, I think I'm following what's in the textbook, but different textbooks do different things, right? You could have this be greater than equal to five and then greater equal to nine here and then greater than nine there. It doesn't matter, right? There's nothing about the data structure or the algorithms to do searches and insert infleations that are, that change. But just to take into account your data information throughout the entire data collection. You can have a lot of data and you can have a lot of data and you can have a lot of data and you can have a lot of data and you can have a lot of data and you can also find a lot of control access. So what is a Naura terug? Which means you want to take mental health care and control the other one you shouldn't. Now this is a step that I'm going to try to buy and I don't want this because of the web division. and will satisfy the disadvantages of this piece. So the product that we use is the little product that requires a certain amount of pressure into the product. Easy to use products that are good for your community to start off with is a perfect point to consider another product and that. And if I were to use it as a product, I would rather start with a product So, it's going to be nice to have the first person to have a piece of paper before they use it in a decent way, but it's going to be nice to have a piece of paper before they I won't let you know how many of you want this next week. The next week, competitively, two will will be coming up for this week. We're gonna use them and we'll just give it in. If you can't get it, it's up there. I will just hold it as well opposed to the others. The best option is yours. I'm gonna show you the other names for the next two people who are going to do these stuff. with two bookies in the house, and every single person has their own science. One of the decisions we have to make on the internet is to ask someone, and they can all have their own business. So it may be just me, but I don't know if that's a choice. And I think that if I have a bookie in the internet, because there's no such thing as a purpose to ask someone, and she won't. But if you really need a bookie in the house, or if you really need a bookie in the house, it is a choice to ask someone, and they can all have their own business. So it may be just me, but I don't know if that's a choice to make. I have each of my own books in the house, and I don't have a bookie in the house, and I think that the light is on. So I just want to ask a few questions. I have a bookie in the house, and I don't know if that's a choice. I have a book in the house, and I don't have a bookie in the house. I don't have a bookie in the house, and I don't know if that's a choice. And it is important for me to ask a few questions. So, I'll just have to put it in order for the audience to see. So, I'll just have to do this, sir. We do the same thing, sir, in the first place. Right now, we're going to have a little bit of a discussion about what to do with the members of the new Alameda. So, we'll be talking about our strategy. I'm going to be talking about the strategy that we're going to be talking about in this conversation, and I'm going to be talking to you. So, we're going to have a little bit of a discussion about what to do with the new Alameda. we had a new engine in our pet road and we had a new car in front of us and it took a bit of a while to set it and it has a new one in the back and it's very easy to do this but it's also really easy to do and I can't say much about it but it's really easy to do and it's a big advantage and it's very easy to do So, as you can see it's a little tricky I don't know what to do with this the mere two lots, even it didn't really have any success I think it's the easiest to do much good I actually did a pretty good exam from the slide and yet it's such a simple solution So, you should know this as usually, the quick push takes over the entire building a few minutes up and the he's he's he's he's he's he's he's he's he's Now, I would like to introduce you to our first mission. The mission is that we have to make sure that we all have our own parts to be able to have them. So, finally, the mission is to have our own parts to be able to have our own parts to be able to have our own parts to be able to have them. Our mission is to have our own parts to be able to have our own parts to be able to have our own parts to be able to have them in the future. The left mouse is a little bit right again. Now let's look at the left mouse pad. There is a little mouse pad, and if you put two buttons in the middle, it will just slide out in the middle. So, yeah, two years from now, we want to play the game. We have a key, and it's a simple game. We give it every time we add that, make it easy. We have a good way to play the game. We have a good way to play the game. And, you know, we have a good way to play the game. So, yeah, we're going to have a great game. Actually, I want to go back to the start because we want to adapt to the game now. You can make things easy but it also gives you stone. We have a good way to play the game. I want to start with the goal to make the game easier. I want to play the game, and, you know, I want to start with the goal to make the game easier. But we're going to have a really good way of playing the game. you'll remember from when you did the same thing for a while, I think you would make a mistake on what you're doing, and it's not something that you want to do, and it's not true. And you're going to continue to do that. So I think it's important to understand the question. Because I think what is going to happen is, here, it's going to actually just be it's the problem you're going to have to do. So we have to always be open. OK. We have to have the same thing.  It's really important to have the tools and models that are based in the same system. And the organization has to be able to see what's going on in the system, and actually to have the resources to meet your needs. And this is something that is really important to you. And that's why I want to try to manage actually in such a way that I can do the same way. Some of these are not as easy as the other ones, and it has to be able to see what's going on in the system. It's really important to have the tools and models that are based in the same system. That's why I want to try to manage actually in such a way that I can do the same way. So, one of the advantages of being able to see how the system works is that it's really important to be able to see what's going on in the system. It's really important to have the tools and models that are based in the same system. So that's why I want to try to manage actually in such a way that I can do the same way. I want to try to manage actually in such a way that I can do the same way. So that's how you manage the notices. So, basically, the most important thing to do is to have the tools and models that are based in the same system that are often tried to manage the whole system on your own. Not only do you have to be able to see what's going on in the system, but you can really see what's going on in the system. So, that's why I want to try to manage actually in such a way that I can do the same way. And it's really important to be able to see what's going on in the system. And that's why I really want to try to manage actually in such a way that I can do the same way. So, you might be able to see that theえる inside Spirit, but it seems really small coming to the inside spirit line. So, the upper part can help on what's getting meal projects being implemented on one side at the gym, right now you're in this sort of like you have here. We're just exchanging this. And so you are that who will see your future in me. And this subject will be due to full access to the report. Next question I'd like to ask is, when did you decide to work? Is it possible for you to do such a thing? Well, that's true. And, you know, it's possible for you to change. And it will be okay if you want to make the same change. So, you're not going to be doing that for a long time. And it will be better if you are going to do it for a long time. Next question I'd like to ask is, if you have any questions for me, I'd like to ask you to do a quick question. If you want to do a quick question, you can ask me on the phone. I would like to encourage you to come and see the game again, and as you do, you will want to see the games slated a little bit later on.  So, it seems to me that you never want to do games. And it certainly wouldn't be the end of the problem if you know what you're going to do. So, this is an understanding that you're working together to sort of get there. And, I would like to encourage you to come and see the game again. And, as you do, you will want to see the games slated a little bit later on. So, I would like to encourage you to come and see the game again. So, it seems to me that you never want to do games. You can refer to the notion that each object has a point of view that your each object's sense can be a picture or an object. Everybody has a reason for that. I'll call it a powerful energy vehicle for each object or device. It's just the same text. So what we're going to do is keep this text page title for where it starts out and then the first person is going to be a very long-term road in the future. The page that you're going to be in can't be more than a year. And in my case, I'm going to send that to you on the mobile page as soon as I get it done. So it does last. So it's going to be a lot of fun. So, the good thing about a lot of the keys is you just use the word key at the time. You can get the keys at the time for them. You can get the keys at the time. You have a link as a way of the type or the type key. But it's a different way of telling what the type is. I think the question is what is the feeling for the reaction to this. So sorry, everyone. This is the way you can have a type that I know perfect for you and that is. So, the way that I say that I do keys in a really fundamental context is that I have this new fix that I want to do a first-road, which is to put the key in each object so that it's just more formal in the future. the product is to end the program and every single key is for the person to do that as a result of the use of them. So, these are some of the features of the program and the other features of the product are its requirements, this is a generic annual page with a generic keyword, which is used as a different and it don't have any, you know, has a page on it. So, this is a code that is used on your next list. The next feature is how to transfer. I said that you can either use it or some of the key on it, actually even if you don't know, we put it on the list. So, what I found out with the key is that you look for key and it just means that you buy your search on the page, and it means that you want to book. And I usually can think of key. If you're going to solve the rate model in this kind of deal, you have to make a code that's going to be expanded at the right time. And if you're going to copyright it, you should just send it to your account at the next point and you're going to have to write it down. And if you're going to copyright it, you should just send it to your account at the next point and you're going to have to write it down at the next point and then you're going to have to write it down at the next point. That's the most important feature. Another interesting feature is that you're going to have to have an interaction change. So, then what information do you have about some of the things that you want to explore? And I also made a clear talk about what you think we have to be in-depth into. So, in this particular, the rate response is about more than, right, the rate response is about more than four million points. So, this is a point that I'm going to be taking as a new key in the future, or whatever it is that you want to explore. So, I'm going to go to my e-mail site, not the whole site. And what I'm going to do is, I'm going to go to the site of the e-mail site. And I'm going to track what I want to do, track what I want to do, track what I want to do, track what I want to do. And the first thing I need to do is to take a look. And one of the things to do, if you're going to do a sketch on a project, you can do a sketch on a program. It says, you can see the purpose of your task to prove your presence by the way that you are when you're in convention. So, I'm going to write my address as a bonus, followed by a third of it, and that's it. Let's go up some of the decisions we have. We have to do a sketch on a project, and it's a good construction, which is much better to review yourself as you're just doing what you have to do at the table. So, again, the community that we're springing back to keep their hands in their arms, they want to drag forward when they get to the space as long as they can be around the areas that they're talking about. So, this is a three-tile of a robot. All three of these will be used in the same way. I have one of these. So, I'm going to put a key. I'm going to put a key in every single key. I'm not going to have one of these. I'm not going to have one full-tile, but I'm going to put a key in every single key. So, if you're sitting in a place that has a lot of work to do, you should try to control all of those. And I've already taught a lot of people how to do all of these things. So, I have a lot of lessons to do. And the general idea that you should start with, you know, to present a hot ad, and a work to make a basis for the work. If it's only this way of the ad, in the inner space, there's a lot of ideas that are very particular. Because the idea that you should start with, you should start with a hot ad. It's a part of your training. You can practically do it in the inner space. And the idea is that, you realize that the idea that you should start with is so different from your teacher. And that's really important in inner-sphere for you. You think about what you should go through right. This is the idea that you should start with, and the idea that you should start with, in that direction, you should start with it. You know, that's what you want to go through. So, you decide if this is a work to deliver, or something like that, you should try to do it the best, and it's not going to be a good idea. So that's the real edge of the drill as well, is to be able to see and how it works. The number of cases that are different from all of the ones that are already worked out. So that's it. That's the content. 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In business news, the value of the Naira to Dodala fell from 196 Naira in 99 Kabul in December 2015 to 410 Naira in April 2021. This reflects a 51.95% decline despite various foreign policy exchanges introduced by the Central Bank of Nigeria to strengthen the currency. According to a monthly document obtained from the CBN's website, the value of Naira at the Interbank Forex Market stood at 196 Naira in 99 Kabul out of December 2015. The Central Bank officially adopted the NAFIX exchange rate of 410 Naira, 25 Kabul to $1 as its official exchange rate, devaluing the Naira from $339 to a dollar. Now, when a move to achieve exchange rate stability and preserve the country's forex reserves, the CBN in 2015 reviewed downwards the spending limit on the usage of Naira denominated debit cards for transactions abroad.


They're coming where around the bend they got the beautiful lady with them. Nah, she's tied up somewhere We got a saver Jim. You're right egg. We got a saver Quiet I Can hear him coming. They're coming at war Tonight the National Broadcasting Company in cooperation with the Consul on books in wartime Attempts to tell a part of the story of what we in our war have done to the children of the world Tonight's drama is based on the important new book by Otto's off and titled they shall inherit the earth The part of the author will be played by Richard Stark Dirty Dan, you're dead. They're Texas Jim.  We've done a good job Yeah, buffalo head. We've done a good bang bang bang bang. What are you doing?    Where's mine right here. Come on, Texas. We got a ride. Yeah, lady still tied up in a railroad tracks We got a saver. Come on. Oh Are those words at war No No, they're not They're just the words of some little boys Playing a game in a small town in the eastern part of the United States of America It's the summer of 1937 At this same time in Madrid, Spain But perhaps I'd better tell you who I am My name is Otto's off and for years. I've been gathering material for a book that would answer the question What are we doing to the children of the world? And so I walked through many countries. I saw and spoke with children the militarized children of Mussolini's regime in Italy the German boys and girls and educated to hate under the Nazi rule the children of Spain in 1939 I saw the children of Spain Back in 1937 while American children were playing cops and robbers cowboys and Indians Children in Spain were being bound to death There was a man in Madrid a simple quiet man a librarian I believe But it doesn't matter what he was what does matter is what he said I Have seen so many things mr. Zoff Day after day the fascist troops Lay in the miserable tenements of the workers quarters They lurked at the windows of the houses and starved people out across the way The troops would stay very still Waiting for thirst and hunger to provide them a target At last the woman would appear fearfully at one of the doorways Planning to go out and get her family something to eat She looks around There is nothing She pulls a child after her by one hand a second child by the other She is not going to risk leaving the children alone there with her husband He might get killed in the fight at any moment She looks around again Everything is quiet She says to herself I'll just risk it be right back And so she goes out with the children slipping along between the rows of tenements and Now it is time to throw the grenade And so they threw the grenade but why not Those fascists had been cooped up in that house a long time They needed the practice Is it known how many children died in the civil war? Yes, it is known precisely 10 699 and wounded 15 320 You You know it by heart. Yes, I know it by heart There is one thing though mr. Zoff One consolation What's that? Nothing else ever We do seem brutal to you Compared with this My friend from madrid was wrong Many times during the next years. I saw things of indescribable brutality Things happening to children You know of those things You've read about them in the newspapers seen them in the newsreels, but what has it meant? When hundreds of thousands of children are in danger They become statistics We see them as figures and graphs printed black on white paper Not as little boys and girls burned bleeding starving tortured abandoned to despair So we sit quiet and motionless in our comfortable homes knowing with our minds But not believing with our hearts That there are thousands of children weeping and bleeding all over the world It's 1941 now And the two fires begun in china and spain Have ignited the world Belgium has fallen holland norway france. Even america is now at war What about the children of america? Are they still playing games?     You got to watch yourself when I grow up. I'm gonna be a What I'm gonna be a first lieutenant like my dad and have a thousand millimeter gun What's that? I don't know exactly, but it takes a hundred men to make a shoot My dad gives them all orders.  Yeah. Yeah, that's okay too But I think I'd rather be a general the uniforms is better What are you going to be when you grow up? Every child the world over has been asked that question. He makes a game of it Not german children now They are asked the question, but it's not a game It's another way of instilling in them the nazi doctrine I shall grow up to be a member of the schwarzer course like my father, sir good I should be a member of the elite guard like my father and what else give my life for my fear, of course Right rudy. I shall grow up to be a member of her gurring's air force like my father Hyal Hitler Walter I shall grow up to be a member of her gurring's air force Order I will have order in this class Now valter you were saying I shall go up to be Give valter a chance to tell us about himself Come now. Walter. Don't be bashful. We are also interested in your future ambitions You were taught what to say say it I shall go up to be hanged like my father because I am a jew What have we done to the children of the world? Something has occurred that's beyond man's ability to grasp The earth is not changed the seasons pass in their appointed cycle Life and death still keep their secrets And each living creature broods over his final breath But the children What have we done to them? This in cold blood the whole world has turned to systematic murder Children have been condemned to starvation torture bombardment. They've been orphaned mutilated killed Why for tactical reasons What do they like then these military objectives these youngsters who will inherit the earth All over the globe children are touched by fascism and war They stagger down the endless roads of china under the bombs of japanese planes In japan they are taught to die for the emperor in germany. They're taught how to hate They starve on the streets of athens in madrid They huddle in the ruins of warsaw. They learn the ways of sabotage and murder Under the very noses of the victorious germans in france holland norway greece danmark yugoslavia And in russia they fight children We're speaking of children What have we done to them almost wash your hands edmund okay what we got Well first we have soup Wash your hands dear. Don't just run them through the water. Okay vegetable soup vegetable soup Oh, not the dish towels son get a hand towel It's the summer of 1943 America has been at war for almost two years The home life in america has been affected of course. There are inconveniences Scarcities and in some homes tragedy has come However, the boys and girls in america do get enough to eat In france at this very moment A little boy and his sister the air and marie du corps Are starving to death Meanwhile Boy wouldn't pop like this bait ham Mom, when's dad coming home when the war's over dear? When the war's over your dad Take your hand out of the soup Your dad will come home and we'll go to picnics the way we used to and Edmund take your hand out of the soup. It's not in look. I'm holding in an inch up. I'm feeling with steam See mom. Look look mom. Yes, I'm looking I want you to sit down at your place now. Okay Yes, dear mom What are wars for? I believe wars are fought so there will be equal justice for all of the people in the world What's justice? Edmund your question she don't know what justice is mom doesn't know what justice is Edmund settle down now Now then Supposing we say justice is fairness fairness How? Well, now suppose you and jimmy adams were each entitled to one piece of candy. However jimmy takes two So you get none Now that wouldn't be fair would it no could I fight him then not at all you'd talk it over You know mom, I think I'll declare war on jimmy tomorrow.   Of course not Come now. Here's your bowl of soup. Eat it before it gets cold.  It isn't Certainly not war has nothing to do with children now.  I don't want to Pea I'm hungry really hungry. They need your bread. I can't it's got a rare minute. Where? Right here see a bigger. I'm crawling just a minute There I killed it. Where is it? It's gone.  Yes, Pierre. Just so bedman. I am Mom are there going to be any more wars after this one? I don't know son Maybe if they got someone to stop in the way you stopped jimmy and me from fighting There wouldn't be any maybe does anybody know if there'll be any more wars? Well, we all hope and pray there won't be Sure prayers is okay, but I think machine guns are safer I'm gonna hope and pray for a machine gun machine gun With a german shooter to the machine gun if we go no, of course not Why can't we go then? I told you Marie a good Frenchman doesn't take food handed out by a Nazi I'm not a good Frenchman. I'm hungry. I know Marie Don't think about it. Think about the piece of bread. It had a worm in it. Listen The Nazis would only give us greasy water and they'd shake with soup and they'd laugh at us And besides mother and father wouldn't like it Pierre. I'm hungry. I'm hungry Please don't cry Marie Look, I'll tell you the pretend in it the pretend dinner Will you promise to go slow and tell everything? I promise ready Go slow. We'll see a big dinner place. No, you skipped Start at the beginning. All right We'll be walking down the street hand in hand Hand in hand and we'll see a big dinner place And it'll be warm and the chairs will all be made of pink velvet And this is what we'll have to eat now go slow. Tell it slow First we'll have two potatoes to a piece to a piece And then we each have 25 raspberries that cost 40 francs 55 francs for 25 raspberries It says so in the window of the store on the corner. That's too much We'll have plums instead and then we'll have a loaf of bread. Please Pierre I don't want any bread. I'm hungry. My stomach's tired and I'm hungry.  Hey Ken When when can I have these things? I don't know Marie I don't know A story No No, this isn't a story. It's true But where are these children now? We should know they're to inherit the earth remember They won't though Marie won't She caught cold one day and died within three hours. She was so Undernourished you see Pierre won't either. He's dead too dead of starvation And the others the countless others I saw you on the roads my little french friends On the roads leading south from Paris those roads that were worn down broken up Walked to pieces by the flight of 10 million panic driven people Those roads that were sawn with wounded and dying with blood machine gun bullets I saw you little french children hungry weary lonely On wind driven Paris streets. Where are you now? I don't know The little we here tells only of a tiny handful out of countless millions Let 11 year old Marie who lived in Poland tell you her story We lived in a tiny village We had a little house and behind it was an orchard And a pond for the geese and ducks On the other side of a pond Stood stood the neighbor's house They had a garden too And in their garden they had carrots Mother always said you mustn't go over there and eat their carrots That isn't nice But one day I thought mother wouldn't see me if I crawled through the hedge and And made myself little so I wouldn't show much You see Those carrots look so good I couldn't help doing it I pulled up one and another and another I ate them I washed in the in the pond and ate them I didn't hear anything or Or see anything Until suddenly there was a big crash I nearly fell in the water when I got up.   Smith is Eddie home child. He's been asleep for hours. It's after 10 o'clock Why aren't you home in bed? I I was but three Germans come through the ceiling and Now Jimmy tell me what on earth Grisha mother dear Mommy's on the night shift at the factory this week and daddy had to go out of town So she put me to bed and wet. She said she had a punch o'clock She said it was all right until the Nazis came right through the ceiling They came and I ran and and look mrs. Smith. I hurt my knee and I'm here Jimmy over to the light Now let's see Why child your knee's all right. It's not even skin. Yes, it is too and I'll read you Tell you what Jimmy you stay here for the night I'll go over and leave a note for your mother You can sleep in the other bed in Edmunds room and won't he be surprised when he wakes up in the morning and finds you there I don't have to go home. No Okay You know mrs. Smith. I wasn't really afraid. It's just that they were real big and they growled at me and I was there all by myself He was there all by himself How many American children are left by themselves these days You've heard a number of stories tonight Stories telling of the fears the persecutions the sufferings of little boys and girls in this our war We've spoken of the children's sufferings But as yet we have not told of their bravery of the sublime courage and indomitable will to live of all children It happened in london during the darkest period of the war and it seemed only a matter of weeks before england would be invaded The warning siren had sounded and youngsters from a nearby school had gathered in an air raid shelter Before the first enemy planes arrived overhead If you don't get up you think pushy one come down sit down Everyone sit down. I sit next to emily. There's my turn to sit next to emily get that peter. All right Tell us the story emily.  We're quiet, but I have no more stories. I've told you them all Oh, wait a minute. Wait a minute. I shall think of something Shall I tell you of the time I took my sister jane to the fair? I hear bombs emily they're dropping bombs on us. Yes, peter. I know Now the story When jane was only four we went to the fair It was wonderful.  I want to go home. She was afraid of clown. I know it was strange But then she was a very little girl She said emily. I'm frightened. I want to go home And I said don't be frightened jane. They're only clown and then what? Do you think the bimes can get through? Oh, no, dear, of course not go on emily. What should you and jane do then? Well, then and this is the best part We saw a band concert a military band And the leader looked perfectly beautiful.  What have we to say to the children of china russia poland england to the children of the world? Only this we will help you There are only a few who know of your need, but more and more will learn And those of you who are starving We'll feed and those who are lost will find This we promise Meanwhile Wait and have faith The day of victory will come And on that day we'll begin mankind's new effort to have trust in itself We've always failed up to now haven't we children? But have faith for one day you are going to inherit our old struggle to trust one another And when you do children Remember this So long as man can believe in man There's still a chance for all of us As the 30th program of words at war we have brought you a program based on the book They Shall Inherit the earth by Otto's off The book was adapted for radio by edith summer Richard stark narrated for Otto's off The original music was by william meter and the production was under the direction of frank pat Next week words at war will present an adaptation of another outstanding war book Words at war is brought to you in cooperation with the council on books in wartime By the national broadcasting company and its affiliated independent stations This is the national broadcasting company