So good morning and welcome back to the NPTEL lecture series on classics in total synthesis part 1. So in the last lecture we talked about total synthesis of prostaglandins by Professor Coray and today we will talk about two more total synthesis of prostaglandins one by Professor Gilbert Stott the other by Professor Carl Johnson. So first let us start with Stott's synthesis of Pgf2Alpha as you know this is the structure of Pgf2Alpha. The key reactions which Professor Stott has used in the synthesis of prostaglandin Pgf2Alpha is radical cyclization to form the F5 membered ring and followed by trapping that radical at 5xO radical, 5xO radical cyclization followed by formation of another radical which is trapped by their acceptor. So this is the key reaction in the synthesis of Pgf by Stott and also you could do this reaction on a 1 gram scale and the next one is intramolecular thermal rearrangement which later called as Brooks rearrangement also was used as the key reaction. How he has done the retro synthesis, his idea was if you break this double bond, if you break this double bond on the left hand side you will get aldehyde and the right hand side you will get the corresponding triphenylposponium bromide. So that you can do a wittic reaction to get the cis double bond. Now once you have this aldehyde, aldehyde and alcohol if you combine the alcohol will attack the aldehyde to form a lactol and the lactol if you can protect. So that is the precursor for Pgf2Alpha. At the same time you can also keep this as carbonide and later one can reduce it to get the corresponding allylic alcohol as required in the natural product. Now the next step is the real key reaction as I said the radical cyclization followed by trapping of the resultant radical. So what he did was he prepared this halo compound. Now this can undergo a 5-exo radical cyclization on to this double bond that will generate a radical at this color okay. Now if you add an acceptor like this okay so that can add to this triple bond. So that will straight away give you this alpha beta unsaturated keto okay that was the original plan but let us see how he has achieved this particular transformation and this can be you know this five member ring can be obtained from this diol and this can be obtained from cyclopentadiene okay if you look at the earlier synthesis of Pgf2Alpha by EJ Quorae they are also the starting material was cyclopentadiene okay. Now let us see how he got this diol from cyclopentadiene. So take cyclopentadiene and this is a known transformation and do a 4 plus 2 cycloaddition with oxygen okay so why photochemical conditions are required is normally oxygen is in triplet state is not it. So it has to come to ground state so that is why photochemistry is used and since you use thiorea after this the OO bond also gets cleaved under the same condition to get this corresponding diol okay but this is you know mesocompone one can easily resolve and for that you first protect this diol as diacetate. This diacetate enzymatically can be selectively hydrolyzed one of the acetates can be selectively hydrolyzed to get energiomerically enriched one alcohol other one acetate. So this was done successfully with peak liver esterase to get this corresponding you can see one of the hydroxyl group one of the acetate is hydrolyzed to hydroxyl group the other one is acetate. Now this is an octaglyclic compound okay. So he took this compound then treated with TBS chloride so that you can protect this free hydroxyl group followed by hydrolysis of the acetate with catalytic compound of potassium cyanide and ethanol at room temperature now you get the corresponding allylic alcohol. Next step is treatment of this allylic alcohol with ethyl vinyl ether in the presence of N iodo succinamide see what happens when you treat with ethyl vinyl ether and N iodo succinamide you get this compound okay. So you can see I do not need my arm okay. Now this will open this so what you get is corresponding OET plus now the lone pair on the oxygen will attack and utilize the positive charge so that will give you this compound. So that is the precursor required for the key radical cyclization that is phi XO radical cyclization followed by trapping the resultant radical. So what happens you do this reaction with catalytic compound of Azaz, this isobutonitrile and tributyltin chloride and stoichiometric compound of sodium cyanoboride. So it forms as I said the radical attacks here and it forms a radical at this carbon. Now you do the trapping with tertiary butyl isocyanide that means this radical which is formed here attacks the carbon and this C N bond breaks. So what you get is the corresponding cyanide okay. So now you can see you have made a 5 ombre ring and also you have introduced a cyanoclub. Once you have the cyanide then as you know you can reduce it with the dye ball to get that aldehyde at low temperature you know minus 78 you can reduce the cyanide to aldehyde then carry out Wadsworth Imans modification of Wittig reaction to get the trans double bond or E double bond. So this is what you get. So what is left now you have to reduce this to alcohol, idolize this lactol ethyl ether to lactol and do the Wittig reaction and followed by removal of this TBS group will give Pgf to alpha. So you also attempted this same thing by a second method where the acceptor is different okay. It took the radical precursor and did the same condition except that acceptor was this alpha beta unsaturated keto. Earlier what he did he wanted to check how it works. So he tried with tertiary butyl isocyanide. So he could introduce the cyanide and then reduction of cyanide you got aldehyde. Once you have aldehyde of course you can homologate further. So he wanted to directly trap that radical with this alpha beta unsaturated keto. Did he do? Yes he could successfully do. After that when you heat it what will happen oxygen has got better affinity towards silicon than carbon okay. So when you heat it this oxygen attacks the silicon and followed by breaking of CSI bond gives you the corresponding enol ether. So this is also called Brooks rearrangement. So the migration of silicon from carbon to oxygen is called Brooks rearrangement. So now when you have enol TMS it is very easy to introduce a double bond by treating with palladium acetate is not it? So very famous oxidation reaction. So that gives the corresponding alpha beta unsaturated keto. So now you can see both ways you could get this corresponding enol. Once you have this enol reduce with S by null okay. So that will reduce the carbonyl group and you will get one isomer as a major product. You got the alcohol then treat with Acus HCl. So Acus HCl will hydrolyze the lactol ether to corresponding lactol and at the same time your TBS group also will be cleaved you get the corresponding hydroxide group. Now you do the vitique with the 5 carbon unit having a carboxylic acid at the terminal so you get PGF2 alpha directly. So overall if you look at this synthesis, so this synthesis was done in only 7 steps okay done only in 7 steps starting from the acetoxy or TBS protected cyclopentenol which is a known compound from cyclopentadiene which is a known compound from cyclopentadiene and this was achieved in 7 steps. Then the next key step was the 5xO radical cyclization followed by trapping of the radical with acceptance okay. Now we will move to the third total synthesis of prostaglandins by Carl Janssen's group. So here the key reaction was 1, 4 addition to cyclopentenol followed by quenching the enolate with an electrophile. So the 2 side chains are introduced in one step via 1, 4 addition followed by trapping of the enolate okay basically what they have done is a substituted cyclopentenone was taken and then these 2 side chains were attached okay. Let us see how they have thought about from retrosynthetic point of view. So they thought this can be obtained from the cyclopentenone having these 2 hydroxyl groups which are protected. The idea is this vinyl lithium species or vinyl copper vinyl lithium species followed by converting into copper add to this cyclopentenone in a 1, 4 fashion and quench with this electrophile and this can be obtained from this. I will come to that how it is done and again the starting material looks almost same as what Kelbert Stark has used okay and that can be obtained from cyclopentadiene. So overall if you look at the 3 synthesis which we discussed for the total synthesis of prostaglandins all the synthesis started with the 5 membered that is cyclopentadiene commercially available cyclopentadiene of course cyclopentadiene is not commercially available as such it is available as cyclopentadiene dimer you have to crack it that is you have to make sure that it undergoes a retro 4 plus 2 cycloaddition to get cyclopentadiene. So how we did so there are 2 ways you prepared the chiral starting material. The first method is almost similar to what Gilbert Stark has done a 4 plus 2 cycloaddition of cyclopentadiene with oxygen followed by reduction of OO bond with thioia you get the diol and the diol was protected as the diacetate and from here he changed its route so what he did he did a dihydroxylation. So when the dihydroxylation will happen as you know the dihydroxylation both hydroxyl group will come opposite to these 2 acetates these 2 acetates are beta. So the hydroxyl will come from alpha and the resultant diol was protected as acetonide by treating with acetone with the catalytic amount of para toluene sulphonic acid. Now you hydrolyze so both acetates you get a diol this diol upon oxidation okay one of the hydroxyl gets oxidized and once it is oxidized to get the ketone the other hydroxyl group is nothing but it is an aldol beta hydroxy ketone. So it undergoes elimination under the in the presence of trifluoristic acid. So directly you get the cyclopentadiene but this is racemic in nature okay. This racemic cyclopentenone can be resolved with this sulfoxamine to get the only the required one. You also can get the other one equal amount but what you want is this one with that you can proceed further for the enantiose selective total synthesis of prostaglandic and one can also use the diacetate for preparing the same. So you can use an enzyme to selectively hydrolyze this acetate and oxidize so alcohol will get oxidized to get the ketone and automatically and in the presence of sulphuric acid you undergo elimination to get this cup. So there are two ways one can make this cyclopentenone and this is the way you know normally the optical resolution is done and only problem is the 50% with the other configuration you cannot use it further because that will not give the naturally occurring prostaglandic okay. So you go with what you require. The second method so that is why you know the second method was used in the second method which was developed by Hadley Key. So that involved dihydroxylation of an aromatic compound. So this microbiological process has started with toluene commercially available toluene you can do this soda monosputidop enzyme to do the dihydroxylation. So one of the double bonds of benzene can be selectively dihydroxylated. Now you protect this hydroxyl the two hydroxyl which are cis with acetone so you get the corresponding acetone ion. Then if you cleave these two double bonds under was analysis condition you get the corresponding keto aldehyde okay. Keto aldehyde. Now this ketone it can generate anion and attack this aldehyde in an intramolecular aldol reaction followed by elimination of water. You get the same compound which we had discussed earlier start starting from cyclopentadiene. So the second method differs from the other three synthesis where you know cyclopentadiene was used as a key starting material. Here the starting material used is toluene and again they use enzyme to introduce the two hydroxyl groups stereo selectively and followed by intramolecular aldol reaction to get the same starting material. So once you have this substituted cyclopentenone the next key step is the addition of the vinyl copper followed by quenching with the next side chain. So how did they do? Before that the side chain has to be prepared both the side chain one is 8 carbon other one is 7 carbon. The 7 carbon side chain was prepared from propogel alcohol protect the alcohol as THP ether and followed by removing this proton with LDA and quench with this Bromo ester. Then the THP ether could be cleaved with HCl methanol to release the primary alcohol and that can be converted into iodine by treating with PBR3. Then if you use Lindler catalyst this propogel alcohol the substituted propogel alcohol will be reduced to the alkene which is cis. Then you convert the alcohol into corresponding iodine okay same thing you can do with this also no problem. The synthesis of the 8 carbon side chain started with this protected alcohol of course this can be made in two steps from the corresponding aldehyde and add this lithium ethylene diamine you get the alcohol that alcohol you protected as TBMS ether you get the starting material. Now if you treat with tributyltin hydride and the photocomical rendition the tributyltin hydride is known to add to this triple bond to get trans double bond with the tributyltin group at the terminal carbon. Now if you treat with butyl lithium so this can be exchanged with lithium okay. So you get lithium and this upon treatment with copper so the lithium copper exchange will take place so that it can undergo the 1, 4 addition to the cyclopentenone. So that is what happens you take this and then treat with the substituted cyclopentenone followed by quenching with the cis allyl iodine okay which already discussed in the previous slide. So this gives a mixture of three compounds one the required the trans disubstituted cyclopentenone in 64 percent yield then the other two one is the epimer at this carbon the third one is only 1, 4 addition product the alkylation did not take place only 1, 4 addition alkylation did not take place. So what we can do you can convert this into required one by epimerization and this you can convert into the required compound by alkylation. So both were done so epimerization was done with sodium acetate methanol to get the required cyclopentenone then the other one that is the mono alkylated that is only 1, 4 addition product happened not the subsequent alkylation you can treat with LDA and quench with the corresponding iodide you can convert into the required product. So now if you look at this intermediate it has both C7, C8 side chain and what is not required is this oxygen and this three carbon unit okay so that was easily done before that the hydroxyl group was released by removing the TBDMS group by treating with HF pridine and one can also use HF in astronaut rail so that not only TBDMS group will be removed but one can also remove the astronaut okay. So both were done under the same condition but you do not want the extra oxygen is not it that extra oxygen was removed by using aluminium amalgam so basically it gives a radical aluminium and this opens up and you get the acetone and the corresponding beta hydroxy combo okay this is for resemic one how about the chiral one say chiral one already we know how to make this follow the same process that is do 1, 4 addition quench with the corresponding allyl iodide you get 46% yield of the required product of course the other products are mono alkylated product that is the only 1, 4 addition took place the subsequent alkylation did not take place then you got the epimer at this position okay. So no problem as I already discussed the 8 epimer can be further you know treated with base to get the required one and of course this 25% of the product where only 1, 4 addition took place can be converted into this by additional treatment with LDA and quenching with the corresponding allyl iodide okay. From here to PGE to methyl ester we already discussed on the resemic one so HF pridine remove the TBMS group and aluminium amalgam removes the astronaut do so that is how Carl Johnson could complete the total synthesis of PGE2 in a optically active form. So to summarize prostagland in PGE2 both resemic and optically active minus isomer was reported by Carl Johnson and co-workers in 1988 in one synthesis they started with cyclopentadiene as the starting material and in the other synthesis they followed Goodluck's protocol wherein they started with toluene and then do enzymatic dihydroxylation to introduce the 2 chiral centres and these 2 chiral centres were responsible for the introduction of the 2 more chiral centres where you have to introduce the C8 side chain and C7 side chain overall if you look at this whole transformation it is a triply convergent approach that means you have cyclopentenome and you add the C8 side chain and followed by quench with C7 side chain so triple convergent approach and overall this synthesis was achieved in 4 longest linear steps with a yield of 32 point percent and 40.5 percent respectively for resemic and asymmetric synthesis. So thank you I will stop here today.


So today guys we are taking a look at another new weapon exclusive to Mayhem 2.0 which drops at level 6 or above. There are 8 in total and to be honest for the most part I've been let down by them. Is this one though any different? How's it going guys my name is DPJ and today I bring you another BF3 video. If you do enjoy it leave a like it really helps out and subscribe if you do want to see more. So the Monarch is a Vladov assault rifle which at first looks a lot like the amazing designed big tater but it isn't just its design which is kind of similar. Now this Monarch is an exclusive drop like I said on Mayhem 6 or above and it drops from Kilovolt who can be located upon Electro City and it can drop off in all elements too as well as no elements. It comes as far as I'm aware in two different variants a four times and an eight times. The eight times though I do believe swallows two ammo per shot at the same time. So looking at this it looks a lot like the dictator firing it it also has two modes like the dictator. One mode shooting at its standard of four times four bullets per single ammo consumed and then it has that bipod mode which means it takes away basically all mobility meaning you can't run or jump but it changes the weapon into at least an eight times variant so eight pellets or more all generated from a single ammo usage. Now I can only imagine the standard eight times variant would double up to that sixteen in that bipod mode at least so that could be pretty interesting but this thing does swallow its ammo so that being a two times would be even worse. Now where this Monarch differs to the dictator is in a couple of ways. The dictator only comes in a three times variant and a six times variant and also the way in which they shoot. The dictator shoots its pellets in a horizontal line tightening up when you aim which means unless you're at a real close range getting them to all hit a single target which isn't the size of graveyard is a challenge in itself. The Monarch shoots its pellets in a much tighter group although not perfect it's just miles better in my opinion than that what we see of the dictator. It's just much much easier to hit a single target when you're aiming at it and all shots hitting that target. Now the Monarch is also an all-round much more powerful weapon considerably more powerful too so it is good on paper it's better than its older brother on paper but is it actually any good when it comes down to what it's all about and the simple answer to that is yes yes it is in fact this weapon is stupid powerful for what it is I mean you can see into that ground now within mayhem 10 slot shaft and to be honest with you guys it felt like I was playing and like a mayhem level five that's how powerful this thing is only let down it has though is what I mentioned earlier is the fact of how quick this thing consumes its ammo but if you can sort that problem out which is kind of hard on zane but the vault hunters do have their perks we have a top tier assault rifle here people 100% on that it also shreds bosses which is great to see as not many assault rifles are capable of such devastating DPS so out of the eight mayhem six or above exclusive legendary weapons so far this is by far the best I have used and like I said it comes off in all elements too at a couple of different variants so those lows to be achieved with this weapon so yes people killer vaults mayhem six or above exclusive drop is a monarch and it's well worth your time trying to farm this thing and land that perfect version up I will state though he seems to be kind of stingy I farm this dude for literally three hours straight and so distraught twice none being a variant I actually want so credit to Silent Wraith 101 for sending me the variant I use in this video massive shout to him but on that note guys we have come to the end if you guys enjoyed the video leaving a like really helps out if you're new around here want to see more boilers be sure to subscribe and if you never want to miss a video I upload you can turn notifications on by hitting that bell button but guys thanks as always for stopping by hopefully you enjoyed the video and hopefully I will see you on that next one


Let's go ahead and start today. The first thing I want to talk about is, well the first thing I guess we could talk about is the owl tube. I think I pushed it back till Friday night. So I think I'll give you guys enough time to finish all the stuff. It's not as bad as owl one as far as I can tell. So just let me know how that stuff is going. I think we're kind of working on that business. The blackboard side of the class 2, how we're going to take quiz 2. And for those of you who are listening to this right now, don't worry about it. I have to do this for the online people. For the in-class people, this is how to take quiz 2. So you're going to come to the computer lab HSC between these times. So you're going to have from Thursday, so tomorrow 8am to 10-15am. But the quiz is a half an hour long quiz. So if you want to do it tomorrow, you've got to get there by 9.45am. The thing is, is I have two classes taking a quiz in the same room over these four hours. So it's their class time tomorrow that we'll be taking up from this 8am to 9.15am. So they're going to have priority during that time. During your class time, which would be Friday 9-10, you guys will have priority. So if anybody comes during that time when you're supposed to be having class and there's not very many computers, you would get the computer before that. Otherwise, not during those two class times, not during 8-9.15 tomorrow and 9-10 the next day on Friday. It's first come, first serve. So become outside of those two times first come, first serve. But your time that you have priority is going to be Friday during lecture time. And it says that it's a 30-minute quiz covering the material from chapters 1 to 3 that we cover in lecture and through the album work. We haven't done very much of three in lecture. In fact, we haven't done anything. We might get some of it started today. And it'll just be that little bit that we get started. So it's not going to be any mass chapter three stuff. So it's going to be almost exclusively chapters one and two. You might get one or two questions. Make sure that you bring these required items. Photo ID, pencil. Because I don't know all of you guys yet. I'll name some of these as photo ID. A pencil calculator. And I'll bring blank scrap paper for you guys. And I'll also bring a periodic table for you guys to use that has the names of all the elements on it. You may or may not need them. So you guys got four hours to take a one half hour quiz. So make sure you get here before the half hour, before you have a half hour to spare. So don't come at like 10, 15 expecting it to take a half an hour because I only have that room reserved for so long. So are there any questions about that? No class on Friday?  One half hour. But the questions, some of the questions will take you like a half a second to answer. Some of them may take you five minutes to answer.  I think you could drop. Well, I mean, okay. So if it takes you five minutes to say ice melting to water, is that a chemical or a physical property? Then it may take you five minutes for those types of questions. But for me, and probably you, it will only take half a second. I think you know that type of stuff. So there's going to be a variety of questions on the test from these basic more straightforward concepts to some mathematical concepts. What I would recommend again is to bring a pencil and I'll provide you with some paper so you guys can write out any calculations. First, this is going to be through Al. So the typing in the answer is very important. Okay, that's the problem. You only have one shot at it. So we're going to do it. I think you guys are pretty good at typing in Al answers by now. We'll see how it works. I think it'll be okay though. So don't worry too much about it. This time we'll think of something a little bit different. Any questions? No questions, okay. Isotopes, the same element, but they have different masses. Just like chlorine has these two isotopes here, chlorine 35 and chlorine 37. Notice I'm saying chlorine 35 and chlorine 37. When I refer to an atom in such a fashion, the number that I'm referring to after that I state the name of the atom is referring to its mass number. So if I say chlorine 35, that means it has a total of 35 neutrons and protons in the nucleus. So it's the mass number. So if I say chlorine 37, I'm referring to the total number of subatomic particles in the nucleus. So of course chlorine 35 or 37 will always have 17 protons in its nucleus because if it didn't, it wouldn't be chlorine. But the difference of course in the mass number then has to be due to the fact that it has a different number of neutrons in its nucleus, okay chlorine? 35 of course we know has 17 protons so it must have 18 neutrons because 35 minus 17 is 18. And 37 minus 17 is 20 so chlorine 37 must have 20 neutrons in its nucleus. So you can see here, here's some more common isotopes. The isotopes of carbon. If anybody's ever heard of carbon dating, they use one of these isotopes to figure out how many years something has been dead for and so they can kind of estimate the age of certain things. Isotopes of hydrogen. Again this is used for some dating procedures because tritium hydrogen 3 here has only been around since atomic testing. So you can kind of radioactively date things in between the time atomic testing started to the present day. And by looking at the tritium concentration within these samples. This is due to radioactive decay of these particular isotopes that actually radioactively decay and then disappear over time. So you can tell by the concentration of something one of these isotopes in something when it was actually breathing it and being alive, especially the carbon 12. We're not going to go into very much depth about that right now. Maybe later in the term if we have some time we'll hit on radioactive dating and isotope decomposition. But for right now, just know that isotopes have the same atomic number, of course, but different mass numbers and they're at the same level. Okay, so we've been over this type of nomenclature before. Remember, Z down here is the atomic number. The mass number is up in the top left corner. The symbol of the atom is the big thing in the middle. And then the charge of the particle, which we haven't really gone over, but maybe if we get to it in next chapter we'll talk about what are known as ions. Ions. And they're actually atoms with a charge that's located in that position. So this is the way you would write it, like if you were writing it on a piece of paper or something. Again, if you wanted to write 4 on 11, a common way to write it would be just have the 11 in the top left corner be as the symbol of the element, not showing the atomic number because the atomic number and the elemental symbol of course contain redundant information. And notice 4 on 11 when we show it that way is uncharged because it doesn't have anything like that. And then you can know by the atomic number, the number of protons, the number of neutrons in the particular element. And notice here we've got two isotopes of 4 on 1, 4 on 11, 1, 4 on 12. Both of them have the different amounts of neutrons but the same amount of protons. So is everybody clear on isotopes and everything like that? Okay, so let's talk about relative masses. And I know everybody was very frustrated maybe with calculating, you know, the distance or the difference, I'm sorry, converting like miles to kilometers or certain values like that because on a surface they really don't have very much to do or very much in common with your thinking about what chemistry would be, okay? And we really start you to do those calculations with those types of figures because you're more familiar with those types of numbers and units than you are with the units that you actually need to use on a more common basis in chemical analysis, okay? But the thing is when you get used to doing those types of calculations that we did in Chapter 1 they really do help you along with the types of calculations that you'll be able to be doing or that you'll be required to be doing through chemical analysis, okay? So actually what happens is they give you kind of clues of how to do these new problems, okay? So the new problems are that you do them exactly the same as the old problems they just have different units, okay? And those units might be a little more confusing because we're not used to them as well, okay? The first one we're going to talk about one of those units is the mole, okay? So let's talk about relative masses first of all and learn why we need to come up with a new unit called the mole to help us describe the way that atoms are counted, okay? So the extremely small size of atoms and molecules so of course we can't see them there so there are unlike things that we're normally used to dealing with on an everyday basis, okay? So they're very small. So it makes them inconvenient to use their actual masses for measurement. So of course their actual masses are on the order of 10 to the negative 24th and 10 to the negative 26 grams. So those are extremely, extremely small numbers. In fact, we don't have really any relative basis on how to measure that or to ask ourselves, you know, well, how big really is that, okay? So we really need to come up with a different sort of thinking about it so we can start to say, okay, yeah, I kind of am understanding how the magnitude of the mass of these types of things, okay? So, yeah, so it makes it inconvenient to use their actual masses for these measurements or calculations so we use relative masses. So we're actually going to compare the atoms to each other, okay? And we're going to come up with a new unit called the AMU or you might see it as U, okay? It's the same thing. So relative masses are a comparison of the actual masses to each other. For example, if an object had twice the mass of another object, the relative masses would be 2 to 1, okay? Does that make sense? 2 to 1? If something is twice as heavy or as something else. So the relative mass scale of the unit that we use is this atomic mass unit or the AMU and it's defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, okay? So a carbon-12 atom is exactly 12.000 AMU to infinity, 00 whatever AMU. So one-twelfth of that would be one AMU. So that's the official definition of one AMU. But one AMU can be thought of to represent the mass of either one proton or one neutron, okay? So hydrogen one has one proton and its mass is one AMU. Helium two would have, or helium four would have two protons and two neutrons, the mass being 4.000 AMU, okay? And then, so if you could look, yeah, again, an atom with the mass equal to twice the mass of carbon would have a relative mass of 24 AMU. So that would be like, and then there's this conversion factor here that really converts AMUs to grams. So this is something that you should try to remember, but I'll give you this conversion on any sort of text, okay? I mean, I want you to understand more the concept instead of memorizing all these numbers and conversions, okay? But it is good to kind of remember this number because it gives you an actual idea of how small these things actually are. Okay, so I'll give you this calculation, but let's try to use this calculation in a problem, okay? So let's try to figure out how many grams, I don't know, one of Vandium 51 atom weight. So Vandium 51, like that, let's draw the whole, okay? So if I were to ask you what's the mass of Vandium 51 atom in AMUs, you would tell me what? Who would tell me what's the right answer? Vandium 51 AMUs, right? So this has got 23 protons, right? And then it would be 28 neutrons, right? 23 protons, 51, okay? And remember we said this mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons and each proton and each neutron weighs how many AMUs? Each. One, right? One AMU each. So the total mass of a Vandium 51 atom in AMUs would be 51 AMUs. Does that make sense? 51. We even go so far as to say per one Vandium 51 if we wanted to go so far, okay? And use that as another unit. Well, how many grams does one Vandium atom weigh? So how will we do that? Well, we just use our conversion factor that we have up there and say, well, multiply that by, well, one AMU equals... Does everybody see how I did that? It makes sense, right? So then AMUs, of course, will cancel out and now we have units of grams per one Vandium 51, and that's what we were really looking for, right? Figures of the AMUs here, okay? Because this is a conversion factor. So it's going to be 8.5 into 23 grams if you want to. Very small amount, very small. I can't even imagine. Like relative to this piece of chalk, it's like nothing, you know?  So you can imagine. I don't know how familiar you guys are with holy pieces of chalk, but it's not very good. So what if...  It could be a lot, right? A lot of Vandium atoms. And in fact, some other guy... I might be jumping ahead here, but some other guy figured it out. His name was Avogadro. He used Avogadro's number. Has everybody heard of Avogadro's number? He used this number to figure out, to say, well, you know, I can figure out how many atoms we need to give the exact atomic weight of each of those atoms. And it's always the same number, okay? It's actually 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd. That's a very large amount of atoms, okay? So Avogadro's number, 6.0. This number, in fact, doesn't have to be atoms. It could be anything. It could be people. It could be pieces of chalk. It could be anything, okay? So this is just another unit. This would be...this is now known as the mole. Okay? One mole is 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd, whatever. Okay? Like, donuts would be a mole of donuts, okay? Or atoms would be a mole of atoms. Just like if we had a dozen atoms, it would be 12 atoms, okay? So this is just a number, just like a dozen is a number. Or a baker's dozen is a different number. Or a pear is a different number, okay? Or, I don't know, if you guys can think of another number type unit, right? So one mole, mole is just a number. And that number is 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd. Okay? In this case, we're going to look at it as a mole of vanadium 51 atoms. Let's do that. Okay? And we'll see how much the mole of vanadium 51 atoms actually weighs. And we'll see if it weighs something that we can finally get our head around. Some number that we can get our head around. So we know that one vanadium 51 atom weighs 8.5 times 10 to the negative 23rd grams. So we'll just use that. And this inversion factor to figure out, well, how many grams does one mole of vanadium weigh? Okay? So just use that number, 8.5. If you want to know grams per mole, we want to cancel out vanadium atoms, right? So we say 6.0. We're going to cancel with that. Everybody see that? Canceling. And now we've got how many grams per mole of these atoms we've got? 51.101, you know? So it all depends on what numbers you rounded as before. But it doesn't matter. The main point, because we're going to only take it to two significant digits, right? It's going to be this 51. And notice, so it'll be 51 grams per one mole of vanadium atoms. Notice what's the similarity between this number and the original number up there, 51 AMU. They're the same number, right? But they have different units. And in fact, what Avogadro figured out is that if you multiply the mass by this number of atoms, you'll always get the atomic mass in the unit's grams per mole. So you can kind of do a shortcut here. And if you ask, well, how many grams does one mole of mercury weigh, you can say 259. You can just write that number off of the periodic table. I suggest that you go through a few of these calculations on your own. But this is what it means to use the unit's mole. Mole is just like any other unit, like a dozen or a pair or something like that. It's just describing a number. It's not describing anything else in that. But it is a useful number because it allows you to say the mass number of the atom that I'm looking at is equal. We can set it equal to the molecular weight, which is grams per mole. And we can use this. This is much more useful of a term to use than this is up here because we measure in the lab things on the gram scale and not on the AMU scale. Does that make sense? So it kind of helps us say, if I weigh 83 grams of vanadium, how many actual atoms do I have? So I don't have to go back and say per 51 AMU. So it really does help you. Right now it might seem like a lot of excess work, but in the end it will help you a lot. So make sure you know how to do this. I kind of skipped probably a way ahead and did this whole problem, but let's just go over all that stuff that we just talked about. So atomic weight, that's the mass or the number that you see at the bottom of each of these symbols on the periodic table. That's the atomic weight. And that's the weighted average of the masses of all the isotopes of an element based on natural abundance. I'm not going to go too heavy into figuring out the average atomic weight. I think I put maybe some al-problems, but on the test don't worry too much about it. Okay? Not figuring it out. But knowing what it is is very important. Okay? And knowing what it means. So weighted average is the average corrected by the relative amount of each isotope. So chlorine, of course we know has two isotopes. One is chlorine 35, one is chlorine 37. And notice the average atomic weight of chlorine is 35.452 cents. So it's somewhere in between 35 and 37. On the side of 35, because there's more chlorine 35 than there is chlorine 37. Again, look at this here. And you can figure it out. It happens in three to one ratio. You can figure it out by doing this calculation here. By converting the percentages that you get to a decimal and then multiplying by the relative masses. Okay? So if you look at chlorine 35 here, this percentage is 75.77%. So if you divide that by 100%, you're converting that to a decimal. Then all you got to do is multiply by its mass in AMU. And when you do that, you get this number. You do it to the other one as well. And then you add these two numbers together. And that gives you the weighted average. And that gives you that number that you find at the bottom of the periodic table. So you can go through that one. There's another one here. What's the atomic mass of boron? And then you can try it on your own. Or the atomic mass is the weighted average of these things. So you would convert this to a decimal. Convert this to a decimal. Multiply it by, in this case, 14. In this case, by 15. Add those two together. And you should get somewhere around that number. Notice somewhere around, it says 99.63% of 9 to the 14. And look how close that number is to 14. It's very, very close. Because there's only a tiny bit of 9 to the 15. Okay? So that tiny bit of 9 to the 15 actually raises the average atomic weight by .0067 volt. If you could try this on your own. If you've got any problems, ask me after class and we can do it together. Of course, it's the mass of a molecule. You can find the molecular weight by knowing the molecular structure of the molecule. So, for example, one that we're very familiar with is water, which is H2O. Okay? So we can figure out what the total mass of a water molecule is by adding the average atomic weight of the atoms that it's composed of. Okay? Just like it says here. The molecular weight of water is 2 times H because you've got two H's in it. And plus 1 times O, which is because you've got one O in it. Okay? And then if you add those two together, you get, well, the relative weight of hydrogen is 1.0018. Okay? A lot of people put, I'm sorry, 1.008. A lot of people put. And the relative weight of oxygen is 16. You'll find that a lot on periodic tables. So if you combine these together, you'll get 18.02, or the molecular weight of water. Does that make sense on how to figure out molecular weight? Okay. So I guess let's try it for carbon dioxide sulfide together. And let's, I want to go back to this one. Let's try this one together, too. Okay? This is nitrogen. One. Does anybody get the answer to this? And do you get it close to that number of atoms? Let's try it together. And then we'll try that molecular weight together. The first thing you want to do, remember, is to convert that to a decimal. So we take 99, what is it? 99.63%. And then the way to convert that to a decimal is you divide it by 100%. Because the percent is the unit. Okay? So we've got to get that out. So when we do that, we get 0.9963. Okay? So no units, notice. And then we'll do the same thing to the other one, which is 0.37%. We've got to divide that by 100. Okay? Because the units cancel here. And then we multiply this by, for the nitrogen 14, we're going to multiply that by 14.00. Remember, if it's 14, the O's are infinite. So you can take it to as many significant digits as you want, really. If you don't have these numbers over here. So this one you're going to have to take to four significant digits, this one to two. Okay? So watch that. But this one is an exact number. So you don't have to worry about the number of significant digits there. So we'll take that, multiply that by 14 AMU. Multiply this one by 15 AMU. And this one down here, just to figure it out eventually. We'll take this. We'll just add these two numbers together. And I use the original numbers. I didn't reduce them to these number of significant figures. But it doesn't matter, because eventually you'll get about the same thing. 14.0037 AMU for the average mass. But unfortunately, this is going to have to go to two significant figures. So two significant figures to really figure it out. But if we had taken this one, maybe to more significant figures, we could actually see that it was doing something. But you can really, it's evident, looking at this portion. Let's go ahead and figure out the molecular weight of carbon disulfide. Okay, so carbon disulfide is colorless liquid CS2. So what's the atomic weight of carbon? The average atomic weight is what we'll use. 12.01, yeah. It's always going to be dependent on the particular periodic table that he used, because they all estimated differently. But carbon is 12.01 AMU. Carbon disulfide, molecular formula CS2. You don't know how to figure that out. Yeah, eventually you'll be able to figure that out. And all we've got to do is say, okay, one times 12.01 AMU, you know, 6 AMU. Probably, we've already done it. What is it? 6.13. Everybody understand how to do that. Okay, so this is what essentially we did with vanadium 51 quite some time ago. Okay, this time is, instead we're doing it with chlorine 19. Remember, the first thing we did was ask, well, how, or what's the amount of, what's the mass in grams of one vanadium 51 atom? Well, here we've got a calculation that's similar, but instead we're asking what's the mass in grams of one chlorine 19. Okay, so notice here we've got chlorine 19 multiplied by that conversion factor that we gave you. What happens, AMU of F cancel out, and we get grams per one chlorine atom. Okay? Of course, we don't only measure one chlorine atom when we're working in the laboratories. Almost impossible, okay?  Okay, but in the general chemistry lab, we're never going to be just looking at one atom, okay? We're going to be looking at number of atoms, in fact, a very big number of atoms, because one gram, as you saw, was quite a big number. Okay? So, again, we're going to use this new term known as Apagodra's number, which is 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd. That is a number you will have to know, okay? I won't give that to you on a test or anything like that. Different than that conversion factor, from grams to AMUs. That I will give you, but Apagodra's number is one of those things that, I don't know, once you learn it in chemistry class, you should take to your grade, or whatever. Okay? So, everybody should know that for as long as they live, as far as I'm feeling. Okay? So, this new unit is needed to deal with the collection of items that have such large numbers. But it's just like saying a dozen of something. It's just a number, okay? So, I can have a mole of, you know, I don't know, cans of Coke or something like that if I wanted to. And that would be 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd cans of Coke. Okay? Or donuts. Or whatever you want. And remember, when we did that Vandium 51 calculation, when we multiplied it the number of grams per Vandium atom times that conversion factor, what did we get? We got 51 grams per one mole of Vandium. Remember that? So, it always comes out to the same number that you find on the periodic table as the mass number. Okay? So, if you will. Remember, if we look up here at Sodium, its average atomic mass is about 22.99. Does everybody see that? And if we multiply that number by 6.0 or the mass of one atom of Sodium by 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd will always get 22.99 grams per mole of Sodium. Okay? I know it seems obvious right now. I would recommend that you guys go through this at least a couple of calculation times, okay? And then make sure you kind of embody this sort of concept, okay? And then it will really help you guys out a lot more when you're working in the lab and kind of understanding, you know, the actual scale that we're working on. And you can see, of course, a mole of calcium would be 40.08 grams. Look at the average mass there. And a mole of sulfur, 30.07. Again, this is that similar calculation that we did with Fandium. And here's a cool picture I'd like to look at. This is one mole of each of these metals. So that's one mole of copper there. That's one mole of aluminum, okay? One mole of lead shot there. One mole of sulfur. One mole of chromium. One mole of magnesium. Okay, so those are all kind of amounts that we would, might be weighing in the lab or we could say maybe half of that amount or something like that. That might be an appropriate amount of material to be working with in the lab as opposed to one atom, you see. Okay, so it makes it very convenient because this is like right on our kind of hand scale.  Okay, it's about our hand scale. Okay, does that make sense? So this is why we use this number. Not to mention the fact that it comes out to be its atomic weight. And then you can apply that same concept to compounds. So you say, okay, well one mole of water equals 18.02 grams of water. 18.02 amu remember was the molecular weight of water. Okay, so it again is 6.02 times 10 to the 23rd molecules and that equals the molecular weight. Okay, so it's the same concept over and over and over. Okay, so get familiar with it. It really will help you out immensely learn this earlier. There are some more mole quantities. You can see a mole of water is 18, about 18 mils of water. Thanks to not very much, maybe a small swallow of water. Thanks. And then, so that's a molecule, right? That's not an atom. So you can apply that same concept. A mole of sodium chloride is this beaker. Very large amount. Beaker of aspirin here. That's one mole of aspirin. And nickel chloride hexahydrate. That's one mole of that. And you can see, you can imagine, well what would be the molecular weight of aspirin? Well it must be 180.2 amu. It must be because one mole of it weighs 180.2 grams. So embody this concept. I know I've been saying that over and over and over and I promise you will help me. And then, you can actually do on your own some of these calculations that we did earlier. Grams, the moles, the atoms. And then there's some practice calculations where you guys can do. And some more practice calculations. I think we went over how to do every one of these types of things in this lecture today. Okay? So, yeah, I guess we'll leave a minute or two early today. Okay? And if there's any questions, feel free to come up here.


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This study suggests that APOL1 variants are associated with increased levels of inflammation in mononuclear cells, which can lead to a decrease in lysosomal integrity. This decreased lysosomal integrity could potentially contribute to the increased risk of cardiovascular disease seen in individuals with APOL1 variants. This article was authored by Ashii D. Blazer, Miao Chang, Kimberley Robbins, and others.


Here we are, this is a gift from the Ministry of Environment, right? Ministry of Environment, where yesterday the wonderful Deputy Minister of Environment and Agriculture met us. This is one of the Czech products, dried apple, should keep me nourished for the day. There's a whole competition from the team, everybody wants to eat this. So I'm carrying it in my own bag, so that nobody eats it up before I get it. Thanks again to the Czech government, particularly the Minister of Agriculture and Environment, who have already formulated kind of recommendations, plus establishing a policy, very much in the direction of safe soil movement.


What's up everybody? JC over jasperjasebrace.com just sold out a little team random giveaway for chances at the Memphis Grizzlies and New Orleans Pelicans and Pikachu number seven of NT basketball This is a quick one box break of 1920s. I mean a mosaic blaster basketball one box break random teams number 14 So I'm just gonna quickly show you guys the item page as you can see now We've started to sell spots in number eight I think Nancy and one of the customer bought into number seven, but actually that was a little type Well, that should have been number eight So this is just the item page for number eight and number 15 as you can see we're down at 27 I just wanted to show you guys how it works guys, of course 30 total spots We do the random for the break and the blaster only first the randomized customer names and teams and we're going to open up The blaster box distribute the hits out just remember no better in common ship Then at the end of the break we'll randomize the 30 customer names and top two names We'll win a spot each in the $900 Palak and Grizzlies team random Which would be cricket team number seven this will be number eight of course, but I'm telling you guys for number seven As this is number 14. So just listen to the sound of my voice. Let's do the break first guys Here you go. Good luck. Let's roll it One and a three four times. Let's do the break one two three four four times Joshua done a nick four times teams one two three Wizards down to the Los Angeles Lakers Hi Joshua the Wizards Fred with the nicks Danny the Sun's Robert with the nuggets Ryania the Rockets Fred with the Tebow Danny with the Pelicans Robert with the Celtics Joshua the Grizzlies Hawks Zach with the Mavericks Danny with the Pacers Fred with the Bucks Robert with the Bulls Heat Right with the 76ers TJ later with the Nets Fred with the Pistons Danny with the Hornets Marco Mills with the Magic Nick with the Blazers David with the Cows Danny with the Thunder Greg with the Wars Roy with the Spurs Joshua with the Jazz Robert the Clippers as well as the Kings Raptors Nick with the Lakers So there you go. All right, so again gonna close the trade window and We'll stick with what you guys got Rip up in the box, and then we'll give away two spots and team Okay, several dice for the randomizer. We got the customer in here. Yeah. All right. Good luck guys so Good blaster box break Rondo John Silver stuff curry NBA debut Rui Hachimura Alright guys, so now let's give away some spots number top two names get a spot each in The team round. I'm gonna get this is just for number eight But again, I'm showing you guys just the item page so you guys can see it But this is for break number seven as this break number 14 So top two names guys. Good luck roll it six in the one lucky number seven seven times top two names get in five six seven seven times and Robert Congratulations after seven times You both are now in the team random And actually I can probably do the team random after this break here. So appreciate you guys Jasper's case breaks calm


Welcome to a journey of discovery, where we unravel the secrets of sacred geometry and explore its profound meaning. Sacred geometry is a universal language found throughout the cosmos, a blueprint that lies at the core of creation itself. At the heart of sacred geometry lies the enchanting flower of life, a complex pattern composed of overlapping circles. It represents the interconnectedness of all life, from the microscopic to the cosmic. Sacred geometry is the key to understanding the underlying order of the universe. It reveals the fundamental principles upon which reality is constructed. Geometric shapes such as circles, triangles and squares hold symbolic significance in sacred geometry. Circles represent unity, wholeness and the cycles of life. They embody the concept of infinite potential and eternal motion. Circles can be seen in the celestial dance of planets, the ripples on a pond and the formation of galaxies. Triangles, with their inherent balance and stability, symbolize harmony and the interplay of opposing forces. They represent the trinity of mind, body and spirit. Triangles are present in sacred structures like pyramids, mountains and even the energy flow within our own bodies. Squares, with their equal sides and right angles, signify solidity, structure and the material world. They represent the foundation upon which life manifests. Squares can be seen in the construction of buildings, the grid patterns of cities and the ordered structures of civilizations. The deeper we delve into sacred geometry, the more we realize that these shapes and patterns are not mere mathematical abstractions. They are reflections of the divine design. Sacred geometry is not confined to mathematics or esoteric symbolism alone. It is woven into the fabric of our reality, from the beauty of nature to the awe-inspiring creations of human civilizations. By embracing sacred geometry, we align ourselves with the harmony of the universe, tapping into its limitless potential and unlocking a deeper understanding of our existence.


Now this has been going on not just at universities and at workplaces, but You see this the attacks on J.K. Rowland's Rowling Rowling Rowling no S. J.K. Rowling the writer of Harry Potter huge huge successful billionaire, but a leftist very much Committed to the left And yet J.K. Rowling has the audacity to actually believe that sex matters Sex not in the act, but sex in that there is a male man and they are women and that trans is not sex That a man who says he's a woman is not a woman He might be a trans woman, but he's not a woman. He's not the same. I don't know. There's a clear biological Claim here Is in my view obviously true and she is objecting to this idea that everybody Trans women and women be treated exactly the same Now for example, I'll give an example. I don't know what J.K. Rowling's views. This is sports well trans woman who's Hormonally and in every other aspect a man Men are stronger than women faster than women competing against women is just wrong in Scotland supposedly in order to Use a woman's bathroom All the man needs to do is I guess declare himself a woman Get some kind of certificate saying that he's declared himself a woman from The authorities and he can now use the women's bathroom and J.K. Rowling is just saying This is a threat. This is dangerous Too many men can use this to assault women and it's completely justified for parents and young women to be afraid of this To be worried about this to reject this idea So you can be declared a woman even if you've had none of the hormone treatments and you haven't had any surgery Just by saying you're a woman.  I mean talk about Emotion about reason they were victory if emotionalism of a reality facts Now J.K. Rowling is just famous and she's a billionaire and she can take it, but her just indicating And and she says generally she supports Trans rights the rights of individuals the transition if they want to she supports them having Not being discriminated against She takes a very individualist approach to this. She says you can do what you want She says she has friends who are trans and so on but she says let's not be nuts about this Women do men straight trans women do not That's a biological difference just for saying that People are being ridiculed and attacked on social media And I mean accused of being Transphobic or you know, which is the equivalent of being accused of racism J.K. Rowling's has written an essay It's you can find it on her website J.K. Rowling calm It's called J.K. Rowling writes about who reasons for speaking out on sex and gender issues It's worth reading. It's an interesting read. Whatever you think about these issues She explains her reasons she explains why she's involved mainly because she cares about women and women's safety but she also cares about definitions of sex and sexuality and what it means and She was I guess a sexual assault victim. She's afraid for women who can become are going to become victims of sexual assault by men pretending to be women whatever And it's I think it's a really good It's a good essay. It's worth reading I don't agree with everything in it. You're not gonna agree with everything in it But it gives you a perspective on this whole issue and how violent the issue has become It's become like race if you say anything anything Skeptical about children transitioning which I think is a crime.   The tomboy's we used to call them tomboy's Now the label does trans and if they say they want to be a boy that parents immediately take them seriously and start Talking about the possibility of transitioning. I mean, it's insanity and if you do the surgery And you change your mind The damage cannot be undone cannot be under Turns out that many of these kids who want to transition or some of them many of them are autistic They just the idea that a kid knows what it means to be male or female has an opinion about it Maybe and again J.K. Rowling's talks about this Some women or men who are gay But afraid of coming out as gay Afraid of the stigma still in the in the world we live in today afraid of it transition as a way of Because there's less of a less of a I guess stigma I mean, that's horrible. I saw the most feminine women. I know Some of the most feminine women I know with tomboy's What you are as a young child What you are as a teenager even does not reflect what you're going to be and what you're going to think and what you're going to want And what you're going to care about Teenagers generally are depressed teenagers generally don't like their lives So they want to change but this is the kind of change you do not want your teenager to have Until they're sure a hundred percent that this is what they want and they understand the full consequences, but now It's easy and it's encouraged and it's supported and if you're against it if you speak up against it if you say anything against it If you discuss it in any way Without embracing it endorsing it Your transphobic which is worse than being racist and you're you're probably a racist too because I think Intersectionality says that if you're one of these evils, you're all of these evils the leftist killing itself J.K. Allens is a leftist. She supports a leftist causes. She's a prominent woman on the left But they're killing them themselves This is why I always said the left ultimately the nutty left ultimately cannot rule It is to disintegrate it It is too violent. It is too out To kill it its own people They need a Dogma that many more people can accept they need a real religion What they have right now is not enough of a religion yet. So Good for J.K. Allens. I'm a big fan of Harry Potter and And you know as a and and she writes well. She's intelligent her reasoning Is good again, you're not gonna agree with everything. I don't agree with everything But it's it's it's worth reading if you're interested in this culture They're just writes people off. So she's been written off by millions and millions of people online They've been book burnings of J.K. Allens books of Harry Potter because she said something That they view as transphobic What we need today what I called a new intellectual would be any man or woman who is willing to think Meaning any man or woman who knows that man's life must be guided by reason By the intellect not by feelings wishes women's or mystic revelations Any man or woman who values his life and who does not get want to give in to today's of despair cynicism and impotence and does not Intend to give up the world to the dark ages and to the role of the collectivist Using the super chat and I noticed yesterday when I appealed for support for the show many of you step forward and actually Supported the show for the first time. So I'll do it again. Maybe we'll get some more today If you like what you're hearing if you appreciate what I'm doing then I appreciate your support Those of you who don't yet support the show, please take this opportunity go to your own book show calm slash support or go to subscribe star calm your own book show and And make a kind of a monthly contribution to keep this to keep this going. I'm not sure when the next