This might be one of my favorite things in all biology. This, take a look at this and tell me where does the electron transport chain happen. Use my little diagram as a guide because if you look at this, you'll be like, whoa, really? Just like all our other pictures that I'm showing you, it's super complex. We're going to look, I'm going to draw you a picture of it, in a windy style, but this is taking place in the cell membrane of the mitochondria itself. It's actually taking place in that inner-folded mitochondrial membrane and the intermembrane space between my two membranes is really important to the function of the electron transport chain. All right, let's draw a picture. Here's what I'm going to tell you. You might as well have some visual that allows us to appreciate the fact that all of our electron carriers are going to the electron transport chain. They're headed there. They're on their way. And we're going to draw a picture of what they're going to find. Hey, we can't go that way. There's no paper there. You can go up. We're going to draw a picture. You ready? It's color-coded and it's color-coded to match the other images that I've drawn elsewhere. Okay, this I'm going to draw, I can't help it.  And here are my two membranes. Are you in agreement? And I'm taking a little slice like this, okay? I've got my cytoplasm up here. My outer mitochondrial membrane is purple. And then look at how I'm going to draw my blue inner mitochondrial membrane. I'm just going to draw it in a flat line. And I'm going to do that just so you can visualize that I've just taken a little slice. And this flat line actually, even though it actually is curving, I've zoomed in so much that it appears to be a flat line. Now, inside here is the mitochondrial matrix. And in between these, remember, is the intermembrane space. Intermembrane space. All right. And all of these are important anatomical locations to understand the function. Who is coming to this electron transport chain to determine her? Well, our electron carriers, and what do they have? There were 12 of them. And every single one of them is carrying two electrons. So watch, and there are 12 of them. 12 of them coming to do a job. I want you to look at this. I'm going to draw a totally diagrammatic view of a set of proteins that are embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. I'm going to draw another one right now while we're at it because I can't help it. This one is just about the coolest thing that ever existed. I'm going to draw it in here now and I'll tell you what happens to it. That thing is so awesome. All right, watch. First of all, in comes an electron carrier. The electron carrier delivers these high-energy electrons. Hands them off. It's like, hey, electron transport chain protein.  That's the first thing that happens. These proteins rock on. I'm cool with that. Go ahead and hand me those high-energy electrons. And then those high-energy electrons make sense they have energy in them. Guess what this guy does? This protein captures some of the energy in those high-energy electrons and says, okay, I'm going to use some energy to do some work. And the work that is going to be done is super random. Well, it'll appear random to you. You're going to be like, dude, really? What is this? The energy in the high-energy electrons is going to be used to pump hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space. And they're going in against their concentration gradient. That's how you know it's going to require energy. Who's providing the energy? The high-energy electrons that came from these carriers. I think of it as passing these electrons downhill. Now watch. This first protein uses a little bit of energy from these high-energy electrons and passes them off to the next protein, which then captures energy that is released. I think of it. I draw them to have kind of a potential energy, like you're passing these electrons downhill. And so if you're losing potential energy in these electrons as you pass them from protein to protein, I am guaranteed that there is a very clear chemical explanation for this. I just think of it as passing them downhill. And when you pass them downhill, energy is released and we capture that energy and use it to pump protons into this intermembrane space. The second buddy-buddy is going to do exactly the same thing. Using the energy that comes out of these high-energy electrons, it's going to pass them down. I can get orange. I really can. There we go. Pass them down. And each time we're releasing a little bit of energy that is captured and used to pump more protons into this intermembrane space. Really? Is anybody like going, why are we doing this? I am. Let me tell you. Oh my gosh, this is a true story. This is not a windification. Now we've got a whole bunch of protons in this space. And where do they want to go? They're like, ah, proton party.  Get me out of here. They want to get out. And this molecule is called ATP synthase.  It's like a water wheel. It spins. And it spins in a circle when every time a hydrogen ion passes through it. There's a little thing in there that spins. And when it spins, guess what it does? Oh my gosh, this is so amazing. It takes ADP plus P and it produces ATP. I am not lying. This is what really happens. Oh my gosh, that is so phenomenal. So every time hydrogen ions pass through, we're able to make ATP. And in fact, it's like, I don't know, 30 ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose in the electron transport chain. Seriously? Now, we have 12 of these guys. And that's awesome. We can actually keep passing electrons on as long as we have a final electron acceptor. And I'm telling you, we need oxygen. We just keep on deciding. I can't decide what color to make it. Oxygen is my final electron acceptor. And I want you to think about this for just a second. It's why you breathe. It's why you need oxygen at all because you need oxygen to be the final electron acceptor. When oxygen grabs those two electrons, you'll also grab a couple of random hydrogen ions here. And ultimately, this is so phenomenal. It produces water.  Take a look at your chemical equation and you will see that water is one of the byproducts. And oxygen is required if you don't have oxygen as your final electron acceptor. You're going to get a log jam. And your electron, your high-energy electron carriers aren't going to have anywhere to put their electrons. So the whole thing is going to back up. You're not going to get all that energy because it is anaerobic respiration, not aerobic. As long as you have oxygen, you've got aerobic respiration going on, which is...


Yeah, my morning routine is pretty simple. Drink my coffee, and I have to work. I'm Peter Taylor. I'm a director at Hulu. I do content acquisition that means that I'm, you know, working with TV channels to get their channels on Hulu with live TV service. I had an older brother who went into the Army and managed to get a great education while he was in the Army and I was still just in high school kind of watching this. I wanted to go see the world, explore, learn about myself and I knew the military was going to offer me that and I saw him, you know, with my brother going through it. I knew it was possible to do it and it's the right decision for me. We're going to my cubicle. This is where all the magic happens. The big important stuff that we do at Hulu. I was always enthralled by the media, by the broadcast industry in particular and clever recruiters and they're like, you know, we've got that in the Army. It's always another, we've got that in the Army story. The rest is history. Before I left the Army, I got admitted to Wharton, did two years of business school, was always networking, always meeting people. I got recruited to Fox and that led me to, you know, to getting this job at Hulu. My time in the Army taught me about perseverance and dealing with hardship. If you feel something different to the table, like military experience, they just get this idea that, you know what, there's no task that's too big for you. You learn those skills in the Army and you got to lean on them. It will really set you apart.


To session 16 on Quality Control and Improvement with Minitab, I am Professor Indrajit Mukherjee from Shailesh J. Mehta School of Management, Diary to Bombay. So, in the previous session, what we are doing is that we are giving some basic ideas on statistics which will be used for quality control and improvement. So, I will only touch the relevant part which is required for our course and we will not go into much details about because that can be you already have a sense of that in statistical course or any other course on basic statistics like that ok. But I will give you hints what we are doing over here for in quality control is that we take samples let us say machine outputs are coming and in that case what we do is that infinite populations we can assume for that and in that case we take some sample and that will be giving us some snapshot about the process and based on that what we do is that we we try to say that this is the process capability and in short term process capability this is the long term process capability. So, because I do not have population information in that case some samples we or reasonable samples we collect and based on that we try to infer about the population. So, over here whenever I am taking a sample I estimate some values over here that is statistic what we call maybe average value what we are interested into and maybe also we are interested into standard deviation of the samples that we have taken and based on that we want to predict what will be the mu of the population and what will be the sigma of the population that means standard deviation of the population like that. So, this x bar s is known as statistic this s bar s is known as statistic and this statistic can also can follow certain distributions like that this can also follow certain distribution like individual this if we assume this is the target population and these are the random variables x that can follow normal distribution over here and over here statistics statistic that values that we are taken also also can follow our average value that we select because if I take a different sample it will be a different x bar that we get out of the population like that. So, next time I go to the process I take some 10 samples like that I will get a different estimation of x bar like that. So, x bar every time we calculate what we will get is that every time it will be different. So, x bar can also be considered as a random variable because initial ah assessment initial ah x bar initial x ah values that we have selected and that are selected based on randomness that means we have assumed that there is no bias in the sample selection like that ok. So, every time I selecting samples so, that is giving me a value of x bar n s and this values can change if I change the samples like that if I continuously take more samples it will be different. So, this is known as statistic that we are that we are measuring over here and this statistic is also a random variable this statistic is also a random variable over here and so, they they says I want to why I am doing this because I want to predict what is the behavior of the population because I do not have access to population. So, I want to predict that one what will be the behavior of population. So, one of the important statistical concept is over point estimation of the statistic that we are doing. So, if I have 4 samples like that let us consider a apple tree in that case you have taken 4 samples and based on that you calculate the average and you say this average I am expecting the population tree it it is unlikely that it will be exactly equals to that, but this is the estimation I can make and I have I have taken the sample unbiasedly. So, in that case I am predicting and we say that this is a point estimate of the population mu population mu over here. So, in this case although it cannot be exactly equals to mu because it is rare rarest possibility that the average that you have calculated will be exactly equals to mu ok, but I make an estimation over here. So, this estimation what we are making about the we are trying to predict the population mean over here. So, one of the estimation is point estimation that we are making and we are just saying that this x bar will be representative of the population mu like that ok. So, this is known as point estimation. So, when I am making point estimation about the population parameter. So, here x bar is calculated. So, it is calculated as one of the observation is 25, 30, 29 and 34. So, average of this this is the point estimation that we are getting for the population mu over here. So, estimation parameter mu over here ok. Now, this population parameter will keep on change like that it will it will differ because every time I take a samples it will be different. So, this will also be a random variable this will also be a random variable and this population this sample parameters can if it is random variable it will follow certain distribution it can follow certain distribution or maybe popular distribution like normal distributions like that ok. So, any other distribution we can think of. So, this statistic can follow certain sampling distribution. So, probability distribution of a statistic is known as sampling distribution because every time I am taking a samples and based on that x bar let us say every time I am calculating and x bar will follow certain distributions like that ok. So, that is the idea of sampling distribution. So, I am doing sampling distribution and also one important theory that comes into that is also important over here which is known as law of large number that means if you have large number of observations and mean of the samples gets closer and closer to the population mean like that. So, overall mean of the population if you take every time some mean some and you keep on drawing the samples like that it will happen that this fluctuation over here. So, initial samples that you have taken and the fluctuation will be converging to the population mean like that. So, more and more you take independent observations, average values and average will tend towards the population average like that. So, that is known as law of large number ok. And when we do sampling distribution of the means over here that is when we calculate the sample when we try to determine the probability distribution of the sample means statistician has given us a formulation over here it says that x bar will follow normal over here with mean will be same as original x follows let us say normal over here and with mu and sigma over here mu and sigma square over here. So, x bar will follow normal with mu and sigma by root n like that. So, this is and this will be sigma over here if you assume over here say x will follow normal with mean and sigma this is proved like that. So, over here what happens is that distribution is somewhat more we can say more closer as compared to the original x populations like that this or the variability of the variability of the statistic will decrease because here we are taking a factor of square root of n in the denominator like that. So, earlier this is sigma. So, sigma will reduce and sigma will be for the sampling distribution it will be sigma by root n over here. So, this is one of the things that we have to consider when we are analyzing afterwards using statistics like that sigma by root n is the standard deviation estimated standard deviation of the sample statistics ok sample statistic which is over here average value that means, x bar. So, x bar follows normal with mean remain same and only sigma changes to the sigma by root n like that because I am taking average. So, I am smoothing it out in that case fluctuations will be less variability will be less. So, sigma by root n is the formulation that statistician has given us ok and central limit theorem also is another important concept that is used that means, a underlying x variables can be of any types of follow any types of distribution, but if you take the average like sample statistics over here average over here is considered. So, in that case what will happen is that that will converge to normal these normal distributions like that it can be of any distribution it can be proved like that as you increase the sample numbers and you take the average and then try to plot the average what will happen is that the distribution of the average will follow normal like that. So, that is why what you see in quality is that we take more number of observations to calculate the average and then we assume that average will tend towards normal like that theory says like that way ok. So, like in control chart we take subgroup size what we have seen like that. So, five subgroups and I take the average and we plot the average like that and we assume the average follows normal distribution. So, basic underlying idea over here is the central limit theorem that we can consider over here ok and then another important concept that is also required when we move forward is known as confidence interval over here. So, confidence interval idea says that exactly I cannot heat whenever I am calculating some samples from the apple tree and I am trying to predict the population average values of the weight of the apples like that. So, in that case what will happen is that I can only do destructive testing or take 4 or 5 apples and I cannot do it several times like that that is uneconomical for me. So, in that case what I will do is that I will take one samples and based on that I would like to predict what where will be the population average values like that. So, population average so, for that one concept was developed over here by the statistician which is known as confidence interval over here with one estimation of x bar one estimation of x bar what we can say is that with certain confidence that the lower bound and upper bound where mu will lie I can determine over here. So, this L and mu L and upper specification let us say upper limits like that. So, some bounds can be given to this mu based on one estimation which is x bar over here. So, I have only one estimation and I have some information on standard deviation over here. So, if I have mean information and standard deviation information which can be also sampled standard deviation over here. So, if you have these two parameter information or some estimates over here, then I can say where the mu should lie that means where the mu should lie this confidence interval and this gives you better better assessment over here rather than saying x bar will be exactly equals to mu I am saying that if x bar is this much mu should lie within this to these values like that. So, I am giving a confidence interval over here and confidence interval over here depends on certain value which is known as z statistics over here and assuming that the sigma values of the population is known most of the time it may may not be known. So, in that case this z will be replaced by t statistics like that. So, there are different distributions continuous distribution very some of the important distribution used in quality for assessing and design of experiments are f distribution, t distribution and z distribution that is normal distribution like that ok. So, normal distribution, t distribution, f distribution these are the common distributions or chi square distribution. So, these are the distributions which will be used for quality analysis like that quality control and improvement analysis like that ok. So, one of the important concepts over here is shown over here. So, mu will lie. So, if you take an average one average over can fall over here one average can fall over here one average can fall over here, but whenever you are building the confidence interval you can be sure. So, let us say they have developed a 95 percent confidence interval and I have one average it is expected that and you do multiple times I take multiple average over here see if I have taken 10 10 10 times I have taken the sample. So, I can expect that over here 9.5 times. So, over here. So, if it is 90 percent over here we can assume that 9 out of 10 or more than that will be within the confidence interval that I have given over here. So, in this case. So, that is given as confidence interval like that. So, one sample with some confidence level which is given over here as alpha over here that is known as alpha is known as level of significance alpha is known as level of significance. And if you can define the alpha what level of significance you want that will define the width of this confidence interval over here that will define the width of the confidence interval over here. So, if you want to be more confident over here you increase the alpha values over here and in that case the calculation will show you give you a wider range of this. So, that means, you can expect that if I increase the level of confidence if I have to increase the level of confidence in that case alpha has to be decreased over here. So, in this case error error ah or ah committing error which is known as alpha over here. So, this alpha values needs to be decreased over here, you want to be more confident over here. So, you need to expand this band over here rather than 95 I want to expand this to 99 ah band width of this and in that case what will happen is that this area will go down over here and alpha will come down alpha is the rejection basically ah how much I I can ah I can be wrong like that how how much time ah you you can think of that probability of going wrong like that ok. My estimation of confidence level can go wrong in what is the percentage chance of that like that ok. So, if you define alpha and you calculate one average over here and you can calculate the standard deviation either by s or sigma over here I can define a confidence zone or lower limit and upper limit over here I can define over here that means, with a given estimation of x bar which may not be there can be error between x bar and mu over here, but ah what we expect is that maximum error I can commit when I am over here in this zone or in this zone. So, I am saying that mu is expected to lie within this zone and this zone over here this is the confidence interval ah confidence interval of mu over here ah or population mu over here ok. So, I am giving a ah with some confidence over here. So, ah chances is that 95 percent of the time ah I will be right, but 5 percent of the time I can be wrong over here that is why probability is used over here. So, this is a ah concept of confidence interval we can think of. So, this idea of confidence interval so, if I take an average so, what you have to do is that ah you take ah samples from the process and based on that I want to infer about the population mean or standard deviation whatever you can think of. So, in that case statistician has given us some formulas that if this is the mean or this is the standard deviation I can calculate what is the confidence interval of ah population parameter ah where the population parameter is expected with certain confidence level that means, ah I can be wrong, but that will be defined by alpha levels what we are saying as level of significance over here. So, you define the level of significance ah and give me x x bar values and estimation of variance over here then I can tell you what what is the confidence interval within which ah mu is expected or the or the population parameter is expected like that. So, that is known as confidence interval that idea is given as confidence interval over here ok. With that estimation so, even sigma can be estimated over here unbiased estimation is s that is sample standard deviation over here. Again with this estimation if you have s again lower and upper control this lower and upper limits or bounds of the ah ah mu can be given over here which is given in formulation and only t statistics is used over here where alpha is the level of significance that already I have mentioned ah what is the chance that I can go wrong like that and there will be some degree of freedom which is mentioned over here as n. So, these two ah if you can define and I can define what is the value like z values over here we can also define what is the t value for a given level of alpha and given level of degree of freedom I can always assume ah and this depends on the sample observation that you have taken. So, sample size and minus 1 so, this will give me the estimation of n over here. So, I I can define the confidence interval confidence interval over here only thing is that instead of sigma I have used s over here. So, sigma whenever I am using sigma in that case ah this this ah over here it will be replaced by z alpha by 2 over here and if s we have no estimation of sigma or population ah variance or variation population variation or standard deviation over here which is expressed as sigma. So, in that case ah what is possible is that I can I can just place the unbiased estimation which is s, s is a sample standard deviation over here which is calculated by individual observation by x bar divided by n minus 1 as a degree of freedom. So, in this case what will happen is that I can replace that one only thing I will use a t distribution instead of z distribution like that ok. So, when variance is unknown so, in that scenario ah t statistics will be used in that scenario t will be used to find out the confidence interval to find out the confidence interval. So, we have to remember ah two important things over here one is known as confidence interval one is known as level of significance that means what is the probability that I can be wrong. So, this this will be defined by level of significance like that if it is 5 percent 5 percent of the time this confidence interval that I have given can be wrong like that. So, that is the that is the interpretation I can make out of this ok confidence interval and ah if variance is known in that case we use z ah to define the ah bounds and if sigma a variance is unknown population variance is unknown in that case it will be replaced by ah t t statistic over here. So, t ah it and we can get this t value from tables which is provided in any statistical book at the end of the books you will find, but MINITAB will do it automatically for you. So, we will define the samples and MINITAB will do it automatically for you. So, this is one of the example that we will use to demonstrate how MINITAB does ah builds the confidence interval like that. So, this is a table which shows investigation of mercury contamination is large amount bus over here. So, a sample of fish was selected from ah 53 Florida lakes and mercury concentration in the muscle tissue was measured like that in ppm and this is the measures that you see concentration over here these are the values that we are getting and this data set is taken from Montgomery's book and the ah population standard deviation value is given over here. So, I want the ah mean upper bound and lower bound over here. So, lower bound. So, I want to build the confidence I want to determine the confidence interval of this. So, upper bound and lower bound over here. So, in this case let us assume that alpha equals to 0.05 like that and that is a probability I can go wrong. So, ah with that what we can do is that we can define the formulation over here which is given in the last slide also and this is the formulation for ah lower bound and upper bound calculation like that. So, this is the data set that we are having we can always calculate x bar average over here and sigma is known over here. So, in this case immediately and n is also known number of observations over here is given. So, I can calculate what is the lower limit even if I use the formulas and the final calculation what you see is that the confidence interval of nu is coming out to be 0.43112.6188 like that. Let us do it in Minitab and try to figure out that whether ah Minitab is also giving the same results or not ok. So, what I will do is that I will go to ah Minitab file where it is given. So, in this case what we will do is that ah. So, other than this file we may be having another file where we have confidence interval and the data set will be there. So, let us open the data set and this is the consideration what what example we are talking about concentration in PPM. So, in this case what is given is that this data set is given over here. So, this is the consideration data set that we are having and we want to find a confidence interval. So, when sigma is given. So, I will go to stat basic stat maybe and I will go to one sample Z over here one sample Z. So, in this case what I will do is that I will identify each in column. So, it is not summarized. So, concentration over here and known standard deviation I have to give over here. So, known standard deviation which is given is 0.3486 and that I will write 0.3486 and if I and then in that case everything I do not want to and confidence interval that over here one option is there 95 percent band you want or whatever you want that you have to mention. Now, this hypothesis testing we have not discussed. So, ignore this one do not click this one. So, I am not clicking anything over here. So, I am I am just trying to figure out if sigma is known and the data set is given where the population mu will lie like that. So, that is a confidence zone I want to calculate and for that in options what I have taken is that 95 percent confidence level that means confidence level is taken. So, alpha will be 100 minus 95 that means 5 percent over here. So, that means I can be wrong 5 percent over time. So, if you click ok over here and you click ok what will happen is that you will get this information like this. So, in this case what happens is that we can we can just enlarge this one we can copy this one and we can also paste it in excel let us say and we can just see the values maybe it is from here it is difficult to see. So, I am just copy pasting this one excel excel sheet over here. So, if I if I do that so in this case what we have done is that so once again just go back to the previous one. So, I will copy as picture if I if I do that and paste it over here now now it is possible. So, this is not required and I can just enlarge this one like that. So, you can now it should be visible somewhat distorted, but this is visible over here and number of observation is 53 over here mean of the observation is 0.52 that is the sample observation and sample standard deviation is given and standard error of mean over here is calculated by standard deviation divided by square root of n like that. So, you can calculate that one you will get standard error of mean that is the variability of the mean basically. So, then 95 percent confidence interval of mu that is calculated is 0.4311 and my calculation hand calculation also says 4311 is the calculation and 6188 is the calculation when I am doing this. So, 6188 is also same. So, minute I have calculated the same thing if I have done it by hand also I am getting the same values over here. So, known standard deviation is equals to 0.3486 that I have that I have to input over here. So, in this case it becomes easier for me to calculate the confidence interval. So, this is how we are calculating over here and confidence interval is very easy. So, I can calculate the confidence interval for a given sample observations. So, similarly what we can see now this z values of alpha by 2 what you see over here alpha by 2. So, this is 0.025 over here. So, in this case what happens is that I need a z table for determining for the z statistics that is written over here z 0.25. So, this value that you see over here is I also need over here. So, n is known sigma is known x bar is known, but z alpha by 2 is not known to me. So, how do I get that z alpha values over here? So, I have a standard normal table like that and standard normal table will tell me that where it is. So, 9725. So, if you have done some basic course on statistics you must be knowing that how to see standard normal distributions like that. So, in this case 1.96 this value is basically giving z value of 1.96 that will give you a area under the curve that means area under the curve over here. So, this is the area shaded area over here this is coming out to be 0.975 and 1 minus of 0.975 will give you 0.025 like that ok. So, this this is the value that we are looking for and so, z values can be can be seen from the z tables like that and from there we can calculate this one. So, if z is known then everything is known over here. So, then lower bound and upper bound calculation is easy. So, based on that I can calculate what is the lower bound and upper bound like that ok. So, in case you do not have this standard deviation estimation like that. So, that means only sample mean and sample standard deviation calculation is given. So, instead of z what we need is z t value over here. So, this is given by statistician that to build the confidence interval in that case z distribution cannot be used. So, t distribution has to be used. So, t is a specific distribution which is coming from z distribution. So, this t distribution concept has to be used over here to determine the confidence interval over here. But underlying assumption is that this data follows normality it is this data follows normal over here. So, this assumption should be verified and then only we can give the confidence interval over here. So, in this case confidence interval using t statistics is coming out to be this and this can be calculated this can be seen from tables t tables are there. So, t tables if you see. So, in that case we will get the values of this. So, x bar is known standard deviation of this is known x bar is known. So, in that case immediately I can determine n is also known over here. So, how mini tab does it for you? Let us go to mini tab over here and let us try to see this and you do not have to do anything over here and what you have to do is that we will use the same one. And this is the second data set sorry this is the second data set we are using which is on loads. So, tensile adhesive test that is that is given. So, this load is the data set that we are trying to see and we can go to the data set and I told you how to see normal distribution assumptions. So, immediately we can verify. So, go to basic statistics go to normality test and go to load variables over here do the understanding test and you will get the information over here. And when you see the information over here you see the p value of the is reflecting that 0.836 is the p value. So, it is more than 0.05. So, immediately we can interpret that we can interpret over here that the data set is adding to normal distribution assumption because p is more than 0.05 we have mentioned that if it is more than 0.05 it is normal distribution it is following normal distribution over here. So, this assumption comes out to be true. So, immediately we can we can use the t statistics over here to calculate confidence interval for that what we have to do is that we have to go to stat basic stat. And in that case I have one sample t over here. So, instead of this so, I have to mention load as the data information I will not perform any testing over here. In options 95 percent confidence interval I am keeping over here. So, I will click ok over here and I will I will click ok over here. Whenever I do that I have these values of confidence intervals. So, copy as a picture and we can paste it in excel and try to see what values it is giving like that. Earlier it was that is z distribution now the interval I am using for this t distribution over here to calculate. So, 12.138 15.289 is the values that we are getting over here and let us go back and check what is our calculation. So, 12.14 which is close to 12.138 third place of decimal 15.28 and here also 15.289 like that. So, MINITAB is also giving the same results when hand calculation what we are doing. So, in this case 95 percent confidence interval MINITAB is giving you directly over here ok. So, another option is if standard deviation is we want to see and similarly what we can do is that we can also calculate for this what is the confidence interval for the variability of this that means variation over here. So, what will be the population variance and for that what what we can do is that we use as a we use a specific chi-square distribution over here. So, in this case what you see is that a chi-square distribution can define the confidence interval of sigma over here for any given data and the what we need is that S information number of observations that is selected over here alpha values that we are selecting same way and this has to follow a chi-square distribution with alpha by 2 and n minus 1 degree of freedom like that. So, this is the level of significance over here alpha is considered as a level of significance. So, I can also check the confidence interval of variants over here. So, both the things are possible and here chi-square distribution which is coming from also normal distribution assumptions basic assumptions and defining a normal another random variables which will follow chi-square. So, in this case what they are doing is that they are representing that as a chi-square distribution. So, this statistics this can be can this values can we can we can get it from chi-square tables like that. So, in this case we have some tables from where we will get the values of chi-square over here. So, I can I can do that and MINITAB does it automatically for you for mean also for standard deviation. So, it will it will give you a confidence interval for the mean also it will give you a confidence interval for the variance also over here. So, if if I have to calculate variance confidence interval what I have to do is that I have to go over here and in this case let us go to stat and basic stat and I have one variance like that. So, in this case I will say load I want to estimate the variance I will not perform any hypothesis testing 95 percent confidence interval I will keep and same way if I if I click ok over here. So, this is chi-square interval that is giving. So, here you can see like that two points. So, if I copy this as a picture I can paste this one below this one and what you get is that confidence interval of using the standard standard process that is chi-square distribution. So, you have to see over here 2.7 into 5.08 like that ok that is possible from here also there is a graphical summary over here if you go to basic stat graphical summary if you go to graphical summary what will happen is that you click on graphical summary I want to see for load and confidence level is given as 95 percent. So, if you click ok what will happen is that you will get some graphical summary over here. So, in this case what is what you can see is basically all information together over here all information together over here. So, so understanding normality test was done and p value is more than 0.05. So, data seems to be normal. So, 0.838 is more than p that p value that alpha value that we have taken as 5 percent like that. So, this is coming out with more than 0.05. So, this is adhering to that mean value standard deviation variance skewness kurtosis of the distribution is given minimum maximum all this statistic as this basic statistic information is given over here 95 percent confidence interval of mean. So, over here I have not mentioned standard deviation. So, in this case it will automatically calculate based on t distribution and it can calculate interval for median it can also calculate interval for standard deviation over here. So, in this case only only thing is that what is the underlying formula you can see from minute I have helped like that and you can find out figure out you can do it by hand also. So, confidence interval of mean and standard deviation can also be determined over here can also be seen over here based on the estimation over here and chi-square distribution can be used over here and x bar in this case t distribution can be used over here ok. So, I can get it in one go over here what I have done is that basic statistics graphical summary over here. And if you go to descriptive statistics over here if I if I give this data over here and then I go to statistics over here, here also there is possibility that I can see standard error, standard deviation, mean median and loss information no missing variables over here. So, in the quartile range over here of the data set coefficient of variation also we can see which is the ratio between sigma by mean basically. So, how much is the standard deviation with respect to the mean how much is the magnitude of standard deviation with respect to. So, if I click ok over here and in graph also you can see the box plot of the data set that is given and histogram with normal distribution that is also possible over here is played a descriptive statistics. So, this is the descriptive statistic that you see this is the graph what we have seen earlier and this is the box plot of the data that it is giving. So, only thing is that over here you will not get the confidence interval. So, but that can be seen when we are going to basic stat and you are using graphical summaries over here or otherwise what you can do confidence interval. If sigma is known I will use one sample z, if sigma is unknown in that case I will use one sample t and for variance I will see one variance test over here. So, but when I am using t I am assuming the normal distribution assumptions and we can check that one when we implement and try to figure out what is the confidence interval of the mean based on one sample. So, what we are trying to do are trying to say over here in this in this session what we have tried to say is that with one single x bar information and s information we can predict the behavior of the population, we can predict the parameters or interval where mu will lie or sigma will lie basically ok. So, this is a unique thing that is given by the statistician and we are using that so that we do not have to do experiments time and again like that in design of experiments only when one go we have to we have to predict basically one go we have to figure out what should be the setting like that. So, in that case this confidence interval concept is very important and from here we will continue and try to figure out that more statistical information what is required like hypothesis testing that we will try to address in the next lecture. So, thank you for listening. So, in next lecture we will talk about basics of hypothesis testing which will be used for our experimentation which will be useful. So, I will not discuss huge hypothesis testing concepts like that. So, I will give you some hints what is hypothesis testing and based on that we will proceed in our course. So, this is quality control and improvement. So, we this is not a statistics course. So, what we are highlighting what is required in our course. So, that that we are going. So, we can stop here and we will continue from here. Thank you.


A fiery horse with a speed of light, a clot of dust, and a hearty hyo silver, the Lone Ranger. With his faithful Indian companion, Toto, the daring and resourceful masked rider of the planes led the fight for law and order in the early western United States. Nowhere in the pages of history can one find a greater champion of justice. Return with us now to those thrilling days of yesteryear. From out of the past come the thundering hoof beats of the great horse, Silver. The Lone Ranger rides again. Come on, Silver. Let's go, big fellow. Are you Silver? The Lone Ranger and his Indian companion, Toto, were camped on one of the small tributaries of the Arkansas River, a few miles from the Santa Fe Trail. They were awaiting the return of Dan Reed, young nephew of the masked man, who had written to the stagecoach station to get copies of the eastern newspapers. Presently they saw an Indian smoke signal rise from a distant ridge to the south. That message for me, Kimosabi. Me take blanket. Answer message. All right, here, Toto, take this one. Quickly, Toto pulled green grass and piled it over the campfire. Then with depth strokes, he swung a blanket to and fro, breaking the smoke column into irregular pups. For the next few moments, Toto and the Lone Ranger watched the answering pups of smoke in the distance. So what is it, Toto? A Tonto's good friend, chief little dog. Him wants to see me. Chief little dog? Ah. He's on the Washtaw Reservation now. Isn't that right? Him, Cheyenne. All Cheyenne on Reservation now. You know why he wants to see you? No. Message only say come fast. Very well, he must have a good reason. It's a two-day ride to the Washtaw. I'd suggest you get started as soon as you've eaten. And you not go? No, Toto, I'll wait here until Dan gets back. We'll follow tomorrow. Oh, where we meet after we see chief? Do you remember where we camped on the Washtaw River two years ago? Uh-huh.  We stay in big caves. Yes, that's the place. Dan and I'll meet you there. Oh, me? Now then go. Oh, when you get to the Reservation, report to the agent in charge. Uh, me do that. What agent's name? He's named Lucky, Jim Lucky. He was appointed agent there about a year ago. Now, me see him first, then see chief little dog. It was several hours later when Dan Reed rode into camp.  Oh, oh. Steady fellow. You were gone a long time, Dan. I had to wait, sir. Stage coach was late. Here are the eastern papers. Thanks. Where's Toto? He's on his way to the Washtaw Reservation. The Washtaw? Yes. He received a message to see his friend chief little dog. You and I are going to meet him at a camp we used two years ago. Calia, I hope he doesn't run into trouble. Trouble? What do you mean? Read what it says in the papers, sir. Where? I'll show you. There. It says that any Indian south of the Arkansas River who are found off the reservations are to be considered renegades. If they're caught there to be exiled to the Florida Everglades. I wish I'd known this before tunnel left. Couldn't we overtake him? I doubt it. We'll soon be getting dark. Let me read this article in detail. Yes, sir. I didn't get a chance to read it all. I was in a hurry to get back to camp. Seems that Indian renegades have refused to return to the reservations have been causing trouble. The terrorized settlers have been raiding supply trains bound for the agencies. Golly. But sending them to the Florida Everglade seems worse than sentencing them to death. The Everglades are bad, Dan. The huge swamp infested with the war. Indians who are not accustomed to the region don't live long there. I'm worried about Tano. Don't worry, Dan. He should be picked up by an army patrol. He'd identify himself. Yes, I guess so. Most army people know about Tano. They'd know he's down to renegade. We'll spend the night here and get an early start in the morning. Two days later, Jim Lackey, the agent of the Florida Everglade, stood in the doorway of his quarters and watched a man in the uniform of a sergeant of the United States Cavalry ride up and dismount. Hold it. Hold it. Silly boy. Hi, Bullen. Hello, Lackey. I was wondering when you'd show up. Come on in. Have a seat. Yeah. Any news on the mixed supply train that's bound for you? Yeah. Well, there's one on the way somewhere. Yeah. But I've got bad news for you. Oh, that's so. What is it? These raids you and your men have been staging have raised a squawk in Washington. You've got to lay off for a while until things cool down. How do you mean? Well, a messenger rode in from Dodge City yesterday. Because of the raids, the army's issued orders to arrest all Indians found off their reservations. They'll be considered renegades and sent to the Florida Everglades. But it's not Indians who've been doing the raid. Yeah, I know. But in my reports to Washington, I've blamed it on renegades. I want them to keep thinking it's Indians. Yeah, I can see why you would. So do I. I sure wish we could have nabbed this next supply train before their mortars were issued. You'd better leave well enough alone for the time being. That's not all. No? Department of Indian Affairs. I don't want anybody snooping around here. We lay low for a while and let the supply trains come through. Washington will soon forget all about it. Well, it's the Indian Bureau getting excited about it. They're afraid some of their red skins will starve unless the supplies get through. Anyway, I don't want some investigator coming in here and talking to Chief Little Dog as he begins to squawk. Lanny. He's been writing letters to the great white father and the average of one or two of his men. I don't want any of that. I don't want any of that. He's been writing letters to the great white father and the average of one a week for the past two months. Letters? Can he write? As good as you can. He speaks perfect English as well. Of course his letters don't get to the great white father. No? Why not? He brings them in here for me to send. I tear them up. Yeah, I only hope he don't sneak a letter out sometime. Okay. Someone's riding up. Let's change the subject. There's an Indian. Here he comes now. How? Come on in, Indian. Me want see man named Lackey. I'm Lackey. What do you want? Me come to see good friend, Chief Little Dog. You got your own rations? Me got plenty rations. Good thing you have. Grub shy around here right now. Can't be feeding any stray Indians. You have plenty rations soon. How do you mean? Well, on way here me see supply train. Six wagons. Oh, is that so? All far from the reservation, are they? Maybe get here tomorrow. Well, that's good news. Where me find Chief Little Dog? Right west about four miles till you come to the creek. Then turn right. Little Dog and his folks are camped upstream away. Me go find him. Just a minute, Indian. Where are you from? Me come from North. Me not Cheyenne. What's your name? Me Tonto. All right, go on. Adios. Adios. Why'd you ask his name, Bowen? I've either seen him or heard about him before, but I just can't place where it went. You're thinking of them Tonto Indians down in Arizona. There's a tribe of them called Tottos. No, no, I don't think so. At any rate, you'd better shove on. Some of your men might spot that supply train and decide to jump it without waiting for you. Yeah, that's right. Well, I'll get going. Drop in now, and then I'll keep your post on any new developments. I'll do that. Adios. Adios. Adios. Meanwhile, Tonto located the lodges of Chief Little Dog and his people, and the chief who prided himself on his ability to write and speak fluent English, told of the hunger and poverty of his tribe, and how his many letters to the great white father in Washington had been ignored. You are a friend of the one called the Lone Ranger. Perhaps he could persuade the great white father to send food and clothing to my people. That's right. But me think great white father get letter from Chief Little Dog, send plenty supplies right now. Me see supply train, six wagons on way to agency. Maybe arrive tomorrow. I fear that this supply train like the others may not get here. It may be attacked and destroyed. Who attacks supply train? The agent Lacky says it is renegades among our own people, Tonto. Perhaps it is true. Well, there are some Indians who refuse to go to reservations. Ah, Indian renegades make plenty trouble. This supply train must get to the reservation for my people starve. Little Dog shall make certain that it does arrive safely. And what you do? I will take 20 of my bravest men. We will go at once and guard the wagons from attack. Oh, that not good, Chief Little Dog. Agent Lacky maybe make plenty trouble for you. He will not know what we have done until the wagons have arrived safely at the agency. Come, Tonto, you must show us the way. Well, maybe men on supply wagon think we right to attack. Maybe them shoot at it. I have thought of that, Tonto. We will watch the supply train from the hills. We will show ourselves only if an attack is made up. Ah, that good. Me go. Meanwhile, the Lone Ranger and Dan Reed have been riding toward the Wachita River where they plan to rejoin Tonto. As they topped a ridge overlooking the winding and rugged valley of the river, the Lone Ranger drew up his horse.  Why are we stopping, sir? Looks like the army's beaten us to our camping ground, Dan. Look down there. Golly, soldiers. That's where I plan to meet Tonto. It's an excellent camping place. We stopped there two years ago. Must be all of 20 soldiers there, sir. Yes, probably a detachment from Fort Mason looking for renegades. Gosh, I hope Tonto doesn't ride in there. What do we do now? Better ride on and find another camp for the night. Then we'll go into the agency in the morning and meet Tonto there. It'll be dark soon. I know a suitable place a few miles from here. Let's go. Come on, sir. Come on, Victor. Hold on. Hold on. Steady, boy. It's me, Sergeant Bollum. Open up, Lacky. Right in here at this town at night, Fort Bollum. You remember that Indian who rode in here today? He did. Yeah, I remember. What about him? I got cleaned back to camp and it kept pestering me. I knew I'd seen that Indian somewhere. Yeah, I've seen lots of Indians. I saw that Indian about a year ago, just before me and my gang deserted the cavalry. Well, that's a good idea. I'm sure we'll see him again. I'm sure we'll see him again. I'm sure he'll see me and my gang deserted the cavalry. What are you driving at? Lacky? That Indian's the one who rides with a lone ranger. Are you sure that's... Positive. I even remember that paint horse he is now. That means he's here for no good. Chief Little Dog tells him about those letters he wrote to the great white father. We're going to be in a peck of trouble. That's why I rode here to tell you who he is. Bollum. While I get dressed, you go settle my horse. We've got to get that Indian before he gets back to the lone ranger. Now get moving. I'll have your horse settled and waiting by the time you're ready. The curtain falls on the first act of our lone ranger story. Before the next exciting scenes, please permit us to pause for just a few moments to continue our story. When the crooked Indian agent Jim Lacky and the deserter Bollum arrived at the camp of Chief Little Dog and his people, he found the chief, Toto, and a number of braves missing. By threats, the two men forced Little Dog's squaw to tell where they had gone, and with this information, they rode out of camp for some distance before Lacky called a halt. Oh, hold on, hold on, hold on, hold on. Well, Lacky, what do you make of it? It's the best break we ever got, Bollum. How do you mean it's a break? I've been telling the brass in Washington that there's Indians who've been raiding the supply wagons. Yeah, yeah, I know. Now we can prove it is. But they haven't gone to attack them wagons. The squaw said that they were going to guard them. Sure, but I've got orders that say all Indians found off their reservations are to be considered renegades and sent to Florida. They're off the reservation right now. I never thought of that. Your men are still in uniform. That's how they've been able to close in on the supply wagons. And we'll ride and get them. And we'll round up the Indians as renegades. And we're going to get there by daybreak. I'll tell you the rest while we travel. Let's go. As day broke over the Wachita Valley, the lone ranger and Dan Reed climbed into the saddle and headed toward the agency. They had ridden but a short distance when they sighted the six supply wagons moving slowly over the trail. And then the masked man drew in the Great Horse Silver. Hold it over, hold it over. What's the matter, sir? Dan, look to that ridge of hills in the west. See those riders? Golly, they're Indians. Yes, they are. It looks to me as if they're getting ready to attack that supply train. It sure does. The riding in a group. Dan, we've got to act fast. You must help. What can we do? Remember the soldiers we saw last night? Yes, sir. Ride there and get them as quickly as you can. What about you, sir? I'm joining the wagon train. And Dan? Yes, sir. If anything should happen here before you return to the soldiers, go to Tonto. And Dan never leave him.  It's possible, Dan. Adios. Victor, we've got to get the soldiers quickly.  Including the drivers and guards, there were 18 men in the supply train. They also had seen the Indians riding in the distance and, believing they were to be attacked, welcomed the arrival of the lone ranger. Pete Baskham, the wagon boss, expressed his sentiments in no uncertain terms. As far as I'm concerned, you may be in our hood wearing that mask. Right now, I'm not particular. You brought in to help as you're welcome. Sure. I'm no bandit. Them Indians have been covering us since daybreak. We're getting mighty close to the reservation now. They're going to attack. They'll do it mighty soon. Yes, you're right about that. I sent for troops, but it may be too late when they get here. Hey, what's that? That's a bugle. Yes, and I see them. They're near the Indians now. They must have heard that bugle, too. But they're not running. Perhaps they're going to put up a fight. I'll use my field glasses. With glasses, you can see what's happening up there. Oh, sir. For the next few minutes, I saw the distant hills through the binoculars, and he was mystified by what he saw. Pete Baskham and the other wagoners pressed him for information. What do you make of this? There's something strange going on up there. What do you mean? Those Indians never resisted at all. The soldiers disarmed them without any difficulty. Now they're riding toward the agency as prisoners. That is funny. Well, maybe the rich kids figured they'd get a better deal by not putting up a fight. I doubt that. Well, we all must certainly know about the recent order from Washington. What's that? All Indians found off their reservations south of the Arkansas River are to be considered renegades and exiled to the Florida Everglades. That's worse than being shot. Yes, it is. Well, it looks as if the danger to your caravan is over. Thanks to them soldiers who showed up. Oh, if a boy of 15 rides in with more troops, tell them I've gone on ahead and you'll find me at the agency. All yours. All yours. The lone ranger rode away from the wagons at a fast gate and headed toward the Indian agency, thinking that a serious fight had been averted. He didn't suspect that the men who had captured the Indians were outlaws, outcasts and deserters with no right to wear the uniform of the army. Meanwhile, Bowlin, Lackey and the others headed toward the same destination, the Indian agency. But, Lackey, I still don't understand why you didn't let me and my men gun them down. That dead Indian tells no tears. I know what I'm doing, Bowlin. I wish I did. We've got to make it look on the level. The wagon cruise is watching every move and you can bet on it. Yeah, no doubt of that. We'll take the Indians into the agency and store all our guns and take their horses and saddles. They're worth plenty. Yeah, we can pedal them easy enough. But what do we do with the Indians now that we got them? You and your men can start them out on foot as if you're taking them to Galveston to be sent to the Everglades. Oh, sure not. Get them a few miles off the reservation. All of a sudden, they make a break.  Yeah, I get it, Lackey. But there's still one question you haven't answered. What's that? How are you going to explain this to Washington? You know, good and well, me and my men are deserters. When the army starts to check... Now, listen, I'm listening. When you've shot the Redskins right on back to the place where you've been holed up the past few weeks, I'll meet you there. All the stuff we've stored up from the raids on supply trains. You mean you're quitting your job as Indian agent? You bet I am. When the Lone Ranger starts looking for his Indian friend, Tano, I want to be long gone from this reservation. Well, here we are, coming into the agent.  Tell them to store the guns and saddles in the agency commissary for the time being. You can pick them up later. All right, Lackey. Won't take but a few minutes. And then get them Redskins, hofin' it down the south trail as fast as you can prod them along. I don't want them around when the wagons get here.  And Tano will wear them. All right, come on, get up there.  At the Indian agency, Tonto knew that the outlook was grim. He realized that neither he nor any of the other Indians had any hope for fair treatment. Bullen was everywhere, shouting orders and barking commands. His men worked feverishly to get things in order for the arrival of the wagons. The saddles and guns were stored in the commissary. And preparations were made to move the captured Indians along the south trail. But then the agent named Lackey came up on the run. Bullen! Oh, Bullen! I told you to hurry. Get the Indians moving out of here. Hey, what's the matter with you? You're as white as a sheep. Look, look back there. It's him. Get that Indian Tano on the side quick. It's too late for that now. But he'll see him, and Tano will see him. Can't help it now. Here he comes riding in. The lone ranger himself.  New men! Keep them Indians together! They'll keep on flying. What, Bullen? What do we do? What do we say?   Don't you realize there's more than 20 of us in just one of him? Yeah, but just the same.  All right, I will. Just what are you on, mister? I'll identify myself. You don't have to. I know who you are. You do?  Or maybe I'd better say you was the lone ranger. What do you mean by that? When the great white father and wash them, here's what your Indian friend's been up to. You're not going to look so good in that mask. Are you speaking of Tato? Yeah, I am. Hey, Cork. Bring that Indian named Tano up here. Hem and up. Tato, him and the other renegades were all set to raid that wagon train you see coming up the trail yonder. I don't believe it. I saw what happened. Yes, moment. Soldiers say we go to Everglades. Never come back. You'll never go to the Everglades as long as I'm alive, Tato. Too bad, Indian. We caught you red-handed. Off the reservation and stalking the supply train. It's the Everglades for you. You tell lie. We guard supply train, not attack. You better get a move on, Poland. No sense standing here wasting talk. You're not taking this Indian anywhere till I've heard his story. Hey, let go of me. I'm holding you as a shield. Don't think twice before trying to gun me down. Hey, men! Cover that Indian. Now, if this army don't let me go by the count of three, shoot the Indian. Right. One, two. All right. You win, Sergeant. I have no desire to see Tano killed, even though I could have killed you. Yeah, I thought you'd see it that way. Keep him covered, men. Drop him if you make some move for them guns. Yeah, he won't try any more tricks. Here come them wagon ears. When we tell them what happened, they'll string them up. Hey, who's the kid riding in with him? I didn't see him before. The wagon ears must have seen this critter grab you, Bolen. They've got their rifles ready. They're tough families. They'll make sure we're getting his mask, man. All right, you little skitters. We got here just in time for a lynching party. How much rope do you think you'll need to string them up? Don't make a move, mask man. They got your cover. Yeah, that's where you're wrong. I mean you and your men. Cover them, fellas. The first skunk that lifts the carbine, get him down. Hey, what's the idea?   That's right. See what happens, Bolen? Drop them carbine, you skunks. Drop my safe. Yeah, that's better. You'll hang for this? A lot of you will, interfering with the army.  Boy, you're not fit to wear the uniform of the United States Army. Deserter, is that what you said? Tell them, Dan. You see, sir, when you sent me to get the troops we saw last night... Yes, Dan? When I got there, I couldn't find them. I thought surely they'd leave a sentry in camp, so I started looking around. I found the cave Hugh and Tano told me about, and it was filled with loot from the caravans. Are you sure of that? Yes, sir. The crates were plainly marked. It was food and clothing for the Indians here on the reservation. Then I found a poster wadded up and tossed near the fire. A poster? Yes, sir. They were criminals. It showed that they were deserters and the armies looking for them. When Dan rode in and told us mule skinners what he'd found out, we put two and two together and figured there was something fishy about to capture the Indians. They had no intention of riding your wagons. They were guarding them. Isn't that right? Then Dan told us who you are. Well, sir, we started laying leather on the rumps of our mules to get here pronto. We were afraid you'd get into trouble before we could get here. You're right about that, Dan. I really was in trouble. Tell me where your buddy is. Tell Chief Little Dog his men in here free. They can take over these wagons and get food to the tribe. Me too. Pete, I'm going to ask you and your men to help us get these deserters back to Fort Mason. You bet we will with pleasure. And Dan, I want to thank you for what you did. Well, I only did what anyone else would have done.  But when Dan and I but when Dan Reid grows up I'm betting he'll come as near to filling your shoes as anybody. I'm sure he could. He's proved it today. We'll see you later, Pete. Let's go, Dan. We'll meet Tunnel down on the trail. Come on, Silver! Come on, Victor! Silver! This is a feature of the Lone Ranger Incorporated, created and produced by George W. Trendle, directed by Charles D. Livingston and edited by Fran Stryker. The part of the Lone Ranger is played by Brace Beamer.