Dr. Sanyal, Professor Department Chair, welcome to our section of the liver. In this specimen that you are seeing in front of us, we have completely removed not only the liver but also the entire foregut. But we shall not talk about the foregut. We have retained them just to show the anatomical continuity of the blood vessels. So let's focus only on the liver as it has been eviscerated out of the abdomen. So let's start with the surfaces. So this is the anterior superior surface of the netmaker right lobe and this is the posterior inferior surface. The anterior superior surface is also the diaphragmatic surface because that is in relation to the diaphragm and it's also the costal surface and it's related to the ribs. And we can see the costal markings here. The posterior inferior surface is also referred to as the visceral surface because it is related to all these viscera that are located here. Margin separating the two surfaces, this is the inferior margin of the liver. Normally this inferior margin of the liver is at the level of the costal margin on the right side. However, if the liver is enlarged, only then we can feel it in an adult. While in a child, the inferior margin may be one centimeter below the right costal margin but that is normal. The liver normally, because it is in contact with the right dome of the diaphragm, that is the reason why the right dome of the diaphragm is one space higher than the left dome. The liver normally has got a certain range of movement up and down with restoration. In the midline, it can move up and down about 4 to 8 centimeters and on the right midclavicular line it can move up and down about 6 to 12 centimeters. My assistant is holding up this ligament here. This is the phallus home ligament and this is attached to a fissure ear and that is what divides the liver into a right anatomical lobe and a left anatomical lobe. The right anatomical lobe is the one which is in relation to the right hypochondrium and the right dome of the diaphragm. The left anatomical lobe extends from the epigastrium and it extends a little bit into the left hypochondrium. Now let's take a look at the spaces around the liver. Imagine the diaphragm was located here at the right dome. So the space between the right dome of the diaphragm and the diaphragmatic surface of the liver, this is the sub-phrenic recess. This is the potential site of collection of infection. Then we have a space under the visceral surface of the liver. This is known as the sub-hypatic space and finally the posterior superior extension of the sub-hypatic space is where my finger is going in. Imagine the kidney was located here where my hand is located. This space will be the space between the liver and the kidney on the right side and that is known as the hepatorenal space or the Morrison pouch. The sub-phrenic space is divided into a right and a left half by the phallus home ligament and this communicates with the sub-hypatic space and the sub-hypatic space in turn, posterior superior extension of that is the Morrison pouch. This Morrison pouch is also communicating with the lesser sac which is in this region and their upper limit is limited by the posterior layer of the coronary ligament which I am going to mention just now. Incidentally, the Morrison's pouch, hepatorenal recess is one of the two most dependent portions of the peritoneal cavity when the patient is lying down. The other most dependent portion being the pelvis. So, these are some important anatomical spaces with surgical significance. Now, let us come to the ligaments which are visible on the liver. One we have already mentioned this is the phallus home ligament. The phallus home ligament is actually secret shape that is why it is called phallus home. It has got one margin which is attached to the liver and which is the one which divides the liver into the two anatomical lobes. The other margin is this one which was attached to the inner surface of the anterior abdominal wall and it has got a free margin which we can see here. This free margin has got some importance. The free margin of the phallus home ligament contains two structures. One of them is this round ligament of liver. This is the obliterated umbilical vein which in fetal life carried oxygenated and enriched blood from the placenta to the fetus. And this structure which is seen in adults, this is the parambilical vein. This parambilical vein goes through the free margin of the phallus home ligament and it goes and connects to the left branch of the portal vein which enters through the portahepatus. On the other side in the umbilicus, it has communications with the superficial epigastric vein. So, therefore, this forms an important site of portah systemic anastomosis. And this is the one which is responsible for getting in-laws and forming the capid medica in cirrhosis with portal hypertension. So, this is one ligament. Now, let's gently turn the liver and take a look at the diaphragmatic surface. The phallus home ligament splits into a right leaf and a left leaf. This forms the anterior boundary of the coronary ligament, this one. Then we have, if we turn the liver further, we see the cut margin of yet another ligament here. This is the posterior boundary of the coronary ligament. Within the posterior margin and the anterior margin, this portion of the liver that we can see, it is bare, it is completely bereft of peritoneum as compared to this surface and this surface. And this portion of the liver is referred to as the bare area of the liver because it is in direct convocation with the right dome of the diaphragm. And through here, the branches of the right phrenic nerve pass into and the branches of the lymphatics from the liver go through the bare area and they enter into the diaphragm and to the posterior medistinal lymph nodes. Where the anterior and the posterior leaves of the coronary ligament meet on the left side. Here they form a ligament which is referred to as the left triangular ligament. And likewise, where the anterior and the posterior leaves of the coronary ligament meet on the right side which has been cut here, here they form the right triangular ligament. And this coronary ligament and the triangular ligaments are one of the many structures which hold the liver in their place under the diaphragm. Now let's take a look at the fissures. So for that, we will again turn the liver. Now we are on the visceral surface or the so-called posterior inferior surface.  And the gallbladder has been separated from the bed of the liver and we can notice that there is a fissure here. This is referred to as the gallbladder fossa. And the gallbladder, as we know very well, it projects a little beyond the inferior margin of the liver. Now if we were to remove these structures aside and we will see yet a structure here where my instrument has gone in. This is the cut portion of the inferior vena keva. This is the lower portion of the inferior vena keva. This is the upper portion of the inferior vena keva. Here also we have a groove and this is called the fissure of the inferior vena keva. So if we were to consider the fossa of the gallbladder and the fissure for the inferior vena keva as one continuous limb separated only by the caudate lobe and the caudate process, this is referred to as the right sagittal fissure. The right sagittal fissure with an anterior limb and a posterior limb. The posterior limb being formed by the gallbladder fossa. The posterior limb being formed by the fissure for the inferior vena keva. In the very area of the liver, let's take a look at yet another fissure. We have gone a little to the left. We can see a fissure here. And this is the fissure for the round ligament of liver which I mentioned earlier and we can see this is the round ligament. And in continuity, we can see yet another fissure and this is the fissure for the ligamentum venosum. And if I pull it out, we can see the remnant of the ligamentum venosum. So, this again constitutes yet another complete and this whole thing is referred to as the left sagittal fissure. The anterior limb of the left sagittal fissure being formed by the fissure for the round ligament and the posterior limb of the left sagittal fissure being formed by the fissure for the ligamentum venosum. The ligamentum venosum incidentally is the remnant of the ductus venosus which in fetal life transmitted purified blood directly from the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava and completely bypass the liver. Incidentally, in the fissure for the ligamentum venosum, we have the termination of this little bit of structure which has been retained here. This is the lesser momentum for the hepatogastric ligament. Now, to summarize quickly, we have now created one fissure here that is the right sagittal fissure with an anterior limb and a posterior limb and we have created the left sagittal fissure with an anterior limb and a posterior limb. And now, we will join these two limbs by means of one transverse limb here and that is known as the portahepatus where we have the three structures entering and leaving the liver namely the common bile duct, the branches of the hepatic artery and the portal vein. So, we have an edge shape formed by the right sagittal fissure, the left sagittal fissure and crossed over by the portahepatus. So, these are the anatomical fissures of the liver and this is going to be the basis for our next demonstration whereby we will convert these anatomical fissures into surgical fissures and the surgical segments and the hepatic veins. So, for that we will go to the next section. Thank you very much for being with us till this long. Stay tuned for the next video. If you have any questions or comments, please put them in the comment section below. Have a nice day. Dr. Sanjay Sanyal signing out.


Hi everyone. George here. So I want to just show you quickly how I schedule focus-made sessions efficiently. So I do the recurring one. So for example, I want to schedule these two sessions on a recurring basis. So instead of having to do it every week, I just automatically repeat. And notice I'm on the 50-minute one. I scheduled these. But then I can also, before I click book, I can also click on the 25-minute one if I want to do short sessions anywhere else in the day. But I'm just going to, or anywhere else in the week really, right now I'm at the end of the week. So I can't pass schedule. But anyway, so let's see how I did those. I click on continue booking three sessions. And then, so all three work without having to do separate bookings for 25 and 50. And then to fast, or to recur rather, I click on the pencil. And then I click on repeat weekly. And then you could choose repeat daily if you want. But I choose weekly usually because I like to have a different rhythm on most days. I click on save. And then I can just click out without waiting for the thing to finish. I just basically can go and book other things while I'm waiting for this. And it'll automatically, see it says 10 sessions booked down here. So I just wanted to show you because I used to think I had to wait. But I can just, you know, continue doing other things in the dashboard. And it'll, it'll fix itself. So anyway, hope that helps.


Lake Superior, the largest of the North American Great Lakes, it is also the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area. Believed to have first been inhabited 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the last Ice Age, however, there exists copper mines upon many of the lake's islands, which many researchers have concluded to be prehistoric. A sophisticated array of tunnels litters the islands, or more specifically, all of North America. Scarred by ancient mine pits as deep as 150 feet, carbon-14 testing of wood remains found in sockets of copper artifacts indicated they are at least 5,700 years old, although artifacts and evidence at some sites have suggested a date far older than what has been put forward. For example, some investigators believe that the mines were not even built by humans, but are the remains of a sophisticated mining operation that was once undertaken by alien visitors many thousands of years ago. Similar in scale to the ancient Carolina mica mines, mica being a material which we use in electrical components. It must be noted that all of these prehistoric mines show evidence of being abruptly abandoned, whether this is evidence of the death of an unknown king or queen, or evidence for catastrophe is unknown. All along Lakeshore are vestiges of this once highly successful ancient operation. The most astonishing of remnants catalogued publicly has to be the enormous lump of pure copper found in 1771 near the bank of the Antonigan River. In 1945 it was floated downriver on a raft by a James K. Paul and was eventually appropriated by an agent of the United States government. It was then shipped to Detroit and on to Washington, where it eventually slipped into the bowels of the Smithsonian. Known as the Antonigan Boulder, it weighs 3,708 pounds. It was apparently well known to Native Americans. According to the Kiwenawe Bay Indian community, the Boulder was used by tribe members to make offerings to its manateau, or spirit, to seek improvement in their health and well-being. Just how old is the Antonigan Boulder, or indeed the mine from which it came? Although many would like you to believe the mines are less than 5000 years of age, we think many factors surrounding them suggest that they are far older than that. Like mead within Nevada, home to the famous Hoover Dam, one of the largest man-made concrete structures on Earth, and what many feel will be the last surviving remnant of our civilization's existence on this planet. Although it is also home to a number of other lesser known, yet just as astonishing feats of human engineering. Similar to that of the incredible finds we have previously covered, an ancient mine, and although we know it was created for the collection of salt, the date of its creation remains a mystery with evidential examples of activity within this mine. Not only by a now lost civilization, but one that easily predated even that of the Native American himself. As mentioned in the Scientific American of 1926, quote, the mines were operating in Nevada many centuries before the days of Aurora and Piyush of Virginia City. One of the discoveries made by archaeologists now delving into the ruins of Pueblo Grande. Many centuries is putting it mildly, for the finds show that mining was in progress at the beginning of the Christian era some 20 centuries ago, and there are strong indications which point to work created at an even earlier period, end quote. Mysterious circular carving, reminiscent of those of Baalbek, Aswan, Bazda caves, Longyue, etc., are present within the mine. And although it is claimed these were made with stone picks, a true explanation as to the real technology or tools used to liberate this salt is yet to be discovered. But the reasoning behind such circular carving has seemingly been unraveled by a fine at the bottom or oldest parts of the mine. The salt was seemingly isolated in these circular carving marks as they became deeper and deeper. Then the center block of rock salt was believed to have been broken off by hand and taken out by the miners. What is truly astonishing about this mine is its size, although initial investigations of the cavern were to identify its purpose. This salt mine has since been bought by industries invested in salt production due to its quality. Yet the mystery surrounding how these ancient people discovered this vault of salt, or indeed how they carved their way through an entire mountain in its pursuit, if we assume them to have been primitive in nature and ability, remains an absolute enigma. However, if one were to allocate such feats to a more developed human state, identifying this huge deposit of salt, and indeed the adaptive stone cutting technologies we feel were clearly used elsewhere, incorporated into this mining process and explained how they managed to dig to such depths here, and indeed at other astonishing ancient sites the world over, are rather easier to explain. Yet I digress. Regardless of our own suspicions as to how this incredible mine was created, its existence alone we feel is proof that those responsible had far more knowledge and capabilities than modern man gives them credit for. It is an incredibly ancient mine, one in which we, and indeed many others within our field, find incredibly compelling. Throughout the ages countless reports of unexplained and baffling discoveries have been reportedly made deep within the minds of Earth. Regardless of the type of mine, or indeed its depth, it seems that these peculiar stories continue to surface, and usually only by word of mouth. Often attached to these fascinating tales, you will find stories of these artefacts being seized, destroyed, or simply reburied. We are often confronted with an apparent cover-up, vast resources and manpower being harnessed to hide these facts from the world. The motives for choosing to conceal such artefacts from the world could indeed be endless, though regardless of motive, we feel it is imperative that we continue to expose these stories to the Earth, if we have compelling witnesses and unmistakable evidence of a cover-up. Up beneath the city of Donetsk, within the Rostov region of Russia, a large foundation of sandstone can be found, something known as Rock Shield of Carboniferous Age. It is about 300 to 360 million years old, and is lined with distributions of coaking coals that are also of around the same age. Astonishingly, Mr. Kosatskin has discovered, upon the roof of this shaft of coal, an imprint of a chariot wheel, an imprint undoubtedly made before the rock had formed around it. He also discovered another imprint, a small distance further along the shaft. It must be noted that these imprints have remained buried deep within these seams of rock for many millions of years. If a scientific analysis could have been undertaken upon this artefact, it could have shaken our understandings of world history, just like so many other artefacts we have been made aware of, all but a few now stolen from the public domain. Upon realizing the implications of his discovery, Mr. Kosatskin, an extremely experienced foreman in ventilation and safety engineering, specializing in seismic prognosis, thankfully took several photographs of his miraculous and now concealed discovery, before officially reporting it and requesting a scientific evaluation. When his boss notified the owners of the mine in the hopes of getting an analysis of the artefact with an attempt to preserve it, to his boss's surprise, they demanded he continued the work through the shaft, so that it could be subsequently flooded, which is unfortunately what has occurred, making further exploration of the sites impossible. He stated that he's investigated further regarding the western mine's history with the fellow miners there, and was able to confirm the existence of the other print within that mine. It had been damaged by blast hole driving and was little mentioned, though it was indeed there. He was sometimes in this cut, he said, and got to take a good look at it. He says that he was surprised, but also somewhat afraid to admit that these objects are of artificial origin. We on the other hand are excited by such a premise, and will keep you posted on any further developments regarding the mine. Lake Michigan, a mysterious and enormous lake, long rumoured to possess crash UFOs or possibly a secret base hidden somewhere beneath the waves. However, it is not only the extraterrestrial activity which this lake is now famous for. The use of remote sensing technology is thankfully becoming more common within modern archaeology. Scientists now routinely survey lakes for hidden structures, and Lake Michigan is no exception. At a depth of 40 feet in Grand Traverse Bay, using sonar techniques, archaeologists discovered sunken boats, cars, and even a civil war-era pier. But among all this, they found a spectacular prehistoric ruin. When you see it in the water, you're tempted to say this can't be real, said Mark Holly, professor of underwater archaeology at Northwestern Michigan University College, who made the discovery. Probably some form of stonehenge, if this site could be confirmed as having been man-made, it would give credence to a theory of people building complex ancient structures within Lake Michigan back when it was just a dry basin well over 10,000 years ago. Thankfully during the investigation, a large rock was spotted, with what many at the time suspected was an ancient illustration of a mastodon. During a conference in 2007, photos of the boulder from further investigations were displayed, these clearly showing this prehistoric drawing. However, Mark stated that experts were yet to come in and verify it beyond doubt. We couldn't believe what we were looking at, said Greg McMaster, president of the Underwater Preserve Council. Specialists, shown pictures of the boulder holding the mastodon markings, have asked for more evidence. They actually want to see it. Unfortunately, he added, experts in petroglyphs generally don't dive, so we're running into a little bit of a stumbling block there. If found to be true, the petroglyph would be well over 10,000 years old, confirming early post-ice age presence of both humans and mastodons in the upper Midwest. If authenticated, it would become an out-of-place artefact, like many other stone circles and other petroglyph sites, this one dated due to the age of the lake. Just who could have built the Michigan Stonehenge? How did they build it? As further investigation is undertaken, we will of course keep you posted on any future developments.


Hello, my name is Lee Elston. I am an instructor and a course maintainer for the Linux foundation I would like to say a few words about the Linux for system engineers class that we have This class Linux for system engineers is going to take System administrators and give them a little bit more information How to set systems up? So we're going to do system engineering We're going to be installing services many different services web servers DNS servers databases Bunch of different services on the machines and we're going to make them work We're going to use networking to connect all these services so that they can talk amongst themselves and can talk inside and outside Of course, we'll have to talk about firewalls as well all of these things we're going to do within the environment in order for us to get a Example of how to set it up start and make it work As a friend of mine pointed out it doesn't work until it does We're going to help you with that first part getting it to work the first time then you can expand it from there. I Hope you see you in class sometime. My name is Lee. Welcome


Interesting What's up money geeks, mr. V here welcome to another video guys so into this video I want us to talk about ticket symbol See a and so this is a company that is actually in the business of manufacturing mining rakes for Bitcoin so a lot of you guys I've covered his company here on the channel in the past when I did my top five Mining stocks so obviously we have riot. We have Mara We have can we have FT FT We have SOS and a bunch of other ones that are over the counter But there's some new development We can that I want to share with you guys and this might be a potential catalyst for this stock even though For sure Bitcoin is the catalyst the price of Bitcoin drives the price of this stock But they are expanding into other areas that might definitely Benefit the company even some so that's what I want us to cover into this video But before we get to the guys for a new to the channel, we took about how to earn money How to save money how to invest and build wealth So there's something that interests you go ahead and hit that subscribe button any notification belt So you don't miss out on new content. So again, like I said, this company is actually in the business of Developing mining reeks and I said mining reeks. I'm talking about mining for Bitcoin So they develop these reeks that they sell to people if you want to mine Bitcoin from the comfort of your house You can actually order one of these reeks and install it. I mean as long as you have The ability to power it and pay for the power that's going to use you'll find you can order one of this for these guys They do it even at skill where they can supply industrial level Mining reeks to you if you wanted to so they build it and just send it out So for the most part people usually would spend a ton of money building this for themselves But these guys they do that heavy lifting for you and all you have to do is pluck and play and you're good to go So now the company is looking at other ways to expand if you guys notice very well Again, this is a Chinese company. Just so you guys know The reason I'm making that is I'm saying that is because Chinese companies Especially the ones in the Bitcoin space or mining space Recently, there's been a crackdown in China where the government is actually talking about this Bitcoin not being for real and they're using a ton of energy. So basically cracking down on them So can has actually put out some notice here. Let me jump to the news here. So Kenan to begin mining Bitcoin itself. So Here's a twist not only have they gone from Building these mining reeks that they sell to people or to businesses now. They want to expand your operation by Also leveraging their their their reeks to mine Bitcoin for themselves, which I think is a brilliant idea if you Believe in the in your product that you sell to people to businesses to individuals to be able to mine How about you said that your own mining reek to actually even demonstrate to your customers that hey We don't only say this thing we do use it and this is this is how it works I think it's a brilliant idea, but Besides that, I think there's more things even in this article. This are the actual actually cover it here first things first Notice that they are not Setting up this mining operation in China. Even just a Chinese company. They are going to Kazakhstan And I think for one or two reasons number one is probably power out the electricity out is probably cheaper And then the second reason is that they want to get away from The Chinese government because of the crackdown and this I could actually cover that too So with the negative press that is being out in China Hey, why would you want to set up more operations to tie yourself down in in China? So I think that's what's driving them out to go Establish in Kazakhstan to me most importantly is just the fact that this is probably going to increase your revenue In my personal estimation here Not you're gonna be getting revenue from selling, you know Your mining rigs, but you're also gonna be bringing in revenue from mining Bitcoin So if the price of Bitcoin goes up, you benefit from both angles because you're selling more mining rigs as well as your mining More Bitcoin, so that's something that I wanted to kind of point out to you guys as we are doing this video You can see right here Canon such as sitting at $8 and 14 cents that was after before market closed after ours is $8 and 13 cents so If you look right here just for the last six months the stock is up 94 percent, which is insane So if you can see here between March in and I think March in April see the stack went to a high of about $36 and some change that was on March 11 So let's let's kind of know put this alongside Bitcoin and see what happened So we go back six months here March 11, so this is March 16. So March 11 to be around somewhere around there where Bitcoin actually got to 30 to $60,000 over $60,000. So you can see that this stock actually Moves along with Bitcoin. So if Bitcoin goes up obviously this stock would go up. Bitcoin's go down You're gonna see it. So like most recently, so let's just go back five day here five day here See big coins been taking a beating and you can see the reflection and look at that day where we have a Bitcoin came now under $30,000 and you can see here that you stocks are Responding to that real time and then Bitcoin starts to go back up, which is currently sitting at about 34 1900 now this thing is a squeeze back from that 470 squeeze back to 814 So they actually really Know look at Bitcoin to set the path. So hopefully if Bitcoin can get back to that 40 50 Then you're gonna see these this stock really pop, but again to me If you see Bitcoin dip under 30 like it did the first time here and bounce back The dip on this one would be a place for us to enter and see if we can make some profit there, too So this one again, it's a Chinese company just so you know if you want to hold I'm actually holding riot and matter in my kids account I don't have it in my personal account but I have it in my kids account So and those I bought those were doing they were really really really cheap coming to straight out of the gate So those I'm still holding long term, but again for this this will be a good candidate for a string trade In potentially a day trade based on news, but string trade is definitely Want to watch so so again kind of a quick of a view here is that Canon is actually Moving into mining Bitcoin so not only they're gonna be manufacturing the rigs and selling them for mining Bitcoin They want to send up to set up their own mining facility, which I think is brilliant So hopefully this is something that would bring this company More revenue as they try to expand outside of China away from You know the Chinese government cracking down on The industry so that's what I wanted to cover in this video if you're new to the channel guys We took about how to earn money how to save money how to invest and build wealth There's something that interests you go ahead and hit that subscribe button and the notification bell to you Don't miss out on new content also guys if you're looking to get started with investing We both has their promotion where if you sign up and deposit a hundred dollars You get some free stocks links in the description in as always guys. Do you do diligence?


All right, Lady Aida, what is this? We're back, it's us, Lady Aida and Mr. Lady Aida here on Show and Tell. We're exciting, but you know it's even more exciting. All the people are gonna come by. We're excited. We're excited. I don't know if we're exciting. Wow. I think we are, yeah. Oh, good looking. There's some people from around the mega community to come by and show up what they're working on. They're 3D printing, they're soldering, they're coding, they're debugging, they're PCB assembly, all that good stuff. Let's kick it off with some aid of the piece. Yeah, we're gonna start off with Scott, because he has to bounce right after this. Scott, what you working on? Hey, I've been doing USB host stuff, but this is what I came to show today. I wanted to like evangelize open source, which I'm obviously preaching to the choir. You and me both. Right, so I administer the PID.coats thing, right? And that is USB product IDs for open source software and hardware. And one of the things that comes up a ton is people will post PDFs of schematics and call it open source. So no, no, no, open source as by the Oshawa definition says that you have to produce, produce, modify, or provide modifiable files. And the reason- Anything, it's something, but not a PDF, yeah. Right, so the reason that's really cool is that I remixed one of the aid of fruit products here. This is a remix of the Metro M7. This is actually not out yet. So the files are actually not public, but they will be. And so I took the SD card version of the 1011 Metro and I remixed it to put an SWD plus trace header on it. So it adds another 10 pins and then it has like a four bit parallel trace header on there and that would only be possible with open hardware. Wow. But the caveat of course, that the files aren't actually public. You should really start a competing company against it. Yeah, and notice also one thing we always have to ask people is that I did not, like it does not have aid of fruit trademarks on it, although it does say based on the aid of fruit Metro M7. That's very nice. Thank you. So yeah, that's something in my spare time. Trace allows you to see exactly all of the code that's executing as we go along. So I'm pretty excited about that possibility for debugging, being able to see the history of how I got somewhere. So I'm playing around with that and there is a, where did it go? I have a board to do it as well, but it's a hardly plugged in. The orb trace. It's open source software, but I don't think the hardware is open source. Yeah. That's a nice board lay out there. Yeah, it's an ECP five FPGA there. And you can see this is the other end of that. I've never used one of these big trace. Yeah. So it's just good for extremely high speed debug tracing. Yeah. So on the IMX, there's a specific unit that will just dump every time you do a branch. And so you can literally capture all of the instructions that were run the whole time, which is a ton of data, but it's super thorough. And it could be really useful for like performance guided optimizations as well. Okay, good for USB host stuff that you're working on. Yeah. And I was actually like, I was wanting a version of this Metro that has a 1050 or something with the two USBs where it had USB host and a trace port. I know. I'm hoping we're gonna, you know, we're sullying it. And look, just getting the IMX Metro out was like a really big deal. I want to get the IMX feather out and then we're going to do more. It's just, I have, you know, you've seen my list of hardware working on it's nonstop. Yeah, they're complicated chips for sure. We had tons of problems with caching with the USB host stack that we're finally, I think through that, like we turned the corner, I think on USB host on IMX. All thanks to hard work. Yeah. All right. And special thanks for Scott for being a pioneer and someone who's putting in more value than extracting from this thing we call technology and everything. I think one of the neat things about the open source that Scott's doing is you're empowering so many people to do things forever with something they purchase or work on, which is unlike anything else.  No restrictions, it's open source. And there's a lot of lip service that people are like, I love open source. Okay, well, there is a way to really show it, which is let it free. And when you put the users first, people always say, we love users, except for when they don't. And so if you think about it, like what's the best possible thing for a user? It's like, oh, I can get modifiable files. I can get the firmware, the software. I can commercialize it and not have to talk to you or ask you or beg you or sign an NDA or do anything. And there's things like Circuit Python, 400 different boards, people running companies, I don't even know Adafruit has anything to do with teeny USB, like all these things that people are able to do. And, you know, the maker movement has changed quite a bit. And I hope these stories get out because it's unique and weird. And there's only a limited number of us because when businesses aren't doing so well, they sell out the users, they try to go to businesses and then they claw back all the, this is a Corey Docker quote, they basically sell out the users. And when you want to put users first, open source is probably the biggest signal that that's what you're doing. So thanks for doing that. Yeah, and you and I were talking about like personally, it's in my best interest to work with tools and software that I would have if I left Adafruit. Yeah. Like I was at Google before and the moment that I left Google, I didn't have access to tools. The human chat. Tools that I learned to use or the code that I'd worked on. Yeah, and like even little things, like when you do public form support or you put up GitHub issues. So that human capital that thought those things could be searched and found and like other people can do things with it. When something's closed and private and like all the work you did at Google, gone forever, who knows where, gone, gone. All the work that you're doing is out in the open and you can always refer to it. And it seems like the best way to go. But anyways, thanks for coming by Scott. Yeah, thanks for having me on the soapbox. Yeah, you don't have a choice. Oh, I'm happy to be there. All right, next up. JP, what you got going on? Hey, I have Melissa showing up suddenly. Nope, now I have. This is a project. I just not work on Melissa. I was working on this though, which I'm very excited about. This is my inexpensive DIY version of a very cool sort of art piece called The Ambient Machine by an artist named Yuri Suzuki. And this version uses a Metro M7 and 10 different wave files that I'm playing using a little I2S amp through a speaker that you can kind of see back there. I just mounted a USB-C to it there for power and data. So I've got it plugged in right now just to a battery pack. And what I can do is I can flip any of these 10 switches to play different sort of ambient soothing or not so soothing ambient sounds. And then I can also toggle their volume levels from low to high using this second row. So I'll just flip a few of these on and you'll be able to hear sort of a noise machine type of ambient thing. I've also got some little musical tones happening in here. So it's kind of nice for just constructing a sort of soundscape noise machine type of thing to have in the background. And I made it pretty much entirely from Ikea drawers. I have some little extra bits of poplar that I added for the legs there and for some spacers. But the main cabinet is made from a couple of these inexpensive drawers that come with a little $30 Ikea cabinet set. So this is what I've been working on. It's all written in circuit Python. It uses audio mixer to be able to have all of those sounds playing at once and then me flip them in and out just for the volume level. And I can also toggle those between the two levels. So working on a learn guide from this come on by tomorrow to my show and I'll talk a little bit about finishing up the code on it which I just submitted to our learn guide on GitHub and you'll be able to build your own soon. Okay, yeah. This was assigned, you know, JP knows this because of course we need these, but I wanted to see like how many way files could you mix on an IMX RT-11 M7 chip and turns out at least 10. Andles 10 easily it seems. Anyone ever figured this out before? Is this like... Well, what's interesting is, you know, JP started with the SD card. I wouldn't have known what to guess. I would have said like, I don't know, five. Either five or three thousand. Off of the flash memory, it's very, very fast. You have very hard to speed QSPY memory. Off of the SD card, it's not nearly as fast. It's only going to do three, which, you know, I think can maybe be, you know, the QSPY is much faster because of course it's quad and there's no STIO interface on the IMX RT-1011. But I think it was still interesting for us to like try to figure out. It's a goal of mine to have something that can mix a large number of audio files from WAVE because it kind of tells you, you have everything very optimized at that point. But you have SD, off of the internal flash memory, this is great. It comes with eight megabytes of internal flash. Yeah, so I've got 10 pretty nice sized waves on there and we are going to work with, like you said, figuring out what are the limits that we can push SD card if we use some tricks with frequency and possibly buffering. So we're going to get maybe Scott and Jeff to also take a look at it and see if SD card can still pull off some of these cool tricks. Yeah, it's about, there's no STIO. You really do need to have, you have to have that built into the system to get those speeds, but there's a couple other hacks we'll figure out. Yeah, we're up for it. All right. So that's our ambient machine. JP, see you tomorrow. Bye JP. Thanks. All right, Melissa, what you got going on? I have this message board that I've been working on. It's running off of a Matrix Portal S3 and running Circuit Python. And I've been trying to see how much I could get it to do. There's a new library called Bitmap Tools that I was trying out for a while because it has some options like alpha blending in there that I was trying to get working and I just couldn't quite get that working. So I kind of scaled it back to something a little simpler. So it's just basically running graphics where I can specify certain colors to be transparent and then a label of custom font and just scrolling that. So I'm going to add some effects to that too as well, but not quite as many as I was hoping to add. Yeah. Thank you so much, Melissa. Yeah. All righty. Now, what you got going on? Howdy, folks. Yeah, so this week we are releasing our lightsaber project with the new Feather PropMaker RP2040. Lamar, you suggested trying to send our STL file to 3D printing service. So we had the Hiltz 3D printed in resin from JLCPCB and they came out really good. So there's zero layer lines and they also have the option to have them sanded for you. So it came out really nice and smooth. They handle all of the adding supports and printing it in resin and then post-processing it while sanding it. That's a really cool option. It only cost me $30 to get these parts printed in that resin and that includes shipping too. So if folks are looking for a way to get really high quality 3D printed parts, check out some of the 3D printing service. These days they are a lot more affordable and accessible. I also have the FDM version here. Filament has also come a long way. So you get this sparkly shiny glitter, but you always get the layer lines. You can kind of see there the Z seam, but it's really nice to have that option now to get really high quality resin parts printed for you. And I think going forward, we're going to submit our designs. Once we print them out and test them, make sure they all fit and stuff to JLC and PCB way. How's the threading? Because that part screws on, right? Yeah, the threading is excellent. So much more smooth than the FDM. I didn't even hear a like, yeah, right? It doesn't have that friction, that nasty kind of sound you get. What about shrinkage? Do you have to like account for like the shape changing? No, actually all the tolerances are just about the same. So like the button, for example, would have some shrinkage normally, but it came out really well. Also the little PCB holder slides in and slides out nicely. So all that's... It's amazing. Yeah, how good the quality is. I wanted to try it out because it's like, we know it's especially on our team. Everyone has a 3D printer, but they're like, oh, it's in storage or like I haven't calibrated it in a bit. And I thought, you know what? It's definitely, it's always good to do projects where you can do the print yourself. But I think the services have gotten better and the pricing and speed have gotten pretty good. And I like to have, I like that there's, it isn't like $150 anymore. It used to be very expected to send out 3D prints. But now they come out so great. Yeah, totally. Good work with that. Thank you. Yeah. And thanks to the prop maker feather, like this thing can be taken apart without too much hassle. And that was a big, very helpful when you're like taking photos and documenting it. Like it was such a pleasure to like, oh, I need to get photos of this thing. I forgot. Yeah, compared to the last one, this is like the instructions are like, you saw our two wires, you're done. And yeah, you know, progress march is on. And I love that the new amplifier, I think is nice and good quality. Yeah. Sure. And shout out to Liz. I asked her to write some, some code so that we can change the color of the LED. Because that's one thing I've always wanted. So it's really nice to have that. Now you're Obi-Wan. Now you're Luke. Now I'm Mace Windu, I think. He's got the purple. Yeah, he's got the purple one. So good. She has white, right? Yeah, I didn't add white, but I could add white. There you go. It's kind of white. It's Ray. Ray Skywalker. Yeah. She's got the yellow one. All right. Yeah. Check out the Learn Guide folks and find out how to build yours and check out the video tonight. All right. Thank you. And Liz and Pedro, of course. All right. We're going to do Mark, DJ Devin, Rex, then Bob. Mark, what's going on? All right. All right. Sorry, I have too many windows open. Sorry, I have been really busy lately, so I haven't had much of a chance for projects, but I was out playing Ultimate a couple weeks ago. And summer here, we get a fair number of storms and we're debating airplane or thunder. So I realized it would be really useful to have something on the sports fields that would tell you if there is lightning in the area and coming. So I do know SparkFun does sell lightning detector, but rather than take that route, I was just like, well, I want to build another board. So I found there's a chip, the AS3935 that will detect lightning and help filter out local noise signals. So I haven't got the whole project done yet. I want to put it in an enclosure and 3D print something. But right now I've got the small board and sort of the lower right that will, in theory, detect lightning. The problem is since I've managed to solder it up, there hasn't been any storms. So it's blinking that everything is okay. So it's kind of like Homer's Everything's Okay alarm right now. It's constantly telling me things are all right. So now I just have to wait until the thunderstorm hits to see if it will actually record the data properly. Okay. Yeah. Yeah, you have to add us. Sorry. Wait. We also have too many windows. We have too many windows. Sorry. Yeah. Common problem tonight. Oh, we're sorry. No. Oh, okay. We're back. Hi. Hi. We're not going on here. Okay. Yeah, that's pretty much it. So now I'm patiently or impatiently waiting the next thunderstorm. How are you liking that chip? I've seen, you know, the AS was at the 70 something just 5735 or whatever. It was easy to bring up and communicate with. So far, I've only tried it on. It was an unexpected maker. Tiny s2. And it was causing a lot of interference. This is with the unexpected makers feather s2. And it seems much better. I'm not sure why I was battery power, help versus USB. Yeah.  That's a good idea. I've got one of those. Yeah, I'm talking about a little clicker. Yeah. Yeah. Barbecue later. Like it's the thing that lights the gas stove. Yeah. Those, I think those, um, if you hold it close enough, it'll set off the, um, the detection. So you can use that for testing. Yeah. That's definitely a good test in theory. The single filter out non lightning signals. I'm not sure how. Uh, there's something. The only reason I know this is one of the guys actually play ultimate with works for environment in Canada, our, uh, weather agency up in Canada. And he said there's actually a distinct signal in lightning that they can detect with their much more expensive detectors. Yeah. All right. Cool. All right. I love those sensors and I like your, your PCB outline. Yeah. That was most of the reason I designed it is I wanted to put a lightning bolt. Of course. All right. All right. Thanks. Sorry about that. All right. We'll give you about 10 minutes left. So as long as everyone keeps you to a couple minutes, we'll get everyone, David, what you got going on? Hello. I have been working on my Fitbit. This is running circuit Python. Eh. 8.2.2. The latest version. Uh, and thanks to annex data who helped me with NVM, uh, storage because this, it expects to run on a callback server. Like they're, they are very kind of corporatized and I had a very hard time trying to get this to run on a micro controller. Um, so I got around it by using NVM storage. Uh, my first foray into NVM. And if I disconnect this using only the battery and then hit reset, it should reset. Then that reset. Maybe it didn't reset. Maybe it's not resetting. Maybe I did something wrong. Live demo. It failed. Anyway, um, it will store the API token into NVM. And then next time it comes up, it uses the NVM token to get back online. Otherwise you would have to recreate your API token over and over and over, you know, using their web tutorial. You made a cookie. Uh, yeah.  So you can use NVM. I didn't know that existed. So that was a, a local way to get around it. And also I love swag and sticking with the ethos of the maker community. I made my own. Oh good. Cause you guys don't sell that. Yeah. And I wanted it. I wanted it to be really, really hot so that it would give me a fever. Oh, it's good. And it's really, really custom. Oh, it's more camel. Oh, that's cool. Nice. Yeah.  But as long as people aren't selling things, they can take it. It's not, it's not twisted. No, but it's fine. It's fine though. This is what we like to see like people in the community because like we saw a lot of bad swag like shot glasses and like, uh, so we thought like, people want to put the logo on something. Um, that's fine. Cause at least it'll be something special that they want to do. But if you want the Adafruit logo from us, it's on the circuit board. We might change your mind later, but that looks great. Yep. I've always wanted either, you know, an Adafruit t-shirt or a hat, like things that I'm into. Like I like the swag stuff. Um, and I was really disappointed when perusing the store that they didn't have one available. So I was like, you know what? After a couple of years, I'm still into Adafruit. Screw it. I'm going to make my own. In the chat, someone said, you know, you can always wear the circuit boards. Uh, maybe I'll staple to one to myself someday. There's an option. All right. Thank you. All right. Have a good night. All right. Next up. All right. We're going to go to Bob. They're flying things in Rex. Bob, what you got going on? Hello. Hello. Good morning. Afternoon evening. Yeah. So I have some software that I've written for embedded keypads. I think I can switch to my screen. Yeah. If you share a screen, I can add it. Uh, but if you can't, I can come back to you if you want to start messing around with that. Uh, so I can get to everybody. Screen one. Good. Good. Wow. Okay. Yes. Whoa. All right. Okay. Is that big enough for people to see? Yeah. Okay. So there's a lot of ways to hook buttons to microcontrollers. You know, obviously do a one-to-one between the button and the pin of the micro. Uh, the classic way is a matrix, not unlike what you see here, where can you guys see my cursor while I'm doing this? Okay. Outputs in the micro and you scan one output at a time and then read the inputs and see which button is done. The other thing that this here is going to show you a solution for is a analog keyboard. So we tell it a worst case contact resistance. Say we're going to do a four by three array. Um, maybe you got a 12 bit A to D converter with four counts of accuracy. Data sheet says maybe your impedance has got to be less than 5,000 ohms. Pick from 1% resistors. This is my operational temperature for the temperature core of the resistors. And I say find resistor values. Let's go. Ooh.  And the benefits of this is that you now only need one ESD device on your micro and you're only taking one pin on your micro.  I've done it, you know, it's like four or five keys into one pen, but never a grid. Yeah, this is not my idea. I actually ran across it probably in the early 2000s. Um, and I did a stimp as a field application engineer and had some customers that were challenged with this. And I said, well, I wrote some software and since then I've just refined it over and over. But this does is it calculates resistor values. And right now I've got minimum number of values selected. So these are all the same. These are all the same. As you might imagine, as you start stacking up the values on the top, 1% of those gets to be a significant part of one of these resistors over on the left. And you start ending up with codes that overlap. If you look here, code 1710 to 1766. Next key, press it here. Stop that. Okay, cool. Thanks for coming by and showing this. This is an interesting and I learned a new thing. Where can folks find out more about this? Because we'll have to get the rest of this show until folks you have a place out. I've made this available for free on my website. I'll shoot the link on the discord chat. Yeah, please do. Yeah, this is cool. All right. Nice work, Bob. Very much appreciate you coming back and showing it more. We usually have a little bit more time for show and tell, but tonight's pretty packed, but keep coming back and showing off all this cool stuff. All right. Thank you. All right. We're going to go to flying things and Rex, if you can each keep it to like a minute or so. Sorry to speed around. It'll be worth it. Hello. I have updated my costume. I have a speaker in here. So it might be a little bit loud. That's so cute. All right. That's kind of that's really it. All right. That's fine. That's a perfect. All right. Thank you so much. Wow. Yeah. All right. Rex, play us out. What you got going on. Whoa. Yeah. All right. All right. So this is the can a badge. A lot of, a lot of years in the making, but finally I got a butt and said, let's do it for Def Con. This one feels special coming up. This is an ESP 32 microcontroller, a debt board, driving 100 neopixels, an SGP gas sensor, and also a flow meter dilly that I'm using to roughly estimate the volume of what you exhale. There's also mesh networking working. Actually, let me see if I could share screen. We're doing a segment on our show tonight about badges and using Python on them. There's so many badges right now. Yeah. And using Python on them and more. So this is kind of neat. Okay. Can you see my Arduino ID? Yeah. Okay. We set it here. Okay. So it's controlled by a serial. And so I can do something like a sign long. That changes the animation. I'll get saved to flash storage. So it survives reboots. There's also a mesh networking chat that I implemented with painless mesh. So other people who have the board, you can enter like IRC like commands and chat with each other. Or when you actually did any of the sensors, the gas sensor or the flow meter, it activates an LED animation. But also it sort of makes little ASCII art updates like in the mesh chat as well. Oh, I love that layout. Yeah. We just did this. Tis the season. A lot of our stuff is at DEF CON. Drop us a note and we'll get it up on the blog if you have any documentation or anything anywhere. And if folks can check it out or learn more about it. It looks so cool. I'm sure it's been a couple of years of like waiting for DEF CON and everyone's going to be there. Can you hold it up closer to the spin there? Yeah. Wow. Look at that. Is that gold plate all the way around? Wow. Okay. Wait, wait. Check this out. So this is pretty interesting. I got those from Osh Park. I thought it was bear copper, but I don't know because it looks kind of gold or something else. And it was super expensive. I didn't know what I was doing. It's sweet. Oh, that's bear copper. This is bear copper. It's bear, yeah. When I put it in the oven, it kind of made that like rainbow discoloration. Oh, yeah. That's cool. It's titanium. That's cool. I love it. It's hard to see, but it literally looks like it's on fire. Yeah. No, that's... That's a neat effect that you didn't plan, but you got. Great. Happy to answer it. Thanks for letting me close it out. All right. Thank you so much, Rex. What a great way to end this show and tell us. Thanks for joining us. We're going to start. Ask an engineer and just a minute or so. Thanks for making this the best half an hour of our week every single week. Even when we're not hosting, we're watching. Getting ready for the show. Awesome to see everybody this week. We'll be back next week. I forgot to ask him if he hadn't had the magic smoke come out of his blood. Yeah. Next time. Yeah. And we'll be talking about some badge projects and more on tonight's Ask an Engineer. We'll see everybody in a minute. Bye, everybody.


Welcome to George H. Smith's Excursions into Libertarian Thought, a production of Libertarianism.org and the Cato Institute, narrated by Daniel Highland. What are the human sciences? The present essay is a general introduction to the human sciences. Subsequent essays will deal with a number of methodological issues and debates in the human sciences and may eventually discuss the contributions of various social theorists such as Max Weber, Alfred Schutz, Ludwig von Mises, and F. A. Hayek. Details will depend on the mood I happen to be in when I sit down to write. I write these essays on the human sciences in the Fermi Conviction, which was impressed upon me decades ago by Walter E. Grinder, then vice president for academic affairs at the Institute for Humane Studies, that a satisfactory understanding and defense of freedom require an interdisciplinary approach. What we now call the human sciences, economics, sociology, etc., were traditionally known as the moral sciences. Moral in this context referred to man's rational agency, i.e., to his ability to reason to formulate general principles and to act upon those principles in pursuit of chosen goals. The fact that human action is purposeful and volitional was seen as crucial to the distinction between the moral sciences and the natural sciences, such as physics, which investigate the deterministic behavior of physical phenomena. In this classificatory scheme, physiology, anatomy, and similar disciplines, though they include human beings as part of their subject matter, are natural sciences rather than moral sciences, because they focus on man as a physical organism rather than as a rational agent. The label moral science has not been used much since the 19th century, mainly because moral now suggests a normative discipline, such as ethics, in which actions are evaluated as right or wrong. It is to avoid potential confusion between prescriptive and descriptive disciplines that moral science has been largely abandoned by modern theorists, and I shall follow their lead. In this and in subsequent essays, I shall usually refer to any discipline that studies purposeful human action as a human science. The term human sciences was popularized, if not actually coined, by the brilliant German philosopher and social theorist Wilhelm Dilte. In his introduction to the human sciences, 1887, Dilte wrote, What is contained in the concept of science is generally divided into two subdivisions. One is designated by the name natural science. While for the other there is, curiously enough, no generally accepted designation. I shall follow those thinkers who refer to this second half of the globus intellectualis, by the term Geisteswissenschaften. According to Dilte, the word Geisteswissenschaften, which is usually translated into English as human science, became popular in Germany after the extensive circulation of John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, which contains a classic discussion of the methodology of psychology and the social sciences. It is interesting to note that Mill used the traditional term moral science as a general label for these fields of study. But this English expression was translated into German as Geisteswissenschaften, which in turn was re-translated into English as human science. Dilte was not altogether happy with this label, because the Geist in Geisteswissenschaften means spirit or mind, so a literal translation would read the science of mind. And this conveys an unduly narrow conception of what is studied by the human sciences, which are concerned with the totality of human action and its social manifestations. Nevertheless, Dilte decided to accept this expression as the least inappropriate among the others available to us, including social science, sociology, moral science, and cultural science. Again quoting Dilte, all of these designations suffer from the same fault of being too narrow relative to their subject matter. And the name chosen here has at least the advantage of appropriately characterizing the central sphere of facts in terms of which the unity of these disciplines was actually perceived, their scope outlined, and their demarcation from the natural sciences established, no matter how imperfectly. The human sciences evolved as they did historically and were contrasted with the natural sciences because it was believed that man's consciousness endows him with unique characteristics and powers that set him apart from other physical and biological entities. And it was further relieved that man's ability to reason and to choose among alternatives generates the need for a unique method, one distinct from the natural sciences, in formulating a science of man and society. Therefore, the literal translation of Geistus Wissenschaften as science of mind properly refers not merely to the study of human consciousness, which is the domain of psychology, but rather to its many implications for the study of human beings in general, especially in the realm of social interaction. And this broader meaning of Geistus Wissenschaften is captured in its customary translation as human science. Aside from the antiquated moral science, the closest competitor to human science as a satisfactory label is cultural science, a term that was used by the celebrated sociologist Max Weber, among others. Culture, in this context, signifies anything that results from human ingenuity and effort, in the realm of the natural world that has been modified and transformed by human action. The division of science into two broad categories, the human and the natural, depends upon and presupposes certain philosophical views about human beings and their similarities and differences with the rest of nature. Why should we differentiate the human sciences from the natural sciences in the first place? If man is a part of nature, if the siltae and other champions of the human sciences freely admitted, then why drive a methodological wedge between the study of man and the study of nature? Why not simply speak of the natural sciences and subsume the study of human beings under this general heading? These and similar questions have been debated for many decades, and I shall deal with some of them in subsequent essays, for now I wish to know that such questions are methodological in character. They fall within the domain of the philosophy of science, a discipline that subjects the concepts and procedures of the special sciences to philosophical analysis. Every science can be viewed from a philosophical perspective or point of view. This perspective may be illustrated by picturing a number of circles, each of which represents a particular human science. Suppose that we are situated somewhere on the circumference of the circle that represents economics. If we look into the circle, i.e. into the special subject matter of economics, then we are functioning as economists. If, however, we turn around and look outside our circle in an effort to see where economics is located relative to other circles and whether there is any overlap between the circle of economics and the other sciences, then we are functioning as philosophers.  A philosopher of science is a person with his face turned outward, focusing on the relationship and connections between his science and other sciences. The difference between a scientist per se and a philosopher of science is a matter of intellectual perspective. Thus far I have used the word science without attempting to define it. This is a tricky subject because science, as used today, has strong value connotations. It is an honorific term, a label with social prestige. Scientific knowledge carries greater authority than our everyday opinions based on common sense. Scientific knowledge, presumably, has been tested and retested for accuracy by objective procedures, known collectively as the scientific method. Though many people associate the word science with the natural sciences, such as physics and chemistry, the Latin word sciencia originally referred to any organized body of knowledge. Thus philosophy and its various branches, such as ethics, were regarded as sciences. Largely for the sake of convenience, I shall adopt a definition of science that is at once narrower than the classical conception and broader than the modern conception. I shall define science as any specialized cognitive discipline. In this context, cognitive means knowledge yielding, while discipline refers to a kind of inquiry that is sustained and systematic. Thus a science is a sustained and systematic effort to acquire knowledge, but it is more, it is also specialized. A science has a delimited field of inquiry, a particular subject matter and or point of view that sets it apart from other sciences. As here defined, science differs from philosophy. Although philosophy is a cognitive discipline, it does not deal with a specialized subject matter. Philosophy does not section off part of the world, whether natural or human, and study it to the exclusion of everything else. Philosophy is the most fundamental kind of human inquiry, and consequently it is also the most generalized. Philosophy deals with fundamental concepts, such as existence, causality, and value. As it pertains to the sciences, philosophy investigates the meaning of scientific concepts, the nature of the scientific method, the definitions of particular sciences, and how those sciences are related one to another. A similar view of philosophy and its relationship to the sciences was expressed by Henry Syduck, an eminent 19th century British philosopher. In philosophy, its scope, and relations, Syduck argued that philosophy takes all of human knowledge for its province, and it attempts to integrate the knowledge acquired by the special sciences into a comprehensible system of thought. This view, which was probably influenced by the work of Herbert Spencer, was put by Syduck as follows. If we conceive the sciences as sets of connected knowledge and imagine them as rising from the particular to the general, we may consider these sets in their turn as connected by philosophy at the higher end. Philosophy therefore deals not with the whole matter of any science, but with the most important of its special notions, its fundamental principles, its distinctive method, its main conclusions. Philosophy examines these with the view of coordinating them with the fundamental notions and principles, methods, and conclusions of other sciences. The important distinction is that the sciences concentrate attention on particular parts or aspects of the knowable world, abstracting from the rest. While it is, in contrast, the essential characteristic of philosophy that it aims at putting together the parts of knowledge thus attained into a systematic whole, so that all methods of attaining truth may be grasped as parts of one method, and all the conclusions attained may be presented, so far as possible, as harmonious and consistent. John Stuart Mill, whose writings on the methodology of the human sciences still repay close study, held a position similar to that of Syduck and Spencer, but he put it somewhat differently. The philosophy of science, Mill believed, is concerned with the logic of science, that is, with establishing the methodological principles that link one science to another, quoting Mill, the proper meaning of philosophy we take to be what, in the main, the ancients understood by it. The scientific knowledge of man has an intellectual, moral, and social being. Since his intellectual faculties include his knowing faculty, the science of man includes everything that man can know, so far as regards his mode of knowing it. In other words, the whole doctrine of the conditions of human knowledge. The philosophy of science thus comes to mean the science itself, considered not as to its results, the truth which it ascertains, but as to the processes by which the mind attains them, the marks by which it recognizes them, and the coordinating and methodizing of them with a view to the greatest clearness of conception and the fullest and readiest availability for use. In one word, the logic of the science. In the early 17th century, Francis Bacon, a pioneer in the philosophy of science, used the metaphor of a tree and its branches to illustrate the connection between philosophy and the sciences. The sciences, according to Bacon, do not intersect at a common point, but are like branches of the same tree, the tree in this case being philosophy. It is through philosophical reasoning and analysis that we impart a logical structure to the various sciences, establish their similarities and differences, interpret their conclusions, and locate their positions in the total universe of human knowledge. Thank you for listening to Excursions. To learn more about libertarian philosophy and history, visit www.libertarianism.org.


We are all born with possibility. You can choose to accept the way things are, or you can challenge yourself. Be remarkable. Griffith University.