The animus, the man within. The male personification of the unconscious in woman, the animus, exhibits both good and bad aspects, as does the anima in man. But the animus does not so often appear in the form of an erotic fantasy or mood. It is more apt to take the form of a hidden sacred conviction. When such a conviction is preached with a loud, insistent, masculine voice or imposed on others by means of brutal emotional scenes, the underlying masculinity in a woman is easily recognized. However, even in a woman who is outwardly very feminine, the animus can be an equally hard, inexorable power. One may suddenly find oneself up against something in a woman that is obstinate, cold, and completely inaccessible. One of the favorite themes that the animus repeats endlessly in the ruminations of this kind of woman goes like this. The only thing in the world that I want is love, and he doesn't love me, or in this situation there are only two possibilities, and both are equally bad. The animus never believes in exceptions. One can rarely contradict an animus opinion because it is usually right in a general way, yet its seldom seems to fit the individual situation. It is apt to be an opinion that seems reasonable, but beside the point. Just as the character of a man's anima is shaped by his mother, so the animus is basically influenced by a woman's father. The father endows his daughter's animus with the special coloring of unarguable, incontestably true convictions, convictions that never include the personal reality of the woman herself as she actually is. This is why the animus is sometimes, like the anima, a demon of death. For example, in a gypsy fairy tale, a handsome stranger is received by a lonely woman, in spite of the fact that she has had a dream warning her that he is the king of the dead. After he has been with her for a time, she presses him to tell her who he really is. At first, he refuses, saying that she will die if he tells her. She insists, however, and suddenly he reveals to her that he is death himself. The woman immediately dies of fright. Viewed mythologically, the beautiful stranger is probably a pagan father image or god image who appears here as king of the dead, like Hades, abduction of Persephone. But psychologically, he represents a particular form of the animus that lures women away from all human relationships and especially from all contacts with real men.  The negative animus does not appear only as a death demon. In myths and fairy tales, he plays the role of robber and murderer. One example is Bluebeard, who secretly kills all his wives in a hidden chamber. In this form, the animus personifies all those semi-conscious, cold, destructive reflections that invade a woman in the small hours, especially when she has failed to realize some obligation of feeling. It is then that she begins to think about the family heritage and matters of that kind, a sort of web of calculating thoughts filled with malice and intrigue, which get her into a state where she even wishes death to others. When one of us dies, I'll move to the Riviera, said a woman to her husband when she saw the beautiful Mediterranean coast, a thought that was rendered relatively harmless by reason of the fact that she said it. By nursing secret destructive attitudes, a wife can drive her husband and a mother, her children, into illness, accident, or even death. Or she may decide to keep the children from marrying, a deeply hidden form of evil that rarely comes to the surface of the mother's conscious mind. A naive old woman once said to me while showing me a picture of her son, who was drowned when he was twenty-seven. I prefer it this way. It's better than giving him away to another woman. A strange passivity and paralysis of all feeling, or a deep insecurity that can lead almost to a sense of nullity, may sometimes be the result of an unconscious, animus opinion. In the depths of the woman's being, the animus whispers, you are hopeless. What's the use of trying? There is no point in doing anything. Life will never change for the better. Unfortunately, whenever one of these personifications of the unconscious takes possession of our mind, it seems as if we ourselves are having such thoughts and feelings. The ego identifies with them to the point where it is unable to detach them and see them for what they are. One is really possessed by the figure from the unconscious. Only after the possession has fallen away does one realize with horror that one has said and done things diametrically opposed to one's real thoughts and feelings, that one has been the prey of an alien psychic factor. Like the anima, the animus does not merely consist of negative qualities such as brutality, recklessness, empty talk, and silent obstinate evil ideas. He too has a very positive and valuable side. He too can build a bridge to the self through his creative activity. The following dream of a woman of 45 may help to illustrate this point. Two veiled figures climb onto the balcony and into the house. They are swarved in black hooded coats, and they seem to want to torment me and my sister. She hides under the bed, but they pull her out with a broom and torture her. Then it is my turn. The leader of the two pushes me against the wall, making magical gestures before my face. In the meantime, his helper makes a sketch on the wall, and when I see it, I say in order to seem friendly, oh, but this is well drawn. Now suddenly my tormentor has the noble head of an artist, and he says proudly, yes indeed, and begins to clean his spectacles. The sadistic aspect of these two figures was well known to the dreamer, for in reality she frequently suffered bad attacks of anxiety, during which she was haunted by the thought that people she loved were in great danger, or even that they were dead. But the fact that the animus figure in the dream is double suggests that the burglars personify a psychic factor that is dual in its effect, and that could be something quite different from these tormenting thoughts. The sister of the dreamer, who runs away from the men, is caught and tortured. In reality, this sister died when fairly young. She had been artistically gifted, but had made very little use of her talent. Next, the dream reveals that the veiled burglars are actually disguised artists, and that if the dreamer recognizes their gifts, which are her own, they will give up their evil intentions. What is the deeper meaning of the dream? It is that behind the spasms of anxiety, there is indeed a genuine and mortal danger, but there is also a creative possibility for the dreamer. She, like the sister, had some talent as a painter, but she doubted whether painting could be a meaningful activity for her. Now her dream tells her in the most earnest way that she must live out this talent. If she obeys, the destructive tormenting animus will be transformed into a creative and meaningful activity. As in this dream, the animus often appears as a group of men. In this way, the unconscious symbolizes the fact that the animus represents a collective rather than a personal element. Because of this collective mindedness, women habitually refer, when their animus is speaking through them, to one or they or everybody. And in such circumstances, their speech frequently contains the words always and should and ought. A vast number of myths and fairy tales tell of a prince, turned by witchcraft into a wild animal or monster, who is redeemed by the love of a girl, a process symbolizing the manner in which the animus becomes conscious. Dr. Henderson has commented on the significance of this beauty and the beast motif in the preceding chapter. Very often, the heroine is not allowed to ask questions about her mysterious unknown lover and husband, or she meets him only in the dark and may never look at him. The implication is that by blindly trusting and loving him, she will be able to redeem her bridegroom. But this never succeeds. She always breaks her promise and finally finds her lover again only after a long difficult quest and much suffering. The parallel in life is that the conscious attention a woman has to give to her animus problem takes much time and involves a lot of suffering. But if she realizes who and what her animus is and what he does to her, and if she faces these realities instead of allowing herself to be possessed, her animus can turn into an invaluable inner companion who endows her with the masculine qualities of initiative, courage, objectivity, and spiritual wisdom. The animus, just like the anima, exhibits four stages of development. He first appears as a personification of mere physical power, for instance, as an athletic champion or muscle man. In the next stage, he possesses initiative and the capacity for planned action. In the third phase, the animus becomes the word, often appearing as a professor or clergyman. Finally, in his fourth manifestation, the animus is the incarnation of meaning. On this highest level, he becomes, like the anima, a mediator of the religious experience whereby life acquires new meaning. He gives the woman spiritual firmness, an invisible inner support that compensates for her outer softness. The animus in his most developed form sometimes connects the woman's mind with the spiritual evolution of her age, and can thereby make her even more receptive than a man to new creative ideas. It is for this reason that in earlier times, women were used by many nations as diviners and seers. The creative boldness of their positive animus at times expresses thoughts and ideas that stimulate men to new enterprises. The inner man within a woman's psyche can lead to marital troubles similar to those mentioned in the section on the anima. What makes things especially complicated is the fact that the possession of one partner by the animus or anima may automatically exert such an irritating effect upon the other that he or she becomes possessed too. Animus and anima always tend to drag conversation down to a very low level and to produce a disagreeable, erasable, emotional atmosphere. As I mentioned before, the positive side of the animus can personify an enterprising spirit, courage, truthfulness, and, in the highest form, spiritual profundity. Through him, a woman can experience the underlying processes of her cultural and personal objective situation and can find her way to an intensified spiritual attitude to life. This naturally presupposes that her animus ceases to represent opinions that are above criticism. The woman must find the courage and inner broad mindedness to question the sacredness of her own convictions. Only then will she be able to take in the suggestions of the unconscious, especially when they contradict her animus opinions. Only then will the manifestations of the self get through to her and will she be able consciously to understand their meaning.


Thanks Amy. So I'm a historian and because of that my talk is going to be a little bit different today. I'm going to talk about the past and how it relates to the ancestral movement of today. So where should we begin? I'm tempted to begin here with these toddlers posing as bodybuilders or perhaps here what the heck is going on here but instead I like to start by talking about the origins of the ancestral health movement. Now for most people the movement begins in 1985 with Boyd Eaton's landmark paper but I'm going to suggest that we can go back further. We can go back more than a hundred years to something that was known as the physical culture movement of the late 19th and early 20th century. So let me define what I mean by physical culture. It was the building of health, strength, and beauty in the human body through proper diet and exercise. And although few remember it today this movement was widely popular across Europe and the United States. So this is how I'd like to proceed. I'd like to proceed in three parts. First talking about the similarities between the two movements then talking about some of the differences and then finally trying to pull everything together that discusses both the origins and fundamental motivations behind both movements. So first the similarities. First and foremost there was a desire to get back to nature or to put it another way the natural way is the best way. And I think this quote really sums it up well this quote from 1894. It is reasonably certain that man was originally made to live and exercise in the open air bathed in rivers and exposed his body to the healthful action of the sun without even the protection of clothing. Hey so this brings us to the idea of a mismatch right a mismatch between the way humans were quote-unquote designed to live and the modern world. So the problem is modern civilization specifically the problems of tobacco alcohol over consumption of patent drugs which were the forerunners to prescription drugs and ill-fitting clothing. Now it was believed that these problems were leading to degeneration or decline of both individuals and the species as a whole and here we can clearly see the influence of Darwin's new theory of evolution in this image from 1904. So the goal of this physical culture movement was to create ideal men and women. Ideal men and women who were strong and healthy in comparison to the modern Americans of a hundred hundred years ago. So on the right there of that image we see this woman squeezed into a corset in high heels. We see the classic skinny fat man and we see his over intellectualized child with glasses and a skull that's too big. Perhaps today he'd be holding a mobile device as opposed to a book. So again here's this ideal the physical culture moving was trying to create this ideal by mimicking hunter-gatherers and looking to the past and if if people followed that they would look like Eugene Sandow on the right. This picture is from about 1900. So let's pretend for a moment that we want to join this physical culture movement. So what are some of the things we would do? Well first we would eat natural foods. These things should sound familiar. Eat whole foods. Avoid processed foods. Drink some raw milk. Maybe take some fish oil. Right the key point here is that for the first time really in the modern period there's a scientific approach to nutrition as opposed to just eating what religion or tradition or culture dictated. This is important difference. And it was believed that by eating a more natural diet we could optimize health and cure disease. So ads like this were very common. We might also want to try some fasting 24-hour fasting and multi-day fasts were possible or we could do some punctuated eating right and you could get your own little watch to guide you through the day. All you paleo entrepreneurs take note. Rise early. Exercise. First meal at 11. Walk in the afternoon. Second and last meal at 5. Go to bed at 10. And you do the calculation that's nine solid hours of sleep. We'd also want to take care of our intestinal health. Maybe take some probiotics. Yogurt was especially popular 100 years ago. This is a great image of good bacteria kicking the butt of bad bacteria right out of your stomach out of your intestines. We'd want to do some full-body strength training. We might try these groovy barbells and don't don't be mistaken some of these folks were ripped. We'd also want to do a lot of walking. Maybe even some barefoot walking. This poem from 1859 is great. It says other kinds of exercises are good but walking is even better. And then the and on the right we see what might be the first minimalist shoes. Represents from Vibran take note. There are concerns about unnatural forms of exercise like cycling. Leading to deformities and I think this in some ways echoes Jamie Scott's talk yesterday. Now you might also want to join one of the new gyms that we're springing up. And these gyms look remarkably similar to some of the boxes we see today. So we have rings and bars and free weights or this cool gym in France indoor track body would exercise even some MMA action in the middle or maybe you're a do-it-yourselfer. You might build your own home gym. So as a simple model on the left some adjustable bars or something more complex on the right. This is 1906. So platform adjustable squat bar. And then once you got all ripped in your basement you could try out for the physical culture exhibition which I think could be called the first CrossFit Games held in 1905 in Madison Square Garden. There were 17 different events. Lots of walking and jumping sorry running and jumping. But there were also things like the deadlift weighted carry and rope climb. This is a great rare photo from this period. This is the competition arena at Madison Square Garden. And based on the end shaped structure in the middle it looks like it was a hell of a rope climb. Okay after the competition maybe want to experiment with some cold exposure. So it was widely believed that ice baths helped promote recovery and increased longevity. And in fact the publisher Bernard McFadden founded the first polar bear club in the United States in 1903 which is still around today. Coney Island. Also like today women were very much a part of this movement. So we have the women strength training. It was emphasis on natural childbirth, breastfeeding and dress reform. I think these images are really remarkable.  Even some Olympic lifting and children weren't forgot forgotten either. Alright so we have children with dumbbells. Children doing some posing there. And then on the right what might be best described is mobility work. Alright and just like today there was a criticism of conventional medicine. So doctors were seen as pill pushers who just treated symptoms. And instead physical culturalists wanted an emphasis on preventive medicine. And we can see this image on the right I think is really really great. So the fences represent preventive medicine. So rather than building fences we let people fall off the health cliff and we rush them to the hospital rather than taking care of them ahead of time. So take this drug industry right. There was also criticism of patent drugs. Again these are the forerunners to prescription drugs today. They came under fire especially because they were often marketed, sounds familiar, marketed to the lower classes. Okay this brings me to the physical culture joke of the day. I saw this several times in my research. What does MD stand for? More dollars. Okay the physical culture movement was also powered by new media. But the new media of a hundred years ago were different. So we have photography, film and this was also the golden age of newspapers and magazines. We can think of William Randolph Hearst here. So I have a short 20 second video clip that I'd like to show from 1900 that represents this use of new media. It could be right off YouTube. Catch that back. Okay so out of this publishing frenzy came a number of bestsellers and the circulation of for some of these magazines are really quite incredible. The physical culture magazine was called physical culture exceeded half a million monthly subscribers. It's pretty remarkable in the 1920s. So half a million publication. And these books which were published a hundred years ago are remarkable to the books, paleo books we see today. So let's just look at chapter three and chapter five from this book from 1925. Water, nature's natural solvent flushing the system a mistaken idea. And five, why the calorie theory is misleading. Calories do not indicate real food values. Wow and this could come from one of the presentations today. And like today there were hundreds of success stories. And I would argue these success stories benefited both the submitter and the publisher. We have here a man recovering from tuberculosis 1909.  And of course the classic same pair of trousers picture before and after 1909. These are all from the physical culture magazines. Finally here in terms of similarities there was an emphasis on outdoor exercise in sun exposure. And this quote from the middle could be pulled right out of the paleo solution or primal blueprint, right? To explode to expose the entire body to the direct rays of the sun with all the clothing removed is very conducive to health. This is the best method of obtaining an adequate ration of vitamin D. Begin with a short exposure of 10 or 15 minutes and prolong the duration of the sun bath for additional few minutes each day. This is sound kind of sound rational by issue here today. On the left we have some pretty gnarly trail running. And on the right we see a young girl enjoying nature in the nude which brings me to the second part of my talk. So differences between the physical culture movement and the paleo movement of today. So nudism was popular, right, or what was called natureism. Wearing clothing was seen as a weakness. And the first nudist clubs appeared first in Europe and later in the United States. And I don't have time to go into it today but I would argue that this also influenced the artistic production at the period. Here we have Matisse on the left and Gauguin on the right. With the exception of the presentation yesterday morning there was much more of an emphasis on correct breathing and posture 100 years ago than there is today. And there was a real emphasis on clean air, especially in these rapid industrializing cities in northern Europe and the northeast of the United States. So here we have goggles and a nose filter recommended for city living, especially for train travel which could be quite dirty. Circulation is another difference. So it was thought that brain work, and brain work means sitting behind a desk, led to poor circulation. And this is one of the origins of Swedish massage. And also the idea of you could rub yourself vigorously after a shower, increased circulation, and also what was called hydropathy. Hydropathy is the application of different amounts of water and different temperatures of water to the body. And that's what we see on the right there. So we don't talk so much about are we lacking in circulation. Another difference is there were some, the food recommendations were not exactly the same as today. So there were many vegetarians who were physical culturalists, some advocated raw foods, and some embraced unadulterated whole wheat bread. And this might be more understandable when we realize that celiac disease, the connection between gluten and celiacs wasn't made until the 1940s by Dutch pediatrician. But what I find really amazing is that we're still having the same debates as 100 years ago. So cooked food versus raw food, vegetarianism versus meat eating, and body weight exercises versus pumping iron. All the same debates. It was also more of an emphasis on mastication. I'm chewing your food. We just heard a presentation on this. Horace Fletcher popularized this. He wrote a number of books, very, very popular. So popular in fact that he was able to buy a villa in Italy, right, from the books that he sold. And he said, look, you should chew your food until the point where there's no swallowing necessary. And it actually works at lunch. You should give it a try. If you chew enough, it just slides down your throat. You don't swallow. Great quote here. Nature will castigate those who don't masticate. On the other end, there was an emphasis on excreta, right, which means human waste, particularly feces. There was a lot of talk about feces. We don't talk too much about feces today, right? So feces size and smell and consistency. There was a lot of talk about this. This quote, I think, nicely sums this up.  And finally, unlike the virtual world of the Paleosphere, there were some physical important physical locations for the physical culture movement. These include Battle Creek, Michigan, Dansville, and right here, Harvard College, right? So a number of important people related to the physical culture movement, especially Dudley Sargent, who basically created the modern physical education program for primary and secondary schools in the United States. And he was also the director of Hem and Way Gym here at Harvard, which I understand is still around today. Sure is. Okay. This brings me into part. This is a long quote. I don't have the time to talk about it, but basically it says you have to be really fit and strong if you're going to sit all day. This is the longest serving president of Harvard. So let me try to wrap things up here. There's a couple slides left. My main argument, my main argument is that both movements were a reaction to rapid social, economic, and technological change. So 100 years ago, industrialization produced the physical culture movement. And today, the digital revolution is produced this paleo movement. Both movements seek to return to nature in a stressful and disorienting world. Both give people a sense of autonomy and control. Both provide the satisfaction of exercising one's own body, feeling engaged with others, comparing and noting improvement. And finally, to borrow a phrase from Joseph Campbell, I think both are used to create a sacred place of our own. You give us a kind of set of sacred spiritual practices, and they hold out the promise of a kind of inner awakening. That ends my presentation. Thank you for your attention.


And good morning. Once again, thanks for joining us on the Breakfast here on Plus TV Africa. Let's go back a little bit in history to the year 1957 on the 12th of July. For, of course, in recent times, you know, a lot of people have celebrated the helicopters and the aircrafts that carried the presidents of the United States. I know that I've seen a couple of documentaries on these things also, but it was on this day on the 12th of July 1957 that Dwight D. Eisenhower became the first president to ride in the newest advanced aviation technology, which was the helicopter. Although, of course, experimental military helicopters had been tested since 1947, it was not until 10 years later that a president considered using the new machine for short official trips torn from the White House. He suggested the idea to the Secret Service, which approved of the new mode of transportation, seeing it as safer and more efficient than the traditional limousine motorcade. During his second term, he used the Bell UH-13J Sucs to fly to the presidential retreat at Camp David and to his farm also. So basically, this was the day it started, but there's some there's some parts of it that I want to also quickly share concerning this story. Yes, it was praised by other people. The Secret Service also enjoyed the fact that, yes, it was a more effective means of transporting the president to and fro. It also was safer based on the aviation records back then, since 1940s when they had started flying. But first of all, the aircraft was purchased with about $201,000 back then. And then also, it cost or it took the president only five minutes, you know, to move from the, where's it now, flying from the national airport to the White House took five minutes, but if it was going to be driving, it took 10 minutes. But here's the thing. While, you know, the president, Eisenhower, enjoyed all these privileges, there were still people who criticized the president for wasting taxpayers' money to save five minutes. So they basically were saying that, yes, he was trying to save time, but instead of, you know, him saving time is also also wasting taxpayers' money, you know, for his own little comfort. And I'm pointing that out because I want us to reflect back here in Nigeria to see the amount of wastage of government funds that we think of every day for reasons that are not even as important as moving the president. And yet, you know, nobody even bats an eyelid. Nobody cares. National Assembly doesn't care. Nobody, you know, bothers themselves. But for those five minutes that the president was able to save, moving from the airport to the White House, that was going to cost, you know, maybe a little bit more because he was using the helicopter, they were, people, the American public criticized the president for wasting taxpayers' money. I want us to always remember to have those things in mind when we hear about a renovation of the National Assembly that's going to cost billions of Naira, where we hear of the number of aircraft the Nigerian president still has, you know, in service, where we hear of the amount of money that it costs every state governor to move from one location to the other because they have to move in a convoy of about 15 to 16 vehicles, including armed, you know, policemen and an ambulance and whatever else and all of that. Every single day that they wake up and breathe and do their regular day-to-day activities, it's costing Nigerian taxpayers millions and millions and millions of Naira, and those are the things that we should imagine. And also the per diem and the number of aides that have to travel with a governor or with a president any time he has to go to the UK or go to some other country for some, you know, random flimsy thing. Whoo, interesting.  And yes, regarding that criticism about, you know, saving taxpayers' money, it was a whole story. It was a whole big thing.  So yes, it does make sense when you look at it, you know, in light of what's happening in Nigeria, how they go on medical trips, all expenses paid, taxpayers' money, you know, just the contrast is just stuck in, you know, just I want everyone to look at, I just imagine what it costs every time that the state governor moves in Nigeria. And I'm talking about the cost with regard to petrol for all those SUVs, including the ones that security and police and those SUVs that will stay time and time again that they even kill people, cause accidents because they drive anyhow and just blow their sirens because they want to chase people off the road. So every time that the governor needs to move, they have to have that full convoy about 12 to 15 vehicles on the road, including the motorbikes, which always have to be, maybe it's part of security protocol. But how can you imagine how much it costs the state every time for four years that the governor moves around the state? That's an example of what we're talking about with regard to wastage of money. We're going to be bringing, one of the conversations we have this morning luckily is on Nigeria's their profile. And I'm hoping that we can get into, you know, talking about how the Nigerian politician himself, Nigerian state itself continues to waste money and has no plans, has never even, in any day imagined that maybe we should try to cut down on the amount of money it costs to run a government in Nigeria. No, no, no. The emphasis should be on borrowing or would be on borrowing from their perspective because Nigeria is poor and doesn't have enough resources. I mean, that's what Ahmed Lawan said some weeks ago. Moving on now to our next big story, going back in time. On this day in history, the 12th of July in 2012 was a very sad incident that occurred, a tanker explosion that cued, you know, tens and tens of people, over 100 people, confirmed dead and about 90 something, you know, non-fatal casualties in Okobi in River State, Nigeria. And what happened was that this tanker explosion occurred because this truck was trying to avoid hitting a car or two other cars and because of that it veered into a ditch. It spewed its contents into the ditch and Nigerians all ran, you know, it's not today that we've been hearing stories about Nigerians trying to scoop fuel from, you know, a tanker that fell, so they began to scoop fuel and somehow, someway, you know, a fire was triggered and it just cued over 100 people. It's just a very sad incident. Yes, 121. And that's according to statements from the Nigerian National Emergency Management Agency, NEMA, the Federal Safety Commission of River State gave the same figures that 121 people died and that death toll was initially put at 95 but it was confirmed at 121. It's just a sad reminder of lots of things that are wrong with our country. First of all, the roads, bad roads was one, I mean, back then, let's have seen the road then in River State, how bad it was, you know, and how trying to avoid hitting another car, trying to avoid that collision, and then the mentality of our people, the poverty, because if those people were able to do, they won't be running to scoop fuel. It's just so sad that this is something that happened in 2012 and this year, last year, we're still here in cases about tanker fires and people getting burnt in the process. Yeah, so there is still that. I think, you know, with regards to these types of disasters, you know, and people are Nigerians making similar mistakes, you know, I think the biggest one that has been in record, I don't think there's anyone that has been bigger than that is the Jesse fire disaster that happened in Delta State in 1998. About 1078 people died on record and that was, you know, after I think it was a pipeline explosion or pipeline leakage, I believe, that people in worry in Jesse community went to, of course, once again, scoop petrol and then, of course, there was an explosion, a thousand people died on that day. It's still a national disaster, but the points to note are the fact that, you know, even in 2021, you will still see similar incidents, you will still see people rush into a tanker that falls on the road to scoop petrol or scoop crude oil, whatever it is, that it is carrying. So we still have those mistakes. We still haven't learned a lot of lessons. Poverty is still a major factor in some of all these things. Even if they know better, they should know better and I know that they know better of how dangerous it is, but you can't tell a hungry man not to try, at least, you know, some way that he can make some money or make some, you know, put food on the stable. But yeah, sad story in Nigeria's history, 2,200 plus people died. 121 people. 121. And of course, on this day also, in 1957, President Eisenhower took the very first helicopter ride as a president, you know, in the United States back then. That's all we have for you today. Stay with us. We're moving into our first conversation, first major conversation, Nick Agoule will be joining us to have a discussion on Nigeria's debt profile and where we might be headed with all these loans that we currently are taking and how we can, in any way, successfully pay back these loans. We'll be back.


and having a better first touch.  You never wanna be flat-footed on your heels. As you can see, when that ball's coming to me, I'm really trying to get my body in front of the ball and also get my body over the ball. I'm almost bent over, over exaggerating my technique. Now, as that ball's coming to me, with my eyes, I'm actually watching the ball meet my foot to ensure that I make a good first touch. And I want that touch to be out of my feet. I wanna keep it close to me, but I want it out of my feet so I can quickly make a pass or dribble into space. Next, you wanna think about being positive with your first touch. So rather than always keeping the ball right at your feet with your first touch, you wanna think about taking your first touch into space.  If you don't know about me, I used to be a huge underachiever, but through obsessive self-improvement, I found my success. Earned a college scholarship, played for my national futsal team, a YouTube channel with over 100 million views. I've helped players worldwide and I'd love to help you improve faster and achieve more. Now, you're gonna have to learn to think ahead of the game. So most players react. You receive the ball, then inside your feet, then you make your decision. If you wanna be a good player, you wanna play quickly, have a high speed of play, you need to learn to think ahead of the game. So as that ball's coming to you, try to think, where's the space that I need to attack? Where's the open space? Should I turn? Should I go left? Should I go right? And just learning to think ahead of the game, rather than always reacting to what happens in front of you, it's gonna make you a better player. Like I said, it's going to allow you to play quicker. You'll be much better in possession. You won't lose possession as often as you may currently be.  You wanna think about moving the ball away from the defender with your first touch. I used to be the type of player that I would stop the ball dead and then try to beat the player with skill. When you can learn to actually beat the defender with your first touch, you're gonna make your life a lot easier. So again, you need to learn to think ahead of the play. You can't always stop the ball and then make a decision. You need to make your decisions before the play actually happens. So as that ball's coming to you, try to recognize where's the space, where should I be attacking? When receiving long passes, the biggest thing that I focus on is actually my movement. So as you can see here, you're gonna have to react a lot with long passes compared to shorter passes. Shorter passes are usually a bit predictable. When that long pass is coming in the air, sometimes it swerves, sometimes it get caught up in the wind, you need to be light on your toes and quick to react. So even before that ball is coming, when I notice my teammate is about to ping a pass to me, I get light on my toes really quickly. Then I try to adjust to the flight of the ball. So as you can see, sometimes I'm moving left, then right quickly adjusting as the ball is in the air.  It's much better for you to get your body behind the ball, maybe take it off your chest or your thigh rather than lunging for the ball and trying to reach for it. So really just think about moving your feet and getting in front of the ball. If you like this content, check out the Soccer Success Planner. You can download it for free. There's a link in the description below. And for advanced training, check out the Online Soccer Academy. So here are some major mistakes that players make when receiving passes. Number one, like I said earlier, is being flat-footed. If you're not on your heels, it's gonna be really difficult to have the touch that you want. So always be on your toes. The next thing is having the first touch that gets stuck in your feet. Like I said, you wanna get that ball out of your feet so you can quickly step into it to make a pass or move into space. So really focus on getting that ball out of your feet. The next mistake is taking your eye off the ball as you're receiving it. How many times have you done that? You think you've got it under control, but you don't actually look at the ball and it goes right under your foot. Next is lunging for passes. It's a really bad habit. And instead of lunging for passes, what you wanna do is be light on your toes and quickly move to that side. So instead of lunging for your pass, try to think about getting there quickly to get your body in front of the ball. This is gonna really help you just be a better player in general. So think about being light on your toes, moving quickly to one side rather than sticking your foot out and trying to lunge to receive the pass. You're dealing with the defender. Always try to get that ball out of your feet. As you can see here, if you have a bad first touch and you get closed down quickly, you're going to lose possession. So think about attacking space or taking the ball away from the defender.  Try to get that ball into space and then accelerate with speed. So let's talk about some of the major points that we addressed in this video. Basic technique, light on your toes. Get your body over the ball, really overemphasizing your technique. Watch that ball meet your foot with your eyes and try to get a touch out of your feet so you can actually play a quick pass or dribble into space. Whenever possible, you do not want to stop the ball dead in your feet. You want to take a positive first touch into space. This is going to allow you to play much quicker, to attack with speed and keep possession of the ball. When dealing with a defender, try to beat them with your first touch rather than stopping the ball dead at your feet. You can also protect the ball, but think about taking the ball away from the defender with your first touch. When dealing with long balls, it's all about reading the flight of the ball. So be light on your toes and anticipate the ball. Try to get your body in front of it. If you like this content, check out the Soccer Success Planner. You can download it for free. There's a link in the description below. And for advanced training, check out the Online Soccer Academy.


So my name is Daniel Flonseca. I'm from Northport, Alabama, and I'm an electrical engineering major on the STEM Path to the MBA. What drove me to UA was the STEM Path to the MBA program, combined with the five years that they offered me for National Merit, which other schools did not offer. And so I could get my bachelor's in electrical engineering and an MBA, which I thought business would be like my secondary major if I didn't want to be an engineer. I could do both and it would be affordable because I had a scholarship that covered it for five years. So the STEM Path to the MBA program is a five-year program where every semester you take a one and a half hour business class. You do case studies on different companies, different products. You see how people market their products, how they create their products, how they create their value propositions and their business model canvases. And every five weeks you do a presentation in a group on whatever your product or business was in full business professional dress. Then you have a class like that every semester for your first three years. Then you have a summer of three MBA classes once you apply to the MBA school, your junior year. And then your senior year, you're technically taking graduate level MBA classes. And then you have a fifth year after you graduate from your bachelor's in whatever your STEM program is. Your fifth year is 100% business classes and then after that you graduate with your MBA. I think it's going to help me because I've always wanted to maybe start my own tech company or at least be able to market what I work for. And so being able to combine both the engineering aspect through the engineering department and also having the MBA and the business know-how of how to sell a product and how the industry works from a business standpoint. Combining those two together I feel it would be really helpful to market myself and also help myself like go forward in my career once I actually have a job.


So, today last in the previous one, previous lecture what we had done was the canter network and with that we figured out what is the bound on the straight line on blocking switch, which was o on o n log 2 n square actually. So, with that we can always create a straight line on blocking switch that was the last thing which we did. So, with that now more or less most of the theoretical stuff is kind of over. So, now I would actually be doing something to do with time switching, how to build up a time switch using your random access memory. It is a basically a electronic circuit schematic which I will be discussing and how this actually functions. And then we will expand it on to what we call super multiplex switch and then of course TST configuration and you will get an idea that the switch is as far as the operating system of a switch is concerned.  And once you write a control word certain connections will automatically will get set up actually. So, as far as the control action which is required write the appropriate word things will happen in the back end automatically. You need not worry about how the switching is implemented. So, that is how it is obstructed in the software system because one has to write even an operating system of such a switch. So, first of all let us go to the basic time switch implementation. So, now what is there with us before we start designing this? We have we can take a even carrier system. Even carrier system will have as all of us know total 32 voice slots a 32 actually octets per 125 microsecond. And we are already aware of this that out of this there will be two slots which will be already occupied by design one for signaling purpose another one is for framing purpose. So, that you can identify the frames at the receiver end. So, frame boundaries are detected by these two. So, usually the idea is when you get such kind of an even frame I should be able to push it into a time switch there will be some controller some control action which we have to do which will now identify how actually it functions. And the end of it again I will get nothing but an even only coming out. And of course, your framing and signaling which is your 15th because I am counting from 0 and 30 first these two slots will be signaling and framing slots. So, I am not bothered about them, but the remaining slots will get swiped. So, if you might have some data at 0th slot which might end up in this octet might be arriving at third slot and so on. So, I am basically changing doing the time slot. So, are being changed interchanged actually with each other. So, this kind of switch is also known as time slot interchanger. So, in fact something like this can also be done in optical domain for implementing all optical switching circuit switching actually. And that is an optical time slot interchanger that is done usually by delay lines. Del line can always act as a memory fiber loop delay lines are used there here I will be using simply random access memory. So, now with that thing now the problem is this what I will do with the signaling in framing these are not required when I am doing time switching. So, usually when these will be coming at the interface first thing will be done is the information which is coming in your signaling thing will be listened by the interface board will be taken out. And this information then can be rooted because it is like a virtual channel will be going to the controller the software which is running inside the switch which is a master basically which runs everything is like operating system of a PC. So, in fact PC is also designed exactly in same with architecturally is not much different is a special kind of computer that is only thing we just switching functionality. So, once this is bypassed that signaling slot does not matter actually signaling happens end to end similarly the signaling information will be injected into this even till it goes to the next guy where it will be again taken out. So, signaling information is never switched if it has to be switched it has to come here it will identify where it has to be forwarded and it forwarded over a signaling channel. So, signaling channel provides a virtual connection or a virtual channel between two end points over a link always this is not like a circuit switching where the voice is simply just passing through this switch. So, these are basically what so that these entities can talk to each other similarly once have identified the frame here this frame boundary deniation octet is also not required to be switched. So, usually what you will get is a 30 frame or 30 slot frame that is what you will get not 32. So, the board interface board itself will identify that it will also give you the timing signal which is important timing recovery it would have done. So, it will give you a frame clock a pulse when the frame starts and when frame ends because within this board you require this within the switch. It will give you an octet clock every word this is known as word clock also and then there is a bit clock there are three clocks which will be there in the system and you will be writing into RAM you will be reading into RAM as per certain thing when it comes to the output you will again be actually getting all the three clocks you will be getting the frame which is going to come out serially and then this will be used to create whatever is the frame boundary thing the 31st slot the 16th slot will be inserted by the controller information signaling information you will get back new even which will be transported further. So, this will be more or less the mechanism in all kind of time switches for all kind of multiplexing. So, there is going to be a important thing in the interface board itself you will be stripping out your signaling end framing octets you will be actually retrieving out the all the three clocks which will be now will be used all through this particular board and they will be combined back again because once you are on this serial line. In fact you are clocking information your framing information signaling all three are embedded in one single serial line. So, I keep them in parallel while doing the switching. So, I am not going to discuss how this will be done this I think has already been done at some other places frame delineation mechanism clock recovery has been done in some other courses. So, but it is done that is it that is my assumption that actually even happens in reality. So, you can do it through PLL or whatever kind of line coding mechanisms which are used to recover the clock, but those are extremely important if that clock sync is not there you cannot receive anything it is impossible. This switch will only function and operate if you can retrieve the clocks. So, usually most of the line termination unit because anything where you terminate a line coming in line is a line termination of L T U there you will be always having an indicator whether my clock is in sync or not. If your PLL says that I am in synchronization then only you will interpret whatever is coming on the line otherwise you simply discard it. You should not start interpreting even without synchronization that is not possible. So, there is an assumption that there is synchronization this true with all kind of system CDMA becomes even severe because CDMA even the codes also need to be synchronized PN sequences which are there on at both ends. So, same concept applies here. So, my assumption is I got 30 slot and I am also getting the timing signal. So, this is my octets which are coming in and in fact another thing which I will do is these are the serial octets and I will be converting into a parallel stream now. This serial I will be converting into parallel 8 bit wide bus will be there which will be carrying the bits of a octet or a word. So, already this will be this requires a word clock remember otherwise you cannot do it because whenever the word boundary will come at that point at time you have to signal it is a basically serial in parallel out. There is going to be a clock here which is a word clock and so there is some clock extraction mechanism which is sitting here. So, what I have to do is these words which are coming in I have to write them into a memory. So, I will use a random access memory here technically data in and data out both are going to be from the same bus they are not from different buses actually in actual RAM. But here I am showing it as if coming from two buses only thing when you are having a read mode the same bus will be used for reading purpose when it is in write mode it will be for a write purpose. So, I am not showing that actually, but I think you can build up even that part. No, I am only able to write from the input to stream read to the output to stream, but technically it will be done from the same bus. I have already converted to parallel 8 bit you have to write in parallel there is nothing like serial into a RAM. A random access memory will have whatever is the memory size memory word is a 64 bit you have to have a 64 bit bus whatever is the word on that whenever you give the clock that time it will be written in the address which is there on the address lines. If you cannot have those many wires internally inside the chip you will be doing this job. So, whatever I am doing will be done internally inside the chip. So, that you actually have less fan out or less pins on the chip, but in abstraction wise yes those many lines are required. You require number of data lines is equal to data word size and whatever is the address those many bits will also be required to transfer the address. So, I am explicitly showing them separately. I am also showing input bus and output bus also separately, but technically it is actually same bus which will be coming in you will be reading here and there will be an end gate this is basically if the write is enabled and if the read is I call it this will be something like this. So, there is only one bus which is going inside. So, whenever the read is enabled read is 1. So, this will be 0 and this is the end gate. So, it is stopping nothing can be written into actually at this point, but here you can read it. So, whatever is there on the line so whatever address you will feed the same data will simply come and latch on to the bus and then that will become visible to outgoing bus. And whenever you say I am going to write into this this is a write bar. So, this will get inverted this will be enabled this will be disabled whatever is the address at that location you will be writing and this read write read oblique write bar also will be going into the chip for writing purpose. You can design in VLSI whatever way you wish and in fact VLSI chips for doing this thing is are already available. So, you can build up a limited 16 by 16 telephone exchange it is possible for you to build it actually in the lab and then fabricate test do whatever you wish with that. So, smaller size is pretty simple even larger size you can do because crossbars also technically are built using this logic gates and whatever mechanism I am telling that actually is the part of the design. So, this is what is going to be the RAM. So, I have to tell in the RAM at which location I have to write. So, I am assuming that first octet will be written at first location second will be at second location third will be at third location and so on. And 30th octet will be written at 30th location they will be written sequentially. So, that actually means whatever is the third clock I have to run a counter with this without this I cannot work actually. So, I will take this I will run a counter when this counter will be reset to 0 when the frame clock will come remember they are three clocks frame bit and word. And since I have converted to serial to parallel your word clock will be actually used here for serial in parallel out this what the clock which you are using is the bit clock which will be nothing equal to word clock this for parallel system. So, technically you do not require a bit clock you only work with two clocks one is frame other one is the word clock because my bit size is now increased whatever is the one octet size. Now, my bit is of this duration but they are parallel of that they are eight parallel bits on eight parallel lines that is what has been done here. Now, this counter is always going to be reset by frame clock. So, whenever the frame actually starts that time it will be set to 0. So, first octet 0th octet will be written in 0th location first one will be in first and 30th will be in 30th location this will automatically happen. So, this will give you the address this will be used for writing purpose remember this is a write address and how about what will be the size of this bus this will be also again parallel line. If you implement in side the VLSI then this will be depending on how many words are there if it is a even system you have 30. So, you require how many bits 5 bits because 2 is for 5 is 32. So, this is going to be 5 bit bus. So, this technically depends on how many words will be stored inside the RAM. RAM size will govern this I have to also read out remember. So, read out address also has to be fed into the system and this will be also going to the same port where the write address goes. So, I require a switch because of that. So, there is a switch or a multiplexer this is the address of 5 bits this address will come from another location I will tell how it comes I think some of you can immediately guess it because this is a very intuitive design there is nothing to understand. And of course, now when you are writing that is very important because read and write both cannot happen simultaneously in this switch. So, what we do is the word clock or any clock the will be going high and low for 50 percent of time it is high 50 percent it is low then the next clock pulse will come. So, the first part when it is 1 I can use it for the reading or writing whatever way I wish actually does not matter for me. So, if I want to use the first half for reading for writing the second half for reading which is perfect. So, whatever you write in the current frame can be read in current frame, but if you read first and then you write in the next half whatever you are going to write now will always be read in the next frame not in the current frame that is only implication. So, usually because we do not want to create one additional 125 microsecond delay inside the switch we always do a writing first and read later on that is usually is the strategy this is a very small thing. So, design will work correctly, but you start introducing 125 microsecond delay additionally inside the switch. So, that we can actually avoid in the scenario and of course, one important thing is that whatever you are writing now may be actually reading the next frame that is possible, but the question is when you are reading here in this cycle you may not be reading the word where you are writing from here that is important. So, part of it will be written later on will be read later on part of it will be read in the current cycle that is possible. So, it is not that everything remains in the same frame whatever is this all updates which are in one frame at the input may not be in one frame at the output that design requires two memories actually. So, what you do is the whole frame will be written in the first frame and nothing will be read out and in the next frame you will be reading the whole thing. So, that whole frame remains intact here I am not doing I am not using two ramps I am using only one single ramp. Those are also required if I have to put a time expander currently number of slots thirty slots are here thirty slots are at their output side, but then we will for example, implemented TST time is space time and I have to build up a real a strictly non blocking switch. The incoming number of slots in 125 microsecond is thirty outgoing will be 2 into 30 minus 1 ok which will be 59. So, 59 slots at the output and 30 slots at the input there is a clocking problem actually. I cannot use this kind of mode you read air and write air this can only be done if incoming slots and outgoing slots per unit frame time is same then only then it can be done. So, in that case we use twin memory system which can be clocked at two different clocks. So, that design can be made by modifying every system time permits I can actually I will tell you that thing also. Sir, this duration sir is in which which you have written W and R sir. This is a one clock pulse one T one word clock this will be technically 125 microsecond divided by number of slots which are there per frame. So, in this case it is thirty this is the value of T if it is a even carrier T one carrier system 24 slots it will be divide by 24 ok, but more or less I think the basic concept once you understand you can almost start designing almost all kind of things. So, I am going to write it. So, this actually means when this clock is going to be 1 when this will be 0 I have to put this address. So, 0 means this and 1 you have to select this is the control entity and I have to also feed read write bar here also. So, I will take this particular pulse sorry not from here because I have to write. So, write bar has to be it has to be 0 then only the write will happen. So, when it is 1 it gets inverted you have a 0 when you feed 0 the write happens and this address is what is going to be fed into the RAM you can write in sequence whatever is coming at the input now is ok. Let me explain it again this is a clock pulse which is coming whenever the clock pulse has to be 1 I have to write into the RAM and whatever is the value of the counter it has to go to that address counter is always reset at the beginning of the frame it is starts counting from 0. So, in our case will count from 0 goes till 30 then again it will be reset to 0 it will generate 5 bit address which I am taking out this address has to be sent to the RAM to give the location where the incoming octet or incoming sample voice sample which is 8 bit sample has to be written and it has to be done in the positive cycle because negative cycle I will be using it for reading purpose. So, when it is when the clock is high I have because remember read write bar actually means whenever read write bar input is going to be 0 write is 1 because w bar is 0 so w is 1 and r is 0. So, it will be doing only write operation that is why this after the inversion I have connected to read write bar and that that point of time this value which I am feeding for control to this MUX is 0. So, this input will get connected to the address input not this one when this value is 1 this will get connected this I will use it for reading purpose. So, I will be writing sequentially or cyclically into the RAM this cyclic write actually this cyclic write configuration and I will do a cyclic read cyclic write and a cyclic read. So, so far this was the writing part I am going to show another bus which is the outgoing bus, but these two buses are going to be attached the way I have shown using two gates and a common bus coming to the RAM it will be exactly that configuration, but I have not shown that thing explicitly here. Now, the question is how to read so there has to be somewhere some information remember when I did TSI I said there are going to be four slots and these have to be mapped. So, four has to be read here two has to be here one has to be here and three has to be here I want to generate this mapping this mapping has to be stored at some place some control information drawing it on the board is fine I am storing it in my mind the equivalent of that is some control memory. So, what I can do is I can always say in the first slot the first location of the control this is the control memory I will read the value I will put the value 4. So, while reading in slot one of the output frame I have to read from location four or fourth slot of the input frame should be here it has to be transferred here next I have to put two next I have to put one next I have to put three. So, I will do the exactly same thing I will take this as an output from we call it a control memory this is known as speech memory s n. Now, which is the location which has to be chosen in one particular slot this will be given by this counter only. So, I can just take this counter value use it again I will use a MUX there is a reason for doing that I will explain what the other address will be used for and this is what I am going to put as an address and when I am actually activating this this read address is going to be connected that time this address should be fed to control memory. So, this same control signal I can actually use. So, when it is read when this is one you are reading and I am also reading at the same time from here we will also write into this control memory that is what your operating system actually will do. So, this bus will be connected to interface or a bus of your PC. So, it will be connected to a your CPU or what you call ALU ALU RAM ROM everything will be there connected to bus and this will also be connected to the bus where you will write something. So, you will have the address. So, it will be what we call memory mapped address or IO mapped address kind of addressing can be used and you can write the words into this and they will be once it is written switching functionality will happen yes simple as that. So, as far as the machine is concerned it has to write into the world. So, you are switching technology totally independent of the computing, that both can be interface together. So, when this is in the read mode when this is one this will become one this address will be fed from here which is coming from this control memory whose address is coming from the counter. So, in the first slot I need to read four. So, one will be coming from here it will be connected because it is in the read mode whatever is written in the first slot which is four will be coming out all the way and this is also one. So, it will be get connected this is in the read mode. So, it will be read out and it will be coming on this side. So, fourth slot will be read in the first update location at the outgoing frame yes this is a control memory. So, what is written in RAM? Speech memory is the actual speech words whatever is your voice samples this is this is not having your voice samples is a circuit switch basically. So, whatever is the input frame whatever byte update is coming I am not bothered whether it is a voice or whether it is data actually as far as I am concerned I am able to implement a time plot intersinger. So, who is deciding this information to this slot? This has to be done by the controller the intelligent entity running in the switch. So, when you for example, you are you are having a phone and you connect to an exchange you dial certain number that number will be processed by the exchange. Interface board I told you there is interface board in the exchange in the first lecture and that particular thing interface board will know the number it will figure out where the routing has to be done. Once it figures out from this incoming port for to this outgoing port the connection has to be set up for your call that time it will it will not find out. You are actually at this slot number at the input the outgoing which I am connecting to some other guy some other exchange or some other person is on this slot number on this frame correspondingly it will actually put the words inside the control number that time. Once it is put this path is already set up or activating a cross point it is equivalent to that. Now, this particular address and there is one more thing the data which will be write written into this will be coming from your controller in fact, it does not matter you can I can even modify this design I need not take this r w bar from here. I can keep every all the time this in read mode this is anyway I am selecting at this point it is. So, even this r w bar can also come from this side. So, this circuit has to always keep this team r mode or read mode most of time whenever it wants to write it can write at any point of time whatever value it wants let this be taken care of by control and you are able to build up a very very simple and elementary basic time switch element. So, any doubts so far. See, what is that element called just below the ramp? This one this is a selector selector or multiplexer you can call it is taking two inputs and putting into one it is a multiplexer is a space multiplexer actually. It is selecting from one of the two space options is not TDM or WDM it is a space is selector basically the same unit is present here selector same thing. We basically gate 8 input and gate and only one of the two can be selected at any point of time. So, two end and one or it is good enough to build this. So, all are 8 input gates and 8 outputs that is everything. So, same thing is to here only thing is that this is what one has to also understand that when this count is going to be reset. So, you require two clocks word and frame clock here word clock will also be used to generate a 8 bit parallel system. So, most of the switching will be done in parallel this does have implications actually if you work at extremely high bit rates parallel lines always do create a problem. Because path lengths for one bit and path length for another bit may be actually different which may create clock skew. So, as your bit rates increase your size has to go down. So, at this clock skew can be controlled, but that is the only one implication which we have. Sir, I think it should have another parallel to serial converter at the end also. Yeah, right you are right you need a parallel to serial converter. In fact, there will be complete interface board which will take all parallel to serial thing which will insert whatever is the control thing which will insert the framing stuff and then from a even frame which will go out. So, there is a interface board here. So, most of the interface boards will do all this job. On all telecom switches the interface boards job is to take out all signaling take care of framing, deframing and make into a raw format which is internal to the switch which need not follow any standard because the whole switch usually comes from one single vendor and he knows about everything inside these two boundaries. So, only when you are actually talking to somebody else at the border itself only this standard comes into picture not inside. Inside you try to optimize to reduce the hardware and improve the performance. So, performance per unit of hardware has to be maximized that is a objective of any good design. Now, I can just move into something. Sir, what is the typical value of this word clock that we are using in the telecom? It depends on the frame. For example, if the word clock if you are going to have even carrier system it is 125 microsecond by 30 that is a word period that is at p. So, 30 divide by 125 microsecond that much is that much hertz or that much pulses per second is the clock rate. If you are going to use E3 system because number of words per 125 microsecond are different it is going to be different. If it is SDH it is going to be still different actually, but SDH works ok. So, that is actually usually part of the optical networks course the SDH framing and reframing thing. So, that I am not going to cover it here, but conceptually that is also 125 microsecond frame. But, you can actually look into there is a already a recorded lecture on that is there already on the site which talks about SDH, but that is in E646. Sir, why is that control memory you have one selector now. What is the second input for that? It is coming from the controller CPU. So, what? There is some master command of the switch which has to give this map. No, that map will be written through the data now. Through this, through this line. Control memory we have one data input now. This is the data input now. This is the address sorry this is the address where you will be writing this is the data, but where you are going to write what data. Here are we not writing sequentially in this like. Yes, if you do that in that case you require this framing thing you know that in the first slot I will be writing only in first location, second slot in second location third slot in third location only. If you put that constraint additionally then you can do away even with this address, but only thing now the machine or the controller should know what are the timings here. Because it has to know when the first slots turn will come when I can write in the first slot first location. Because in this location you can write only in the second slot here you can write only in the third slot not in arbitrary in any slot in that case that is only additional cost. That also is implemented by hardware manufacturers this particular trick because you save on track and track is important in any circuit. You reduce the track length, you reduce the cost, you reduce lot of complexity actually in manufacturing. So, that is I think another one trick which is used. So, now let us go to the we have 5 more minutes. So, I can quickly explains a super multiplex time switch. Time switching is good because you can easily operate at these bit rates. It is better to always do it in time mode because remember all the clocking rates are within your limits this can be handled even 1 gigahertz is actually nothing for us nowadays. Our computers works at even 2 gigahertz or 3 gigahertz kind of rates the frequency which we are talking about is pretty small compared to that for all of our circuit elements. But I have only told you for a framing of 30 slots suddenly you get a requirement that you are going to get a termination of 16 even carrier systems as in coming 16 even carrier which are going outgoing. Once this happens how you will build up a switch one way you can say for even carrier system I can use this particular time switch 16 30 frames in and 30 frames out and then I can create a space switch of 16 by 16 and then again time switch TST configuration. I can do that I can build up a rearrangement on blocking switch, but then suddenly you will realize you can actually do even simply with time switching only, but you have to do some trick. The trick is that whatever frames are coming 16 frames you will get these frames all of them are 125 micro second duration and if they are all synchronized I can combine all these and create one frame which is again 125 micro second, but now the number of octaves which are setting inside it is 13 to 16. So, what you have to do is you have to take the first one compress it in time and push it here. The second one will be compressed and push here and 16th one will be push here this is known as super multiplexing is already a multiplex stream I am doing further multiplexing of that without taking apart the whole system. So, only thing which you need to know is what is how the time compression will be done on this. A trick is again this very similar circuit which has to be used, but remember now your incoming clock rate and outgoing clock rates are different that is the only consequence which you have. So, this is known as frame hold buffer actually. So, time compressor is known as frame hold buffer. So, circuit will be very similar, but you will be having two ramps not one. So, what you will do is you will keep on writing in one ramp and there will be a switching functionality here and whenever this is going to be read out this will be connected for reading in. So, whenever this is going to be switched here this will be switched on this side that is the only thing which has to happen rest everything remains the same and what you do is the whole circuit not only this path have to be switched your timing circuits also have to be switched whatever we have at the other end. And of course with this actually means I will be able to put 125 microsecond whatever is coming here will be coming at this point, but there is a problem if you want to put it only here what will happen to the remaining period you do you want to make it silent probably it is a synchronous system it is not a good idea to do that you let it read multiple times 16 times how does it matter I will get the same thing replicated 16 times. So, that is what is going to be done so do not keep it silent here. So, read it 16 times faster just keep the frame synchronization and you will get the same thing repeated 16 times in this super frame once I am able to do this job then I can build up the whole structure. So, I am just quickly drawing that so this is a frame hold buffer. So, this is now a repeated 16 times repeated actually frame after time compression this is a time compression which is done here. So, this is a dual memory system so I have not written the diagram explicitly I think you can do it as an assignment and if you can get if you get stuck let me know I will just then probably build up a write up on that and submit or anyone of you who finishes it first he can scan it and upload it on our LMS system and I will publish it for the remaining period. So, that is doable I leave it to you this much creativity I think should be possible I can expect. So, this one is going to have a clock rate which is going to be so I have to generate 0 to 31 counter it is a 5 bit counter which will be generated this will also be remember that 5 bit counter is counting 0, 1, 2, 3 in 125 microsecond and here this also has to go to frame hold buffer. The way I am compressing this I have to now generate a count from 0, 1, 2, 3, 31 0, 1, 2, 3, 31 16 times in 125 microsecond. So, that will again be done this is known as time slot hold buffer. So, both are functionality by same they are 16 such elements which will be created and what you can do is I can do an ending. So, remember this is a 8 bit bus and for this also I can create an ending. So, for the first one this input will only be enabled in the first 1 by 16th period of 125 microsecond for the second input in the second part only this will be 1 this control which I am ending. So, for the first one I will time compress first 1 by 16th of second, second 1, second 1, third 1 and so on I simply add them wire ending I will create a super multiplex system I will get that actually. So, this is what is going to happen a wired end system then a speech memory out, but how this will be generated. So, both this will be coming from a decoder this will be counting on stream 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 16 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 16 this is what we call PCM stream counter. So, it will generate 4 bits and I will be using a decoder. So, when this value 0 the first one will be active and that particular 1 by 16th frame will be going to this wired end gate only one of them will be getting the input at any point of time when next one will come. So, next one's input will be going here to create super multiplex system. Now, speech memory requires not 5 bit address, but 9 bit address now. So, what you will do is whatever is this address coming in are 5 bits the 4 bits will be taken from this side combined together this will be going in MSB more significant bit side this will be going towards LSB because its rate of change is only 16 times it will change in 125 microsecond. This will change 32 times or 30 times in 1 by 16th of 125 microsecond. So, you will get a 9 bit thing and you will have a switch selector switch and all that option will be there and usually it will be again right cyclic and read a cyclic kind of configuration. You will have one control memory which will be now storing larger number of locations. So, depending on how many slots. So, this will be also giving out 9 those many locations are required it is a strictly non-blocking is equivalent of cross bar. So, again this requires similar kind of structure which was there earlier and on the inverse side again you will have similar kind of mechanisms to retrieve back the 16 streams. So, from any incoming port any slot I should be able to map any outgoing port any outgoing even frame or any outgoing port any slot. So, this mapping can be done this is super multiplex time super time multiplex switching structure. So, lot of things I have not covered here, but since I have done the basic time cell I actually request that all of you now should build up in detail this particular design. So, if there is going to be any issue then we will probably discuss this thing in more detail because my feeling is that we should be able to do it now. So, leaving it to you. So, with that I think we close today's lecture and we will actually look into TST and it is a control structure of TST in the next one and then we will move over to packet switching systems. Voice over IP I will be covering actually later on or do you want me to cover it first because I would like the packet switching to be done first and then ultimately the signaling and voice over IP framing formats everything will be done later on.


The higher the sound and the vision quality, the more involved you feel in the program. The more you remember about it and eventually given things are the same, the longer you will watch the program for. So there is a major benefit in having higher image and sound quality. That's on one side and that's a benefit for the viewer and listener. On the other side, in terms of information technologies, you've got all the benefits of personalization.