damage to glomerulus causes either nephrotic syndrome and nephritic syndrome. Glomerulus forms the filtering apparatus in the nephron and if we see the filtration barrier through which the filtration of substances occurs and the substances enter into the nephron this filtration barrier consists of three main layers. In this first layer is formed by these capillary endothelial cells which is basically the cells lining the capillary actually there is a capillary trough which forms the glomerulus so the walls of these capillaries are lined by endothelial cells. Then beneath these endothelial cells there is a layer of the basement membrane so here magnified version it is showing the layer of the basement membrane and third layer is that of epithelial cells and this epithelial cells basically consist to offer two types of epithelial cells so two layers are there one layer is reflected on the glomerulus which forms a filtration barrier and the other is part of the Bormins capsule so this layer which forms a part of the filtration apparatus that is visceral epithelial layer okay visceral epithelial cells and these cells are also known as podocytes okay so here a podocyte has been shown now you see these podocytes have lot of processes so these are known as food processes of podocytes and these food processes of different different podocytes they basically encircle these layers okay but you see there is some space between these food processes of the podocytes and this forms the slit diaphragm through which the filtration will take place now this slit diaphragm has certain proteins which are basically the proteins of the food processes of the podocytes only and very important one is nephrin then there is podosin we need to know all these proteins because there might be mutations in the genes which are responsible for the production of these proteins and these mutations will lead to problems in the slit diaphragm and hence the problems in the filtration of the substances across the glomerular filtration barrier now with this basic concept of the glomerular filtration membrane which basically consists of capillary endothelium the basement membrane and the visceral epithelial cells that is the podocytes let us go into what is this nephrotic syndrome and what is this nephritic syndrome just remember one thing here before we proceeded that i told about visceral epithelial cells there is another layer parietal epithelial cells and this parietal epithelial cell basically lines these bowman's capsule okay so there is parietal epithelial cells here why we need to know this because we will see one condition in which there is proliferation of this parietal epithelial cells as well so let us first move on to that what are the mechanisms which can cause glomerular injury because based on these mechanisms either the patient can present with nephrotic syndrome nephritic syndrome or maybe a mixed condition so first very important mechanism of glomerular injury is immune mechanisms actually most of the injuries which occur to the glomerulus are due to this immune mechanisms then the second one is podocyte injury so only the foot processes we were talking about the visceral epithelial cell that is the podocyte so that podocyte injury can occur and third one is the nephron loss so obviously when nephron loss is there the glomerulus will not be there and the filtration will be affected but let us focus here only these two mechanisms how this immune injury will occur and the podocyte injury will occur so as I told you that most of the injury is due to the immune mechanisms and this immune mechanisms means that there is antigen antibody complex formation so what happens that either there may be an antibody which reacts with the antigen of the glomerulus itself okay so it is an antigen which is inherent to the body antigen which is situated in the glomerulus itself okay then there may be an antibody against an external antigen but this external antigen goes and deposits itself first in the glomerulus and then the antibody goes and reacts with this antigen which is present in the glomerulus okay third one is that there may be external antigen and there is formation of this antigen antibody complex and this antigen antibody complex goes and deposits itself in the glomerulus so three mechanisms basically one antibody against the inherent antigen of the glomerulus then antibody against an external antigen which went and deposited in the glomerulus and then the formation of antigen antibody complex in the circulation itself and this antigen antibody complex goes and deposits in the glomerular walls now when we talk about the diseases we will see some features of the diseases then we will see that where this antigen antibody complex is forming is it forming in the sub epithelial membrane okay sub epithelial we will see what are these terms is it forming in the sub endothelial region okay or is it forming in the mesangium we didn't deal with mesangium when we were talking about our layers of the glomerular capillary wall actually there are mesangium cells which are situated in between the glomerular capillary so that is the mesangium and when we talk about these terms of epithelial sub endothelial and mesangium actually we saw that this is the basement membrane and here there are endothelial cells right and here there are that epithelial cells visceral epithelial cells food processes so when the deposition of the antigen antibody complex is here so these are endothelial cells so these are known as sub endothelial deposition when the deposition is here then it is known as sub epithelial deposition so this we can visualize in electron microscopy and it differs from diseases to diseases then next mechanism can be podocyte injury very important and this podocyte injury can be either because of antibodies to antigens of the podocytes right and second one can be due to some toxins or some cytokines okay so that can be another mechanism of glomerular injury which can lead to various presentation now we will go into specific nephrotic and nephritic syndromes but one concept I want you to note here is that especially if there is podocyte injury if there is podocyte injury then there will be presentation mainly as nephrotic syndrome okay and if there is the immune mechanisms mostly immune mechanisms which are causing the injury then this will mainly present as nephritic syndrome broad concept actually in clinical presentation what we see that there are certain diseases which present with the combination of nephrotic and nephritic syndrome as well then there are certain nephrotic syndrome diseases which are broadly classified in the nephrotic syndrome but sometimes they can present as nephritic syndrome also because what happens that this podocyte injury may be a milder form of the injury and as the disease progresses there will be activation of the immune mechanisms and ultimately the person will land up in nephritic syndrome so there may be that a disease classified under nephrotic syndrome may present with nephritic syndrome also so let us go into the pathophysiology first for nephrotic syndrome so first of all what is actually nephrotic syndrome see when we talk about nephrotic and nephritic syndrome we are not talking about specific diseases it is a kind of a clinical presentation of the patient that we classify as nephrotic and nephritic syndrome and then we go ahead and find what is the disease condition which is causing this condition so this clinical profile of the patient what is it in nephrotic syndrome first of all there is proteinuria proteinuria that means protein is being lost in the urine and this proteinuria when it is greater than 3.5 grams per day then only we call it as a proteinuria of nephrotic range understanding so heavy proteinuria daily protein loss greater than 3.5 grams or more that is known as nephrotic range proteinuria below this that is known as sub nephrotic range proteinuria then second because of this proteinuria there is development of decrease in proteins in blood especially there is decrease in albumin in blood okay because albumin is the first protein which starts filtering when there is damage to the glomerulus remember actually little bit albumin does filter in the glomerulus normally also but when this damage to the glomerulus occurs then more and more filtration of albumin starts so that causes decrease in the albumin levels in blood and decrease in albumin levels actually less than 3 gram per deciliter occur in blood now when there is only albumin loss in a urine that is known as selective proteinuria okay and when other proteins as well start filtering from the glomerulus then that is known as non-selective proteinuria so as I told you that albumin is the first protein which is filtering so obviously if it is the only protein which is filtering that means damage to the glomerulus is not that much when the damage increases then there will be non-selective proteinuria that means other proteins also will start filtering from the glomerulus third there will be presence of edema generalized edema what is known as anasarca we will see what is the pathophysiology of all this thing okay so just now we are seeing the features and fourth there is presence of hyperlipidemia so lipids are increased in blood hyperlipidemia and remember that in blood lipids are also in combination with the plasma proteins now when there is loss of the plasma protein so obviously the glomerulus will not be able to retain these lipids also in the blood and there will be presence of lipiduria also lipiduria okay so these are the main features of nephrotic syndrome so now let us see that what is the pathophysiology what are the changes happening in the body because of proteinuria because main thing is that damage to the glomerulus has caused proteinuria to occur that is the filtration of the proteins into the bromine space into the tibials and loss of these proteins in urine so what happens that there is damage to the glomerulus and the damages which we discussed which damage especially the damage to the podocytes okay remember so whenever you see the term that there is damage to the podocytes right what is specifically is used is effacement of the food processes of podocytes okay when there is damage to the glomerulus that is to the podocytes there will develop proteinuria okay and this proteinuria what it will do is that there will be decrease in the oncotic pressure now you know that proteins basically cause the development of the oncotic pressure is in the blood and the oncotic pressure is a pull force so suppose this is the capillaries okay and this is the interstitial space interstitial fluid will be here what happens that due to the hydrostatic pressure fluid movement occurs outside the capillaries and due to the oncotic pressure fluid comes back into the capillaries so there is a push force and there is a pull force now when this oncotic pressure decreases the pull force of fluid into the blood is falling so because of that the less fluid will enter back into the capillaries and in the venous end and that will lead to accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space so decrease in oncotic pressure will lead to edema okay so that is accumulation of more fluid into interstitial space also if fluid is going out of the circulation then where it will be less less fluid in the intravascular space so basically edema will cause decrease in fluid in intravascular space very important because that is important if intravascular space fluid is less then it will decrease the circulation to the various organs isn't it now this decrease in fluid in intravascular space leads to all of the changes the secondary changes in circulation and what are these this decrease fluid in intravascular space because of this there will be decrease in renal blood flow decrease renal blood flow that will lead to decrease in GFR okay because that is one factor which will affect the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus and if you see my video on factors affecting glomerular filtration rate you will understand that decrease renal blood flow will decrease GFR then decrease GFR will activate the tubular glomerular feedback very important again I have made another video on this you can have a look that this tubular glomerular feedback basically causes the activation of renin angiotensin aldosterone system actually it is known as renin angiotensin system but I remember it has renin angiotensin aldosterone system and sometimes one A more I add because of release of ADH also okay now what is happening that with activation of all these what happens that there is basically increased formation of angiotensin 2 increased release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex and also there is increased release of ADH and you see because fluid is moving out into the intravascular space there is hemo concentration here also hemo concentration so whatever substances are there more concentrated they are becoming and this leads to increase in osmolarity which ultimately also causes release of ADH so that is another stimulus for release of ADH now this angiotensin 2 will lead to what this is going to cause vasoconstriction and other actions also ways angiotensin 2 that is angiotensin 2 only which is causing release of aldosterone ADH then it activates a thirst mechanism also okay so vasoconstriction is very important because it leads to increase in blood pressure increase in blood pressure okay then aldosterone what it is doing that is causing increase in the sodium reabsorption from the kidney and whenever sodium is reabsorbed water moves along with that so basically it is trying to correct the intravascular space fluid volume fine but you see since proteins are not there will this fluid volume be corrected no because whatever extra fluid is being added that will again move out that is happening because as hydro static pressure increases the fluid keeps moving out but it needs to be brought back into the circulation but if on caustic pressure is less that is not happening so it will lead to more and more edema so body is trying to correct but it is becoming counterproductive similarly ADH ADH causes more water reabsorption so that is also an compensatory mechanism to increase fluid in intravascular space but is that helping no it will not help because it will lead to more and more edema so that is one aspect of the nephrotic syndrome secondly due to heavy proteinuria what happens that liver starts to compensate liver starts to produce more proteins but that compensation is not enough but due to this compensatory effect of the liver it starts producing other proteins also and with that liver compensation it produces lipoproteins and that means there will be increase in the lipids so that causes hyperlipidemia and as I told you that because the proteins are not being retained in the circulation this hyperlipidemia ultimately will result in lipiduria okay so that is another concept now lipiduria is occurring but are tubular cells after filtration what are tubular cells do they try to absorb the reabsorb the stuff which has been filtered so this fat also they try to reabsorb the protein also they reabsorb some of the proteins which is filtered is reabsorbed by endocytrosil but the capacity of the tubular cells is always overwhelmed so that is why so much loss of proteins is occurring now with the reabsorption of the lipids what happens these tubular cells become lipid laden lipid laden cells and these lipid laden cells when shed into the tubular fluid they are lost in urine that is why in urine analysis we get fat laden ovals cells in nephrotic syndrome so what we have discussed we have discussed one concept on anchotic pressure other concept on lipiduria hyperlipidemia and lipiduria and hawaii there is presence of fat laden cells then other changes are also occurring let us see what are those let me just rub all this make some space okay so third change which is occurring what we were talking about is non-selective proteinuria other proteins are also getting filtered so they will be decreased in globlins as well and what are the globlins responsible for these are gamma globlins which are produced from b-cells they are also getting lost in urine so what will happen the person there will be more chances of infection okay so resistance to infection is decreasing then say suppose other proteins are also lost and one very important protein is antithrombin 3 okay these are small proteins which are lost first like so antithrombin 3 when it is lost what will happen there will be more chances of coagulation antithrombin 3 is basically antithrombin that is it is preventing the excessive action of the thrombin so when that is being lost its concentration decreasing it increases the chances of coagulation in blood and ultimately it leads to one of the complications of nephrotic syndrome that is the deep vein thrombosis and also we said that because of the loss of fluid in the interstitial space the intravascular volume is decreasing and there is hemoconcentration so whenever there is hemoconcentration the blood flow the rate at which it is flowing slows down and that is known as stasis and that also promotes thrombus formation so loss of antithrombin 3 and stasis in the blood they all promote the thrombus formation with this now let us see some important diseases which lead to nephrotic syndrome I will not go into the full pathology of that but primary glomeral diseases the secondary one I will not talk about primary glomeral diseases which lead to nephrotic syndrome let us see in brief so we will talk about three diseases one is minimal change disease second is focal segmental glomerulus sclerosis and third is membranous nephropathy now tell me what will be the common thing in all of these see as I told you that the main thing which leads to nephrotic syndrome is a facement of the foot processes of the visceral epithelial cells that is the podocytes so that will be common to all so let us see how these diseases will be present how they are similar and how they differ from each other first of all let us talk about the presentation so this minimal change disease it is present generally present in children 2 to 6 years of age and they present with selective proteinuria selective proteinuria is what that is loss of only albumin selective proteinuria fsgs most common nephrotic syndrome cause in adults and there is non-selective proteinuria so non-selective proteinuria in membranous nephropathy also and this is the commonest cause in case of elderly for the nephrotic syndrome then let us move on to the cause cause of these so yes there is importance of immune mechanisms but immune mechanisms are not so much that it leads to inflammation in the glomerulus okay in fact in minimal change disease we don't even see any sign of immune mechanism in minimal change disease however because this disease is responding to steroids we say that yes there may be some immune mechanism involved then in focal segmental glomerous crosses there there may be many causes there may be secondary causes but I will just talk about that we discussed about the proteins nephrin podosin so genetic mutations genetic mutations of these proteins can lead to fsgs but there are many other causes that you see in pathology then in membranous nephropathy there is antibody to podocyte antigen as I told you that podocyte injury can occur due to antibody to a antigen which is present in the podocyte so antibody to podocyte antigen and the antigen is PLA2 receptor PLA2 receptor that will lead to membranous nephropathy now if we see the light microscopic findings light microscope you see in minimal change disease actually light microscopy is generally not required but still if there is confusion and we get biopsy and we see the sample under light microscopy what we see is that normal glomeruli normal glomeruli are there so we don't see any changes under light microscopy on the other hand in fsgs as the term suggests focal segmental glomerulo sclerosis so there is presence of sclerotic areas right and focal and segmental means that the biopsy specimen which we have taken if we observe all the glomeruli in that biopsy specimen we see that it is present in less than 50% of the glomeruli focal means that less than 50% of the glomeruli are affected in the biopsy sample which we are seeing so it is very important that the biopsy sample should have minimum 10 to 20 glomeruli and we have to examine all of them then what is segmental segmental means that the glomeruli which are affected they are not affected fully only some parts some segments of the glomeruli are affected so that is the meaning of focal segmental glomerulo sclerosis so as i told you there will be sclerotic areas plus what we see under light microscopy is something known as highly noses that is there is deposition of the plasma proteins along capillary valve so that is known as highly noses and in membranous nephropathy the term membranous means there is thickening of the membrane that is one hallmark of this membranous nephropathy there is diffuse thickening of the membrane okay then next is what we see under electron microscopy one common thing what we see is diffuse effacement of food processes that we see in all these and that is why they are presenting as nephrotic syndrome diffuse effacement of food processes in fact if you see in mcd we have not talked about any other change okay nothing is visible actually there is a neutralization of the charges which i present on the food processes there are basically negative charges in all the three layers of the glomerulus and there is loss of these charges but in electron microscopy what we see is that diffuse effacement of food processes is seen but in light microscopy nothing actually this is one hallmark of minimal change disease and the diagnosis of minimal change disease is based only when in light microscopy we see normal glomuli and in electron microscopy we see diffuse effacement of food processes then in fsgs what we see is diffuse effacement of food processes yes that will be there plus there is focally detachment of the epithelial cells right detachment of the epithelial cells so the food processes which are attached to the basement membrane we will see that they have been detached from that okay and also there is damage to the underlying basement membrane that is also damaged and in membranous nephropathy what we see we saw that the cause is antibody to podocyte antigen so this antibody goes and reacts on the podocyte antigen and what we see that deposits of this antibody are seen so that is seen as granular deposits granular deposits and this is basically granular deposits seen as very classical spikes and domes appearance spikes and domes appearance but whenever we talk about deposits remember that we have to think about where we have where they are present as I told you that there can be sub epithelial deposits some endothelial deposit and mesangial deposit so that also helps us in diagnosis and since the antigen is present on the podocytes right so again we will go to that diagram this is the endothelium so here this is sub endothelium and this is the food processes of the photosites so here it is the sub epithelial below the epithelium so here is the antigen right so where will be the deposits deposits will be in the sub epithelial region and that is seen is immunofluorescence immunofluorescence immunofluorescence means that we use tag the antibodies against specific substances so as I told you that the mechanism is basically the antigen antibody reaction so against what we have to use the tag substance against the antibodies against the complement substances so when we use that what we see here that we see immunoglobulin and complement deposition in which area in the sub epithelial region similarly in FSGS also we see some deposits and that is the IgM deposits and plus complement deposits we will see why this complement deposits we are seeing when we are we will talk about the nephritis syndrome because then we will talk about the pathophysiology anyways so these deposits are seen in the sclerotic region and also in mesangium okay so membranous nephropathy deposits seen in the sub epithelial region in FSGS deposits seen in the mesangium in MCD will there be any deposits no no deposits we don't see anything because basically here there is only neutralization of the charge of the foot processes with this let us move on to the nephritis syndrome so what are the features of nephritis syndrome in nephritis syndrome also we see proteinuria but it is sub nephrotic range proteinuria that is less than that in case of nephrotic syndrome that is 1 to 2 grams in 24 hours then we see hematuria that is loss of red blood cells in urine presence of red blood cells in urine and also there is presence of red cell cast okay yes there is a loss of WBCs also what is known as pyuria right then there is presence of hypertension very important and there is presence of esotemia that is increase in the blood urea and blood creatinine so that means now the kidney is not able to function properly and that is why we are getting decrease in blood urea and blood creatinine and when that happens that happens when there is decrease in GFR right so let us see that why all this thing is happening that is the pathophysiology of the nephritis syndrome in nephritis syndrome the damage to the glomerulus is extreme and why it is happening it is happening because of the formation of antigen antibody complex in the glomerulus and as I told you either it can be in situ formation in the glomerulus that is the antigen is there and antibody goes and reacts with the antigen there in the glomerulus or there may be deposition of this antigen antibody complex itself in the glomerulus and whenever there is antigen antibody complex formation always if you remember your immunology there is activation of the complement so this activates complements okay complement activation occur and complement activation there are certain factors like C3AC5A which cause chemotaxis so with chemotaxis there is infiltration of the leukocytes in the glomerulus and what are these leukocytes there is neutrophil there is macrophages all they will infiltrate in the glomerulus and this will lead to release of the cytokines also from the leukocytes and when there is presence of the cytokines there is proliferation of the cells which are present in the glomerulus so cellular proliferation occurs okay in the glomerulus and because of extensive damage which is going on in the glomerulus these leukocytes which have gone there they will also leak into the filtration space and there will be leakage of RBCs also but the shape of the RBCs will not be normal it will become distorted so what we see in urine is dysmorphic RBCs okay dysmorphic RBCs then why there is presence of cast cast is basically these RBCs which are getting filtered they become trapped in the tubules right so they kind of say suppose this is the tubule and all the RBCs become trapped like this what is happening the fluid which is coming the filtered fluid will push and ultimately they will land up in urine but you see they have formed a kind of cast where they were trapped that shape they will take so that is known as RBC cast now why does esotemia develop in nephritic syndrome see because of too much leukocyte infiltration and too much proliferation of the cells what happens that there is kind of reduction in filtration space and when that happen there will be decrease in GFR reduction infiltration space will lead to decrease in GFR and this decrease in GFR what will happen it will lead to activation of the tubulominal feedback and there will be again angiotensin activation angiotensin 2 formation aldosterone formation leading to hypertension but also the GFR reduces so much that the kidney is not able to perform its function and this leads to accumulation of urea and creatinine in blood understanding so what we saw the activation of RAS in nephrotics syndrome the reason was different what was the reason there is decrease in the intravascular volume primarily due to decrease in the oncotic pressure and that leads to decrease in renal blood flow and decrease in GFR but the damage to glomerulus per se was not the reason here what we are talking is that decrease in the glomerular filtration space itself that it is leading to decrease in GFR and that ultimately it causing hypertension and because of this the kidney is not able to function properly and there is accumulation of urea and creatinine now one may ask that why the protein loss is less if RBCs WBCs which are in like microns sizes in microns they can leak into the urine then why protein loss is less well we are telling that the glomerular filtration space itself is decreasing so yes protein will filter from those spaces but filtration area itself has decreased so the amount filtered will be less compared to that of the nephrotics syndrome but wherever damage has occurred damage is so much that obviously there will be non-selective protein urea and these cells will also start appearing in the urine now finally let us talk about some diseases which are responsible for nephrotics syndrome so as I told you that because of antigen antibody complex formation there will be activation of the complement leukocyte infiltration and cellular proliferation so what we see that in different diseases this cellular proliferation is occurring at various places and antigen antibody complex deposition is also occurring at different places so what are these diseases let us see based on that where the proliferation is occurring where that cellular proliferation is occurring so first is endocapillary proliferation okay endocapillary proliferation that is the cells within the capillary are proliferating second is mesangial proliferation third is very important that is a parietal cell proliferation that we have not discussed parietal cells are the cells which are lining the bomen space so that also can get proliferate and that is very dangerous actually so this endocapillary proliferation occurs in post-tropococcal glomerulonephritis and these proliferation of the cells is seen as hypercellular glomerulus in light microscopy so the glomeruli are large and we see the cellularity has increased because so much proliferation of the cells has taken place so this is under light microscopy and if we see under electron microscopy what will be the condition in electron microscopy we see these antigen antibody complex deposits in case of psg n we see it under in sub epithelial region sub epithelial region and the deposits are like granular deposits then coming to immunofluorescence when we are using tagged substances to identify various antibodies and complement what we see in psg n that various antibodies can be identified that is IgG IgM and various complement also can be identified C3 C4 in mesangium so various regions we are seeing actually this psg n disease first starts in sub endothelial region so actually initially these deposits are seen in sub endothelial region later they move on to the sub epithelial region so basically everything is like affected in immunofluorescence we see in mesangium these antibodies and complement factors and in electron microscopy we see granular sub epithelial deposits then mesangial proliferation that occurs in two diseases that is membranoproliferative nephritis and IgN nephropathy actually in all three we see all these endocapillary plus mesangial proliferation but this mesangial proliferation is more predominant is mpg n and IgN nephropathy but if we see under electron microscopy then the deposits we see at different places in psg n we see sub epithelial granular deposits in mpg n we see sub endothelial deposits sub endothelial deposits and in IgN nephropathy we see mesangial deposits okay mesangial deposits and in mpg n sub endothelial again the deposits are seen as granular while these IgN nephropathy deposits are linear plus in mpg n we see what is known as tram track appearance that is there is duplication of the basement membrane see when there is sub endothelial deposit and proliferation we see it appears that the basement membrane has duplicated so that is very classical of mpg n then in immunofluorescence what we see in mpg n is IgG plus C3 deposits complement deposit is there where again in the sub endothelial region okay and in IgN nephropathy what we see is deposition of IgA not IgG IgA deposits plus there is deposition of C3 plus proper DIN actually this IgA antibody activates alternate complement pathway so that is why we see the deposition of proper DIN as well and there is a special lack of C1 complement for this basically we have to make another video on complement what is this alternate pathway what is this classical pathway that is for another video okay finally coming to the parietal cell proliferation and that parietal cell proliferation basically the cells which are lining the bowman space they proliferate and they form crescents and that is responsible for rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis so that is one very classical that if parietal cell proliferation is seen forming the crescents that leads to rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis and again rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis causes can be many one is that there can be antibody against the glomerular basement membrane that is what we see in good pastures syndrome then there can be immune complex mediated RPGN and that can be due to other diseases like IgA nephropathies some patients may form rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis and there are many other diseases immune complex mediated diseases and finally there is posse immune where we hardly see any immune complex but there is presence of anti-nuclear cytoplasmic antibodies but the common thing is that in electron microscopy in all of them we see ruptures in glomerular basement membrane ruptures okay so there is parietal cell proliferation forming crescents ruptures in glomerular basement membrane and immunofluorescence in all the three the findings are different in a good pastures syndrome or anti-gbm antibody what we see is there is linear deposits of IgG and C3 in immune complex mediated the deposits are granular and in posse immune again there will be no deposits so this is similar to that of MCD the if we see under immunofluorescence but you see the presentation is totally different MCD we don't see any antigen antibody complex but there is no change in life microscopy also it is presenting as nephrotic syndrome RPGN it is very very serious disease and most of the cases move to end stage renal disease and that is very fast within weeks it can happen so in this brief video I have tried to tell what are the features of the nephrotic syndrome and nephrotic syndrome how they differ in pathophysiology and in some diseases I have tried to simplify what we see in light microscopy electron microscopy immunofluorescence and you can take these tables and use for memorizing what are the features of different diseases as well thanks for watching the video if you liked it do press the like button share the video with others and don't forget to subscribe to the channel physiology open thank you


Hello and welcome to the session. In this session we will discuss a question which says that shown that the equation Ax plus Cz plus D is equal to 0 represents a plane parallel to the axis O y. Finally, the equation of the plane through the points 3 minus 2 5 and 1 minus 3 4 and parallel to O y. Now before starting the solution of this question we should know our result. And that is our perpendicular to each other even into m2 plus m1 into m2 is equal to 0. There l1, m1 and m1 are the direction cosines of one line and l2, m2 and m2 are the direction cosines of the other line. Now this result will work out as a key idea for solving out this question. And now we will start with the solution. Now in this question we have to show that the equation Ax plus Cz plus D is equal to 0 represents a plane parallel to the axis which will show that the normal to the given plane that is this plane is equal to the axis O y. If the normal to the given plane is perpendicular to the axis O y then this plane to the axis O y. Now given x plus Cz plus D is equal to 0. We know that the cosines 0 1 0 the direction cosines to the normal to the plane B. Now let us name this as equation A. Now for this plane which is given by equation A that is for the given plane 0 this condition of perpendicularity for proving that the normal to the given plane is perpendicular to the axis O y. Now let these direction cosines be l1, m1 and m1. And these direction B is equal to 0 into l2 that is 0 into A that is 1 into 0 that is 0 into 0. Now in solving this this will be equal to plus 1 into 0 plus 0 into C is equal to 0. Therefore the normal is perpendicular, condition of perpendicularity the given plane along to the axis. Now we have to find the equation of the plane through the point. Now l1 into the axis O plus Cz plus D is equal to 0. Now it was also given that the points of the plane will be now have axis 3 and that is 5. So the equation of the plane will become plus D is equal to 0. The equation of the plane will be 4C plus D is equal to 0. Now let it be equation number 1 this be equation number 2. Now solving by the method of cross multiplication minus 4 into 1 that is 5 minus 4 is equal to C over 1 into 1 that is 1 that is 3 is equal to D over l minus 5 into 1 is equal to. Now the simple to C over minus 2 is equal to D over 7 is equal to k which further and D is equal to 3. Now putting the values and D in equation number 3 we got 7k is equal to 0 which further and 2 z plus 7 is equal to 0 which is the required equation of the given equation and that's all for this session. Hope you all have enjoyed the session.


Hey everybody, welcome back to MagicWorth.oxy. My name is David and this is a deck review. Hey, today we're gonna look at the Knights deck from Illusionist, Daniel Madison, Chris Ramsey, and Oban Jones. It's a really cool, really fun new deck all done with gold metallic inks. You wanna see what the trailer looks like? This is it. All right, so that's the Knights. Like I said, it's a collaboration between Daniel Madison, Oban Jones, and Chris Ramsey. It's Chris Ramsey's first partnership with Daniel Madison and Oban Jones has been doing a lot of the different decks for Illusionist and so this is their latest release. The theme of this deck, Knights. Okay, so it's kind of a playoff of Kings originally, that's Peter McKinnon and Daniel Madison collaboration. Kings, of course, is a piece on the chessboard and Knights are also a piece on the chessboard so it's continuing that theme. But this one does have more of a chess theme. So you have the two Knight images there on the front, which is the horse, if you don't play chess. Okay, it's the horsey guy. On the backside, there's some more chess pieces and you're gonna see that chess theme play out. Like a lot of other Daniel Madison decks, it's very minimalistic in design, not a lot to it. Really nothing there on the sides. You have that gold metallic ink with some of the characters there. You do a little tiny bit of ad copy about Illusionist. Does say Knights across the front. The really beautiful part and really where this deck shines is the interior tuck lining and so you got a lot of gold foil in there. You have the chessboard image and then of course the Knight image as well. That is pretty much it for the tuck case. Let's take a look at these cards.  They do have a air cushion emboss and they are traditionally cut. And if you'd like to learn more about stock cut or finish, you can click the link below in the description. All right, so this deck, like I said, is a traditional cut, which means it table ferros very well and it is on the thinner retail stock. Okay, so if you wanna know how this deck feels or handles, best I can do is measure it and then compare it to other decks of similar thickness. And so if I take 10 cards, 10 cards is my standard and I use that to measure against other decks, against thickness. And so if I take 10 cards, put it in the caliper and measure it, it comes to 2.76. 2.76 is very thin, okay? And thin decks tend to feel more like a deck that's already broken in and they're gonna be very comparable to the Roadhouse deck if you have that deck. The back design is very simple and very elegant. You do have a thin poker border, however, it's kind of an illusion because the border is only there because that's where the design element ends. And you do notice that the back design is made up of tiny metallic, gold metallic chess pieces. Now, the interesting thing about this is that, for one, you have two knights there in the center, okay? Two knights there in the center, so that kind of makes it a two-way image. However, it is also a marked deck, okay? So these are marked cards. You won't get suit on these, so there's no way to tell if this is clubs, hearts, spades, or diamonds, but you will be able to do the numerics. And so you will be able to know what number they are. And if you want the code to that, I can put the link below in the description. Out of the box, these cards also come in a very strange order. And at first glance, you might not be able to tell what it is. Simply, you would just cut the deck in half and then do one single pharaoh shuffle together and then your deck is ready to go in Mamanica stack. With this deck, you will get two advertising cards. They're the knight pieces and they're facing each other. The R card for Ramsey has a four above it and that's for the four of spades. And the M card, that would be for Daniel Madison, has a nine above it and that would be for the nine of clubs. With this deck, you'll also get two original jokers. You have the crow symbol, which of course is famous for being on Daniel Madison decks. And then it's sitting on top of a laid-down king chess piece. Your ace of spades is very big, very bold, very beautiful. It does say knights across the top, Madison Ramsey. And then the knight is playing card company underneath. The pips and indices cards will be somewhat standard. I mean, they're pretty much standard layout.  So there's much more white on every field. Also the red cards have been turned into gold. So the red suits are all gonna be the gold metallic ink. As with other Daniel Madison decks, you will get a couple of court cards that are custom. Of course, you'll have a court card that has Daniel Madison on it and Chris Ramsey, but you'll also have a couple of extras in there, including Oban Jones and Bobby Fisher. All right, so that is my review for the knight's deck from Daniel Madison, Chris Ramsey, Oban Jones and Illusionist.com. If you'd like to purchase yours, I would highly suggest you do it from Illusionist.com. As always, recommend that you like this video just so other people can find it faster. We also recommend that you subscribe to this channel just to stay up to date on the latest in cards and card magic. If you wanna follow me on social media, you can. I'm at Facebook.com slash magic orthodoxy, Twitter.com slash magic orthodoxy, Instagram.com slash magic underscore orthodoxy. And if you need more content, you can always find it at magicorthodoxy.com. Thanks, bye.


So this morning, I'm going to address you on the topic of calculation and socialism, which is a follow-up on Dr. Klein's lecture on entrepreneurship. In fact, as we'll see, Mises first began to glimpse the importance of the entrepreneur and the price system for all problems in the market economy when he hit upon the insight of calculation under socialism and how it was impossible. So let me begin by drawing your attention to probably the most important article in 20th century economic thought. And that was Mises' economic calculation in a socialist commonwealth. We have it here as a small pamphlet, but it was initially an article in German, later translated in the 1930s into English, a very notable epilogue you might want to look at that sort of brings it up to date, of sets it in context of today's debates within the Austrian camp. But basically, what Mises' article did was destroy the intellectual foundations of socialism. In a short article of less than 20 pages, he completely destroyed the economic basis for believing that socialism could be more productive than capitalism, and not only more productive, that it even could produce in a rational fashion. But he did more than that. It really represents a revolutionary breakthrough in economic theory. It was at this point that Mises showed the importance of prices to the rational allocation of resources. So it was an advance in economic theory that was applied to a certain economic system. And finally, he took the final step or one of the final steps in completing the system of Carl Manger, where he brought in the very important notion of monetary calculation. Monetary calculation plays a central role in the discussion of economic calculation under socialism. In other words, it can only be money prices that can be used, real money prices that can be used in calculating what goods that should be produced, what goods should not be produced, what goods enhance social welfare and what goods represent a waste of scarce resources. So let me start very quickly with the utopian socialists, Charles Fourier, Henri, Saint-Simon, and Robert Owen. They were the first group of socialists in the early 19th century who were reacting to the Industrial Revolution, and they were reacting in a wrong-headed way. So to give you the background of the debate that Mises started, actually ended before it started, he actually responded to all of his critics in the original article, even though the responses to Mises went on into the 1930s. So let's look at the utopian socialists. Here's the most prominent, Charles Fourier. He is as crazy as he looks. So the utopian socialists all had plans about how future human society would look, okay? They all had these utopias in their head that they were going to sort of impose on humanity. So here's his, it was called the Fallen Stair, the Fallen Stair. They were garden cities, they were modeled after a grand hotel containing 15 to 1600 residents, okay? They often say consistency is the hobgoblin of small mines, but the symmetry is a hobgoblin of crazy mines, okay? Everything had to be symmetrical. This was based on a Roman phalanx of 144 soldiers. Everybody, now you would buy in, okay? And there would be sort of different levels of standards of living in this community. Everybody would be a stockholder, but there would be collective production, everything would be produced within the Fallen Stair, and everyone would share meals and the dirty work would be shared, okay? Where'd he get this from? Well, he just had his own brain, that he sketched it out, that's what the Fallen Stair was gonna look like, okay? Notice the symmetry there, right? Very symmetrical. Here's a model of it. Here is one that was actually built in New Jersey, about 20 miles from my house in Mamathoo, Jersey. It lasted for about 12 years. It was built by the newspaper man, Horace Greeley, and some architect, okay? And as I said, it lasted for about 12 years. And here are some of the things he said. He said that 19th century France was in the fifth stage of advancement, okay? And basically, there were a number of stages, it started with confusion and savagery and so on, but he goes on and says, after passing through two more stages, it would approach the upward slope of harmony. The final stage of utter bliss, which would last for 8,000 years, a nice round number, right? You know, how does he know 8,000 years? How does he know? But however, history would eventually reverse himself, he knew that too, and he would regress back to the beginning, okay? And here's some of the things that would happen during this period of harmony, okay? Six new moons replaced one in existence.  I like the seas turning to Kool-Aid and I like the fact that there'll be anti-lions that you can ride, that would offer themselves to humans to be ridden, roasted chickens would fly into human mouths, roasted anti-chickens, okay? And then number five might appeal to some people, human lifespan would stretch to 144 years and five-sixths of this time, okay? Exactly five-sixths would be devoted to the unrequited pursuit of sexual love, okay? That's Fourier. Now, the classical economists, even though they didn't have a very well-developed theory of value, were able to smash this nonsense.   Who's gonna do the difficult jobs, the unhealthy jobs, go down deep in the mines and risk cave-ins and explosions and so on? Who's gonna get up early in the morning and do the smelly jobs of taking out the garbage? Well, the Fourier and Saint-Simon, they said, well, it'll be a new socialist man who will not work for money, but their incentive will be the approval of others. Now, what was implicit here was that if this incentive problem could be solved, socialism would be as productive as capitalism. Both sides more or less accepted that, all right? So now, so the classical economists sort of won on the common sense of the incentive problem, right? Who's gonna do all these dirty jobs and so on? Marx now came on the scene and he was totally embarrassed by Fourier and all the utopian socialists in their crazy schemes.  So what he said was, he devised this doctrine, which he called scientific socialism, and he said, first of all, the inexorable laws of history. Laws of history just like the law of gravity. Just like the law of gravity will hold inexorably for any body that drops from any height towards the earth or towards any other body. These laws dictated that socialism would replace capitalism just as capitalism had replaced feudalism, just as feudalism had replaced classical slavery and just as classical slavery had replaced some golden age that Marx called the gins where everybody lived together sort of like Fourier, but he didn't talk about that. And so therefore, okay, if this was gonna come about, it was unscientific to speculate about what the future of socialism would be, what it would look like, okay? Or, and it was also unscientific to try to hasten its arrival. It would arrive when the contradictions of capitalism had accumulated to the point where the capitalist system collapsed. And not one minute sooner nor one minute later and there was nothing anyone could do. Therefore, he was against the welfare state. He thought that sort of slowed down the movement in some sense towards socialism. He wanted unbridled capitalism. He didn't want minimum wages. He didn't want health insurance. There were against Bismarck, who introduced all of these sorts of programs in the 1870s into Prussia and Germany. So, notice Marx's own writings, okay? His main writing was a three-volume set of Das Kapital, only one of which he wrote, okay, because he was kind of lazy. Engels wrote the other two. But, Kapital, he wrote about the contradictions of capitalism. He didn't talk about socialism. There are very few passages in Marx where he discusses what socialism, and then some final stage that he alludes to communism would look like. It was brilliant.  The argument then became whether socialism ethically was better than capitalism or not. So, it worked. I mean, it was a great ploy. And the utopian socialists disappeared pretty much, because nobody wanted to be called unscientific. And that was until Mises presented his argument on the rationality of production under socialism. So, what Mises said was that socialism abolishes private property, okay? In capital goods and natural resources. Even if the labor's left free to choose what job he or she would like to pursue, the state still owns all the factories, all the machinery, all the raw materials, and all the natural resources. So, the second step is if there's only one entity, in this case, the socialist state, owning all the material factors of production, they can't be exchanged, okay? You can't exchange with yourself. There aren't different wills, as we'll see. There's only one will acting under socialism. Whether it's a collection of, let's say, bureaucrats, or as it was in the Soviet Union when they were economically planning, or it's one dictator, it doesn't matter, it's one will, there is no exchange. And third, without exchange, of course there can be no market prices. And in the absence of market prices, no one can calculate costs of production. We don't know what the prices of steel or the prices of electricity is, or the price of electricity, and all the other goods that the state owns. Since there are no markets, there are no prices for these things. So even if there was a market for consumer goods, let's say consumers were paying some sort of quasi-money in the form of script, and certainly in the Soviet Union they were, so they're paying rubles. They can bid for consumer goods, but those prices aren't imputed, we talked about menger, imputed back, they can't be imputed back to the capital goods and the natural resources. So you might have prices, but you have no cost of production. So you don't ever know if something that you're producing is going to be a social loss or a social waste of the factors, scarce factors, or whether it's going to be beneficial. So finally, in the absence of economic calculation and profit and loss, socialist planners cannot know the most valuable uses of scarce resources, okay? And therefore a socialist economy, economizing resources, using them only for the most important ends is literally impossible.  And I'll get into this in more detail. So this is Mises' statement here. The essential mark of socialism is that one will alone acts. I mean, it can't be exchange, it can't be different valuations that you need for exchange. It's immaterial whose will it is. The main thing is that the employment of all factors of production is directed by one agency only. One will alone chooses the size, directs, acts, gives orders. The distinctive mark of socialism is the oneness and indivisibility of the will directing all production activities within the whole social system, okay? So I think that's the key to Mises' argument. It's not about knowledge, it's not about how a dictator or a small group of bureaucrats can find out what people really want, because Mises even concedes that, let's assume they themselves think they know what people want and they're gonna produce what they want. Even they cannot produce in an efficient manner, because they can never know if they produce one more bicycle, whether those resources would have been better used according to their own values in producing, let's say, 10 skateboards. So here are the preconditions of economic calculation. There has to be private property in all stages of goods, not just consumer goods, but capital goods of every kind. There also has to be a freedom to exchange so that prices can emerge for these goods and there has to be a sound money. Socialism involves result three, all three preconditions of economic calculation. It therefore nullifies economic calculation and it renders rational allocation of resources impossible. That was the word Mises used, okay? Others sort of backed off a little bit, and said, well, it's highly impractical, very, very inefficient, but Mises said, no, no, it's impossible. You can produce stuff, but you don't know whether that stuff is the most valuable things that could be produced at any given moment in time, given your own values. Okay, let's see how this problem is solved under capitalism. Let's say you wanna produce a car on the capitalism. Well, both a capitalist producer and a socialist producer could hire engineers and so on, and they do, and they would know that it needs a certain amount of steel. You would know the technical requirements for producing your automobile. A certain number of hours of machine time, certain number of hours of unskilled labor, engineering labor, certain number of square feet of factory space, certain kilowatts of electricity, and so on.  Okay, it's my favorite car, Chevy SS, which just came on the market this year. I have one of the forerunners to that, is a Pontiac G8, very nice car, but in any case, they could produce, I mean, the Soviet economy or a totally socialist economy could produce a car like that because they know all of that stuff. What they don't know is whether or not that's a waste of resources, those resources are being wasted in producing that car, or whether that enhances social and economic welfare by producing that car. All right, under the market economy, right, we do know whether or not it is worthwhile, it is rational to produce the car because all resources, steel, engineering, service, electricity, and so on, they're exchanged and they have market prices. So firms can calculate the cost of any conceivable production process. They can know their costs, and they know their cost in the terms of cardinal numbers that is money prices, which can then be compared to the value of the output that is as given by prices that consumers are willing to pay. So for example, if the average cost of the car is $40,000, okay, the per unit cost, and let's say the entrepreneurs forecast that the price that consumers will pay for certain quantity of these cars is $44,000, then that is an efficient decision. Those resources could have been used in other production processes that consumers were willing to pay $40,000 for. They were valued at a cost or at some of money prices of $40,000, alternative uses of those resources. More bikes, more motorcycles, more ball bearings, more of other things. However, if the expected price is only $38,000, then the resources are being wasted. They're being used to produce something that has a lower value than the resources. That is they're being diverted to more valuable uses from the point of view of consumers to less valuable uses. Now entrepreneurs make mistakes. As I mentioned, I think in my first lecture, I went through the amount of the number of firms that lost over $2 billion in year 2011 yesterday. Firms lose money all the time, but that's not because they can't calculate. It's because the future's uncertain. The future's uncertain both for entrepreneurs and for socialist planners. That is not the point that issue. The point that issue is that the entrepreneurs can know what the costs of their actions are today. They can know the costs of producing. They know the opportunity costs of producing one thing rather than another thing. The better ones are able to forecast the future more accurately, the ones that aren't as good don't forecast the future as accurately. As Mises points out, there's a selective process which weeds out those entrepreneurs who continually and repeatedly misforecast the future. But there is no such mechanism under socialism because no one knows the value of what's being produced. And also, there's a question of technology. I mean, how, you know, what, the cars can be produced in many different ways. Is it better to produce a car as it was produced in the 1890s where all the parts are manually produced with a lot of labors and then the labors together put the car together, assemble the car? Or is it better to produce in the way that, GM and Ford and so on produce in the 70s and 80s with plants with assembly lines? So you had a lot of capital, but you also had a lot of labor. Or is it better to produce like the Kia plant that is just up the road on Route 85 here, which is highly capital intensive? There's a lot of robots putting together the automobile. And there's a lot of computers that control these robots. So there's a lot of capital and very little labor. Should you use a bumper that is fiberglass or should you use a stronger bumper that will be less expensive to repair, that's steel, okay? We see that automobiles are beginning to use and have been since the late 70s and 80s, fiberglass bumpers. Why? Because of the price cost comparisons. It might be counterintuitive, but in fact, it is more efficient to have fiberglass bumpers and have them repaired at a higher cost than to use steel and weigh the car down and reduce gas mileage and so on. A socialist planner could never figure this stuff out. Now let me give you a counterintuitive example. I have a friend who moved to Montana, married a cowboy, a real cowboy, and she lives on a ranch. Number of years, this was probably back in the 80s. And so sometime in the 1990s, she called me up and she told me that she says, we're getting a new house. I said, oh, you're moving off the ranch? She said, no, no, no, we're not moving. She said, we're having a house shipped in. So I said, oh, really? So she said, yeah. So in Montana it's about 12 people, okay? So it's hardly any labor. And the people that are there are, since there's a lot of land that's good for ranching and raising cattle and so on, they're ranchers. So houses aren't built on site. It's cheaper to get the house built in Indiana in a big factory where she did have the house built a five bedroom house and then have it shipped by truck in modular pieces to Montana and then assemble. So in other words, instead of building the house as it's done in the Northeast where I come from, on site with a lot of laborers and some capital, you have a highly intensive process where you have a factory that's automated that builds the modular pieces and then has it shipped via more capital goods, trucks and so on. And then use a little bit of labor just to assemble it because labor is so expensive where it scares in Montana. Now how did the entrepreneurs that built this plant in Indiana figure all that out? By knowing costs, by knowing prices of the factors of production, by knowing prices that consumers will pay for homes and so on. That would never occur in the Soviet Union. Now let me just mention one other thing here before I go on to the Soviet Union. Mises wasn't saying and I'm not saying that there can't be production without calculation in very simple economies without much capital with very short processes of production and with very few resources, maybe labor and just a little bit of land, you can have direct valuation. You don't need market prices. So we'll take Robinson Crusoe. So if he allocates his labor in three hour increments, these are the highest valued types of products that he would want to produce in a given day. So let's say he works 12 hours and then has leisure for 12 hours. Let's say he discovers that there are rabbits on the island and that he wants to hunt a rabbit but it requires six hours to hunt and catch. Well, he doesn't need prices. He can directly say, well look, I can spend six hours producing eight coconuts and one sack of berries and I know my own values. I know how I value that, the satisfaction that will bring me or I can spend six hours producing a rabbit. So he compares the rabbit to the satisfaction from the rabbit to the satisfaction he would get from the eight coconuts and one sack of berries. And he makes a direct comparison. If the rabbit has a higher value to him then he knows the opportunity cost. I have to give up eight coconuts and one sack of berries. That's what it costs me. Okay, now, so for very simple economy for economies, household economies, nomadic tribes and so on, you don't need money prices. But where there is a tremendous amount of capital in the economy, where there are many different types of resources and a tremendous amount of consumers, you absolutely do need money prices of all goods, including resources in order to rationally allocate resources. Okay, let me come back to that. Okay, so let me say a few things about the Soviet Union. Let's take examples of irrational production. Let's take the Soviet Union. So during the 1980s, as the Soviet economy was crumbling, while Paul Samuelson and other economists and also the data gatherers at the CIA were telling us that the Soviet economy was gonna catch the US economy by 2011 or 2012. It was gonna be as big as the US economy. It was crumbling around their ears. And what you saw was people starving. There was a famine. Yet there were fields full of grain. Fields of unharvested wheat. There were tractors that were rusting in the field. Why was that the case? Look, people were hungry. Why couldn't they get the wheat to the dinner table in the form of bread? Well, because they had allocated too much labor to producing steel, which was producing tractors, which were then being sent to farms, which then would rust in the fields because there wasn't enough labor to drive them and there wasn't enough gasoline to power them. So it was complete, as Mises called, it was planned chaos. They were trying to plan the economy and all they were doing was planning chaos. And their system was something called gross output planning, where they would give various industries a target. There would be a minister of an industry and they would give him a target of how many building nails you have to produce, how many chandeliers you have to produce, how many tractors you have to produce and so on. And this was a system of mutual lying, of course, because what they would do, see, they would know that the minister, if the minister exceeded his target, he would get some kind of bonus. If he fell short of his target, he'd get a quick trip to Siberia. So they knew that and he knew that. So what would he do? He would say, well, with our capacity and our labor and so on, we can only produce X amounts. So he'd lie much less than he could really produce. Which means that he knew they would give him a higher target, so if they gave him a higher target and he could still hit it, well, then he'd earn bonuses. But they knew he was lying, so they would say, no, no, no, you have to produce X plus Y amount. So there'd be a mutual bickering and so then you'd have the target finally set. The key was, though, it was very hard to specify quality and different levels of quality and so on. So Russian women for a long time had, the dress size were all big, they were all wearing tents. Women that were smaller in the Soviet Union wouldn't be able to find clothing to fit them because it was easier and you met the target easier when they said certain yards of clothing, certain yards of women's dresses, to make giant dresses. And that's what that picture tells us. There was a shortage of building nails in the Soviet Union. There were a lot of structures that had been built but there were no roofs on them. Or roofs, there were no roofs on them, I think that's. Because even though the materials for the roofs were there on site, there were no nails that could be used to put the roofs on. And that was because of gross output planning, my ghost plan. So this is a famous Soviet cartoon. The commissar of the industry is on the right and there's the manager of that particular factory who also got his own target. And he's pointing up and saying, I've met my target. Okay, so because they specified the target in terms of tons of nails. So you make a 50-ton nail or something like that. There's also a famous speech by Khrushchev where he was talked to the Politburo and he suddenly started bashing the chandelier industry. The reason was that during the 50s, a lot of the comrades were getting crushed by these heavy chandeliers that were pulling down the ceilings of their dashas or dakas or their vacation homes because they were so heavy because they were specified again in weight. So you have all these crazy things going on. And one famous joke that Western economists would hear when they went to the Soviet Union in the 70s and 80s was it was a take-off on a speech that Khrushchev had given in the 1950s where he said, we will bury you at the UN, meaning we'll bury the West. He meant economically. He didn't mean that we're gonna rain nuclear weapons on us. He meant economically, we will bury you. So the Soviet economists would laugh and say to the Western economists, we will bury you but we're gonna leave Hong Kong so that we can see the prices in Hong Kong because what they did, as we'll see, they copied the prices in Western countries. So they at least had a crude way of calculating. They weren't the correct prices because there were different scarcities, relative scarcities in the Soviet Union, okay? So the question then becomes, how did the Soviet Union last as long as it did? And that was a criticism of Mises. Why did it last from 1917 to 1991, I guess? How did it last that long? Well, Mises in his first article pointed out that a socialist economy is an economy in which there are no prices. Since there is no, to exchange, as I said, but like the post office, which really doesn't calculate, the post office, as Mises said, is owned by the government and it's set in a sea of capitalist enterprises so it can always look at the prices that the capitalist enterprises are charging or are paying for different things and it can crudely calculate what technology it should use and so on, even though it's grossly inefficient. The same thing was true of the Soviet Union. It was an island of chaos, but in a sea of prices. So they did use electricity prices from the West. They did use prices of steel and so on. They weren't the correct prices but they could crudely calculate. Socialism in its pure form did actually exist for about five years during war communism or maybe four years, from 1917 to 1921 during the war of the whites against the Reds in the Soviet Union. The Soviet economy abolished prices and so the commasars were all trying to plan without prices and the economy completely collapsed. People were moving out of the cities. Well, before they moved out of the cities they were literally destroying capital because it was worthwhile to burn your furniture and to begin to burn parts of your home to stay warm because production had just completely collapsed. So at the end people were going into the countryside and just foraging for food and so on. So that's what socialism can support. It can support small groups. Without calculation you can have small groups producing at a subsistence level just to stay alive. You have the example of Pol Pot who emptied the cities and people just died, millions of Cambodians died because of the Kamor Rouge. But he was following an insane communist program of abolishing prices. There was also stories of, well, I mean in the press they're not just anecdotes, they're actually reports of black markets in the Soviet Union where consumer goods were being sold and the Soviet Union, the Soviet authorities tolerated it because it generated some prices for them, Beatles albums, American jeans, US jeans and so on. Also among the Soviet enterprises themselves who were trying to meet their targets there was trade, they would trade different things. And at least there'd be prices of if you had too many nails and you didn't have enough wood if you had too many ball bearings. There were brokers, I think it was called blot. It was a mutual system of sort of bribing one another to get the things that you needed. Okay, so they were striving for prices. Anyway, war communism was so bad that Lenin then abolished it and established the New Economic Plan, the NEP which was the same plan that Nixon introduced when he imposed wage price controls. He called it the New Economic Plan or New Economic Program, I forget what the exact name was. That's interesting. Also, China, one last example was ordering, the CIA found that China was ordering hundreds and hundreds of Sears catalogs to figure out what everything cost in the 1950s and 60s. And of course the Soviet Union was really, what it was was state capitalism. They owned some natural resources that they traded. They owned oil, they owned diamonds, gas and electricity that they sold on world markets. So it was really just a state capitalist system. It wasn't true socialism. Let me just go a little deeper into the market economy. I want to talk about something called the appraisement process. Appraising means to determine the value of something but to determine the value of that thing in cardinal numbers, in this case in prices. So it's a process by which the market economy, which is driven by entrepreneurs, determines the money prices of all resources to be used in the economic calculation of cost of production. So right now, every single thing on the market, let's say in the US, has a price. Everything has a price. So no matter what kind of crazy scheme you have, you come up with to produce something, you can always at least find out the cost of production. You may be wrong about how much people are willing to pay for it when you finally completed it in the future, but that's an entrepreneurial error. That's not an error of an absence of calculation. And here's how appraisement works. I think this fits with Professor Klein's lecture. If you look at step one, what does the entrepreneur do? He looks forward to the future and he figures out based on what consumer prices are today. He knows consumer prices today, but they're not ultimately relevant. They're only indirectly relevant. So he looks at them and then he forecast changes in supply and demand. So when Steve Jobs looked forward, years before the iPad came out, that didn't really exist. There were goods like it that existed. He knew the prices of laptops and so on, but he had to have an image of the future and not just of the future, but of future prices of what people would be willing to pay for the iPad. And when it first came out, I think it was between $500 and $1,000. And then based on the prices that you're forecasting, that's the appraisement. You then impute those prices or you appraise the factors of production. I don't want to use the word impute because it means directly imputing values, but you appraise the prices of the factors of production. That is all the entrepreneurs who are looking forward to producing other things. There are many entrepreneurs in the economy who want to use the same resources for different things. They then all begin to bid for the resources. So what you get then is a whole structure of prices at every stage of production. So anyone who wants to produce anything can purchase resources. Now the key, however, is who are those people who do not get the resources or only get a certain amount of resources? The entrepreneurs who do not see them as being more highly valued by consumers. So the people who get all the steel at any given moment in time are those who believe that the steel has the highest value in the uses that they're prospectively going to use them in. So you have the appraisement of future prices and then those prices are, we can use the word imputed backward, but it's done in the common denominator so you can always compare prices and costs. So just basically summing things up here. So resources are rarely allocated to their most valued uses by that process. And the entrepreneur is right in the middle of that process and Mises saw that. So I think his theory of the entrepreneur, which he didn't develop really fully until 1949, the seeds of that theory are in this calculation argument. Okay, so that just sums up the result of social appraisement on Lennis. Okay, so what were the socialist responses to Mises? He first, in Germany, had some naive Marxist responses. So what the naive Marxist said was, well, Otto Neurath, who was a fanatical Marxist, said, what's the problem? Why do we need money prices? We can just have calculation in kind. We'll just add apples and oranges and men's suits and kilowatts of electricity and gallons of paint.  Okay, you can't add apples and oranges. They're heterogeneous. It's the first law of arithmetic. Okay, Marxists, who are a little bit more on the ball than he was, said, you know what, labor hours are homogeneous. We can add labor hours. How many hours it takes to produce something? We can calculate in terms of labor hours. And someone who works will get a script or quasi-money that says he's worked these many hours, and then he can trade it for goods that have cost these many hours, the same amount of hours to produce. So we can have some sort of an economy. Couple problems with that. Is LeBron James really, it's an hour of his labor, really equal in value to that of a cashier at McDonald's? Or is the, or even in the same profession, is LeBron James' hour of basketball really equal in value to that of the 12th man on the bench, the guy who never gets into the game? Of course not, even in the same profession, the quality of the hour's different. So they're not really homogeneous units.  You can't compare them, okay? The market can compare them, but no individual without market prices can compare their values or the usefulness. Also it leaves out of account capital. Obviously labor is more productive when there's more capital. So a labor will produce more when he's aided by let's say a robotical machine, then he can by hand. The farmer in today's world driving a tractor that is computer controlled or harvested or whatever is much more productive than the guy, the American farmer in 1900, with a team of horses and a plow, okay? Even though they physically may be just as skilled, okay? So Mises smashed that. He already crushed all this stuff in his original article. Let's assume it's stationary economy. This is a little bit more credible. So some of the German economists said, well, wait a minute, what we'll do is we'll simply, the last day of capitalism, when we take over the first day of socialism, we'll call all the managers together and we'll tell them, just do the same thing you were doing. We'll leave everybody in place. Do the same thing you were doing the day before. Of course, everybody will be paid equally, okay? Well, now that actually might work. Let's say they're a new socialist man and the incentive problem is solved and everybody says, yeah, we'll just do the same jobs. Okay, we wanna help society. However, that assumes that you're gonna live in a changeless world where there's never any new technology, where people's tastes don't change, where there's no fads, where there's no depletion of natural resources and you have to look for other resources. So as time goes on, it might be rational for the first few months and so on, but as change goes on and accumulates and time goes on, this becomes a totally irrational system, okay, to assume a stationary economy as we do it for certain purposes in economic theory. And then a few more minutes will go on to the more sophisticated neoclassical responses. So this debate moved to the English speaking world when Hayek moved to London School of Economics in 1931 and he collected the articles that were written during the earlier debates in the 1920s by Mises and George Holm and others and wrote some of his own articles. And so we had some sophisticated neoclassical responses. One was the trial and error method, look, entrepreneurs don't always get the prices right. They have to figure out the right price, they make mistakes, there's losses and so on. We'll just do the same thing, we'll just try to figure out prices as we go along. And Mises points out that the problem with that method is that trial and error is only applicable when you know that you're looking for something. So before I lost my iPhone just before I came in here so I ran out, I know what I was looking for, I know what my iPhone looks like, okay. The socialist managers don't know what the right price looks like. They have no way of knowing that. There is no calculation. They just can't come up with the price out of their heads. So when there's an identifying mark that says this is the right thing, yeah, yeah, trial and error works perfectly, okay. And you have that under capitalism. The entrepreneur knows if he suffers losses, then there's a mistake that was made. He's looking for those prices or those costs of production, that production process, let's say. He's looking for that process, trying to identify that process that brings profit. Whereas the planners don't know what they're looking for. Then there's market socialism under market socialism. These economists, Oscar Langa and Abba Lerner, they basically said, well look what we'll do is we will have the managers of the firms produce at the lowest possible cost. Now we ourselves as planners will set the prices. We will set consumer goods prices and we will set the price of the factors of production. If with these prices, let's say there's too much demand at a certain price for steel and people are lining up for it, we'll just raise the price. And if there are, let's say, women's dresses on the market that are in oversupply, then we'll lower the price of that and so we'll just experiment with that. A couple of things wrong with this. From Mises' perspective, this is just playing market because the managers are not entrepreneurs. The capitalist system is an entrepreneurial system. It is not a managerial system. I don't have much time to go into any of this. But basically, Mises called this playing market, like children playing market. He said it would be just as scientific to pick prices out of a hat because you've already set up the firms. But under capitalism, the whole point of the entrepreneur is to create new firms and destroy old firms. So there are no, without investment markets, without capital markets, without stock and bond markets and trading of these things, okay? You can never figure out what combinations of capital goods should exist. What firms should actually exist? They're assuming that the firms already exist and they can just tell them, okay? You know, we'll set this price and so on. But the point is under capitalism, it's a process of creative destruction. So when firms become losing propositions, they're just liquidated and their assets are split up, that would not happen under socialism. That could not happen under socialism. So I will stop here. There were different arguments by Hayek and Robbins. Hayek and Robbins stressed that all of this was impractical, okay? Whereas Mises basically said it was impossible, okay? Okay, thank you very much.


1977 I'd done the physical training structure course with Royal Australian Navy, actually down at Cerberus, down here and just down out of Melbourne.  In the 90s or late 80s, 1990s I got out of the Navy and I went and worked at Goldman Jail in New South Wales, I'm not sure, just to split the number of guys, those people from Australia and that, I worked at Maxim's Security Jail there, teaching inmates, fitness. Anybody ever sort of worked in jails? I don't know if anyone would have been in jails. Okay, great experience, you know, not sort of the name people and all those sort of things, but there was some really big heavy dudes in them days, I'm talking about some monsters, you know, and guys with some really sort of bad criminal history as well, you know what I mean, so there was a bit of everyone there sort of based a lot of it, these guys pumping weights, getting as big as they can, and they'd come and say, Steve, can you tell me about this, can you tell me about that, and ask me questions, I'd say look at the size of you, I mean sort of me asking them, so it was a really good experience, guys had all day to train in a sense, or a lot of them just focused on training while they're in jail, as they got out of jail I suppose, that focus changed to drugs and get back on the drug and things like that. Guys that I'd seen come out like before, when they left jail, they're like monsters, six or 12 months later they'd be back in jail and they might stick because they've been on the drugs and things like that, so you see how the body can change and stuff, you know, I mean when you're really sort of I suppose in a sense been in a strict environment to then having your own choice a little bit, so another great experience and now, well 2000, I'm a fitness teacher at New South Wales TAFE in New South Wales, a technical adult further education. Just a little bit of my own sporting career because I thought this was going to be a little bit important because this is how I got into high intensity training, this is part where I'm sort of moved to where I actually moved to, so a whole history, a lot of years, different training routines, groups and different things and doing a lot of different sports and things and at some point my sporting career started to come to a bit of an end, which I'll get to in a minute. My main day is a lot of endurance events, I was, you know, Australian champion in different triathlon events and things like that, you know what I mean, all my training was basically endurance, aerobic sort of base type training, the only type of, and I, sorry, probably the only type of, two reasons I don't weight training in a sense was to supplement my triathlon career or my endurance events I was involved and maybe to go to gym and check the girls out at the gym as well, so at that point, even though I had a reasonably good knowledge of weight training or exercise, most of my focus was on in these endurance events until I got to a point where I started to get injured, I couldn't train, I was thinking, hang on a minute, I'm sort of, I enjoy my training, I join the exercise, I'm not a fanatic in that sense, I enjoy the triathlons and that, but I sort of was starting to think, you know, injuries are coming, torn calf muscles, I've got to really do something else, and I started to think about what I was going to do, so that's sort of probably just how my initiation in the high intensity training came all about. Weight training and I've done a lot of boxing and coaching things, so now this is just a little bit of the history of the high intensity training, where it developed and how it sort of come different to what most people were doing in that 70s period, this sort of originated in the 1970s, a guy called Arthur Jones was the founder of Nautilus, I don't know if anyone's used Nautilus equipment or trained Nautilus equipment, went out of vogue for a fair while, it's come back into vogue now, but he moved into this selling Nautilus equipment, so that's sort of where this high intensity training and Arthur's suggestions to what most people were doing was really just total opposite, total opposite of what they were doing. Okay, he came onto the scene, nobody really knew him, he'd done a bit of bodybuilding, he'd done all these other things, he was about in his 50s or something, and all of a sudden here's this guy telling everybody how to train properly. So he was the main driving force, stories of him, he used to walk around with a gun and stuff, you know what I mean, pistol on his hip and things, he lived in Florida, I think at that time, in D-land, Florida, and he started this movement. Some of the guys that you got in the pictures there, which I'll sort of mention in a minute, all originated out of this 1970s period, Casey Beata and a few of those other guys might mention in there. So Arthur, founder of hip, Ellington Darden, these guys have all wrote books and stuff, so again, if you want to get a little bit of information about some of these guys, and Jim Flanagan was another one of these originators of this high-intensity, there's a lot more people involved. They looked at making exercise machines, okay, nautilus type exercise machines, there's a reason why they looked at making exercise machines, and I'll sort of try and get into that a little bit in a minute why that sort of came about. Now if you just like Casey Beata was one of the most famous bodybuilders of the time, there's pictures of him there, Mike Menser and Ray and his brother and Sergio Libby and Frank there, and some of these Doreen Yates, I don't know if anyone heard of Doreen Yates, anyone sort of blood and guts and that, he's got his, you go on YouTube and that, so I left that, these really good, sorry, YouTube sort of videos over him if you want to just, and I think Doreen's a bit more of a later period too, you know what I mean, so he came a bit later in the 90s, but Mr Olympia and all those types of people win events. Now this is where I think I come in with the other guys and that noted authors and stuff that I sort of now started to look at, read and I start and it's trying to understand what this high-intensity trainer was all about, what did it mean? Drew Bay, Doug McGuff, John Little and John Philbin and there's many more high-intensity writers, but there's some of the guys I really sort of like, if you know what I mean, when I'm reading stuff and trying to get some more knowledge and etc, etc. Now Doug McGuff and John Little, 2010 produced a book called Body by Science, I know a couple of the aunts in that's read it and I don't know if anyone's ever heard that the book Body by Science, I think in some of the YouTube videos or some stuff that Dan's just done before. It sort of really started to get people to think as well. Now if I just go back to John Philbin, he wrote high-intensity, more power, more strength in a quicker time. If I could sort of just give you a couple of minutes here of my sort of initiation, as I said before, I started to get a few inwards from triathlons and stuff and I started to sort of think well hang on to do so. One day I picked up this book called Written by John Philbin and I started to read it and I thought okay, that sort of you know lifting the weight up and down etc and doing these things and doing momentary muscular failure and that, I mean what's all this mean, you know what I mean? So I sort of started to have to teach myself it and that's how I sort of started to learn and I started to teach myself, you know what I mean? So what I do for these sort of guys and stuff is that I teach myself and I go to tape with some students and I trial it out on them and see how they handled it. So I was a bit of a, I had my own audience if you know what I mean, I used to see how many of them could do it and a lot of these guys, massively strong guys, just couldn't do it. Guys that trained for hours and stuff, when I'd done it properly with them or you know as we'd done high intensive training, couldn't do the exercises and these guys were not small guys, they're really big and strong, you know what I mean? So so I just sort of moved there but they're sort of really through the catamounts of pigeons, 12 minutes a week. How can you do 12 minutes a week? So we had sort of, how can I do 12 minutes of training a week? They sort of looked at what they called the big five and that was their base exercises on which was the leg press or squat type exercise, overhead press, the lap pull down chest press and so on, I just called them names but you can use different free weights and machines and different other variations or body weight in that as well if you want to. So it sort of took us to another step, there's also Doug's got a website, Body by Science and basically from that we sort of started to look at, geez, trying to reduce this training down into sort of 12 minutes a week. I'll come back to this in a minute, why don't I move a little bit further and I'll go back through the old high intensive training methods and we'll sort of come back through to that if that's all right. So John Philbin's book, now this is what he said, the foundation of the high intensive training system is performing the perfect rep. Now I know Mark and even David was talking about the perfect rep. It wasn't how much you lifted or whatever else you did, it was how you did it, okay, how you performed the perfect repetition. Everything revolved around the perfect rep so we sort of take away, minimise the momentum and maximise muscle tension. Does anybody understand what I mean by that? Minimise momentum and maximise muscle tension. So all of a suddenly we're not doing the bicep curls like David showed you, sort of thing doing that, we were doing a nice and strict and that, you know what I mean? So we were starting to look at the form, how we did it, not what we did and that was how we actually did it. Anybody go to the gym, many people go to the gym? What do you see at the gym? People exercising, I'm not picking on anyone here but you'll see a lot of different ways, won't you? And a lot of, when you sort of start looking at what the perfect rep is, you start to look and see what in the gym. A lot of bad stuff and it becomes quite noticeable and you see it very, very noticeable. When I'm teaching, you know, the guys and even the girls in here, it's tight when I teach them. A lot of the girls go to the gym and a lot of the girls don't lift weights. When I take them to the gym, show them how to do the exercise correctly and properly, they're the first ones that come over and say, oh Steve, look at him, look at him, look at what he's doing and you can pick it up. It's very evident once you sort of know what the perfect repetition is.