One more talk before lunch, and I'm pleased to introduce Heather Rivers. She's from Yammer. She got her start doing Ruby at a startup weekend and had been doing Python and discovered the true way. Wow, you just throw a little antagonism in there and people love it. Okay, so Heather's going to talk to us about internationalizing your app using Ruby. So thank you, Heather. Thank you, Josh. Hi everyone. So yeah. So yeah, I'm going to be talking about crowdsourcing localization with Rails. If you've never paid much attention to it before, localization is a surprisingly tricky problem. So computers just aren't quite ready to handle all the complexities of natural language yet. We humans have had hundreds of thousands of years to get good at language and computers are still playing catch-up at this point. They probably will be for a little while to come. So we can't even figure out how to make them understand one human language, much less many of them. But sometimes we need computers to be able to serve content in different languages. So somehow we have to find a way to bridge the gap between their understanding of language and ours. So that's what I'm going to be talking about today. But, okay, before I do that, I just need to set expectations for this talk a little bit. A little nervous. All right. That's so much better. All right. So now on to some definitions. So a locale. In the context of translation, a locale is a combination of a language like Spanish and a country where it's spoken. And we generally represent it like this, just joined by an underscore. Internationalization, which is a long pain-in-the-ass word, which we sometimes abbreviate to I18N, because it's like the number of letters, is the process of abstracting anything that's locale-specific out of the software to prepare it to be translated. Localization, not quite as bad a word, abbreviated L10N is the process of actually providing those translations once you've already internationalized. So for the purpose of this talk, a token will refer to a placeholder in a translatable string. So friend tagged you at location. I'll just use curly braces, but notation varies. So tokens might look simple, but they're actually the hardest part of internationalization. Let me give you an example. So let's say you're building a social app that allows users to buy and sell items from each other.  So let's say you start off letting people sell a small number of predetermined items. So you might display something like this in your activity feed. So this format won't always be grammatical, because in English, articles can be either A or N depending on context. So yeah, that's no good. So you might start to try to solve this by writing a method that detects whether the word begins with a vowel, but this actually won't work either, because there are just tons of exceptions to that rule. So then you might decide to just store the articles for each of the items, but you can probably see where this is going. This is also a terrible idea, because this is a closed set. But what happens when you open it up and you let users enter whatever items they want? Suddenly you can't just store the right articles anymore. So you might come to the conclusion that you're going to have to get users to enter the articles themselves through some kind of form like this. And in this case, there's no real benefit to parsing what they provide, right? You might as well just store that as one string. So if we take it even a step further, if we end up storing them this way, it's going to be a lot easier to store them in other languages too, which have different rules for the articles. Like in French, it depends on the grammatical gender of the noun. So it's going to make it a lot better for French too. So the direction that we're going is a really important concept in translation. And what it boils down to is you should always store the highest level of representations of translatable texts that you possibly can, because otherwise you're going to end up projecting languages you happen to speak into your schema and then you're going to be locked into that and that's no good. Okay, so the other important takeaway here is that you should let your users help you. They already know the answers. So if you can find a way to extract them, your life is going to be a lot easier. So that's fine. We've temporarily solved this one little case in this one language, but our problems are going to get a lot bigger than that. Okay, so translation is conceptually simple, right? Without tokens. You just take a translatable string, you add a human brain with knowledge of language rules, produce a translation and store the results. Not too hard. So when you add tokens, things get a lot trickier. Suddenly, the translator can't apply the rules for every single possible value of that token. So now instead of just passing along some translated text, they also have to pass along some representation of the rules in their heads that they can be applied later. So somehow we have to figure out how to store those rules. And that's where things get interesting. All right, so you might be thinking localization sounds hard. And yes, it is. If it were easy, every application would be available in every language. But in fact, language alternatives are kind of rare in software. So even Facebook didn't start supporting a second language until it had well over 50 million users. So, yeah, I like this Red Bull and Wine thing he's got going on.  So, okay, so if they didn't start until 50 million users, why should you bother tackling it now, right? All right, this is the pie chart part. I'm sorry. According to a few recent surveys, English language speakers account for only about a quarter of total internet users and just barely ahead of native Chinese speakers. So there's a very sizable market out there that prefers to speak a language other than your default, even if it's English, which is, you know, the most common. So you might be thinking that there are a lot of people who speak your default language nonnatively, and that might be true. But according to a recent study, when people make decisions in a foreign language, their decisions tend to be less rooted in emotional reactions. So by making your users read a foreign language, you're limiting your ability to tap into their emotions. And that's really the only way to make people fall in love with your app. There are a lot of reasons that we delay internationalization. You might be afraid that it's just going to take a ton of developer time. And that's not necessarily the case. If you're not ready to devote a ton of time, there's still some simple options that will get you, you know, most of the way there. And we'll talk about this, but there are ways to do it without changing your application too much. You might also be afraid that it's going to cost a ton of money, you know, professional translations, that sounds scary and awful. But again, not necessarily.  But another way to do it is, you know, crowdsourcing translations from your users, which can get, be pretty much free. Yeah. So if you're starting to think that maybe there are some good reasons to internationalize, it turns out there's some parallel benefits too. So it forces you to design better software and to do things you should be doing anyway. So you guys, I don't need to tell you, you know, it's a good idea to keep your content and your code cleanly separated, right? So you don't want a logic, a lot of logic embedded in your templates. And here's how internationalization will help. So how is content transferred to a user? Well, first you have to store it somewhere unless your app is just a random garbage generator. And then you have to select it. Somehow you have to decide which stuff that you have stored that you need to pull for a request, right? Then you need to transform it sometimes, just, you know, like change the data, prepare it. And then finally you need to actually present it, bundle it all up and send it to the browser. So let's use Quora as an example. They display texts like this on their site, like user promoted, question promoted by a user to some number of people. So if this were a Rails app and they hadn't done any internationalization, their template might look something like this. So this technically works, but it's, unfortunately, this template file is responsible for an awful lot right now. So it's serving as the primary storage of the text that will be displayed to the user, as well as the implicit selection of that text, with embedded transformation rules where, you know, capitalize and then pluralization rules, those are language-specific transformations. And then finally the presentation too, because this is ultimately all intended just to go straight to the browser. So it's not ideal. It's all in one file. So what internationalization does for you is it enforces this nice stratification. So suddenly your storage, your, you know, language content has to be stored separately, whether that's in YAML files at database or some external service. Selection is just a matter of locale detection and then pulling, you know, the appropriate translations depending on that locale. Transformation is just a matter of interpolating the data into the translations that you've pulled. And then presentation is a really simple matter of just delivering a user-facing template. So now in this scenario, all the crazy language idiosyncrasies are stored completely away from the template.  Only the intent is really stored in the template now. This basically just acts as a key or a hint to developers and translators about what will appear in that place. So it's just an easy way for them to tell. So that's one parallel benefit of internationalization. And you can actually benefit from it even if you're only supporting one language. So another potential benefit is a simpler UI. Localization increases the effective cost of every single word on your page. So it really encourages you to use fewer words. So that can force you to rely on symbols more, which can be much more intuitive for a user. Like a well-placed, widely understood symbol. It's just often a lot better experience. So regardless of how many languages you support, it can end up resulting in a better UI. But you should be careful when you're relying more heavily on symbols like that. Because if you're building an international user base, like, for example, when Apple introduced their first trashcan icon, Europe thought that was a mailbox. So that's a pretty bad mix up. You just want to be careful of things like that. Okay. So another benefit is it encourages you to ditch images with text in favor of semantic markup in CSS. And it's a lot more work when your images have locale-specific content. So you're definitely going to want to do something like that second example instead.  So speaking of flexibility, localization will also encourage you to keep your page layout really flexible. So when you're only supporting one language, it's really easy to overlook when your layout is really inflexible and only supports your current content, right? But when you're supporting multiple languages, that your text, the size and shape of your text can change dramatically. So you end up designing your layout to be a lot more flexible and handle different content gracefully. And again, that makes everything better in every language. So it'll also make sure you're being really careful with your encodings everywhere that you store a display text. This is just, I mean, obviously, right? General best practices here. But you can kind of overlook it if you're only supporting, like, English. So just definitely always have a content type and a metatag and always be really careful about your database encodings, and you should be fine. But if you don't do that stuff, you're going to end up with something like this, which is called mojibake. It's basically the unreadable characters that result from using the wrong encodings. And I really love this word. It's an awesome word, but it means a terrible thing. So just don't do that. Be careful. Okay. So once you've decided, it's time to expand your linguistic offerings. You need to figure out which languages you like to support. So you probably have some kind of analytics tool that will tell you where your users live and what languages they speak. If not, Google Analytics is a really easy way to gather this information. Or you can probably just rely on standard HTTP headers if you want, just like accept language, user agent. So once you have a potential list of target languages, it's time to evaluate the relative difficulty of supporting them. And to do that, we get to talk about one of my favorite topics, which is linguistics. I haven't just studied it, so this whole thing is actually just an excuse for me to nerd out about linguistics. Okay. So it's easy to code yourself into a corner if you don't know the scope of your problem. So let's just take a, let's just do a quick survey of some curveballs that languages might throw you. So a morpheme is the smallest chunk of a language that carries some kind of meaning. And this is the part of the presentation where I start to look like a crazy cat lady, but in my defense, I was cat sitting when I made these slides. I just, you know, cats on the brain.  So the word cat contains one morpheme and the word cats contains two. One meaning the thing that purrs, and one meaning not one of them. So a typical English phrase has slightly more morphemes than words. And for now, we're going to define a word as a group of sounds that's conventionally surrounded by spaces when we write it. But what really constitutes a word is a whole talk of its own, and I just don't want to get into it. So let's just leave it at that for now. So let's take the phrase, I saw the cats running away. We can break this down into nine morphemes. I see past the cat plural run progressive away, right? So six words, nine morphemes. And that's a typical word to morpheme ratio in English. So we can calculate the same ratio for any language actually, and use that ratio to place it on a spectrum accordingly. So on one end of the spectrum, we have these analytic languages like Chinese and Vietnamese. And in these languages, they typically have about a one-to-one word to morpheme ratio. So everything's its own word, and they don't use a lot of affixes. And they indicate meaning by word order rather than by changes to the words themselves. As you move across the spectrum toward languages like Latin and Greek, which are known as synthetic languages, the ratio changes. So a word in one of these languages is a whole phrase in other languages. So one of the most synthetic languages is Inuktitut, which is an Inuit language. If you compare Chinese and Inuktitut, you can get a really good sense for the bounds of this spectrum. So take the phrase, if you wait for me, I will go with you. In Chinese, this phrase is nine words and nine morphemes. So the ratio is one-to-one. But in Inuktitut, this phrase is actually just two words. So the ratio is actually about two-to-nine here. So you can see how differently those work. So why do we care about this ratio? Well, basically it's a really good way to predict how much agreement a language exhibits. So agreement is where a characteristic of one word in a phrase will affect the form or inflection of other words in the phrase. So let's take this example in Swahili. So this means one book will be enough. But let's say we changed our minds and now we want two books. So in order to do that, we're going to have to change every other word in the phrase to match the new number. So you can see that in English there's also some agreement here. Book changes to books, but it's only one word because English is somewhere in the middle of that spectrum. In Swahili, you basically have to change every word. That was a fun year of my life in college, Swahili. Okay, so let's see. Comparise Swahili in English to Japanese, which exhibits no agreement at all. And this slide makes me wish I had studied Japanese instead of Swahili. Because look at this. That's so cool. One, two, three. Not bad. Good job, Japan. Keep it up. So that's what the spectrum is all about. Put it in terms you might be more familiar with. I don't know if this is true. But agreement is kind of like a measure of cyclomatic complexity. So if you change a word in one part of the phrase, it can have all these unintended side effects in all sorts of other parts of the phrase. I'm sorry if that hurt more than it helped, but it's true. I could explain more later. So when you change something in one place, yeah, it has all these other side effects. And it has a lot of redundancy built in. So agreement is very wet. Because you get the same things stored all over the place, like in that Swahili example. So lots and lots of things can trigger agreement. Person, gender, case, voice, aspect, tense, mood. The list goes on and on and on. So we don't need to worry about most of those luckily. Because when you're translating software, usually most of those don't come up. So let's just talk about the ones that do the most. And those happen to be person, gender, and number. So in Indo-European languages, person agreement is really not too bad. We usually have just these six person categories. You've probably all seen this chart. First, second, third, singular, plural. So verbs only agree with the subject in Indo-European languages. And this is a luxury that we really take for granted. Because it's not the case in every language. For example, in like Georgia or Georgia, they have something called poly-personal agreement. Which means the verb agrees not just with the subject, but also with like God knows what else in the sentence, right? Like in Hungarian, for example, this is Hungarian example that my Hungarian co-worker was nice enough to confirm, like, no, this is how great the language is. So the verb agrees with both the person and number of the subject. And also the specificity of the object if there is one. Just grok that. Do you guys speak Hungarian? I respect you. Specificity. Like a definite versus indefinite. Like a versus the kind of. So if you're talking about like a specific cat, you have to conjugate this verb one way. If you're talking about like a cat that I have not necessarily specified, it's like a whole different word. So that's person agreement. So you're all familiar with the English system, which has just two grammatical numbers. There's one and not one. And so here's how the common locale data repository represents those rules. It's really not too bad. We have it easy. So, yeah, if you were to do this in Rails, it's not too bad. You just have to provide, you know, a value for one and a value for not one. But in some languages, like Arabic, it's a little trickier. So this is how the common locale data repository represents Arabic civilization rules. And you just need to know that your app is going to have to be flexible enough to handle rules like this as well. The Russian one is equally complex and scary. Maybe more. All right. So gender. Gender is another common agreement category that you may have encountered. You've probably encountered it. So in other languages, grammatical gender is usually limited to either male female, male female neuter or male. So it's grammatically simpler than a lot of types of agreement. But that doesn't mean it's an easy problem. It's really, maybe even harder problem.  So you might remember when in 2008, Facebook started suddenly aggressively asking users to specify their sex. So before then, they'd been displaying this text. You know, user tagged themselves in a photo.  So they ignored it. But then, they started to internationalize. And they realize that that solution wasn't going to work as neatly in other languages. In fact, in some languages, it just doesn't work at all. There's no equivalent of this solution. So they decided to just ask from the missing information. They knew they were going to need to display all sorts of flexible stories of information. So they started to ask for the missing information in the name of grammar. So you might end up having to do the same. And I just wanted you to be aware of the issue and try not to be overly heteronormative about it. If you end up having to ask for that information. So now that you have a good idea of your target languages and the challenges they're going to give you, you're going to have to figure out a way to implement internationalization. So whatever frameworks you choose, your actual translations are going to be either machine generated, crowd sourced, or professionally translated. So depending on your implementation, you might be able to mix and match between these options. So first, let's talk about machine translations. So if you decide real internationalization doesn't make sense yet because you're constrained on time or money or whatever reason. Google and a few others offer some client side translation tools but they're not real internationalization, but they will provide your site in other languages and they will require almost nothing from you. So basically it just adds this nice selector to your site and it lets you pick between 65 supported languages. This is a really impressive list of languages for machine translation. So that's what you get out of the box when you add this to your site. So from a user's perspective they have access to both machine translations and the original text. And if they see a bad translation, this one, they can easily suggest a better one with a simple inline form. So the site administrator can also maintain a list of language editors who have access to these tools where they can approve and reject submitted translations. And you can also define a glossary of special terminology like your product name or other special terms you have that need for your admin tools there for free. Okay, so if you choose this plugin, storage is totally out of your hands, obviously, it's all in the cloud. Selection happens through the drop-down language selector that I showed you. Transformation happens when users click that contribute button and contribute corrections or when your admins define that glossary, etc. And then presentation is just, you know, it's really simple to implement this. So unfortunately, this tool is free and super easy, but there are major, major downsides. So the page jumps from your primary language to your target language on every request, which is a really bad user experience. And it's not very professional looking, obviously. And you have no ownership. You're completely relying on the continued goodwill of a third party, which if you've ever relied on a Google API, you're probably going to want to use it for a long time, because I have, and know that you probably shouldn't build a whole app around that because they will deprecate it at some point. So on top of that, you can't provide multilingual site search internally or externally. There's not much option there. So because of these downsides, at some point you're probably going to want to store your own translations. So once we have some kind of storage in place, next we'll have to figure out selection. So how should your app decide which content to pull for a particular request? We don't want to rely only on the accept language header because, well, for a bunch of reasons, bots don't send this header, so they can't index any other content than your default. So you should figure out something else. So what else can we do? Well, one easy option is to establish a locale pattern in your URL, whether that's through top-level domain, sub-domain, or some permanent part in your path. So if you do that, locale detection will be a really simple matter. You just take whatever's in the URL or you redirect there based on accept language. And then you can let the user make the set of preference from there. So once you have locale decided, all you have to do is pull that corresponding data from storage. So much like in our earlier example, transformation and presentation are a really simple matter of just applying the rules that you've stored for a particular language to the data in that request. And then rendering that for user consumption is super easy. So it looked like earlier a lot of you are involved in Rails, so that's good news because you're probably somewhat internationalized already. So Rails ships with this really extensible internationalization gem called IATN, SpiceFendFuchs, whose name you're going to see a lot. I'm not stocking it, but I wrote everything related to this topic ever. He's just the king of Rails internationalization. So he wrote this nice gem that gives you these basic methods like translate, localize, and transliterate and stuff like that. So what it comes with is a framework for the API and then a simple backend to get you started. So the backend by default stores your translations in these YAML files. And for example, this in YAML, you could do this in the console or wherever. So it produces the right translations with the appropriate punctuation and translations and all that for French.  So luckily, it's really easy to store these translations in different ways. Let's see. So yeah, any persisting key value will store like Redis or whatever you want database. You can chain multiple backends however you want. Or if you have a ton of static content which probably doesn't apply to a lot of you, but it's an option, you can just include the locale in your template file name but because of what I talked about earlier, it's probably not a good idea to keep that logic all in your templates. So if you prefer to store your translations in a database instead of YAML or template files, you have a ton of options. The simplest back end is the I-18-N active record gem also by Sven Fuchs which stores translations in the database with active record. So obviously these need to be heavily, heavily cached for performance reasons. You pull tons of translations in every request, so duh. But the gem makes it really easy to set up. So this gem is super extensible. Here's an example of how you could include the active record missing module which it basically lazily populates your database with missing translation keys whenever it finds them. So that gives you lots of options for filling those in later on the back end somehow. And it lets it fall back to using the simple back end. So the previously discussed gems are really useful for translating snippets of UI text or anything else that would otherwise be stored in the template. But if you're storing text in the database for like a blog post or something, there's this gem called Globalize3 also by Sven Fuchs which is really great. It works well with any of the other options and all it does is scope active record getters and setters to the current locale. So it's very easy to use. There are a lot of ways to extend this default back end or the API however you want. So this I18N inflector gem is a good example of someone doing that. So this gem basically provides an additional layer of abstraction on top of the default translation back end for dealing with highly, highly inflected languages. Like Slavic languages, this totally makes sense but in English it's kind of ridiculous. So the linguistics nerd in me is a huge fan of this approach because it's really academically faithful. But in practice it's just not like a practical solution because imagine reading a template that contained this without the comment. It's really hard to read so probably I'm going to use it. But it is an example of how you can extend the default options. So Yammer uses this open source gem called Tron. That is how it's pronounced, I'm sure of that. To crowdsource translations. So it's easy to understand when you see it. So let's just walk through a typical Tron translation scenario. So let's say you just joined Yammer and you're having trouble reading the default English copy because your default language is Pirate. I don't know. So that happens to be one of the more popular user generating languages on Yammer. I don't understand but we all speak Pirate so it's a good example. So you click on the language, the current language in the footer and this brings up a language selector light box. So then you see the language and you click it and suddenly everything is in that language. Again, I did not add any of this. Like real Yammer users spent their time on this. For better or worse. So. But then one day you notice this untranslated phrase and you think someone should really fix that. So you go back down to the footer and you click start translating this time. So then you can see red and green underlines everywhere which indicate what's been translated and what still needs to be. So you go back to the phrase and click on it and this brings up a special form. So this one doesn't have any tokens. It's pretty easy. I just put in my translation and I can immediately see the results of my actions. Pretty cool. So if I see a translation that I really like or dislike I can vote on it or submit my own. Again, real users voting on Pirate translations. So we at Yammer can monitor these translations and translators with this default admin panel. So like really rich flush out admin panel that the gem provides out of the box. So it's pretty easy for us too. So now let's look at a case where we have to use context rules. I notice that this translation is ungrammatical and I want to fix it. So I right click it and I start entering my own translation. But this time I'm going to click generate context rules which brings up a different form. So now I have to tell Tron that the translation depends on the value, the numerical value of count. So that brings me to a different form. Tron is really easy to populate with local specific rules. So it already knows that in Pirate English, much like other dialects of English, there are two types of number, one and not one. So it generates a nice form for those and lets me fill them in. So I fill them in and the translation is much, much better. So on the back end all the translations and rules are stored in a really normalized way in the database. So it's pretty easy for us to navigate through. So we at Yammer love Tron. Since we started using it, we've collected about 70,000 translations for about 80 languages from our users. All by people who just wanted to use the site in their native language or just offer their expertise. So there are a lot of advantages to collecting translations this way. For one, obviously, it's free and it's not a bad way to pay for translations. Second, it allows for a kind of progressive enhancement. So you don't have to wait until every single word of your site is translated into a language to offer some benefit to your users. Even if you're at 50%, that's often a much better experience for users. And then if they say, hey, what about the other 50% you can be like, well, you speak it, translate it. So it's pretty nice. You also don't have to wait for translations to come back if you want to change or add text. You can just deploy that immediately and even if it's a really popular language, someone will just fill that in right away. So third, it's a totally self-monitoring system. So it requires very little oversight from us. So this is what, this is how babysitting works? I assume. So it's kind of like babysitting Tron. It's really easy. So one of Tron's big advantages for developers is that you can actually use the default language's value as the key. So here the value is hello name and we're also using it as the key because we have the second argument welcome message, which is a way for us to communicate the intent of that key. So for example, so this keeps code really readable while also providing a really important way to disambiguate keys for translators. So sometimes, like with invite versus invite in English, if that's your only word, you can't really use that key unless you have a way to communicate something else about it. So this lets us disambiguate. So crowdsourcing can be a great way to localize, but sometimes it makes sense to use professional translators. You might need better quality or more coverage than crowdsourcing can provide. Or maybe you want to carefully translate some really prominent landing page text or something, lock it down.  So there are inevitable delays with introducing a relatively slow third-party development step like this. You just want to make everything as automatic as possible. But luckily, there are some services out there with great APIs that basically just let your app talk directly to translators. And this can reduce the turnaround time to just a few hours. So it's a really great way to do that. So you might be familiar with crowdsourcing options like Mechanical Turk or CrowdFlower. So it turns out there are translation-specific versions of that. And the one we're going to look at today is called Gango. Pretty good. The best part about Gango is they have this simple REST API and an open-source Ruby client. So this gives you a ton of flexibility for your deployment flow. It doesn't really take too much imagination to see how. So let's say you're using something like ActiveRecord Missing or really any backend that lazily populates the database with missing translation keys. So all you have to do is write, say, a simple rake task that just goes through your database, collects all the untranslated keys, and then posts them to Gango's jobs endpoint through that open-source Ruby client that I mentioned. So when the job is done, Gango will automatically ping your app through a callback URL, and then you can just automatically fetch and store those translations. And you really had to do nothing. It just filled in the missing translations and you paid them some number of money. That's between 5 and 15 cents a word, depending on the quality you request. So if you wanted to automate this even further, you could imagine kicking the task off from something like a GitHub or a Kappa Serrano recipe.  It can be good. So I hope this gives you a better sense for your options if you do decide to localize. And I hope you're not too scared about localization because it's an important and, I think, fun process. Thank you very much, and if you... APPLAUSE


Welcome back to the NPTEL lecture series on bioelectricity. So, in the previous class while talking about the photosynthesis, we distinguished between the light reaction and the dark reaction. And I mentioned that I will be only talking about the light reaction in the electron transport phenomena, which essentially is an inspiration to develop next generation of solar cells where we will be able to replace silicon based panels with some kind of molecules which are much more cheaper, much more easy and much more sustainable. So, in the light reaction section we I enumerated that there will be six point initially I will be taking care. First one will be the structure of the chloroplast which we have discussed in our previous class and the basic reaction of water plus carbon dioxide making carbohydrates plus oxygen. And in this class we will be discussing two topics. One is all those historical landmarks where this simply simple reaction of carbon dioxide and water forming carbohydrate and oxygen. Who are the people who set the ball rolling for us wherever we are today. It is because of those seminal contribution made by these individuals who ensure that you know follow the track right. And after that we will be talking about the structure of the chlorophyll and the different types of chlorophyll and their absorption spectrum and how the slight structural differences change their spectral properties. So, let us start with it where our first slide will be the one which we enumerated in the last class that is we will be talking about the structure of the chlorophyll which is done.  As back as 1700 plant releases oxygen discovered by Joseph Pristley. The experiment which was done by Pristley was fairly simple. What he did is something like I will show you. So, for example you have a plant out here some kind of indoor plant this and so you grow this plant inside a chamber like this. So, where light is falling and it is connected with whatsoever gas is being released it is sealed inside you there is another chamber where you have an animal. So, we know that if one individual is confined inside a room without supplying oxygen this individual will eventually die because we need continuous supply of oxygen and that holds true for any animal which survives on earth it depends on oxygen. So, this was the experimental setup where it was proved by Joseph Pristley that essentially during the process plant are releasing something called oxygen and that was the beginning of the journey of understanding what we understand today as the modern photosynthesis. So, let us highlight this. So, this was basically coming back. So, this was this component that it is evolving oxygen was by Joseph Pristley and this was back in 1780 almost three centuries back. Next one to follow was the discovery that this process requires light was by a gentleman called Jan Eigenhaus. He discovered that this process can only happen in the presence of light. So, essentially in the last class while I was telling you people that photosynthesis could be divided into light reaction and dark reaction. So, this light reaction is dependent on light was also discovered. So, let us look at this point. So, here is the light which is so adding the new component each new light and this discovery was made by Jan Eigenhaus that light is involved in it. Followed by this is the next discovery of carbon dioxide. This process is being regulated by carbon dioxide without carbon dioxide suddenly regulated this the essential component of this or the reactant of this whole machinery is carbon dioxide. This was done by another scientist called Joe Senebier carbon dioxide this credit goes to. So, now we are left with who discovered water that water is involved in it. There was another gentleman called Theodore Sausser. Theodore Sausser is credited with the discovery that water is involved in this process was Theodore and this whole reaction that carbon dioxide plus water in the presence of light forming carbohydrate plus evolving oxygen was completely put in place by Meyer. So, just this whole thing that there is a transformation of light energy into chemical energy by Julius Robert Meyer essentially solar energy to chemical energy. So, overall if you look at it this is pretty much is the scheme of photosynthesis where there is a carbon dioxide sequestration taking place and if you currently see this is one of the challenging problem in nature how we could reduce the pollution by you know sequestering carbon dioxide. So, the complete vegetative cover of the on the fluid of earth essentially. So, carbon dioxide sequestration. So, during this whole process of photosynthesis almost 10 to the power 10 tons of carbon is forming organic matter. In other words 10 to the power 17 kilo calorie of free energy is made by plants globally. So, globally the plants are producing that much energy by ensuring the carbon dioxide available along with water in the presence of light transform it into biomass and even if we could you know mimic part of it this will be a big benefit to mankind and there is enormous effort in several countries across the world on carbon dioxide sequestration going on. Somewhere or other we have to reduce the pollution how we can reduce the pollution we could sequester carbon dioxide. People are using different kind of algae different kind of other mechanism to sequester it. So, now coming back after this. So, with this brief historical perspective about how this simple reaction has evolved since 1700 which is almost now 78 almost 400 years nearing 400 years. So, now what we will do we will talk about the fundamental molecules. So, if you go back here we go back to the structure where we were kind of here. So, this is where the light is falling you see this black and the first molecule which gets activated by it is chlorophyll. So, now what we will do is we will talk about the structure of chlorophyll. So, before I get into the structure of chlorophyll just for a revision sake I will just go through the electromagnetic radiation who stands where where the IR is standing and all those things I will do that first. But even before that let us give you an overall outline what exactly is happening in photosynthesis. So, essentially what happens is when the light falls on the plants and it hits upon the chlorophyll molecule chlorophyll molecule ejects an electron fair enough as soon as a molecular species ejects an electron it gets oxidized. Now this electron which is getting ejected travels through a cascade of molecules. So, what it does this electron goes and attack another molecule. So, as soon as that molecule accept the electron it gets reduced. But then it comes back to its ground state by donating that electron to the next molecule and from there it donate to the next molecule. So, likewise this electron travels or hop through a series of such molecules and then eventually in that process it creates a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. And this proton gradient essentially leads to the synthesis of a energy rich molecule called adenosine triphosphate and NADP which further acts in generating glucose molecules which is part of the dark reaction. But you remember when I started I told you when the light falls on the chlorophyll it ejects an electron. So, that is chlorophyll molecule becomes oxidized. So, but if that is the case in no time all the chlorophyll molecules will become oxidized eventually the plant will die because the machinery cannot function further. But that does not happen this molecule which gets oxidized is put back into its ground state how it is being done. So, what happens this is supplied with another electron this electron comes from another part of the photo system which is called photo system 2. So, the part what I just now describe it photo system 1 I will be coming into the real molecular details. So, do not worry about it I am just telling the global scheme of things ok. Now, from photo system 2 exactly the same event happens light falls electron gets ejected that electron through a cascade goes and brings back the oxidized electron into its reduced state or into its ground state. But in that process there is another photo another chlorophyll molecule which is getting oxidized because it has donated the electron. So, now that second molecule of chlorophyll. So, say for example, let me just draw it for your understanding sake say for example, this is one chlorophyll molecule CHL or the light falls on it as soon as the light falls it ejects an electron once it ejects an electron. So, this is then oxidation reaction O. So, then of course, I told you the electron travels through a cascade and does its job do not worry about it, but how to bring back this chlorophyll back to its ground state. So, this is supplied with another electron out here from another chlorophyll molecule if I call this as chlorophyll 1 then this is chlorophyll 2. Now, as soon as this chlorophyll 2 donates this electron this chlorophyll 2 also gets oxidized. So, it has to be brought back to its ground state. Now, how it is being brought back to its ground state? What nature has designed is something most abundant electron donor and the most abundant molecule on earth is water. So, it is there the water molecule gets a split up. So, what essentially happens is something like this you have the water molecule of an electron. So, this is pretty much what is happening and these electrons what you are seeing are the ones which eventually bring that chlorophyll back to its ground state. So, essentially a photosynthesis what we will be talking about we will be talking about three things. We will be talking about this chlorophyll which forming photosystem 1, this chlorophyll which for and this chlorophyll molecule is coupled with this wonderful water splitting machinery, water splitting machinery is essentially a manganese cluster. This is the sum total of this thing and very interestingly this manganese cluster which is splitting the water is fairly conserved all over the photosynthetic species which has evolved on the flow of earth. It is fairly very well conserved and one by one we will take up all these things, but in order to understand this whole process we have to first of all understand the structure of the chlorophyll. So, this is the whole thing and you might wonder that why there are what are the catches of this game. So, just to again to give you a global perspective on this thing if we could essentially split water the way a plant does which is probably the most efficient means by which a plant does it then we can produce a lot of hydrogen out here and we could use this hydrogen because this is one of the challenging problems. If this hydrogen could be used for plus enumerate where all we get could be used for fuel cell this is what we are going to study once we will finish the manganese cluster fuel cell. Now, if we understand these if we could really mimic these kind of a structure we can make efficient plant cheap solar panels and coupling this with these kind of machineries we can really have a sustainable energy sources. So, this is overall the scheme of things what we are trying to understand that is the sole reason why we are trying to understand each one of these electron transfer which are happening in biological machines which if we could emulate even one or two percent of it of course, maintaining the efficiency we can really solve some of the major energy related issues across the world. So, now coming back where I took the detour try to you know give you a global perspective of this whole subject why we are kind of you know intensely across the world people are trying to understand these some of these bioelectrical phenomena and the chemicals involved in it. So, next what we will do I will just give you an overall outline of the spectrum just draw it for recap and then we will move on to the structure of the chlorophyll molecules. Now, coming back to the spectrum structure of the spectrum where what lies where. So, put it like this visible you have the visible then you have the IR then you have the microwave then you have the radio wave on the other side you have UV x rays and gamma rays. So, if you look at the zone we are talking about the visible spectrum is around 380 nanometer to this is all in nanometer 380 nanometer to 750 nanometer you have your UVs around 280 nanometer x rays 100 and these are less than 1 nanometer this is all in nanometer whereas, sorry you cannot see the values let me draw the values again. So, visible spectrum we are talking about visible spectrum into 380 nanometer to 750 nanometer in the IR spectrum you have more than 1 millimeter then in the radio you have sorry the microwave you have more than a meter and the radio waves which are around 1000 meters and the UV we are talking about 280 nanometer the range of 280 nanometers and then you have the x rays which are around 100 nanometer and gamma rays which are less than 1 nanometer. So, this is the kind of a spectrum and whatsoever we will be talking about we will be talking about the visible spectrum. So, within the visible spectrum starts with 380. So, you have violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and in the green you are around 560 and yellow around 600, orange and of course, red and red around 750. So, this is pretty much is the spectrum where we will be talking about the absorption of the chlorophyll molecules. So, now coming back to the structure of the chlorophyll molecule. So, if you remember the structure of the hemoglobin molecule which is involved in carrying blood all over your carrying oxygen in the blood all over your body. So, it has a poly pyrrole ring and in the center you have a iron. In the case of chlorophyll the molecular architecture is fairly the same almost the same if not exactly, but only difference is that in the center there is a magnesium instead of iron there is a magnesium. So, I will draw the structure and the chlorophyll are of two types type A and type B and type A and type B has some small molecular differences I will highlight that and that molecular differences leads to the difference in their spectral properties. Let us draw the structure of the chlorophyll now. So, I told you. So, there is a manganese magnesium cluster out here. So, you have the manganese in the center which is all fine the nitrogen, nitrogen, nitrogen and nitrogen. Then up to this it was all right and the mistake what I did was out here. So, basically another bonding which is taking place out here which ok. So, here you have oxygen out here you have a hydrogen here you have 2 CH 3 and then out here you have slightly moon modified and hydrogen here is a CH 2 there is a CH 2 and you have this R this R is important because this is the R where the difference are starting ok. We will come back to this weight CH 3 says H here you have CH 3 you have you have CH CH 2 and then you have R group out here the 2 R groups. So, I will tell you which one is actually that causes the second you have to redo this again ok. We have R group out here you have CH 2 CH 3 and you have another CH 3 molecule out here and it is almost like this then the double bond here double bond here ok. So, this R group let me just highlight this R group what you see this R group is actually I have to go to the next straight. So, this R group is equal to CH 2 CH 3 is a long side chain out there CH 2 CH and CH 3 CH 3 it is this R group which is attached there ok. But I showed you another R group which is out here which is in green this R group is very important ok. Now coming back to the. So, if you have seen this structure this is a very very very symmetrical structure it is really I myself cannot remember this structure all the time I kind of I have to refer to this structure ok. But it is really easy to draw this structure as long as you do not have to write those huge side chains which are there. But with this basic structure there are there are two forms of chlorophyll which are formed and that change in that form comes in that other R group go back to the structure now if you look at this out here sorry this one and no circling this R group this R group varies what happens is this that R group what is there could be two types either that R group could be a CH 3 group methyl group or a CH O group and if it is a CH O group then this is called chlorophyll B and if it is a methyl group this is called chlorophyll A this is the basic difference between chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B and because as I was telling you because of that one simple change at one of the R groups it is a spectral properties slightly varies and that is really helpful because that way there is no rigid single spectrum there are staggered spectrum which happens because of this in terms of the absorption. Now let us look at the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B back to the spectrum part let us get the access right absorption coefficient which is as a matter of fact the absorption coefficient of chlorophyll molecule is among the highest found in nature and that is why nature has probably selected chlorophyll as the molecule of choice for its functions ok. Now chlorophyll B chlorophyll A with red so chlorophyll A is something like this so chlorophyll A the spectrum which starts to taper down like this and then again starts to pick up and we have another peak out here and then it tapers down. So this is chlorophyll A which is in red now chlorophyll B I will be drawing it in blue chlorophyll is slightly staggered and picks up has its peak out here and then again it also tapers down like this and then starts to take up somewhere out here and one second just one second let me let me draw this spectrum again the chlorophyll B starting like this here and it comes back and somewhere out here. So if you look at both the spectrum very carefully we will observe something as if chlorophyll B is in between the two extremes of chlorophyll A so that way what is happening is that this if the total number say for example if a cluster has say 5 chlorophyll B molecule and 5 chlorophyll A molecule they will be absorbing a certain amount of light within a certain way but if I keep on changing the numbers if chlorophyll A is number is higher than chlorophyll B or something so your total absorption is going to change. So that is what gives it an edge by having not having a single chlorophyll molecule but instead having two chlorophyll molecules which ensures that you can you know tweak or play around with the absorption of the molecule at a specific gain. So this is about the structure of the chlorophyll molecule. Now next pertinent question what we are going to answer or going to kind of you know try to understand is something called a reaction center. So if I take you back to the some of the previous slides okay so again coming back to this slide where the light is falling and you could see that sun light is falling and then thylakoid membrane there are chlorophyll molecules which are getting oxidized okay and then again coming back to the ground state okay. So now does so now let us imagine a situation okay so suppose this is a part of the leaf and there are lot of chlorophyll molecules these are all the C's stand for the chlorophyll molecules okay when the light falls here or does all of them simultaneously start ejecting electron and gets activated it has been observed that the story is really not like that what happens is that so within a pool of chlorophyll molecules there are some very specific centers called the reaction centers say for example this one say for example this is the reaction center which I am circling with with the red. So what happens when the light falls so there is a transfer of electron like this taking place vibrational energy transfer they are getting excited and eventually they reach to that unique center which is called a reaction center where the whole process of electron emission starts other than that this whole energy is being transferred. What we do not know is that who determines the reaction center and does the reaction center changes as the plant is living its life we do not know this but this is one of the very unsolved mysteries because I will come to that how it has been discovered because in the next class that is what we are going to do how this reaction center itself was discovered but it is not all the chlorophyll molecules are taking part in you know this whole cascade. One of the thing which you could speculate is that probably because of this reaction center concept the longevity of the leaf is increasing because it is not all the molecules are at excited stages because of the light. So with this concept I will close in on this class and in the next class what we will do is let us go back where we were. So we have done with the discovery of the basic reactions we have done with the structure of the chlorophyll to trap solar energy and now we have just initiated with the reaction center and from the reaction center we will talk about the different experiments which have been performed and from there we will move on to the next part of it and how these will be translated in terms of energy production. Thanks a lot.


A few nights ago I was sitting watching Keith Floyd on television. For those of you who don't know who Keith Floyd was, he was a TV chef whose unbridled enthusiasm for cookery was responsible for changing the way that food programs were made on British television. But what has a cookery show from the 1980s got to do with photography? There are many similarities between talking about food and talking about photography. When I was younger, both seemed to be talked about in a very earnest and high-brow sort of way. Today I'm going to be sharing with you the work of a photographer whose own unbridled passion and love for photography seems to leap from his very images. He changed the way that I perceived my own photography. He brought the joy back into my images. Let's stop taking ourselves so earnestly serious for a moment and simply enjoy the unconventional photography of Obi-Wan Halter. How's it? When I was young and first introduced to Keith Floyd his shows encouraged me just to have fun while learning to cook. It wasn't so much about the cookery itself but the joy of the ingredients in the process. When you take that same joy for the ingredients in the process which will broadly call enthusiasm that Keith Floyd had for food and you apply it to your photography then great things start to happen in your images. As a student because I was at art school you know I was trying to be artsy and that was artsy with a capital A. Which for me I thought meant being extremely serious about my photography and the way that I behaved as a photographer. Frivolity. There was no place for frivolity in either the way I behaved or the way that I took photos. Now we could spend a whole video talking about why this earnestness filled my approach and it still sneaks in from time to time and also into my videos but that would be, well it would be pointless because it would be going back into being overly earnest again. So it's time to put to one side the strokey bed musings about all the hidden meaning and the use of masks by Ralph Eugene Meatyard and how it relates to the dual personality of the American South during the gas crisis of the 1970s and simply enjoy some photographs. And I'm going to share with you Obi's photography and hopefully like me you're going to learn to see that you can be serious about your photography but still be so laid back about it that you're practically horizontal. It's not often you remember the very first time you really discovered a photographer but I distinctly recall the moment that Obi-Walper held sir that South African force of nature properly crossed my radar. Back in the 90s every year the photography schools in South Africa got together and they spent a few days at some random location doing what photography students do which is actually mostly drinking and taking a few photographs. At one of those get-to-get there's Obi had been invited to give a talk about his photography. You know that saying about how owners tend to end up looking like their pets. In photography it's also so often the case that when you meet a photographer behind the images they seem so totally suited to the photography that they produce. Seems like an obvious thing to say but some people never produce photography that is about them.  Well Obi isn't like that at all. His photography isn't humorous and fun in a silly kind of jokey sort of way because he's trying to just be silly. It's fun because it's shot through with his own seemingly unending enthusiasm for life with all of its quirks and its complete weirdness and that goes for Obi himself too. Listen to him talk. I was encouraged to try and stop taking myself so deadly serious. Sure you know I would treat the actual process of creating a photograph with with respect but outside of that I should just chill man and just simply have fun buggering around taking photographs and seeing what happens. When you visit Obi-alba house's website and I've linked to it in the description below and I would certainly suggest that you do go and have a look at his stuff and his writing because they're great. The word enthusiasm comes up a lot. Enthusiasm isn't a word that often comes up when talking about photography. People tend to talk about passion. Passion isn't really the same thing. Passion as far as I'm concerned is the power that moves you towards a certain goal to follow your dreams. Enthusiasm is the secret source that keeps you going once you've reached the mythical summit of following your passions. So enthusiasm is a crucial element for any photographer because if you're not enthusiastic about the things that you're doing the things that you're photographing then your image is going to lack soul and it was this that drew me to Obi's photography. His unbridled enthusiasm not just for the people and the places he's photographing but for the very act of creating photographs. It's there in the way that he finds joy in the most random things and it's there in the playful way that he dances with that mistress of light. Because of this I come back to his books again and again. They are fun and they remind me that despite sitting here on a wet and grey so-called British summer's day that out there somewhere in the craziness of Africa there is a young lad standing in front of a waterfall taking his goat for a walk looking just proud as punch. Unconventional is a word you can use to try and sum up South Africa. I don't know how successful you would be but it's certainly a word that you can apply to Obi's photography. At the start of his first book Aries Fontaine to Zia Fontaine there are two photographs and if I were asked to sum up Obi's photography in the way that they move me these would be the two that I would choose. First of all you have these little kids hiding behind this road sign. Everything about this this photograph is is wrong technically speaking you know according to the book but life doesn't happen according to some set of rules and if Obi had taken the time to fiddle and fuss to get an uncluttered background and construct a perfect you know whatever perfect means composition and you know light it properly and yadda yadda yadda then the inquisitiveness of the kids who are both at once shy and fascinated would be lost and of course that's the very heart of this photograph that's what makes it work. Of course know the rules understand the rules and that there's a time and a place for them just don't slavishly follow them to the exclusion of everything else. The other photograph I would choose is this proud pharma type character who in africans one will call an oaky he's standing there next to his Rolls Royce. Obi often captures his images with little snippets of stories about the scene in that regard he's a little bit like Dwayne Michaels but he is the opposite almost the anti-Dwayne Michaels as Obi's stories are fun and they help us to get a taste for the enjoyment that he felt in that moment not by giving away the joke or poking fun at the people but by saying like almost in his own words hey man you know this guy here in the middle of nowhere not only is he got a Rolls Royce but he's also got a Ferrari and two Mercs you know this guy was like a fountain of life and I wish you could have met him as he drank his cane and coke whilst smoking Texan plain and you know the very best thing about it man this oak has a license plate on his Rolls that says oak how cool is that you see it's that enthusiasm game coming up a desire to share not just the photograph but the moments that came before and after it makes the photographs feel so much more personal like Obi is sharing this trip with us and he's inviting us to come along for the ride some photography which is created in a similar vein where you load up a camera you just go and see where the road goes can feel a little bit like a Victorian explorer you know who goes off to the deep dark wilderness documents and photographs some strange land and then brings images back to be discussed at a series of lectures I you know I like the photography of Roger Ballin you know who's who's photographed some of the same small dorks dork being a small rural town in africans but when you compare his photographs with Obi's photograph you can see the difference between the two quite clearly Ballin is an American you know and for whom this isn't all really in his blood but Obi is a born and bred African the dust and the heat and the land that are in him they're in his photographs and they're all the better for it now that's not to say that one can only exclusively photograph the places that one comes from because that that would be of course ridiculous and Obi has shown that his enthusiasm for places that go beyond Africa is just as much part of his images so when you boil it down it's about enthusiasm not just observation when was the first time you really fell in love with photography for me it was those moments when I really started to develop my own negatives you know in the dark you would load them up and then you would unroll the dripping film from their spirals and and hold it over to the light you just see the results of my efforts they captured on film this it was like magic then and it's still like magic now when I get a chance to develop my own film as a student we'd been introduced to photograms and painting with light exercises to help us understand how light interacts with paper and film now because because I was a know-it-all student and I was young and idiotic I completely missed the point but Obi didn't and the point is that you can play with light that is not just something that a photographer has to battle or control or bend to their will but it's a tool that you can have fun with to paint on a vast scale you can experiment with it you can use it to create never to be repeated images that own a lot of their beauty to random chance that spirit of experimentation and randomness is what I feel is lacking a little bit for my own photography these days the the opportunity to be amazed as I grew older instead of becoming more confident in experimenting I became almost the opposite overly concerned with being correct and my photography did suffer for it for a time as mentioned earlier I will link to a video at the end of this that will show you how I rediscovered the joy in my own photography there's a kind of Bob Ross happy little accident vibe in a lot of Obi's photography that he's creating at the time this photo of a family is a fantastic example he's doing one of those long exposures you know when you open the shutter in the dark and then you use multiple flashes with a hand flash to paint in the various parts of the photo you can almost hear him asking the family you know stay still I'm going to trip the shutter and then he begins the process then you know possibly a couple of weeks later when the film is developed ah no man look the little kid has been turning his head to look at Obi as he moves around firing his flash gun the whole thing's ruined now that's what I probably would have said to myself but to Obi that mistake seems to be one of those happy little accidents you know those coincidences that fuel his enthusiasm for experiencing photographing and sharing with us his own unique world click on this video here to be reminded about why you picked up a camera in the first place and to rediscover the joy in your own photographs


Thanks, Victor. Thanks again. We're going to move on to Dr. Ali Hadir, who is, I heard you speak Spanish earlier, but he's Palestinian and works for the UN Relief and Works Agency, which as you know is the agency mandated to assist Palestinians and Palestinian refugees around the region. And he is going to talk to us about how they monitor NCD patients in that context. We're going to get your slides. Good afternoon. First of all, thanks to the organizer for inviting me to this very interesting symposium. I will try to present the work that we are doing in UNRWA, especially in the field of the NCD care, and of particular attention I will give to the cohort monitoring system that we introduced in our NCD care since 2012. UNRWA stands for United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East. And UNRWA was established 68 years ago. The first map shows the Palestine underbidgment date from 1920 to 1948. The second map was the UN partition plan of Palestine between the Jews and the Arabs, after which the first Arab-Israeli war started. And as a result of that, almost three-quarter of Palestinians fled their homelands and cities and become refugees. After that, UNRWA was created by the UN General Assembly in 1949 and started operation in May 1950. Nowadays, UNRWA is – we have 5.7 million Palestinian refugees registered in our system of registration, and the healthcare system is providing primary healthcare through a net of 143 clinics distributed across five regions – Gaza, West Bank, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. What we are providing in the NCD care – we have long-standing experience in the NCD care delivery. We started that in 1990, and since that time we are providing – it is an integral part of our primary healthcare system. We do screening for diabetes and hypertension for all patients – all visitors – 40 years and more coming to our clinics and also for other patients or other visitors who have these factors. We provide diagnosis treatment and care for NCD, including laboratory tests and medication and health education. All of these services are provided free of charge for the NCD patient and others. We have established surveillance system. We have a system of recording and reporting and annual assessment. We have a clinical audit for diabetes care. We conducted so far two rounds of audit – one in 2012 and another one in 2015. We have standard technical guidelines since the establishment of the program, and it was last updated in 2009. Currently, we are working to integrate mental health and psychosocial support into our primary healthcare. This slide shows the burden of NCD on our population. So far we have almost quarter million patients with diabetes and or hypertension registered in our clinics and coming regularly to us. The NCD care was boosted and received good support after the implementation of the movement towards the family health model. That was started in 2012. Before that, we used to have vertical program in our clinic and our services used to be divided into different programs – NCD program, maternal health care program, child health program, and so on. After that, after 2012, we moved to the Comprehensive Person-Centered Continuous Care Model. And also the introduction of the electronic medical record at the same time almost also was an important advancement in the NCD care. What is the cohort monitoring system that we do have? It is a structured programmatic framework for NCD assessment and management in the health center. It draws on global experience from TB, our director, Dr. Seita, who used to be the director of TB, and HIV from Dr. Harris. It was developed jointly with the International Union against TB and lung disease, the union. It is joint work between two different sections, the health section and the IT section. Why we introduced cohort monitoring? Simply, there are two difficult questions for any healthcare provider. How many patients you are serving and what happened to those patients? The cohort monitoring, legitimately, and rightly respond to those two important questions. This is an example. If we look, for example, in one quarter in a small clinic, we diagnosed and 119 patients. We could trace them and see what happened to them after one year, what happened to them after two years or after three years and gone and so on. We could trace patients on retrospect or on prospect. I will show you some example, some important example on what type of report that we produced through the cohort monitoring system. For example, we have data, we have registration data that give us information about our patients, how many they are, and what are the main characteristics of those patients. We call it the community registration cohort. It gives you all the ever-registered patients registered in one health center. This is the type of report that we can get from the community registration cohort. We can get this information from different clinics, from different regions, and also from different fields, like that. As you can see, this is community registration for six clinics. What's most important, the cohort monitoring also will provide us with information about the outcome of care and the service delivered to those people. For example, we can get the cumulative cohort outcome. We can get information about the number who are remaining in care, what treatment they are taking, what measurement have been done to them, and what complication they get during this period of time. Also, we can do some sort of survival analysis also to monitor the care. We can follow up easily, those who just had during one quarter or one year and trace them on prospect to see what happened to them, and we can do that for many years. Then from the cohort monitoring, what we can get. We can get information about all our patients or the ever-registered patients. We can throw the cumulative cohort registration report or cumulative cohort outcome or cumulative cohort analysis for more than one clinic. Also, we can get information about those registered during a specific period or quarter of time. Also, we can do the survival analysis. Also, we can get information about those who attended the clinic or those who did not attend the clinic and what happened to those who did not attend if they come again or they are lost to follow up. Information on registered patients is important for planning, for staffing, for forecasting of drug consumption and consumables. Trends in access to care by comparing disease burden in the clinic with disease burden in the community. We get information on outcome is important also for the quality of care. This is a screenshot from the electronic medical record how easy we can get this report. Just we click on reports. Then we go to the list of reports. We select the quarterly cohort registration and simply we can get this data in either in Excel, Word or PDF. This is only in one or two minutes. The doctor in the clinic can get this type of information about his patients. We publish so far five papers on this. In conclusion, court and as is a comprehensive system that provides information on continuity of care necessary for management of NCD. This is key issue in the management of NCD. Continuity of care is a key issue. With electronic medical record, court reporting have become much easier and faster to produce. So far, it is now a standard reporting system in our healthcare. And we are considering to expand the court monitoring to other programs like MCH, family planning and childcare. With the electronic medical record, we are so now we have a wealth of data that need to be analyzed and to be used and to be presented to the scientific circle. For that, we will come all researchers to come to us and to work with us jointly because we have all the data that can be shared. And so far we have a random understanding with London School and we will come any collaboration with all of you. Thank you very much. Thank you very much. Thanks, Al. That was very, very impressive, I must say. Any clarification questions for Ali? Yes. One up there. Oh, great. There's a microphone. And one even further up. Thank you. Can you introduce yourself? Yeah. I'm Olivier Mezway. I work with MSF and some programs in the Middle East. And I would like to know if to implement the patient electronic file, I mean, knowing based on MSF experience, the difficulties we have some time to have a good, I would say, collection of information in medical files. Did you have a specific plan to with doctors and medical staff to make sure that all the information is collected and properly registered? Well, yeah, yeah. I think you pointed out one of the important challenges that we face during the implementation of the electronic medical record. This is one of the challenges. We have faced so many challenges. Yes, at the beginning, yes, we have problems with data entry, the accuracy of this data, the completeness of medical records, and so far, still, still existing, but we are improving. Hello, I'm Avi Mansfair from working with MSF on NCDs in the Middle East as well. And it's a very similar question. It was just to ask who was entering the data, were they entering it directly into an electronic record, or is there any paper involved at all in data collection? No, it is fully computerized system. The data is entered by the health staff who are providing services. Thank you. Thank you again, Ali, and we'll come back to your presentation, I'm sure.


Felly, yn y toffi tvir ydy'r Mat Preview Everton vs Norwich City Saturday, 3 o'clock, Gwdersin Park. Home comfort, please. Yes. You know, last home game it would be barely 3-1. We've lost to Ville since then and gone out of the Carabao Cup. So, hoping to play Norwich and to beat Norwich at the weekend. I've just seen something that says Norwich have lost last 15 Premier League games. You don't want to see that. But are you placing any importance on this game?  Not like this huge game that defines the season, but just for momentum. Do you see it like that or? Because it's a week before Manchester United and then I think it's the international break. So, let's stop any kind of negative momentum now. Let's get three points at home. You know, we know it's not going to be necessarily an easy game to the Premier League and we're decimated by injury, so we know it's going to be tough. But let's just make sure it's one of those games where everyone does their bit, crowd included and we get the three points and we get back to being positive because if we do get the three points, that would be what four wins a draw and one defeat in the Premier League and that's a decent start. That's something to build on. If we were to win, of course, we'd have exactly the same points as what we had at this stage last season. We would, yeah. If you almost liked it with the start. We would, yeah. So, no, of course it's one of those games where you're thinking, everything's going against us here. But everyone's just got to go out there and just... We've got enough players to go out there and go, we're winning this game, we're winning this game comfortably. I think it is one of those games where it's more about just getting the point, isn't it? We all want to see Evan play great football and we've wanted to see that for a few years, but we've all wanted to go and enjoy the game and all that, but for me right now it just feels like it's about accumulating points and trying, like you just said, to unite it out the way internationally, get the Charleston Donbach, pick food and go for them there. OK, so it's ultimately my fan time we're picking our team for this week. Last week I got 35 points. I got 30. That's better though, you've got slightly better. We've got slightly better because we've got better teams because of our packs. That is true, that is true. We are both goal pack members. That's £4.99 a month. You can be silver members for £2.99 a month. You can play it free for nothing. You play as one beat as good, but you can still get your points. And I got £5 off Uber Eats as well, to basically pay for itself for the month. So I got Andy Robinson, I got Tealmans and I got Mares this week as well as a few others. So I am bringing in Tealmans for Alan LePort, for Leucadine because obviously he's a doubt. I'm going to bring Sacher in for Gisienio. I have one point so I've left Liverpool plays in, to be honest. But I'm taking out the Charleston because obviously he's injured. So I'm swapping in with Ismael Shah and I'm going to put in Angola Ocante because basically even though they're playing against Manchester City, he's being boss.  There you go. I need to get a new team. New Castle's my team and they're killing me. So don't forget the goal pack for £4.99 a month. You get two guaranteed goals in that and a silver to silver pack is £2.99 a month. You get three silver cards in that plus exclusive content this month. It's £5 off Uber Eats and there's also a free-to-play pack as well. Don't forget the link is in the description. Ultimate Fan, make sure you download the app on whatever mobile phone you've got. So there you go, Ultimate Fan. Back to the Norwich game. Obviously, like I said before, it feels... I felt like we were doing really well and we went into that filler game and even now, I know once the team news come out or the Tories have even kind of went where we go but it did feel like we were creating a forward momentum and then almost like a week later, it feels like the momentum is one and the other way. The filler game was obviously our first defeat. QPR game, it's a draw. It's a draw, isn't it? Obviously, you don't want to go out of competition, it doesn't matter how you go out. Now, you've got to wrestle up momentum back. It's as simple as that. We're at home, we're against a poor side, a side who haven't really strengthened or very open or desperate for a win. So what does that say? It says that they'll probably come outing and be attacking, which means that... That's the only way they can play, isn't it? Yeah, yeah, which means there's going to be plenty of opportunities. And yes, we are missing a couple of our big players, but you just hope that, listen, you hope that Luca Dean is fit. Last night, it was a case of, when they were talking about last night, we were saying, we'll have to wait and see. The player sweet went on Instagram himself, which is a positive thing, you always think. Try to prepare bloody for that. Yeah, so you think about it and think of me. He didn't get stretched off or anything, he just went off and might have made up a caution. So you hope he's okay. And then you hope that the likes, you'll have hopefully Alan, Decore, get that, get that.  You've got the likes of Tanzand, the Marey Gray. And then hopefully Rondon's got a little bit more in the tank. That's all you can hope for. Have a bully up there, because you're going to be a little bit more aggressive in this game. Again, that's something you need. You're at home and going to some park. You know, we've seen it in the Bailey game. The crowd get behind you. They can make a big difference. And I think that's got to be important, that's important to Tati as well. That we have that as well. We have the fans knowing and understanding that there's people out there doing, working hard. These are the games you've got to, you've got, I think there's this thing with Everton going to the top of, you're looking at this game and you're going, oh no, Benar, you're going with that mentality. You're trying to reverse that mentality. This is what people are doing. They're coming to our club and they're trying to reverse that mentality. Of going, no, no. This is a great opportunity to reverse what's just happened, not continue it. And we are without players, but we've got other players. We have got to be wary though. Last time they were up, they were struggling. And they come together and they beat us two now, Michael Silver's last down game, wasn't it? And a day that we thought we'd winning. And it went the other way. But I think this time, it's a more positive thing of the way we're starting. You've just named players there in the final third. You can cause knowledge problems. I don't look at them as a poor side. I look at them as a championship side. They're having strength in there early. You play nice football, but they're wide open. And that means that Everton have got to really exploit those gaps. It might be one of them and people might like it, but we might just give them the ball and go, right, you have the ball and we're going to play on the counter attack. That might be the best way to do it. Nick it high and use the pace of time and then great to really get at them and the core is going to get involved in this one. I mean, you mentioned this something before off here and I thought about it as well. The only thing is that if Luca Deans out we could see the turn to the four centre arms at the back. And that, you know what, mightn't be the worst thing in the world if that is how it is because it is good to start from a base where it's not going to be something we carry on obviously, but hopefully Luca Deans is fit and we can exploit them because there's going to be gaps in that. I think this is the, for me we go to Old Trafford next week and this and you know the fab. We'll have to wait and see what happens without who we've got available and all the rest of it, but after that you know, no one will give us a chance at Old Trafford. This is the game we think you've got to get points on the board and you've got to get three points in this. You've got to be positive and then after that international break you're hoping that we get those four players back and then we have because I think we all believe that our first eleven is decent it's a decent side who can beat sides. We've seen that going down to Brighton with these players Brighton have only lost one game this season they've won all the rest. I know they haven't played too many good sides but at the same time there was a calmness about it that day there was a control and that sort of disappears when you haven't got all your best plays of course it does, people feel a bit unnerved the goalkeeper putting someone in that right back is not a right back having someone who's up front who's not he's only played a couple of games in five months of course it doesn't all fit together so this is a game for me let's get through it, let's get the three points let's be professional, let's grind it out we're a better team than they are ok we might be struggling a little bit squad wise but I still think we're a better team Is there anyone from the other night who would come into the thinking well it's basically would Anthony Gordon come into your thinking not as a starter, no but who's to say he can't come off the benching just add that little spark and have his own confidence there on the form isn't great said that before started the season with a 3-0 on the feet of Liverpool lost five in that man's city be born at six and they'll end the cup but then lost their home to Leicester lost their Arsenal and lost their home to Wofford last time opening Liverpool albeit Liverpool reserty but Norwich is reserty as well Liverpool run on a 3-0 win letting goals in but I think that we saw last week at Arsenal we were trying to be a little bit more a little bit tighter they've got to be by a poor goal really and so maybe they'll come and be trying to think let's frustrate these I just think that we've got to puff out our chest and say we're going to go for this today there's points there to win it's difficult because you don't know it's like we said it's about the bay in the game they were like a team that you thought they'll come and frustrate us and when they scored then obviously we got the equalising the game opened up very very quickly I think we've got good enough players and we play well on the counter attack that we can spring these teams we've got to be clinical of chance we'll get chances, we'll absolutely get chances if people work hard you go back to that Norwich game that we got beaten under Michael Silver and I remember the most the biggest thing that I remember from that game was players not working hard people just jogging not doing the basics it was embarrassing that day and Michael Silver looked like a beat man at the end of it but we can't have that we've got to have people who are working hard and I think we do have people who are working hard players in the start of 11 who will and based on that midfield all the towns end in the core and Alan and Greg gives us something else as well and maybe I might have to we've got to work hard you know, day like we said before obviously they lost Wendy who was a big player for them last season kept Max Arans who we really went very interested in they come up letting goals in for fun but they have got in Pukie they've got someone who can put the ball in the neck we've took them out as the highlighted them as the danger man that I've looked at them up on there four of the five games so far this season two goals key pass is no point for me that's not great on the line that's put that up there there you go but team up Pukie team up Pukie is a player if you give it a chance you can finish we took his goal well against Wafford last week but what Wafford did really well last week was spring them and obviously Inish Malsari is quick and he's got in and obviously the other man Neil Dennis who does a fantastic summer salt celebration when he's gone but Wafford showed that you can spring them but in Pukie we're going to have to keep an eye out for him because his movement is really good and he can put the ball in the neck most definitely they'll get a couple of chances you know who they will and he's someone who scored very consistently in the championship but hasn't been able to take that next step up in the Premier League probably the lack of pace but he's a finisher and he's proved that he's just got to stop them getting chances simple as that and I just think if we work hard I'm a professional and we stick to our game plan and also we don't panic which I think we've done quite well this season I'm not doing that in general so it's there to be won go and win the game get the momentum go the other way it'll be a tough game but hopefully everything can come out the other side with the three points just know what you think in the comments section below you're worried about this as an Everton fan but what have you made of the start so far I think it's been a decent start if we win this game I think it's been a good start to be fair in the league points wise of course and then we go to Manchester United if you're a Norwich fan how are you viewing this you're looking at it thinking this is the right time to play Evan could well be give the video a thumbs up subscribe if you haven't if you want more videos join us over on Patreon and don't forget to download and play all some of fan see you later