Now that we have some really basic hardware done, let's talk about actually implementing one of the opcodes from the Z machine. So what I've chosen is to implement the OR opcode. Why? Well, if we look at the table of opcodes, we can see that 0 is an illegal opcode, so we're obviously not going to work on that one. The next bunch of opcodes are jumps to locations, which I don't want to deal with at the moment. But so the next opcode, which seems fairly simple, is to simply OR two numbers together and store the result somewhere. So this is a spreadsheet that I have put together, which basically maps out various bits of dedicated hardware and the commands that get sent to the hardware in order to implement the opcode. So in the beginning, we can see that we're just doing our fetch and execute cycle. Remember earlier, I talked about a micro-address counter, and so the very first thing that we're going to have to do is have some sort of a bit of memory hardware, which reads a byte from memory at the current instruction pointer. So we have an address that we pass into it, we give it a destination register, I'm just calling it M for now, M is an 8-bit register, and the operation that we're going to do is read. We are also going to have an ALU. In this case, it is simply incrementing the instruction pointer, because of course we've just read a byte, so when we go and read something next, it's going to be the next byte. You'll notice that we have two ALUs, and I'll get to that in a moment. And then there's this var hardware, which I'll also get to shortly. So once we have read the memory into the register, we need to increment the micro-address and go to the next location in the micro-program. Now the next thing we're going to do is it's just some sort of operation that I'm calling op-jump. Basically what it does is it looks at the value in M, and it goes to some location in the micro-program based on M. So of course M can be any of 256 values, so basically we're doing an indirect jump table essentially. So we are going to jump to this location, which is for opcode 8. Now remember that for the two operand instructions, they have essentially five different configurations. They're 0, 8, 2, 8, 4, 8, and so on. This configuration that we're going to choose is just the one that takes two small constants. So because they're two small constants, they fit in 8 bits in memory. So we're going to read one byte, increment the instruction pointer, read the next byte, increment the instruction pointer. But also we are going to compute using the 16-bit ALU, not the address ALU. We're going to compute the logical OR of op-0 and op-1, which is where we stored the two operands. And we're going to put the result in op-0. So we can do all of this in parallel. So here's the thing where we got to two separate ALUs. One is specifically for addresses and one is specifically for 16-bit values. So remember that the Z machine is a 16-bit machine. However, also recall that it can address more than 16 bits of memory. So typically you have maybe 128k. So that's 17 bits and rather than stuff all that functionality into a single ALU, I've decided to have two ALUs. One is just for computing addresses and the other is for more general computation on 16-bit numbers. So of course the address ALU is going to be 17 bits or 18 bits if you happen to have 256k of memory and so on. Because versions 1 through 3 of the Z machine can only address up to 128k, this address ALU is going to be 17 bits, at least for these versions. Okay, so we've read the two small constants into op-0 and op-1. The next thing that we're going to do is read where we're going to store the result. I have read it into an 8-bit register that I'm just calling v for var because this is the storage variable. Now remember that if the storage variable is 0, that means that we're pushing the value onto the stack. If it's 1 through f, then it's a local variable. And if it's 1, 0 through f, f, then it's a global variable. So we will have to deal with that somehow. And that's what I've done here. I have given the micro-address a call capability. We do have a limited stack of return addresses, you know, maybe 4, say. So we can call into subroutines that will be common to our micro-program. In this case, the subroutine is called store var. And basically what we're going to do is, first, we're going to compare v to 0. Now you'll notice that I'm doing that using the 16-bit ALU. So in this case, we're just going to 0 extend v because there are only 8 bits. And we're doing a subtract. This is basically the same thing as a compare, except that we don't store the result anywhere, which is allowed. And what this is going to do is it's going to set a z flag. And the z flag will tell the micro-address counter whether or not to jump to an address or just to continue on. So in this case, we have a new instruction called jnz, jump if not 0. So let's take the case where v is actually 0. So we want to store this, the result onto the stack. So in that case, we're going to jump to, no. In that case, we're going to increment the micro-address to call the push subroutine. The push subroutine simply writes the high byte of op 0 into wherever the sp the stack pointer is pointing. And we're going to use the address ALU to increment the stack pointer. And then we do it again for the low byte in op 0. And then we return from our subroutine and then we return from that subroutine, which goes back to jump to fetch, which starts the fetch execute cycle once again. So similarly, if v is not 0, we would jump to store of our 1, which is here. So here is where we exercise the var hardware. The only thing that the var hardware do is it does is compute the address that we want to access based on v and based on the frame pointer, which is where the locals are stored, or the global pointer, which is where the globals are stored. And the result is going to be put into an x register. I just called it x, and that's an address type register. So once we do that, then we know that all we have to do is write op 0 high and op 0 low to wherever x is pointing to, incrementing x in the meantime, of course, and then we simply return. And we jump back to our fetch execute cycle. So that's really how it works. So this basically tells us that we need, aside from the micro address counter, we have four other bits of hardware that we need to implement. Now, before we get to that, let me just make a brief correction to the discussion about frames. So remember, we have local variables are stored on the stack in something called a frame. Now, the problem is that earlier when I talked about the frame, I said, oh, we just put the return address in the frame as well. Well, there's the problem. The problem is that if the stack is a 16 bit stack and addresses are 17 bits, well, we can't fit the return address onto the stack unless we use, say, three bytes per stack entry, but that gets a little wasteful. So instead, what I'm going to do is I'm going to have actually two stacks. So we're going to have a user stack, which is 16 bits, and we're going to have an address stack, which is however many bits is, however many bits wide is necessary to store a single address. The user stack is going to be stored in RAM. The address stack is also going to be stored in RAM, but only on the FPGA. So you have RAM blocks inside the FPGA, which we can use. And we're just going to use that for some smaller address stack. So the address stack stores addresses. We have the frame pointer. The frame pointer is an address. We have the return address. That's an address. We also have a pointer to the address stack, which isn't an address, but nevertheless, we are going to store that on the address stack anyway. The user stack is basically going to be reserved for the locals and whatever you push, whatever values you push onto the stack. So there's a procedure that you use for popping a frame and there's a procedure that you use for pushing a frame, but basically the idea is that you can maintain these two stacks in parallel. So that's the micro-program. So let's get to implementing something simple. Let us start with where are we going to store all of these registers? So let's start with the micro-address counter. Now, I've enhanced our original micro-address counter. Let's look at the micro-address types package first. I've named it micro-address types in order to differentiate it from the actual micro-address counter and to basically be very explicit that this package is for types only. The other thing is that it's best practice to put underscore T after the name of a type. This is true not only here, but also in C and C++. You should always do that so that you're sure, so that you know that you're dealing with a type. So what I've done is I've expanded the number of commands that the micro-address counter can take. You can see that I've renamed load to jump. So we have jump if not zero. We have call, return, and the op jump command. And I've also placed a special type def to indicate how wide our addresses are. So here I'm saying that our addresses can go from zero to 2K minus one, or we have 2K addresses. So this is useful because we can now use it everywhere instead of having to explicitly state everywhere bit 10 down to zero. So here is the micro-address counter module itself. You'll notice that I'm importing the micro-address type from the micro-address types package so that I can simply refer to that type as micro-address T. As opposed to this where I didn't bother doing an import for the command type. Number one, I'm only using it once right over here. And number two, all of the other modules are also going to have commands. So I'm just going to specify it right here. So differences from the previous micro-address counter, you can see that we're including a Z flag. This is necessary for the jump if not zero command. I have also included an M, which is 8 bits, and that has to be used for the op jump. Now also you might notice that I've changed all of the input and output types. Well, I've changed pretty much everything to instead of logic, I'm now using bit and byte. Bit and byte are different from logic vectors in that logic has four states. There's ordinary zero and one. There's high impedance, which is Z, and there's don't care, which is X. Now in this case, there's nowhere that I'm really going to use high impedance states except maybe for one or two special cases when we're dealing with external hardware. And also we're never going to have don't cares, I'm pretty sure. So instead I'm using the two-valued types. So bit is the two-valued type that corresponds to logic. Byte is also two-valued and consists of eight bits. Also byte by default is considered as signed when you're doing operations with it. So I'm explicitly saying that this is an unsigned byte. Now in the micro address counter, I never actually use the sign-adness of M, but nevertheless it's good to be pretty explicit about that. The rest is pretty much the same. Here I specified a parameter. I'll get to that in a moment. Now I've also specified an array. And this notation over here is known as an unpacked size. So this is a packed size, which basically means that this is a number of bits. This is an unpacked size, which is not a number of bits. In other words, it's not four bits, in other words, 16, but it is actually just four elements. So what I've done is I've basically specified a call stack of micro addresses, and the depth of the call stack is four. Now that's internal. I'm not leaking it out of the module because it's strictly internal. And also because this is essentially a state machine, I have a corresponding next call stack. Same thing with the call stack pointer. Of course, I have to specify the number of bits properly. And the next call stack pointer. Now the next thing that I have is the op jump table, which we talked about. And of course it's going to be 256 micro addresses. And I'm using this construct here, which is actually synthesizable by Vivato. It's an initial block, and you can put a begin and an end around here, but since it's one statement, I don't do that. Readmemh is a function that is defined in system verilog. It means read a file that is formatted in hexadecimal, and it looks like this. So this is my test op jump table. You can see that I'm specifying 0, 0, 0 for the first element, 1ab for the second element, and so on, all the way down to the full 256 elements. Now of course this is element 0, this is element 1, and so on. It's just that these are the line numbers in sublime text. So I am specifying the file name as this variable, which is a parameter. So this is an example of using a module parameter, which you declare like this. The default value is just going to be empty. Obviously that would never work, but when we instantiate the micro address counter, we get to specify what the op jump table file is. And the second parameter is basically where you want to put the resulting data. So it's obviously going to be an op jump table. And then the next thing is basically just more of the same. So I'm saying that by default the next call stack pointer is the current call stack pointer. And the next call stack, all of the values in the next call stack, is equal to the current value of the call stack. And then if we jump, we set the address to the load address. Jump if not 0, we check the Z flag, and we load the load address if the Z flag is 0. Otherwise we just go to the next address. With call, what we do is we push the next address onto the stack. And then the next address is where you want to go to. And return is pretty much the opposite. Op jump is simply index into the op jump table, whatever M is, and that's your next address. And that's pretty much it. For reset, I have, of course, set the call stack pointer to 0. And then during the clock phase, on the next clock edge, we set the address, the call stack pointer, and the call stack to whatever it is we wanted to set up. And that's all there is to it. Let's see. So let's take a look at the test program. The test program has been extended somewhat. So obviously for the test case, we now want to specify the Z flag and the M value. I'm also using this C++ construct that I don't have to keep typing micro address counter, micro address types, colon, colon, command type all the time. So now I'm basically aliasing that to command type. I've modified the test cases. So basically I'm testing increment, reset. I'm testing jump. I'm testing another jump. This test right here is to make sure that I only have as many bits as I think I should have. So even though in C, the type of micro address is 16 bits. In my Veralog source, of course, it's only 11 bits. So I just want to make sure that only those 11 bits got set, that I didn't make any mistake in terms of the size of the address. Then I do a reset. I test call. I test return. I test two calls. So I'm testing a call inside another call, making sure that works. I'm testing jump if not zero to make sure that works, both with Z1 and Z0.  I'm testing with m equals one, two, and three. And you can see from the table test, m equals one would go to 1ab. m equals two goes to zero, one, two. And m equals three goes to zero. If I can do those jumps, then it's pretty much assured that I can do all the jumps. And that the hardware is working. Okay, so the structure of the test. So the main looks very much similar. I'm just initializing all the values, setting up the test cases. Here before I do the first eval, I set all the counter inputs to the test case. I strobe the clock, doing an evaluation on each change. And then I call this function, which is just going to test one aspect of the result. Now in this case, I'm only testing one aspect. I'm testing one output. I'm making sure that the expected output, that the test, that the module's output is equal to the expected output. But in other modules, we may have several outputs. And I want to be able to print a nice message for any failures on any of the outputs. So I've extracted this function over here to basically print out, you know, if anything goes wrong. And finally what I've done is I've counted up the number of passes and basically printed how many tests passed out of how many tests. Because once you see all of the tests scroll off the screen, it would be nice to have a summary at the end. So finally what I've done is I've created a makefile because it's kind of a pain to have to type the varilator command in every single time. So I've used some GNU makefile magic here to basically allow you to say, simply make micro address counter and it's up to date now. Of course I'm going to say touch one of these guys and make micro address counter and it basically runs the entire thing all the way down to giving you an executable. And now I can run the executable by saying micro address counter, micro address counter and hey, 22 out of 22 tests passed. That's good enough for me. So I may have to change the makefile a little bit because right now the makefile is generic for any module. And also an important thing to realize is that for every module you have to run a separate varilator pass because varilator only lets you specify one top module and all the other sub modules are basically hidden. So you're only allowed to do effectively end to end tests. In order to do unit tests you will have to run through varilator one top module at a time. So that's why for every module you have to specify every single module and then you can do a make all which will make all of the modules and all the tests for all of the modules. And you specify which modules you have up here on the first line. You also have to specify the type files in the right order so that varilator knows what is being used when. So anyway what I was saying is that I may have to change this makefile a little bit because right now I'm using this one varilator flag, the minus G flag which lets you set parameters for modules. Apparently there is no way in the C code to set a parameter because varilator actually compiles the module with all its parameters. So you could do it this way or maybe you could specify if you wanted to have two modules with two different parameters and test that that worked. You could have a top level module which instantiates the two modules with those parameters being set to different values. And then you would access one module and test it and then you would access the second module and test it. Or I should say the second instance of the module and test it. So anyway I'm just going to stick with that and see if it works with everything else. So that's the micro address counter. Let's talk about now the registers. For registers I've set up a module and I have placed some registers that we're going to need. Here are the M and the V registers which are bytes. There are 8 bits. Here are the op0 and op1 registers. Those are 16 bits. Short end is the way you say 16 bits for two-valued logic. That is a logic that doesn't have X and Z states. And then we have the X register and we have the various pointer registers, the stack pointer, frame pointer, global variable pointer, instruction pointer, and address stack pointer. And those are all address types. Now, how do we write to the registers? Well, reading from the registers, of course, this module outputs the registers at all times. So we can read from the registers whenever we want. But writing to the registers we have to specify which register we want to write to and what is the value of the register to write. So you can see that I have these other four sections. These correspond to our little bits of dedicated hardware. So we have memory hardware, we have the ALU, we have the address ALU, and we also have the variable hardware. Each one of them can select one of the registers to write to and it can specify the data to write. So we have, for example, memory destination select and this is of type name type. And if you look at the register types, I have specified all the different registers that we can write to. There are a few extra ones here which I have put in because sometimes we want to write an 8-bit value to a 16-bit register and sometimes we want to write to the low 8-bits and sometimes we want to write to the high 8-bits. So I've done that for the op 0 and op 1 registers and those are the destinations that we can write to. So we have the memory destination select and the memory data, the ALU destination select and the ALU data and so on. Now, because the memory hardware can only output 8-bits, that would be the mem data, it's only a byte. Same thing with the ALU, it's 16-bits so we write a short end. And the address ALU and the variable hardware both output address types. So here's our usual state machine thing where we have next variables. And we have a combinatorial section up here and down here we have the sequential section where on the positive edge of the clock we write the next value of the register. So the question becomes, well, what happens if two bits of hardware want to write the same register at the same time? Well, we use a kind of priority. So for M and for V, we actually don't allow any of the dedicated hardware to write to it except for the memory hardware. However, for op 0 and op 1, either the memory section can write to it or the ALU section can write to it. So what we do is we say, well, if the memory hardware and the ALU hardware want to write to the op 0 register at the same time, we'll choose the memory output first. In practice, you would write your micro-programs so that that never happens. So we really didn't have to worry about that, but nevertheless we did have to pick some sort of ordering. So what this means, this is kind of a complicated statement. So basically if we want to write to op 0 high, then the next op 0 high, that is the high 8 bits in the op 0 register, we'll get the memory data. Otherwise, if we want to write register op 0, then we're going to set the high 8 bits of op 0 to 0 because effectively what we're doing is we're saying, okay, I've got 8 bits in memory and I want to write it to op 0, but I want to 0 extend it. So that's the difference really between op 0 high and op 0. So for the ALU, of course if we want to write op 0, then of course we want to write the high 8 bits of the 16-bit ALU to the high 8 bits of op 0. And if none of those are selected, then we simply keep the current value. And the same thing with op 0 low, op 0, op 1 high, op 1 low. There's X for X, this is actually kind of a silly way of indenting this. There we go, that looks a little more regular. Oh, performance issues, who cares? So here we can write the X register using either the address ALU or the var hardware. So that's what this does. And then for the other pointers, we only use the address ALU. Now, that could change in the future. Maybe we decide that suddenly we want to write the stack pointer with something from the var hardware, I don't know. Or maybe we have some other bit of hardware that we want to add, in which case we'll just simply change the logic. So that's how the register file works. This is the register type. You can see that we've defined an address type, which is 17 bits. So that corresponds to our address ALU and our var hardware. So let's take a look at the test. It's fairly straightforward, even though it looks quite large. This is pretty much the same template as we used before. I'm shortening the name of the name type. I have a test case, which has a name, and we specify the inputs, which are the destination selects and the data, and the expected outputs, which are all of the registers. Again, you'll note that M and V are 8 bits, Ops 0 and Ops 1 are 16 bits, X through AP are 17 bits, but of course we don't have a 17-bit type, so we're simply using the next highest size, which is 32 bits, and the test cases. So I've just named the test case, you know, the hardware to whatever register, and then I'm setting up the values. And you notice that we have a none, which basically means do not write to any register. And we simply write each register, and we're collecting the values. Here's from the address ALU, and we're collecting more values. Here's the ALU, and here's the var. And remember that I said that we wanted to sort of divide each test into testing just one element or one expected value. This is so that we can write out what we expected and what it actually was in a little nicer way. So for example, for the M register, obviously we've only got two hex digits. For the Ops 0 register, we've only got four and so on. And basically we simply set up the data. For every test case, we set up the data, run eval, strobe the clock, and then we check the expected value. And this is the nice way that we can simply determine whether the entire test has passed or not.  So if we look at the make file, I have made a slight change here. What I've done is I have set up an extra flags variable. And I have appended the name of the module. So if we have a module that doesn't require these parameters to be set, then we simply do not set extra flags for it. And that's what this special incantation does. So let's go ahead and make, let me remove the old one, register file, make register file, it goes ahead and makes it, great, register file, and run the executable, and we have 18 out of 18 tests passed. Great, so that worked. So I think that for the next video, I'm going to go on to the next bits of hardware, which are the ALU, the address ALU, and the var hardware. And after that, we get to something a little more complicated, which is storing the actual micro program.


I know you're tired of hearing this question but please bear with me. I know you said the vagina doesn't become loose but is there any way that your partner can tell if you have had sex before like any way at all? Yes you're right I am exhausted from answering this question. We tackle this question so often I just don't know what it will take to get through to people but okay let's see if we can respond to this. Whether there's any way that your partner can tell whether you've had sex before or not. I'm trying to really give this some thought and the only thing that I can come up with is maybe your comfort levels.


Welcome to this course on Transition Metal Organometallics in Catalysis and Biology. We have been discussing about olefin polymerization and in this context we have been talking about olefin classification or polyolefin classification depend from various aspects. For example, from the polymer perspective or from the polymer property point of view, we had spoken about various classification that exists for polyolefin polymers, namely thermoplastic materials, duroplastic, elastoplastic materials or thermoplastic elastomers and reversible duroplastic. Again from the polyolefin perspective, with regard to polyethylene, we have looked at how many different types they come in and they come in three varieties, which is LDP linear low density polyethylene, it can be LDP linear low density polyethylene or HDPE high density polyethylene. So, if polyethylene are graded based on the density of the polymer of standard in that there are three varieties. Now having discussed the polymer classification from polymer perspective or from polymer type point of view, then we moved on to looking at the polymer classification from a chemistry perspective, particularly from the point of view of the process through which they are synthesized as well as from the point of view of mechanism through which they are synthesized. In this category, we have spoken about two types of classification. One is condensation polymer as well as addition polymer, these are from the perspective of the process by which these polymers were synthesized. Similarly, from the mechanism that is followed to produce this polymer and from this perspective there are two types, which is step growth or the chain growth polymer. So, we have been talking in the last class about the process perspective, which is condensation polymer and addition polymer, and from the mechanism perspective, the two types of polymer are chain growth polymer, step growth polymer. In this context, we have studied the condensation polymer in great detail in the previous class and we saw that many commercially important polymers like nylon, polyester, polycarbonate polymers are synthesized using this condensation polymer, and these are mainly monomers, which are polyfunctionalized and there can be more than one type, particularly of two types like diamine diacid or diol diacid or diol diacid or diol acid chlorides for making this kind of condensation polymer. Having discussed the condensation polymer in great detail in the previous lecture, what we are going to be doing today is to look into the other process based polymer, particularly this addition polymer and this example, and followed by the other two classification, which is classification based on mechanism, that is the chain growth polymer and the step growth polymer. So, having said this, let us now move on to discuss about this addition polymer classification. Now, addition polymers are the ones of the polymers that are formed from monomers without any loss of a small molecule, unlike the case with condensation polymers. In the condensation polymer, the condensation reaction within the monomer resulted in formation of some small molecule at the byproduct, however in case of addition polymer, the reaction between monomers does not lead to formation of any byproduct. Addition polymers are formed from monomers without the loss of a small molecule, and the other biggest advantage or characteristic of this addition polymer is that the repeating unit has the same composition as the monomer, whereas in condensation polymer, the repeating unit is not exactly of the same composition as the monomer, because a small molecule has come out of it. Another important characteristic of addition polymer is that unlike condensation polymers, the repeating unit of an addition polymer has the same composition as the monomer. An example of this kind of polymerization is given below, mainly the polyethylene polymerization is an example of this addition polymerization or the renal monomers are formed mainly through this process NCH2CHY upon polymerization gives CH2CHYN, so these are vinyl polymerizations using vinyl monomer unit. What we see is that polymers can be characterized based on the method in which they are polymerized, one mainly is a condensation method, where elimination of small molecule occur, then the other is just an addition method, where those small molecule does not occur. Polyvinyl polymers or polyethylene polymers are a result of this addition polymerization. Another important characteristic of this addition polymer is the fact that the composition of the repeat unit of the polymer, which is shown over here, this is the repeat unit of the polymer, this is exactly same as the monomer composition, and that is said over here, repeat unit of the addition polymer as the same composition as the monomer, so these and these two compositions are same. Now, we are going to look at another type of polymer classification mainly from the mechanistic point of view, and these are the step growth and chain growth mechanism, and this classification is mainly based on the pathway, which is used for making these long chain polymers from the monomers, so let us first start from the step growth polymerization, so what really distinguish between the step growth and the chain growth is the mechanism by which the step growth polymers are formed, this is illustrated or this is best explained in the definition that follows, step growth polymerization proceeds by a step wise reaction between functional groups of the reactant, between the functional of the reactant shown below, what it means that the polymerization proceeds slowly from monomer to dimer to tetramer, pentamer so on and so forth, it implies that the polymerization proceeds in multiple steps going from monomer to dimer to trimer, tetramer, pentamer, so this can be illustrated, for example, first monomer will react with another monomer to give dimer, then dimer can react with another monomer to give trimer, dimer can also react with another dimer to give tetramer, trimer can react with monomer, give tetramer, trimer can react with dimer to give pentamer, trimer can react with another trimer, gives hexamer and this thing proceeds, so this polymerization proceeds in steps and as a result of each step, the size of the polymer keeps increasing like the dimer, then trimer, then tetramer, pentamer, hexamer, the size of the polymer keeps increasing and this can be reflected if one were to measure the polymer molecular weight with the percent conversion for this kind of step growth polymer, so if one were to look at the molecular weight of the polymer as a function of percent conversion of the monomer, so this is 0% to 100%, then what is observed over here is that the molecular weight sort of increases, but increases slowly, it is only in the end that there is a sharp increase in molecular weight happen when the longer chain oligomers react with each other to give even further even further more longer chain oligomers, so there is a characteristic trajectory which is known for this kind of step growth polymerization, where the molecular weight increases slowly with conversion in the beginning of the reaction, but however towards the end of the reaction the molecular weight sort of increases drastically as the longer chains react and polymerize to give even longer chain, so this is the characteristic feature of this kind of step growth polymerization, now we are going to look at the other polymerization process which is called the chain growth polymerization, now in chain growth the polymer does not grow like a chain, where each of the chain length gradually grows with each of the monomer adding to the singular chain and the chain keeps on increasing, so this chain growth polymer requires initiator, so chain growth polymer requires initiator, a initiator from which is produced initiator species are dashed with a reactive center and the chain growth takes place like in a chain, the chain growth occurs like in a chain and this polymerization occurs by propagation of the reactive center by successive addition of large number of monomers in a chain reaction, so this is sort of explained in this cartoon as is shown here, so for example if this is a chain with a reactive propagation center and to this one monomer comes along, this monomer then gets added to this polymer chain generating another reactive center and the species would then be, so this monomer would get inserted and then subsequently another monomer would come and insert, so the chain has increased by this much in the monomer length when the second monomer would come and insert this way and the cycle propagates, it is important to note that this chain growth polymers, in chain growth polymerization addition of large number of molecules of a large number of monomers in a chain reaction, polymer chain backbone fast in a matter of seconds large molecular weight chain polymer chain are formed fast, this also has a trajectory a polymer molecular weight and percent conversion and what has been found is that the molecular weight is does not change with the percent conversion because it just forms the equal length polymer no matter what how the reaction proceeds, so these two graphs the one in which for the step growth the other for the chain growth that sort of as a function of a variation of molecular weight as a function of percent conversion of the monomer tells us inside as to what mechanism is proceeding. Now, there is a third type of polymerization which is a sort of a leading polymerization and they are mainly seen in biology certain polymerization so linear increase of molecular weight with conversion and so these are sort of leading polymerization and are seen in the biological and are observed in biological synthesis of protein and for them the characteristics plot of molecular weight versus percent conversion is slightly different percent conversion and for this the trajectory which is observed of the molecular weight is something like this that the molecular weight increases with the percent conversion and these are mainly seen for biological system or where the polymerization is living when the monomer comes the chain further keeps on adding. So, with this we come to the end of today's lecture which was primarily polymer classification from chemistry perspective particularly from a process perspective where we discussed about this condensation polymer and the addition polymer with examples then we also looked at how the mechanistic classification about polymerization would vary and in this from mechanistic classification we have seen that the polymers can be classified into two types one is the step growth as well as the chain growth and for each of these step growth and chain growth we have discussed their characteristic molecular weight versus percent conversion curves in step growth polymerization there is a sudden increase in higher molecular weight towards the end of the conversion and sort of the exponential the curve sort of stays gently increases in the beginning of the conversion whereas towards the end it rises sharply whereas for the chain growth what we saw that the molecular weight is kind of fixed and does not change with percent conversion and lastly we had spoken about biological processes where certain polymerization so increase molecular weight with percent conversion and these are sort of polymerization which are living in nature and they are seen in biology particularly with regard to protein synthesis. So, with this I conclude today's discussion on chain polymer classification and we are going to be discussing more on this olefin polymerization as we meet next till then goodbye and thank you


Mr. Speaker, the President of the United States. Members of Congress, I have the high privilege and the distinct honor of presenting to you the President of the United States. Thank you very much, Mr. Speaker, Mr. President, distinguished members of Congress, honored guests, and fellow citizens. May I congratulate all of you who are members of this historic 100th Congress of the United States of America. In this 200th anniversary year of our Constitution, you and I stand on the shoulders of giants, men whose words and deeds put wind in the sails of freedom. However, we must always remember that our Constitution is to be celebrated not for being old, but for being young, young with the same energy, spirit, and promise that filled each eventful day in Philadelphia State House. We will be guided tonight by their acts, and we will be guided forever by their words. Now, forgive me, but I can't resist sharing a story from those historic days. Philadelphia was bursting with civic pride in the spring of 1787, and as newspapers began embellishing the arrival of the convention delegates with elaborate social classifications. Members of states were called Excellency. Justices and chancellors had reserved for them honorable with a capital H. For congressmen, it was honorable with a small H. And all others were referred to as the following respectable characters. Well, for this 100th Congress, I invoke special executive powers to declare that each of you must never be titled less than honorable with a capital H. Incidentally, I'm delighted you are celebrating the 100th birthday of the Congress. It's always a pleasure to congratulate someone with more birthdays than I've had. Now, there's a new face at this place of honor tonight, and please join me in warm congratulations to the Speaker of the House, Jim Wright. Mr. Speaker, you might recall a similar situation in your very first session of Congress 32 years ago. As of now, the speakership had changed hands. And another great son of Texas, Sam Rayburn, Mr. Sam, sat in your chair. I cannot find better words than those used by President Eisenhower that evening. He said we shall have much to do together. I am sure that we will get it done, and that we shall do it in harmony and good will. Tonight, I renew that pledge to you, Mr. Speaker, and to Senate Majority Leader Robert Byrd, who brings 34 years of distinguished service to the Congress, may I say, though there are changes in the Congress, America's interests remain the same. And I am confident that along with Republican leaders Bob Michael and Bob Dole, this Congress can make history. Six years ago, I was here to ask the Congress to join me in America's new beginning. Well, the results are something of which we can all be proud. Our inflation rate is now the lowest in a quarter of a century. The prime interest rate has fallen from the 21.5 percent the month before we took office to 7.5 percent today. And those rates have triggered the most housing starts in eight years. The unemployment rate, still too high, is the lowest in nearly seven years. And our people have created nearly 13 million new jobs. Over 61 percent of everyone over the age of 16, male and female, is employed. The highest percentage on record. Let's roll up our sleeves and go to work and put America's economic engine at full throttle. We can also be heartened by our progress across the world. Most important, America is at peace tonight and freedom is on the march. And we've done much these past years to restore our defenses, our alliances, and our leadership in the world. Our sons and daughters in the services once again wear their uniforms with pride. But though we've made much progress, I have one major regret. I took a risk with regard to our action in Iran. It did not work. And for that, I assume full responsibility. The goals were worthy. I do not believe it was wrong to try to establish contact with a country of strategic importance or to try to save lives. And certainly it was not wrong to try to secure freedom for our citizens held in barbaric captivity. We did not achieve what we wished and serious mistakes were made in trying to do so. We will get to the bottom of this and I will take whatever action is called for. But in debating the past, in debating the past we must do not deny ourselves the successes of the future. Let it never be said of this generation of Americans that we became so obsessed with failure that we refused to take risks that could further the cause of peace and freedom in the world. Much is at stake here and the nation and the world are watching to see if we go forward together in the national interest or if we let partisanship weaken us. And let there be no mistake about American policy. We will not sit idly by if our interests or our friends in the Middle East are threatened, nor will we yield a terrorist blackmail. And now, ladies and gentlemen of the Congress, why don't we get to work? I'm pleased to report that because of our efforts to rebuild the strength of America, the world is a safer place. Earlier this month I submitted a budget to defend America and maintain our momentum to make up for neglect in the last decade. I ask you to vote out a defense and foreign affairs budget that says yes to protecting our country. While the world is safer, it is not safe. Since 1970, the Soviets have invested $500 billion more on their military forces than we have. Even today, though nearly one in three Soviet families is without running hot water, the average family spends two hours a day shopping for the basic necessities of life. Their government still found the resources to transfer $75 billion in weapons to client states in the past five years. Clients like Syria, Vietnam, Cuba, Libya, Angola, Ethiopia, Afghanistan, and Nicaragua. With 120,000 Soviet combat and military personnel and 15,000 military advisors in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, can anyone still doubt their single-minded determination to expand their power? Despite this, the Congress cut my request for critical U.S. security assistance to free nations by 21 percent this year and cut defense requests by $85 billion in the last three years. These assistance programs serve our national interests as well as mutual interests. And when the programs are devastated, American interests are harmed. My friends, it's my duty as president to say to you again tonight that there is no sure way to lose freedom than to lose our resolve. Today the brave people of Afghanistan are showing that resolve. The Soviet Union says it wants a peaceful settlement in Afghanistan, yet it continues a brutal war and props up a regime whose days are clearly numbered. We are ready to support a political solution that guarantees the rapid withdrawal of all Soviet troops and genuine self-determination for the Afghan people. In Central America, too, the cause of freedom is being tested, and our resolve is being tested there as well. Here especially, the world is watching to see how this nation responds. Today over 90 percent of the people of Latin America live in democracy. Democracy is on the march in Central and South America. Communist Nicaragua is the odd man out, suppressing the church, the press, and the democratic dissent and promoting subversion in the region. We support diplomatic efforts, but these efforts can never succeed if the Sandinistas win their war against the Nicaraguan people. Our commitment to a Western hemisphere, safe from aggression, did not occur by spontaneous generation on the day that we took office. It began with the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 and continues our historic bipartisan American policy. Franklin Roosevelt said, we are determined to do everything possible to maintain peace on this hemisphere. President Truman was very blunt. International communism seeks to crush and undermine and destroy the independence of the Americans. We cannot let that happen here. And John F. Kennedy made clear that communist domination in this hemisphere can never be negotiated. Some in this Congress may choose to depart from this historic commitment, but I will not. This year we celebrate the second century of our Constitution. The Sandinistas just signed theirs two weeks ago and then suspended it. We won't know how my words tonight will be reported there for one simple reason. There is no free press in Nicaragua. Nicaraguan freedom fighters have never asked us to wage their battle, but I will fight any effort to shut off their lifeblood and consign them to death, defeat, or a life without freedom. There must be no Soviet beachhead in Central America. We Americans have always preferred dialogue to conflict, and so we always remain open to more constructive relations with the Soviet Union. But more responsible Soviet conduct around the world is a key element of the US-Soviet agenda. Progress is also required in the other items of our agenda as well. Real respect for human rights and more open contacts between our societies and, of course, arms reduction. In Iceland last October, we had one moment of opportunity that the Soviets dashed because they sought to cripple our strategic defense initiative, SDI. I wouldn't let them do it then. I won't let them do it now or in the future. This is the most positive and promising defense program we have undertaken. It's the path for both sides to a safer future, a system that defends human life instead of threatening it. SDI will go forward. The United States has made serious, fair, and far-reaching proposals to the Soviet Union, and this is a moment of rare opportunity for arms reduction. But I will need, and American negotiators in Geneva will need, Congress support. Enacting the Soviet negotiating position into American law would not be the way to win a good agreement. So I must tell you in this Congress, I will veto any effort that undercuts our national security and our negotiating leverage. Today, we also find ourselves engaged in expanding peaceful commerce across the world. We will work to expand our opportunities in international markets through the Uruguay round of trade negotiations and to complete an historic free trade arrangement between the world's two largest trading partners, Canada and the United States. Our basic trade policy remains the same. We remain opposed, as ever, to protectionism because America's growth and future depend on trade. But we will insist on trade that is fair and free. We are always willing to be trade partners, but never trade patsies. Now, from foreign borders, let us return to our own because America in the world is only as strong as America at home. This 100th Congress has high responsibilities. I begin with a general reminder that many of these are simply the incomplete obligations of the past. The American people deserve to be impatient because we do not yet have the public house in order. We've had great success in restoring our economic integrity and we've rescued our nation from the worst economic mess since the Depression. But there's more to do. For starters, the federal deficit is outrageous. For years, for years I've asked that we stop pushing on to our children the excesses of our government. What the Congress finally needs to do is pass a constitutional amendment that men dates a balanced budget and forces government to live within its means. States, cities and the families of America balance their budgets. Why can't we? Next, the budget process is a sorry spectacle. The missing of deadlines and the nightmare of monstrous continuing resolutions packing hundreds of billions of dollars of spending into one bill must be stopped. We ask the Congress once again, give us the same tool that 43 governors have, align item veto so we can carve out the boom, doggies and pork, those items that would never survive on their own. I will send the Congress broad recommendations on the budget, but first, I'd like to see yours. Let's go to work and get this done together. But now, let's talk about this year's budget. Even though I have submitted it within the Graham-Rudman Hollings Deficit Reduction Target, I have seen suggestions that we might postpone that timetable. Well, I think the American people are tired of hearing the same old excuses. Together, we made a commitment to balance the budget. Now, let's keep it. As for those suggestions that the answer is higher taxes, the American people have repeatedly rejected that shop-worn advice. They know that we don't have deficits because people are taxed too little. We have deficits because big government spins too much. Now, next month, next month, I'll place two additional reforms before the Congress. We've created a welfare monster that is a shocking indictment of our sense of priorities. Our national welfare system consists of some 59 major programs and over 6,000 pages of federal laws and regulations on which more than $132 billion was spent in 1985. I will propose a new national welfare strategy, a program of welfare reform through state-sponsored community-based demonstration projects. This is the time to reform this outmoded social dinosaur and finally break the poverty trap. Now, we will never abandon those who, through no fault of their own, must have our help. But let us work to see how many can be freed from the dependency of welfare and made self-supporting which the great majority of welfare recipients want more than anything else. Next, let us remove a financial specter facing our older Americans. The fear of an illness so expensive that it can result in having to make an intolerable choice between bankruptcy and death, I will submit legislation shortly to help free the elderly from the fear of catastrophic illness. Now, let's turn to the future. It's widely said that America is losing her competitive edge. Well, that won't happen if we act now. How well prepared are we to enter the 21st century? In my lifetime, America set the standard for the world. It is now time to determine that we should enter the next century having achieved a level of excellence unsurpassed in history. We will achieve this first by guaranteeing that government does everything possible to promote America's ability to compete. Second, we must act as individuals in a quest for excellence that will not be measured by new proposals or billions in new funding. Rather, it involves an expenditure of American spirit and just plain American grit. The Congress will soon receive my comprehensive proposals to enhance our competitiveness, including new science and technology centers and strong new funding for basic research. The bill will include legal and regulatory reforms and weapons to fight unfair trade practices. Competitiveness also means giving our farmers a shot at participating fairly and fully in a changing world market. Preparing for the future must begin as always with our children. We need to set for them new and more rigorous goals. We must demand more of ourselves and our children by raising literacy levels dramatically by the year 2000. Our children should master the basic concepts of math and science. And let's insist that students not leave high school until they have studied and understood the basic documents of our national heritage. There's one more thing we can't let up on. Let's redouble our personal efforts to provide for every child a safe and drug-free learning environment. If our crusade against drugs succeeds with our children, we will defeat that scourge all over the country. Finally, let's stop suppressing the spiritual core of our national being. Our nation could not have been conceived without divine help. Why is it that we can build a nation with our prayers but we can't use a school room for voluntary prayer? The 100th Congress of the United States should be remembered as the one that ended the expulsion of God from America's classrooms. The quest for excellence into the 21st century begins in the school room but must go next to the workplace. More than 20 million new jobs will be created before the new century unfolds. And by then, our economy should be able to provide a job for everyone who wants to work. We must also enable our workers to adapt to the rapidly changing nature of the workplace. And I will propose substantial new federal commitments key to retraining and job mobility. Over the next few weeks, I'll be sending the Congress a complete series of these special messages on budget reform, welfare reform, competitiveness, including education, trade, worker training, and assistance, agriculture, and other subjects. The Congress can give us these tools. But to make these tools work, it really comes down to just being our best. And that's the core of American greatness. The responsibility of freedom presses us toward higher knowledge, and I believe moral and spiritual greatness. Through lower taxes and smaller government, government has its ways of freeing people's spirits. But only we, each of us, can let the spirits soar against our own individual standards. Excellence is what makes freedom ring. And isn't that what we do best? We're entering our third century now, but it's wrong to judge our nation by its years. The calendar can't measure America because we were meant to be an endless experiment in freedom with no limit to our reaches, no boundaries to what we can do, no end point to our hopes. The United States Constitution is the impassioned and inspired vehicle by which we travel through history. It grew out of the most fundamental inspiration of our existence, that we are here to serve him by living free, that living free releases in us the noblest of impulses and the best of our abilities, that we would use these gifts for good and generous purposes and would secure them not just for ourselves and for our children, but for all mankind. Over the years, and I won't count if you don't, nothing has been so heartwarming to me as speaking to America's young, and the little ones especially, so fresh-faced and so eager to know. Well, from time to time, I've been with them, they will ask about our Constitution. And I hope you members of Congress will not deem this a breach of protocol if you permit me to share these thoughts again with the young people who might be listening or watching this evening. I've read the Constitutions of a number of countries, including the Soviet Union's. Now, some people are surprised to hear that they have a Constitution, and it even supposedly grants a number of freedoms to its people. Many countries have written into their Constitution provisions for freedom of speech and freedom of assembly. But if this is true, why is the Constitution of the United States so exceptional? Well, the difference is so small that it almost escapes you. But it's so great, it tells you the whole story in just three words, we the people. In those other Constitution, the government tells the people of those countries what they're allowed to do. In our Constitution, we the people tell the government what it can do, and it can do only those things listed in that document and no others. Virtually every other revolution in history has just exchanged one set of rulers for another set of rulers. Our revolution is the first to say, the people are the masters, and government is their servant. And you young people out there don't ever forget that. Someday, you could be in this room, but wherever you are, America is depending on you to reach your highest and be your best, because here in America, we the people are in charge. Just three words, some words, we the people. Those are the kids on Christmas Day looking out from a frozen sentry post on the 38th parallel in Korea or aboard an aircraft carrier in the Mediterranean, million miles from home, but doing their duty. We the people, those are the warm hearted whose numbers we can't begin to count, who will begin the day with a little prayer for the hostages they will never know, and MIA families they will never meet. Why? Because that's the way we are, this unique breed we call America's. We the people, they're farmers on tough times, but who never stop feeding a hungry world. They're the volunteers at the hospital choking back their tears for the 100th time, caring for a baby struggling for life because of a mother who used drugs. And you'll forgive me a special memory. It's a million mothers like Nelly Reagan, who never knew a stranger or turned a hungry person away from her kitchen door. We the people, they refute last week's television commentary downgrading our optimism and our idealism. They are the entrepreneurs, the builders, the pioneers, and a lot of regular folks, the true heroes of our land who make up the most uncommon nation of doers in history.  We the people, starting the third century of a dream and standing up to some cynic who is trying to tell us we're not going to get any better. Are we at the end? Well, I can't tell it any better than the real thing. A story recorded by James Madison from the final moments of the Constitutional Convention, September 17, 1787. As the last few members signed the document, Benjamin Franklin, the oldest delegate at 81 years and in frail health, looked over toward the chair where George Washington daily presided. At the back of that chair, it was painted the picture of a sun on the horizon. And turning those sitting next to him, Franklin observed that artists found it difficult in their painting to distinguish between a rising and a setting sun. Well, I know if we were there, we could see those delegates sitting around Franklin, leaning in to listen more closely to him. And then Dr. Franklin began to share his deepest hopes and fears about the outcome of their efforts. And this is what he said. I have often looked at that picture behind the president without being able to tell whether it was a rising or setting sun. But now at length, I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun. Well, you can bet it's rising because my fellow citizens of America isn't finished. Her best days have just begun. Thank you, God bless you, and God bless America.


And the National Chairman, PDP Prince Uche Secundus is set to preside over the National Executive Committee meeting scheduled to hold in Abu Jair on Saturday. The meeting was called to rectify the decision by the National Caucus of the party which had proposed October 30 in 31, 2021 for the party's national convention. Leaders of the party met with Secundus and agreed that he would preside over the NEC meeting when he resumed that the party's headquarters on Friday. Secundus told reporters that PDP was known for respecting court orders. On Thursday, a court had granted an interim order reinstating Secundus as the PDP National Chairman.


Lake Ormia is the 20th largest lake and the second largest hyper-saline lake before September 2010 in the world. It is also the largest inland body of salt water in the Middle East. The lake has been in a critical situation in recent years due to decreasing surface water and increasing salinity. This article was authored by Komao Rakhmi, Anuar Ahmad, Ali, Selamat, and others.


This is a case of edematous lesion and the treatment option is purely conservative and we give a course of antibiotics, a farm presence that reminds in combination for a minimum of 8 weeks and then the swelling will subside and sometimes healing of the wound is expected. If there is any residue also then surgery can be done. But normally with antibiotic treatment, spontaneous healing is expected so surgery may not be required.


Endophytes are microorganisms that live inside the cells of plants without causing any harm. They can provide protection against disease, causing organisms and help plants tolerate environmental stressors. Studies have shown that endophytes produce a variety of bioactive compounds that can be used to treat various diseases in humans. These compounds include phenolic acids, alkaloids, chenoneses, steroids, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids. Additionally, endophytes can also act as a source of potential drugs due to their ability to produce these bioactive compounds. This article was authored by I.M.I.D. Emmanuel Fadigi and Alubiukola Aluranti-Babalola.


We are carrying on with the course on energy resources, economics and environment. We have been looking at energy resources. In the previous lecture, we looked at the fossil fuels and the depletable resources. So in the characteristic of those resources were that they were stocks and that means that you can have, if you talk about coal or you talk about oil or you talk about natural gas, you can store it, there is a fixed amount of reserve that is there and we saw methods by which we can quantify how much time that resource will last. We now want to look at a different set of resources and these are our renewable resources. So as we discussed earlier, even fossil fuels are also renewable in the sense that they have been formed by natural processes which occur over thousands of years but the rate at which we are using them is much faster than the rate at which it gets renewed. So for all practical purposes, they are depletable. We now look at another category of resources which are renewable which means that the rate at which they are being renewed is much faster than the rate at which we are using them and so for all practical purposes, they are inexhaustible and renewable. And in such cases, the rules or the way in which we analyze these resources will be different because unlike the earlier case, most of these are actually flows not stocks. Of course, in the case of biomass, they are flows which have been converted into stocks. So biomass is a little different but for all other resources that we are considering renewables, these are actually flows. So then there will be different ways in which we will characterize them. So for this, you may look at the global energy assessment which was done by YASA and published by the Cambridge University Press, it is available in the public domain. So chapter 7 of that has the listing of different kinds of energy resources and the potential and we will cover some of those things from that chapter. So if you look at it, first is if you look at the different kinds of options that we have, we have a whole set of primary energy options and from the primary energy options as we saw, there are different kinds of conversion steps to get our final end use. And in all of this, electricity is one of the major routes. So we take electricity, either it could be from, we talked earlier about fossil fuel but even if you look at renewables, we can look at solar giving us electricity, we can look at wind, we can look at hydro, we can look at ocean, we can look at bioenergy or it could be nuclear and that electricity then can go and be used in different end uses. We can also look at directly hydro giving us kinetic energy or hydro giving us electricity and in the case of fossil, one of the intermediate steps is thermal heat which gives you power and then that power is being used. In some cases, you are using heat directly for cooking or we are using heat directly in the industrial processes. So let us take a look at the in the global energy use, what is the current share of renewables. So if we look at this figure, this is from the renewable energy update of 2019. This data set is for the year 2017, you find that almost 80% of the primary of the final energy use is actually coming from fossil fuels. Of the remaining, it is the traditional biomass which accounts for a large part and nuclear, the traditional biomass almost 7.5% and nuclear about 2%. Of the 10% or 11% which is coming from renewables, a reasonably large amount is from hydropower and some coming from modern renewables which is accounts for about 2%. 1% is biofuels for transport. If we look at this a little more in detail by the sectors and the end uses, if you look at the end uses and transport is about 1 third of the total and in transport, we have 3.3% just from renewables of which 3% comes from biofuels. Currently the penetration of renewables in the transport sector is relatively low. In the power sector, we have 26% of renewable energy of which large hydro is also considered and then we have wind which is the largest chunk and then you have solar PV and bio. In the heating and cooling, there is a lot of 9.8% coming from renewable energy and most of it is from traditional biomass and some of it coming from renewable. So as we see overall the renewables account for relatively small percentage but we expect this to grow. So we would like to first of all see what is the potential, what is the technical and economic potential for renewables and how is that potential distributed amongst the different sources. So this figure is of global energy flows of renewables which is for the year 2008 and this is from the IPCC special report on renewables. You may want to look at this and download this. This gives you overview of all renewables at the status of that in 2008. It is slightly old but the relative magnitudes remain the same. So if you look at this figure, you can clearly see that the largest chunk continues to be biomass. Most of it is still being traditionally used. Most of it is being used in the domestic and cooking sector. For all of the other renewables, the largest chunk goes into electricity, CHP, combined heat and power and geothermal both use for electricity as well as directly and solar thermals small percentage. Large hydro is a very large percentage and the total if we see this total we are looking at something of the order of 50 exa joules and if you look at this in terms of the global we stocked of 450 to 500 exa joules. So it is a relatively small percentage but it is already sort of getting into the mainstream and it also has significant amount of growth and it is growing at a faster rate than the fossil. So we expect future energy mixes to be much more renewable. So if we look at the electricity sector, as I told you the renewables in the electricity sector, the largest chunk for electricity is coal followed by natural gas and then hydro and some amount of nuclear, nuclear globally is a reasonable amount, it is about 13, 14% and then as we said this is the renewables of which wind is the largest chunk and then bioenergy is also reasonably high. Solar photovoltaics growing relatively small but growing fast and you can see this growth in terms of these numbers. And you can, we can see in this case if you look at the graph of the bottom, you see that solar PV starting from a small base but growing at a much, much faster rate and overall if you see it is wind and PV and renewables which is growing at a reasonably fast rate and that is the signal that is there that the renewables is growing at a much faster rate than fossil and the share of renewables in our mix is going to be higher in the future. So now let us look at each one of these in terms of the potential. Let us look at first hydro. So hydro, for a long time we have been having these large hydro power plants and if we look at this assessment, this is from the global energy assessment, you will find that if you look at the solar power which is evaporating the water and causing the flows of hydro and the energy in the water cycle, you find that this is a very large percentage. We are talking of 504,000 exajoules per year which is orders of magnitude higher than what is required in terms of energy. So the potential if we look at from this what percentage is what is the potential which can be actually taken off in terms of the runoff and the flows and converted into energy, you get of the order of about 200 exajoules per year which is again orders of magnitude similar to the kind of energy required globally by the earth. From this if we look at the different sites that reduces to a potential of 140 to 145 and with a particular use factor this comes out to about 50 to 60 exajoules, then looking at economic factors this can come to about 30 exajoules. So that is the estimated potential in 2010 which is a reasonable amount of the total which can be provided by large hydro. The problem with large hydro is that this involves submergence of large areas of land and because of this there is resistance to this from the people who have displaced, there is also problems in terms of sometimes they are on sites where there is a which are earthquake prone, there is a problem in terms of when you have a large water quantity that might affect the disease vectors and so in many countries of the world there is opposition to large hydro with the result that large hydro has not been growing at the rate that it used to grow earlier and because of that we are not quite sure that the total hydro potential will be realized. But there is a reasonable amount of potential you can see of course in terms of generation there is an overall growth in the hydropower generation and you can see that if we look at the distribution of hydro in different countries and this is in terms of the generation which we are looking at we are looking at about 14,000 terawatt hour per year is the hydropower technical potential which is a significant proportion of the electricity use. In the install capacity if you see this is the kind of distribution of the install capacity in the different continents and in 2009 we are talking of 920 odd gigawatt which was installed the updated values in 2017 about 1267 gigawatts so hydro large hydro has been growing but we do not expect it to grow at very much faster rates because of the kind of opposition which is there. So we can have in the case of hydro we can have dams we can also have run of the river schemes so question of large hydro and small hydro in many countries of the world large hydro was excluded from the calculation of renewables. This was done primarily because large hydro already had a large number and the renewables were relatively small so in order to make it distinguish we looked at small hydro and different countries had different characteristics in terms of what was considered as small hydro but typically you know which started from 10 kilowatts going up to 5 megawatts in some cases going up to even 25 megawatts. Now in the case of hydro it could be run of the river schemes or even with low heads and low heads as low as 3 meters have been considered to be viable. In the smallest areas we look at schemes which are not necessarily grid connected they could be isolated and if you go in the megawatt range then they could be connected to the grid. In all of this the question is whether the water flow is annual or it is seasonal so there is a capacity factor which is there but in most of the cases there is a reasonable amount of potential of cost effective power generation because the water itself the operating cost is negligible it is only the initial capital cost. When we talked about renewables I also told you that we have starting from a small base but we have been growing at very fast rates and you can see that with the kind of 74 percent and 34 percent for the solar PV and 35 percent, 20 percent starting from a small base but very high growth rates of course these will sort of they will taper off and they will come to some reasonable numbers in the future but as of now they account for reasonable high. If we look at the overall annual fluxes when we look at bio energy, solar energy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean energy, wind energy and we take the fluxes you can see that these fluxes are actually significantly higher than what is the energy used in the primary energy use in the world in a particular year and so if we look at the ratio of the annual energy flux by the 2008 primary energy supply we can see that solar is almost 8000 times that amount so that means we are not constrained by the amount of solar energy. We have sufficient amount of solar energy, geothermal is also about 2 times, bio energy about 3 times, wind energy 12 times, ocean energy 15 times so in many of these cases on a global basis if we look at the total energy fluxes they are orders of magnitude higher than our requirement. However, these fluxes are not concentrated they are dilute and they are distributed around the world and we will look at so then there are issues in terms of cost they are also quite variable and hence there is a need for storage and that also adds to the cost. So we will look at this in terms of we will try to answer the following questions first is how do we estimate the potential for a particular renewable energy and we already said that we are talking of flows and fluxes not stocks unlike in the case of coal or oil or natural gas. In each of these cases there could be a technical potential and an economic potential there will be a special distribution of the resource there will be a daily and a seasonal variation and there will be uncertainty. So unlike in the earlier case where we had a certain amount once you mine it you know how much coal is there and then you can use it whenever you want. In the case of solar at a particular time of day depending on whether there is clouds depending on the kind of insulation you will have a particular generation more or less predictable but there are uncertainties and we will need to be able to tackle those variabilities. These energy sources and these energy resources will have a different way of operation and we need to understand that and we need to design our systems a little differently from the way in which we design fossil fuel based systems. So if we look at this what are the options that were there the renewable can be direct solar that means solar which you use to heat up water or working fluid or heat transfer oil this is called solar thermal or we can look at solar conversion of solar into electricity through photovoltaic cell and this is solar photovoltaics when most of the electricity that we generate is from solar photovoltaics and solar thermal is used can be used for electricity generation but that is currently a little costly which being used mainly for solar thermal applications which is for heating and cooling. Wind one of the earliest electricity sources and now also the largest chunk currently of electricity generation wind again is caused from indirect solar because of the differential heating of the earth surface you have high pressure and low pressure regions and then you have wind going from the high pressure to the low pressure and depending on the kind of wind there is a local factor we can see what are the wind rates and there is a power which is available in the wind we can put a turbine within that power and extract that power connected to a generator and then use that electricity. Ocean thermal we will talk about ocean thermal wave energy and tidal are all associated with the course they are localized and we will see what are the kind of possibilities in this. We talked about large hydro already small hydro does not have the disadvantages of large hydro and there is quite a significant amount of potential the problem is that many of these are in remote areas and not so accessible there may be a capacity factor and so even though they seem cost effective they have not been growing at the very at the same rate as the wind and solar PV biomass is can happen in terms of there are many different sources of biomass including waste and crop residues agricultural residues and we will look at their different modes in which we can use for conversion. Geothermal is happening is an energy source which is happening because of the earth's crust being earth's core being much hotter than the earth's surface and then there are hot spots and when the water comes in contact with these hot spots we get steam which comes out and that can be used for power generation for energy. So, we will look at each of these in detail in terms of seeing what are the resources what is the potential what is the current status. So, we start with wind which is one of the earliest commercial renewable energy use now when we talk about wind in the wind if you see the depending on the velocity of the wind the power in the wind is half rho v cube. So, if you just take let us say rho is 1.2 kg per meter cube and if we look at the let us say wind velocity of 7 meters per second if you calculate this you will find that this comes out to be 205.8 this is in SI units watts per meter square. So, this is at a wind speed of 7 meters per second if the wind speed is half this amount what would happen the power in the wind will become one eighth it is proportional to cube of the velocity it will become one eighth of this amount. So, it is going to be of the order of 20 watts per meter square. So, this is the power which is there in the wind now depending on the turbine it will have its own coefficient of performance. So, the actual power which we get will be half rho Cp into the area into v cube this Cp is typically you will get something of the order of 0.3 to 0.4 and depending on the machine that we have. So, in general what will happen is we can measure if you see here this is a wind manometer which will give you the direction and the speed and then there is a wind vane manometer this is of this type and the wind shock just giving you the direction. So, we have usually wind measurement stations located all across in the areas where we expect to have high wind and these this data is then monitored it is then mapped and you have maps which show you the distribution of wind speeds. Wind speed varies with the height from the ground and typically what we have is we have a formula which is if we measure so if we have a wind monitoring station at a particular height and we want to estimate what will be the wind speed at a different height because we may put we may have wind speed monitoring at let us say 50 meters but we may put a turbine at 80 meters or 100 meters we can use this correction factor this correction factor the values of alpha are for different it goes between 0.1 to 0.4 and if it is a relatively smooth terrain we can use 0.1 and then we can use this and get extrapolate what will be the wind speed at a different height and we can use this to get maps of the wind speeds. When we look at this we you will see that this is the kind of map which is available and we talked about the you know for 7 meters per second we said it is about 200 that means 0.2 you can see that in this case we are looking at you will look at these colors you can see some of the largest highest winds are of course offshore but we have the different kinds of wind regimes which are there. When you look at the wind classification again in the GA chapter 7 you can see that these are the types of wind classification the wind power class going from less than 100 and going to the largest one the highest wind power class wind class 7 greater than 400 and this is the kind of wind speeds at 10 meters above the ground and in the case of 80 meters above the ground that same class is greater than 1000 watts per meter square and you can see this is the kind of wind speed which we are talking of. In every wind machine when you put a turbine there will be a cut end speed which is the minimum speed at which the turbine must rotate in order to overcome all the inertia and then start generating and from the minimum to the rated speed to the cut out speed there is a maximum speed beyond which the turbine will get damaged. So that within that range when you have a wind speed within that range it will generate and remember the wind fluctuates over the day fluctuates over the season and because of that when you talk about the power supply we need to be able to adjust that and match this supply with the demand and I will show you some data about the Indian context before we do that let us look at. So this is giving you some of the fractions in different countries what are the kind of wind speeds and the number of sites etc. In the Indian context if you see this is the MNRE's map the Ministry of Renewable Energy and you can see that we have some sites in Tamil Nadu and some in Gujarat and the most of the wind is related is typically along the coast. You will also see that we do not have most of the wind speeds that we have are much lower than the high wind speeds which are there in US and Europe. The other point that we have is that our wind is very very seasonal. We get the highest wind during the monsoon months four months of the year where you get the maximum amount of generation. A similar kind of map has been drawn now this is at 80 meters and you can see here that we do have some of the generation of the order of you know most of them are still in the lowest category 1 and 2. The high winds regimes are in the wind class 2 we really do not have anything at a very high wind regime. However, in many of these cases even with a seasonality and with this wind regime we can have wind which is cost effective and that is why we have quite a number of wind machines which have been installed. If you look at the wind potential at 80 meters you can see that wind power density going greater than 250 watts per meter square at a height of this we are looking at a 1400 gigawatts of wind that is a fairly large potential. And then if we look at something which is higher this is this is we are talking of 800 gigawatts of this. So, total we are looking at something of the order of 2000 gigawatts of total wind potential at 80 meters. If you go to higher heights of course the potential can increase this is based on a study done by LBNL. We would like to take a look at what is the actual renewable generation in our country and if you see this this is in 2015-16 this is the picture of the renewable generation for different months. A couple of things emerge from this picture the first thing is that it is actually wind which is the largest chunk of course there is a reasonable amount of bagasse base and biomass base as well as some small hydro and solar also coming up solar increasing and coming up we find that there is a significant amount of seasonality in the renewable generation and that is predominantly driven by wind where wind is mainly during the monsoon months and then it tapers off in the other cases. So, let us look at some of this in terms of the actual generation you see that this is from a number of sites and it talks to you about the wind speed. You can see that the wind speed fluctuates and significantly and in different months you have different kinds of wind regime. So, if we look at this in a little for Tamil Nadu for a particular year 2007 you can see that the generation in a few months was more than average wind generation the wind energy generators with million units in the monsoon months but in the other months it is significantly lower this is show you can see also this is the annual all India region wise annual wind generation pattern and you can see even here that most of this is happening during the monsoon months and the rest of the time it is much much lower. This Tamil Nadu plot shows you the generation over 0 to 24 hours and over different months and you can clearly see that 4 of the months the generation is very high and in some months it is almost negligible. So, what does it mean? It means that when we provide the requirement in these months from wind in the months where there is low wind you have to have something else which is meeting that requirement and that means if it is a thermal power plant that thermal power plant has to be back down or switched off during the time when there are high wind and this will involve additional cost so that cost is being met by the thermal power plants. We need to look at regimes by which we see what is the value of the energy provided when it is provided and what kind of the wind has to be able to compensate for the non availability in the other seasons and so this is the situation in terms of wind.


Hey, this is Brett and this 2022 Ram 2500 Crew Cab Short Box Laramie Level B Night Edition is stock number 14272Z. I am here at Summit Automotive in Fondlec, Wisconsin, your new and used heavy-duty truck and Ram headquarters. This 2022 Ram 2500 comes with the 6.7-liter Cummins diesel. It's paired up with the 6-speed 68 RFE automatic transmission. This truck has been fully-safetyed and inspected by our service shop per the state of Wisconsin inspection process. It has a fresh oil and filter change, all the fluids have been checked and topped off, and this one is 100% ready to go. Very sharp truck, very clean truck all the way around, and that's exactly what I'm going to do in this video. Go all the way around, go underneath, start it up, take a look under the hood, show you all the options on the inside and the cleanliness on the inside to give you the most accurate representation possible. Bright white clear coats of color, I show all my videos in 4K, if you like the video consider subscribing to the YouTube channel. Click the bell notifications and get updates on the videos I do each and every day, as well as having access to one of the largest catalogs of vehicle and heavy-duty truck walk-arounds on YouTube, and stay current on our vast and ever-changing inventory here at Summit Automotive. This one comes with 20-inch method painted alloy wheels, has some really nice open country Toyo AT tires. These are 35 by 12.5 R20 LT's, and I would say they have probably about 60% of the tread left on them, maybe a little bit more. This one has Bilstein springs and shocks, and it does have the 4x4 off-road suspension package frame, and underbody is very nice and clean on this truck. And it is a one-owner clean title history, clean car fax out of Tennessee. The fender is in excellent condition, it does have the LED headlamps, LED running lights, and the LED fog lamps. I'm going to turn those on at the end of the video so you can see just how bright they are. It does come with a very nice ranch hand grille guard, and that matches the night edition quite nicely. Has the gloss black grille as well and the ram blacked out lettering. The hood is in fantastic condition, I didn't see any dents or dings on there. I did want to point out one really cool thing about this truck. This truck does have a protective rock guard plastic film on the hood, the fenders, the front bumper, the front painted parts of the grille around the headlights as well. You can kind of see it right there, that's part of the line from the protective film, and I will fully disclose that there is a scratch that happened on this truck right there, so full disclosure that is there. No major side front wheel, no major scuffs or scrapes, and then this plastic film goes all the way up until this pillar right here, and this is where it ends. But it does go all the way down that line. This plastic film is all the way on the line, it's on the lower rockers as well, which is really nice, especially when you have big tires like this, you're not going to rock chip all your lower rockers. So it's nice that they did that, you can see it has a really nice set of go-rino step bars as well, but I didn't see any dents or dings on the front fender, and I didn't see any dents or dings on the doors, and as you go down this side of this 2022 Ram 2500 take note of how clean that body is, how reflective and mirror-like that paint is. I take these HD videos, so if you're far away or even if you're close by and you just cannot make the trip down, but you're still interested in purchasing the vehicle, you can see the truck, hear the truck, and have confidence in the vehicle that you're looking at before you even get here, so when you do get here, there's absolutely no surprises, and you can make a smart and informed buying decision from wherever you're at. Now if this video helps you make that buying decision, let your salesman know that you saw the video, that it was helpful, and that Brett sent you. Back wheels in excellent shape, no scuffs or scrapes in there. Back tires have just as much tread as the front tires, I'd say maybe even a little bit more, maybe 10% more tread pattern on those tires, or tread depth I should say. Framing on the bodies in really nice, clean condition as all the remaining factory exhaust, and definitely advantageous to get a truck out of Tennessee. Very little to no corrosion, lower rockers all look really good. You can see where that tape line, that 3M rock guard goes right there. Nice fender flares on this truck, part of that Laramie package. Coming around the back, the LED tail lamps are a nice addition as well. Rear bumper is painted, no dents or dings in there. Full towing package, which includes receiver hitch, four pin and seven pin wiring to get the back of parking sensors as well. And that tailgate is in fantastic condition. Night edition gives you the blacked out 4x4 RAM and Laramie logos on there. This one does have a power drop down tailgate, comes with a very nice back flip fold up tonneau cover. I didn't see any dents or dings on that, that's in really nice condition as well. And it does come with a very nice spray and bed liner. I would venture to say that's probably factory. You get the fifth wheel and gooseneck prep package. Four pin wiring back here, as well as seven pin wiring. And then 115 to 400 watt plug-in back here. You also get LED bed lights, which are working nicely. And then that bed liner goes onto the tailgate as well. Shuts nice and solidly. And as we go down the driver side, just as clean as that passenger side, no dents or dings in the box. And for full disclosure, this back wheel just as nice as the rest. Cab and doors on this side all look really good. And it does have that rock guard on the driver's side as well. As the heated fold-up tow mirrors, built-in directional signals, they fold up like so. They fold in like that. They also have LED side lights right there. Entering go system, take a quick look at the back seats. These back seats are heated on the outboard side.  Headliners in really nice shape. You do get the speakers in the ceiling, part of that Harman Kardon premium sound system. Get the gray piping on those seats. Get a load floor back here, which is nice. You got muddy boots or tools. Put them on there. You're not going to get your nice leather seats dirty. Or if you've got pets, put both sides down. They've got a nice flat place to lay.   On the other side is your Harman Kardon subwoofer. Two USBs, two USB-Cs and 115 volt, 400 watt plug-in. Weather tech formats back here. You get in-floor storage with removable beds for easy cleaning. You can put ice and drinks in there.  Or if you're not in Wisconsin, just extra storage space. Child safety locks on the back doors. And the inside and bottoms of the doors all look fantastic on this truck. Show you the VIN sticker here. No Canadian trucks here. And then the tire and loading information sticker. Inside the Laramie, I believe level B package. Laramie level B package gives you the black leather and suede bucket seats in the front. The gray piping as well. Both these seats are heated. Both these seats are cooled. No rips, no tears, truck smells very clean. I don't think it's ever been smoked in. Weather tech formats, auto headlamps, power pedals, power windows, locks and mirrors. You get the suede insert on the door. Kind of the diamond plated finish look to that trim piece there. There we go. That doesn't want to focus. Anyways, these mirrors do power fold in. I always like showing both sides so that you know that both sides are working properly. Then you get a power blind spot mirror. You get to press the power blind spot mirror, which is one you want to control and you can control that outside mirror as well, which is great especially for the passenger side of the truck. Check out the miles, radio and everything inside this truck. You can see you get the seven inch LCD display. 12,179 miles on here. Instrument cluster is very nice and clean. You get a range to empty battery voltage and oil tempter and you can change all those corners to read pretty much whatever you want. It comes with the heated leather wrap steering wheel, cruise controls and gear selector on the right Bluetooth and information center controls and the left audio controls in the back of the steering wheel. It also comes with the six speed, automatic 68 RFE automatic transmission. That also has your push button start, push button four wheel drive and this is the Uconnect 12 inch five, Uconnect five 12 inch radio. So you get all your controls on here. Let's go to the media, where you get AM, FM and serious XM radio capabilities as well as Bluetooth and your USB controls. This one does have the factory navigation system. There is highway 41 right there. So you can see that is working nicely. And they say that this radio is supposed to be five times faster as far as the navigation system goes over the old 4C radio. So that's pretty neat. All right, here are all your apps. So you get all your media controls, your comfort controls, nav phone. Basically these are just links to the other places on the truck. And we're going to check out all the cameras as well off road pages and that. So let's check out the cameras first because those are pretty nice. You get that backup camera right there. They made those HD so you can get hooked up to your build camper or trailer the first time every time. And you can zoom in on that receiver hitch to help out with that even better. And then you get your cargo cam. So you can see what's going on in the bed when you have that nice back flip tunnel cover folded up. And then you have your off road pages here where you can see the steering angle as I turn that steering wheel that angle changes. And you can also see that the wheels up top change just a little bit as well. Latitude, longitude, altitude, accessory gauges, pitch and roll there as well. So that's a nice off-roading stuff there too. Down here you're more tactile. Volume two controls up here, your climate controls, stability control, Harman Kardon badge. So you got the good sound system. Down here are your factory brake controllers. Factory brake controller, factory exhaust brake, tow haul mode, front to rear parking sensors, two USBs, two USBCs. You also get a wireless cell phone charge pad right there and a 115 old 400 watt plug-in. Keyless entry with remote start and power drop down tailgate. You get your sliding coin holder and cup holder tray right there. Dual glove boxes and the passenger side format and seat are in excellent condition. No rips or tears on there. I don't think this truck's ever been smoked in. You get the speakers in the ceiling once again and that headliner is like new. You get assist and SOS buttons, power slide and rear window controls and map lights and power drop down tailgate button, home link buttons for your garage door security systems and lighting systems. Let's start it up, take a look under the hood and as promised, check out all those LED lights. It starts right up. No check engine lights or anything like that. Now I'd personally like to thank you for checking out the video today and hopefully from this HD video, those LED lights are really bright. Hopefully from this HD video, you've been able to verify the quality condition options and of course, cleanliness of this truck all the way around inside and out. All those LED lights are very bright and working nicely under the hood. We have the 6.7 liter Cummins diesel engine base, very clean runs, very smooth. And once again, this truck has been fully safe and inspected by our service shop, has a fresh oil and filter change. All the fluids have been checked and topped off and this one is 100% ready to go. There is the emissions sticker. Really cool with all that 3M rock guard on it. Keep your truck looking good.  But other than that, this thing is pretty much perfect and I would highly recommend it from a quality and condition standpoint. I'd ship this one anywhere. California, Texas, New York, Florida, whoever's gonna get this truck back to Tennessee, whoever's gonna get this truck's gonna absolutely love it. And to see more pictures of this truck or one of other 550 new in-use cars, trucks, SUVs, minivans, rain glows, half tons, three-quarter tons, one tons, you name it, we gotta go to the website right there at summitauto.com. Full pictures and descriptions of every single vehicle all at summitauto.com. If you wanna check out more HD videos, go to youtube.com slash summitauto. Click the bell notifications, get updates on the videos I do each and every day, and have access to one of the largest catalogs of vehicle and heavy duty truck walk-arounds on YouTube, 9,000 videos and counting, and stay current on our ever-changing, vast inventory here at Summit Auto. Fact in a second, you will see a link to subscribe to my YouTube channel on the upper left, a link to all the Ram 2500 truck videos I've ever done in the upper right, a link to this vehicle on our website on the lower left, and a link to one of our latest YouTube videos on the lower right. Click those, check us out, we're super excited to help you with this ultra clean 2022 Ram 2500 crew cab short box, Laramie level B night edition and bright white clear coat. Thanks again for checking out the video. Remember to like, subscribe, and share on the YouTube channel. I really appreciate it. Thanks again.