What's up guys? Thought I'd do a few things differently for this video Mostly because I really need to get around to making more YouTube videos I've got so much footage. I've got so many ideas. I just need to actually produce But yeah, I'm gonna be completely honest with you like I have been forever I hope Right now I am almost finished actually and I'm editing a wedding shoot that I did a Couple of weekends ago, and I told the couple I Told this couple That I was gonna finish it by Sunday It's Friday night and I've got about maybe a hundred photos to go. So easy I've Culled them. I've cropped them. I just need to tinker a little bit of color grading a light fixing So it's pretty much done, but There was a hundred photos about an hour and a half ago So realistically I should be done and finished and I should be asleep but no my heads getting distracted by something and And I'm just gonna really express exactly every single thought that I'm feeling right now. I'm thinking I'm gonna wind it back six months ago Yeah, about six months ago I was at school and I was starting to really make a little bit of a Movement with my photography with my tours Nick Buchanan and myself started a portrait walk thing and I had a couple of weddings under my belt and those weddings There's a bit of movement from that as well momentum and I started to get bookings. I Was posting every day on my Instagram. I Had a goal that I needed to have 999 posts By the 1st of October Because the 1st of October Where's when I was going to be in America in New York City in Central Park on one knee Proposing to the love of my life and that video was going to be my thousandth post That was probably the biggest Accountability I've ever put on myself thus far and You know like there's been other moments throughout my life that I needed to pull my head in and do things But that was probably the longest kind of throughout a period of time now I Achieved that The first six months of the year I was $16,000 in debt Because in 2018 I decided to take about five overseas holidays I decided to upgrade my camera. I Decided to get a lot of camera equipment because I had the money to finally do it But then I overextended and then got into debt got into interest-free loans Cards credit cards and stuff. I wasn't silly. I kept an eye on it But I was still in debt So I went to Japan in 2019. Yeah, January last year and At the end of January at the end of the trip. I was 16,000 dollars in debt and I was really driven to take photos. I was really excited to have a job a permanent job Every fortnight a good chunk of money is coming into my account But I also wanted to go to America and Proposed to Sabine. I Knew that at the end of January. I knew that well before January, but very very cement concrete sort of stuff for At the end of January after Japan I was like I'm gonna ask her to marry me. So anyway Then what happened was I was like, right? There are gonna be a few conditions Where I'm going to need to I'm gonna need to fulfill a few things in order for us to be Able to get by in America and actually have a good time. Firstly, I need to get rid of debt I didn't want to go to America with still some debt and probably more debt at the end of the trip So that was the first thing I wanted to do. I failed But I only failed by one month. I gave myself until mid-year to pay it off and I had done it by The end of July 30th of July.  I bought a Commodore V8 VSS Back then it was flexing Not gonna BS you guys. It was to flex and Then I soon realized that no one cared So then I was just like damn. All right. I've got this The microphones there by I've got this debt I've got this car debt It's big and it's getting interest So what I did was I paid it off on time every month Sometimes my mum would help me when I first moved out of home, but I had debt and I had debt for about eight years and I Could have been using that money for so many better things However, the one big positive I took out of it was it taught me how to save and it taught me not to buy dumb things because I had a debt Now there are some people in this world Actually a lot of people who have debt and still buy dumb things so they're getting into more debt and they're not Achieving their goals Because they're stuck they have debt to pay So anyway, I paid off my car last year. I got rid of a big $16,000 debt and Then it was the end of July End of July August September October so I had three months to save up for America Now my biggest achievement last year apart from obviously getting engaged to my lovely Beyonce Was the fact that when I still had that debt I started saving anyway So it was like a Money comes in Here's to some debt Here's to some bills and food to get by not not a lot. I stopped buying sneakers I have over 60 pairs of sneakers and I didn't buy a single pair last year not one and Prior to that I probably bought about maybe Who 8 to 12 per year Give or take Not one. I changed my priorities. I changed my mindset and So then October came around and I think we managed to collectively save about $15,000 Majority of that was me Because Sabine was also getting rid of debt and she was motivated from me To get rid of her debt And we both got rid of our debts together And now we're debt-free We had an amazing holiday and We weren't poor people we weren't like scrounging for lose change towards the end of our trip and you know Couldn't wait to get on the plane to get home because we had no money left About halfway through the trip and this is where my maths teaching comes in handy, I guess Thinking in my head projecting like the way we're going about things where we're Soon going to run out of money and I'm predicting probably earlier than the end of the trip, which is not where you want to be and We did have a payment coming in we'll get both on salaries, so we're gonna get payments in and I said to Sabine I was like hey Go for gold However, we need to chill out for a little bit. We need to turn the turn it down on the spending every day My savings for that trip was to pay for the ring to put on her finger Now the ring to put on her finger didn't actually cost that much the physical ring Didn't cost me that much it cost me less than 300 Australian dollars, and you're thinking save your cheapskate a Ring for under 300 dollars an engagement Are you kidding are you crazy? Firstly before you start punch passing judgment firstly Sabine doesn't wear jewelry No Secondly she told me talked about it. She goes safe. Don't waste your money on a ring whenever you Whenever the time comes to propose a bit cheeky on her and Thirdly We'd rather use that money for holidays, so I kept that Kept that and then I used that and then sent that off and To the universe and said to the universe. Hey, this is what's gonna happen 2019 I'm gonna get rid of my debt I'm gonna save up for America and have an amazing time in America. I'm gonna propose to her at the end of the trip Now the advice one of my good mates from school shoutouts to Todd And I told him about my idea and he was one of the only people I told Another guy called Dan shoutouts to Dan if you're watching mate, let me know Todd told me So don't you dare propose to at the end of the trip.   You're both gonna be just a little bit Do it on day one Do it on day one So rock up Obviously, we rocked up the night before got to the hotel room fell asleep sweet. We're in America. We're in New York. Whoo Then morning came Went down the Central Park Did our thing I proposed she said yes, we're engaged. Good. Thanks And that's my 2019 Tick now. Why am I telling this such such a thorough story? Why am I telling going such depths? Probably getting bored right now. Cool story, bro and the reason is I Wanted to go real real deep into it because I wanted to tell you that It takes it takes time To achieve your goals If you really want to achieve them, you're gonna have to work for him. I Got rid of my debt Sabine got rid of her debt. We saved up 15 grand for America and going back to that time when we were a little bit Worryed well, I was a little bit like oh, we might run out of money on this trip here. I said to Sabine, let's turn it down and Let's aim to have a thousand dollars left over by the time we get on the plane Long story short. Oh, thank God. They said we failed We failed by three hundred dollars. So we got on the plane with seven hundred dollars still in our savings for America Bank account Is it really a loss? No Other times and many people this this happens to many people they get to zero and Then they get their credit cards out Days before the trip ends and they're like us stuff it YOLO Now I'm not demonizing that you'd live your best life if you can afford it cool But it's that mindset change that I'm mentioning and I'm talking about that mindset change that You really want to make a difference. You really got to stick to it. You got a really Be be critical and you got to be rough. You get not rough. You're gonna be strict on yourself so now we're in 2020 I I don't have a clear goal by the end of the year I realized and The goals that I've set out so far in 2020 today Today's the 24th of January. So We're three and a bit weeks in to the new year one of my goals for the end of January was to have a $500 retainer. So make $500 per week from my clients ongoing Now I told that to the universe because I wrote it down and I put a specific date in there Why I say this is a lot of you guys, especially you young young people You want I don't know popularity you want let's say you want to be famous on tiktok When do you want to be famous by? How many followers do you want by? How many people do you want messaging you daily saying how much of a difference you make to their lives because of the content you create? Have you ever thought about like that? Well, if you haven't then why are you making tiktok videos? What's the reason you want to be popular? What's the reason you want to be famous? Is it to spread a good message? That's my message I want to I want to give value out I want to share the my experiences with you guys And tell you what I've learned from them like I am in this video I want to lead by example I'm not going to shove anything down your throat and force you to be like you need to do this You need to do this. You need to do this I'll always try To deliver it to you in a suggestive manner, which means hey, have you thought about doing it like this? Maybe you can try like this This is how I did it. Maybe you can think about doing it in a similar fashion That's not up to me to decide though. It's up to you Now if you want something to happen to you In a good way obviously Like say you want to get better at football.  You want to go and you wish every day was woodwork day and you can make things But how do you get to that spot? Well, you got to tell the universe You got to tell the universe what you want But here's the kicker and here's the point to this whole video Now, I apologize it took this long, but if you're still here with me, let me know in the comments Message me tell me that you got this far But here's the big kicker of the video If you tell the universe what you want Write it down Set a date it may be realistic. It may be unrealistic You may not reach it. Don't get it disappointed if you don't maybe you've uh overextended But if you tell the universe what you want and also you tell everybody else That's how I do it. Keep yourself accountable You're going to start doing things that will move you towards Achieving those things that you told the universe that you wanted or you wanted to achieve So let's let's paint a picture. I love painting pictures. I love taking photos You're in year eight And by the end of year eight You want to get good grades. You want to get better grades? You Low C grade student, right? Now why I say year eight is because I one of my Main classes last year was a year eight class shout outs to my year eight class last year by the way You know who you are We did some goal setting at the start of this the year and some of them would be saying Oh, this is dumb Oh, why are we goal setting? But these guys still did it they still did it A lot of their answers a lot of their things that they would write were very similar to do with school One of the questions was what's something you want to achieve in school? That's my dog snoring And majority of them said they want to get better grades So cliche I know But then it's like what do you do? To get those good grades you tell the universe Then you've got to set a pathway you get to set stepping stones How do you get from a c to a b? What subject do you need to work on? What do you need to do to be able to move forward? And this this is across all grades by the way, so this could be my first Video for surviving high school surviving any year group that you may be worried about shoutouts to any year 12s listening Do not complain That the grades aren't happening for you make yourself happen Towards the grades does that make sense? So be realistic Don't assume that the teacher's just going to fail you because you don't get along Research Ask them Don't be stubborn just because you don't get along with the teacher Don't just automatically disregard yourself thinking that they're not going to help you they will It's because you don't go to them And ask for their help that they may be a little bit more quiet towards you Especially when you get older now. Here's why here's my theory anyway As you get older You'll find that you're more and more alone Now it's not a bad thing Because a lot of introverts out there that are very successful And i'm not demonizing any introverts by the way just in case you get the wrong idea because you know This is all just coming out of my head right now the best way to Succeed in anything Is to learn How to do it Learn how to do it in a way that you understand Now this this this applies to every bit of school work you can do So what's the best way that you can do it now as a student? You may not know because you're young you haven't experienced enough life to be able to know that As a teacher it is my job to Stimulate your mind To throw out different ways that you can be like, oh I understand Pythagoras now. Well, when am I going to use it? I don't know but I get it. I get that a a squared plus b squared equals c squared.   If you're complaining you're always at a disadvantage because You're complaining that you're not actually moving You've you maybe you've spoken to the universe and said I want to get better grades But i'm just going to sit here and i'm going to wait for the universe to come to me That's not how the universe works No, sir The universe works for you if you start to move Towards what you said you wanted to do And then we'll start working for you. It's as simple as that It takes time. It takes patience. It takes grit. Look up grit Look up the word grit G R I T And if it sounds like it's a too hard work then Find something that you're passionate about Let's go back to me for a second Let's go back to where we're at So last year Finished my holiday So this is end of october now Went back and had a few weddings to do Went back and had a few photo shoots Had to finish school off And I made the decision to say Yep This is it. I'm calling it quits on my teaching for now Going on hiatus So don't know when I'm going to come back But I'm going to take 12 months to do my photography videography Wedding stuff business stuff development Maybe get somewhere with tiktok. Maybe maybe this video will go viral and maybe everybody will want me to make a book and whatever You know what I'm enjoying the journey but for me I'm I've said to the universe. Hey, I want to Make five hundred dollars a week Which is a thousand dollars every two weeks Which is only half of what I make as a school teacher Now do I need to make as much as I did as a school teacher? to get by the answer is no because Last year I managed to save money I managed to put away money Just to get rid of debt I managed to save money to put into America And I still had money to left over to pay the bills. So clearly a thousand dollars of fortnight is fine enough for me But here's my next big accountability step And I love it.  So she became casual so she can study psychology full time She's starting this year And that means she's going to get less shifts. That means she's going to make less money than last year So that means my thousand dollars a fortnight that I was Always going to just get by on means That may not be enough Is that scary? Man Maybe I should have waited. Maybe I should have just kept being a school teacher this year and we would have been sweet But the thing is when you have distractions And I mean serious distractions not just your phone's vibrating in your pocket.  It doesn't count If you want to do something it's itching you and it's distracting you from something that you're already doing And all you can think about is that other thing you go chase it You go chase it And if you set a goal to complete something before the end of the year But you're getting distracted by this new thing that you love so much more It's okay to switch It's okay to switch Now bringing you guys back in as a student as a young person And this technically applies to everybody, but I'll go into that later As a young person you're living at home still. You're not paying the bills. You're not paying tax You have all this time to try everything as many things as you can I want to play sport.  Did I give up my best shot? Nah, am I really that interested? Nah, I like to do this. I want to do this. I want to code I want to make apps I want to learn how to make apps for example You study you go on the computer. You go on youtube all the books And you find that you're obsessed with it Obsessed it's a good word in my books. It's a good word You're obsessed with it You want to do it every day. You just enjoy it all of a sudden You're good at it. You're getting better at it. That's all you want to do Make an aim. What can you do with it?  You're not going to be the best at school. That's fine You're so interested in coding You've got a gift Whatever it may be You finish school and you start coding for that company and they pay you so much money because you're so good at it And they they see value in you. It could happen At the same time though, it may not happen If you didn't try enough things Now i'm not saying that channeling your energy into one idea is bad I'm not saying that you should leave school or whatever I'm saying that you need to make sure that you taste everything that you can To to know what you're into. I've been tasting for the last 29 years The most amount of tasting I've done was in my 20s this last decade.  I've got to finally got a job I'm a teacher full-time qualified teacher And I've got my Permanency I'm sorted But my distraction came through last year photography I couldn't get enough of it at school at recess and lunchtime. I was thinking about Shooting models and how I was going to edit the photos Doing a wedding shoot now.   You guys Got me into video and I'm just like man. I love this. This is my thing Now I think I've gone on a tangent a few times now and I hope you're getting something out of this So the whole point of this is it's unscripted. I don't have anything written down This is just coming out of my head right now. It's going to be a podcast too. So have a listen if you want um These wedding photos right now. I love it. I love it But the thing that's distracting me is making tiktok videos On the phone on the phone And now I'm thinking and this is me telling the universe for the first time Because it's been in my head for a last few weeks now And shout out to Andrew Murphy again because recently he's announced that he wants to be doing youtube full time I've always thought That being on youtube being on tv Being on something Where if someone else can watch you was the coolest thing in the world I think going back to when I was like 12 or 13 we played this game on uh on webs on online And it had uh like a dj like a radio station thing where where you can where people Could set up their computers to play music and talk And I was like that's the coolest thing ever Me and my friend luke my childhood friend luke shout outs to luke We both listened He we figured out how to make a radio station. We made our own radio station. We had like two listeners. It was the coolest thing I think one point. I had 14 listeners That was the coolest thing best thing in the world And now I have an average of 80 to 100 people streaming into my lives every time I host a game show quiz show on sunday mondays Man my 12 year old self would be like dude.  I was like man. He's so cool. He's doing that man I wish I want to do that and my 12 year old self He was absolutely is in the same boat and you know what one of my other biggest regrets I realized now is I didn't let that 12 year old flourish I went into the school system and focused at school not saying school's bad not saying school's bad But I focused more on school And I'm saying a hundred percent of the time Give or take with a bit of footy because that was my thing But I stopped with the the radio stuff I was taking photos well before 2015 I was making videos as well. I had the crappiest little camera back then it looked like you're filming on a calculator and I made the videos Back then and I remember putting on youtube. I don't know if they exist on I think I deleted them I wish I didn't because they're pretty Hey, I might find them anyway that was like 2006 and I wasn't 12 in 2006. I was like 15 16. I think maths anyway um When I did that It was the funnest thing Put a little music behind it. It was the coolest but I didn't progress Because no one pushed me And I didn't push myself I'm not saying you need someone to push you you need to push yourself Now if you find this video valuable and you get something out of it And this is motivation for you I've had so many people who already messaged me on instagram and all the social media channels saying you motivate me so much I'm drawing because of you. I'm taking photos because of you I'm wanting to do better at school because of you. That's That's amazing The thing is You need to actually do it now If you're motivated fantastic, you're welcome. You need to do it now prove to me Prove to me that you can do it. I'm going to draw a picture of you chef Okay, do it I'm keen to see I'm looking forward to seeing it You want to make a montage video of me? Absolutely keen to see I'm keen to see the next 20 montage videos you make of or whoever you want to make do it though All right, you want to make music you want to be a producer you want to be a rapper you want to be a singer Make some music Do it every day show me that you've done 20 different tracks over the next 20 to 25 days Or however many days you can possibly do it in Show me I want to see it prove it Prove to me that you have the obsession to Tell to the universe. I want this but also say I want this and I'm going to get it Because at the end of the day, it's not you asking for the universe What you want It's you telling the universe what you're going to get And that's I feel the difference If you tell the universe hey I'm going to be a famous tiktoker and I'm going to get sponsors and I'm going to get The deals and signings or whatever be the next Jojo Siwa or whatever name is shout outs to Demi Show the universe That's all I'm saying For me. What am I going to show the universe this year? Well My weddings I have failed This month With my goal Now here's is where the universe Excuse me Sit properly now Here's where the universe Comes into play for me And teaches me something. This is what I've learned over the last few days from the Inspiring words of Cameron branch. Yeah, that's the Cameron branch I told the universe at the start of the year that I wanted to make $500 a week as a retainer I failed because the retainers aren't there. I don't have someone or some people paying me collectively $500 a week However, I had another goal For my weddings My goal was to book two weddings a month Two weddings now how weddings work is Let's say a wedding is about $2,000. I charge a bit more than that, but $2,000 some weddings are booked months from now some weddings are booked even next year I have one next year as late as I think September But my policy is 50% And I give them a little bit of leeway, but minimum of $500 deposit per booking Nice to do myself my minimum is two a month So that gets me to $1,000 per month, which is half if you let's pretend every month is February and they all have 28 days And it's not a leap year Two weddings a month will get me halfway to my goal technically Now in the last Six days I've booked eight weddings So that's Four months I've ticked off Fantastic now here's the best bit Because it's eight weddings And on average All of them are over $500. Um deposit each Eight weddings Into $500 is Four grand? Yeah, four grand $4,000 I wanted $500 a week retainer by the end of January I've made $4,000 From the deposits so far $4,000 divided into Four weeks is a thousand dollars per week all of a sudden All of a sudden I am pretty much on par with my school teaching salary And it hasn't even finished January yet So what is the universe telling me the universe is telling me that You're not going to succeed Exactly the way you want to sometimes And that's what I feel like I've done I'm not getting retainers because maybe the retainers aren't for me Maybe that's the universe helping me saying hey That's not the way that you're going to go about it because that's not you See what happens see if the universe is right Maybe they are forever it is So Technically my goals are sorted for the next two months I've met my quota personal quota And I've also matched my salary for the month of January Which I'm still getting paid for because I'm on technically on holiday still from school So I'm going into February and March all sorted I can just sit there and be like sweet sort of for two months But here's the next bit Do I just sit there and let it roll and let it happen and just relax God no This is when I work harder It's still day one for me Tomorrow will be day one The next day will be day one It will be forever day one for me because I don't want to ever be Um listening to all the applause all the accolades serve you did it. Oh my god. You're so awesome. You got such drive It's nice to hear that and please feel free to message me that every day but I'm already looking at the next thing I'm that's me five minutes ago sweet Fantastic. So let's move on And that's the drive Now Going back to these weddings. I've still got a hundred photos to go. I've still been talking to you for almost 40 minutes non-stop These photos I need to do Why haven't I done them yet? Maybe that's me figuring out my next obsession And then going back to Andrew Murphy. Maybe I Want to make more TikTok videos and really hit it and really strike a chord and Get famous from that but because I'm saying maybe It's because I don't know yet and There is a bit of uncertainty as well. I don't want to just jump into that world yet because I'm still enjoying this wedding world YouTube could be a thing. I love making videos. I do But I need to channel my energy into one specific thing at a time and for now that's weddings Because I still enjoy a lot so much I love to engage with the bride to be get to know the husband get to know the family Um talk about their day and how it's going to pan out Most of the time they're getting married for the first time. So I'm like, hey, did you know this? Oh my god? That's a great idea. Let's do it I get to be part of the day The editing part is a bit more tricky. Obviously that's in my own time and that's the bit that I have to do But today was a good day because I edited these photos and I'm very happy with them These are some of my best photos I've ever edited and I still stopped halfway And decided to make TikTok videos instead and talk to my fans and message message reply to their messages So Why what am I doing? What am I into? What's my thing? What's my aim? The only thing I'm going to tell you about that though for now as it's coming to me is I'm just enjoying enjoying the journey. I'm enjoying the roller coaster So we'll see what happens in the next few weeks days months years decades but We're going to see what happens next because that's really The thing that's I'm most focused on not in five years time. TikTok may not be around in five years time. I might have Zero interest in weddings in five years time What happens next is what matters the most So, I hope you enjoyed my little rant story analogies Bringing it into your context of the world And I hope you got something out of it And if you did I'd love to hear a message from you on instagram, you know where to reach me at sevespix This has been a really good session because There's been no There's been no script. I'm not reading out of anything. I'm not pausing I'm not even stuttering that much. I feel I'm not saying um as much either So I'm pretty proud of that. I'm getting better And I hope you're enjoying it too Okay Looking forward to hearing from you guys and as always Good. Thanks And have a nice day


here and So I want to talk about what I call cognitive neuro informatics, and I'll start with a quote which I think probably Describes the experience that a lot of us have in doing science right? We're drowning in information, but starving for knowledge the question is how do we take this mass of information? That hits our retinas every day and actually feel like we know something and it's you know I do functional imaging and it's particularly an issue there where if you look at the number of publications that mention fMRI it's now somewhere between three and four thousand a year that are coming out and you would hope that you know We would feel like we would get some sort of Knowledge that would accrue from all of these activation maps But often you end up sort of feeling like it's just a very techie version of a Frenological map without really getting us more towards understanding basic function So what I want to do today is first kind of ask the question is how is it that we go about trying to map mental function onto the brain?  And then I'll talk about several different projects that we've done that have kind of tried to address this in different ways First being the cognitive Atlas project, which is really building an ontology for cognition second is topic mapping so basically taking that and trying to figure out how can we map it on to To imaging data and finally talking about data sharing So how is it that we map mental function onto the brain? Well, usually we use a an approach that That Rick Henson first called forward inference, right? Which is basically we try to wiggle something in the mind and see what in the brain wiggles We do that so we manipulate some mental process like working memory maintenance I tell you hold this phone number in your head and we look at what brain areas Turn up in activity when we do that And then we infer that those brain areas must have something to do with whatever mental process It was that I was wiggling and so We see for example that a region like the interior singulate shows up when we Turns on when we have people engage in maintenance, but If you look across lots of different studies, you see that lots of different psychological manipulations End up turning on very similar looking patterns of activity, right? So this is patterns of activity. These are actually estimated Via meta-analysis so these are actually patterns of activity that are associated with the presence of these particular words in papers They're not actual activation maps, but if you look at actual studies You see a very similar story that the same areas light up across many different types of task manipulations So the question is what do we make of that? What's what does that tell us? Well, there's a lot of different alternatives, right? One is that there's some confound that drives all of those such that you know whenever we engage in any of these tasks It turns up our autonomic nervous system and that's causing activity in the intersingulate because it monitors the autonomic nervous system It could be that there's you know different cortical columns within the intersingulate that are doing all these different things But that they're really distinct right and if we had the right resolution we could see that it could be that The ACC does all those different things, but it does it in different neural context So when it's when it's communicating with the left posterior parietal it does one thing when it's communicating with Cauteate Nucleus it does another thing Or it could be that we're just chopping up the mind the wrong way that these are all not really sort of fundamental cognitive functions, but But that that you know we're kind of misled about the structure of the mind and a thought experiment that I like to suggest is What would have happened if the phrenologist had had functional MRI, right? It's doubtful that they would have decided that phylo progenitiveness and whatever their other faculties were that those weren't real, right? They would have found blobs that map onto those things because presumably all those The faculties that the phrenologist had are sort of correlated with real psychological functions and such so something would have lit up And they would have taken that as evidence for the reality of those things, right? Which it's pretty clear that that would not be the right that would not be an appropriate strategy so So this has kind of led us and others to ask the question of you know What is it that what is this mental stuff that we're actually imaging and I think many of you may know this book From about ten years ago now called the new phrenology in general. It's kind of a kooky book Because he doesn't really know much about imaging, but but he actually makes some really good points regarding Kind of what it is that how it is that imaging works and he makes this point that That basically we haven't done a very good job of formalizing we as cognitive neuroscientists people who use neuroimaging Haven't done a very good job of formalizing What it is that we're actually mapping on to the brain so what he calls the butterflies of our mind We haven't sort of laid out the the really the ontology of mental processes that we then want to map on to the brain So if we ask the question, you know, what are the atoms of the mind? What are the fundamental parts of the mind? You know one answer is this right the the phrenologist gave us an answer that was derived from early faculty psychology that said that things like I can't even read these like you know acquisitiveness and adamantiveness and Individuality and mirth are all fundamental psychological functions Most of us who study the brain now don't really believe that those are the way that we should chop it up Instead we think it's probably something more like this. We have things like perception and attention and memory And those might have some sub parts And you know one person might think that they're related in one particular way But you know other psychology is not a place where in anybody agrees on much of anything So other people might think for example that you know Memory is that for example working memory is not really part of memory that it's part of attention Other people might think that working memory doesn't exist at all So for any of these concepts you can pretty easily find somebody who doesn't think it's a real concept that it's really just a Kind of an artifact of some other function so the the first The sort of foray into Informatics that we made was in trying to develop trying to sort of make some sense out of this ontological mess and try to develop a formal ontology or at least something down the road towards a formal ontology of Psychological function, and so we developed this project called the cognitive atlas. It's online at cognitive atlas org it's been up for several years now and Basically the cognitive atlas is meant to be a collaborative Knowledge building platform, so we know that people in psychology don't agree on anything We want to be able to not just say Russ Poldrack and his lab think that the mind is structured this way We want to be able to say how does the field think the mind is structured and be able to capture the disagreement around that this sort of grew out of Out of talking to people who think about you know JB mentioned that I was in part Affiliated with psychiatry at UCLA and I spent a lot of time talking to people who study Psychiatric disorders and in the end want to know about you know, what are the genetics of psychiatric disorders and The intuition that that world has sort of come up with is that if you want to understand the link between Genetics and psychiatric disorders the way to do that is via what they call endophenotypes Which are basically things that sit in between in the causal pathway between genes and those diagnoses of schizophrenia or whatever other disorder you're talking about and particularly interesting endophenotypes are Psychological functions and brain systems and so we want to we wanted to start thinking about how can we better? Formalize this relationship if in the end you want to have sort of you know automated reasoning that can go from genetic association Data or knowledge about Genetic function all the way up to psychiatric disorders You have to make all of those links and the link that we are particularly interested in making was this one between brain systems and psychological functions and The intuition that we had is that how do we get between those two levels? you know, we can't see psychological functions physically right the only thing we can do is poke people's brains using psychological tasks and see what happens in the brain And so it's that link between cognitive function and brain systems is kind of mediated by tasks that we really wanted to capture So here's a sort of a schematic of how the the knowledge is laid out in the cognitive atlas We break things into two different types of Entities one is what we call mental concepts and these are kind of conceptual entities things that are in the head like working memory or Pain or you know sort of any any kind of psychological concept that people might talk about Then we have mental tasks, which are actually the things that are used to measure Those mental concepts and we came up with a novel relationship that is instantiated in this knowledge base That we call the measured by relationship and the idea is that any particular Cognitive concepts who in this case we might have a concept like Response suppression and we have some ontological relationships between different mental concepts So for example, we might think response suppression is part of response inhibition but in the end this particular thing is defined by its measurement and In this case it's measured by something we call SSRT But there could be multiple different things measuring it The point is that if we want to in the end link real data up to these psychological concepts we have to do that by linking to the the measurement relation or by by Defining the measurement relationships that links those concepts to two in the end to real data So let me just show you what a couple of examples look like within the within the cognitive atlas This is one of the pages the one for working memory and you can see that we have a little definition We have some ontological relationships, so we have you know, what are the kinds of working memory? What are the parts? What is it a kind or part of so it's kind of standard ontological relationships? And then if you go down on that page one thing you see is what are some of the tasks that we think measure? Working memory Okay, so we can define task and we actually define We don't say that working memory is measured by a particular task in general because any particular task has many different measurements That are taken so it in general it's going to depend on a particular measurement within that task that defines that particular concept That's these contrast measurements then we have a we also use some kind of a quick and dirty text mining Using a project called pub brain that I wasn't going to say much about but I can say more about it There's time at the end which basically mines PubMed abstracts for the presence of Particularly basically we have a lexicon of anatomical terms We mined PubMed abstracts for any particular search term and create a sort of a pseudo activation map That basically says what parts of the brain are people talking about in the context of that particular search term So we have one of those maps. We also have also links out to Neurosynth, which I'm going to tell you about in a bit And then we have discussion a la Wikipedia Which in the end is meant to kind of allow people to go back and forth and kind of capture some of the Disagreement that we think is going to exist on some of these We also have links then to tasks. So we for any particular task we define. What are the conditions? What are the contrasts? What are the indicators of the things that get measured there? And one of the interesting concepts that my colleague Bob builder from UCLA came up with this is idea of a Task phylogeny the idea being that you know many many psychological tasks derive from other tasks often going back to you Know the 1920s So in this case we could say for example, you know that this particular task the operation span is a descendant of an earlier Task called the digit span so we can capture kind of the where tasks come from And also again capture discussion. So what's what are our goals in this project? Well, we didn't you know when we first started out We looked at things like protege and we decided that we wanted to build something that was very different in that It would allow Scientists to come on and do something interesting quickly. So they could come on within five minutes. They could actually You know do something useful and interesting We can't require them to be ontologists because that's just not going to happen And so we decided to try to take advantage of what's been learned about social collaborative knowledge building One of my colleagues Nikki Couture is he's actually worked on analyses of Wikipedia and other kinds of social collaborative knowledge building And and it's thought a lot about how we can do that So we try to sort of place it somewhere, you know on these two dimensions of ease of use and structure somewhere in between Wikipedia and something like protege Where it's it, you know, it can be used by a non ontologist But it it has a little more structure than than something like Wikipedia would So we you know we as I said people don't agree on anything in this field And so we've tried to build ways to we want to involve the community in specifying the knowledge and so far the community has largely been My lab and a few other labs who sort of work together on it But it's open to anybody to come on and and contribute And we also try to capture disagreement one of the ways we do that is through the discussion page that I showed you earlier another is through what we call concept forking which is sort of like the the Disambiguation page idea from Wikipedia where if we have a term like behavioral inhibition that people really use in multiple different ways We can say this term has multiple senses One is the cognitive sense one is the temperament sense and then those get treated really as different concepts So that's one of the ways that we can allow People to sort of disagree as if in the end they really can't agree on what a term means they can fork it and it can have different senses We've added some personalization features So now when you log in you have a dashboard that can sort of tell you there's interesting stuff That's relevant to what you're what you've been working on or relevant to terms that you flagged you can follow particular concepts We have a semantic web representation, so we have a sparkle endpoint you can you can grab all of the data via that endpoint as RDF and Just in terms of where we are with the project right now we have about 650 psychological constructs about 393 tasks and That's that's pretty much leveled off and it actually we did a big sort of culling recently where we got rid of a number of them That didn't really make sense But that's that's about the right number. I think for where we want to be for the for the short term at least We made the decision early on not to build the project around Formal ontology language we built it using a relational database that gave us a lot of flexibility and the kinds of knowledge We can capture and then we what we did was on the back end Basically shoehorn that into a formal ontology So we now have an an owl version of the knowledge base It's available by a bioportal or and we had actually the code that we used to generate it is up on github as well and we For sort of for for giggles our software developers built an Android and iOS app So if you want to know what working memory is when you're walking down the street, you can bring that up on your phone So we've tried to integrate as much as we can with other projects, so we now are included in Neurolex All the the terms from our from our ontology We've worked with the cognitive paradigm ontology who are working to build sort of more detailed Descriptions of cognitive tasks that we've sort of aligned our information models I'm going to tell you about Neurosynth. We're deeply sort of engaged with them and I'll also tell you about open fMRI Where we're using this as the platform to describe tasks Okay, so One problem with the cognitive atlas in general is right now the database is pretty flat There's a lot of terms not a lot of relationships between them It's certainly not a lot of deep relationships, and so we wanted to see if there's any way we could use Data mining tools to try to pull some more interesting structure out of the the published literature And then see if it's sort of if that structure comports with what we expect out of the brain imaging literature So the approach that we decided to take was to use what have been come to call generative models of the published literatures The idea is that for any particular document you treat that document as a mixture of Topics and every word in the document is is a sample from from one of those different topics So one of the most popular Approaches for topic modeling is called latent directly allocation from Dave wine colleagues That's the technique that we ended up using And basically the idea is that you have this set of latent Topics and you have to say how many topics there are and then those topics generate Text and what you do is you use Bayesian inference to basically infer the topics from the text So here's the idea that for any particular paper there might be so you know papers in the fMRI world There's gonna be some pay either one topic is sort of decision-making right one topic is things having to do with fMRI One topic is things having to do with basal ganglia each of those topics is associated with words that could show up in the document And so you you start out only having the words across a bunch of documents and you infer what are those topics and so this has been used before for example in in on abstracts from PNAS Grevith and cybers did some early work showing that you can pull out different parts of PNAS abstracts Or different parts of the structure of PNAS papers by just doing this topic modeling stuff on the abstract So it's really sensitive to Different the use of different terms together It's actually it's an amazingly powerful tool when you start working with it Okay, so how did we do this so we first we have full text on about 5,800 articles from the fMRI literature and what we do is we We take all those papers and first we have to decide how many topics do we use and we do this by a cross validation where we split the Split the papers into sets run the topic models at a bunch of different Dimensionalities and then you can you can actually get from the topic model the empirical likelihood of the left out papers and You what you do is you basically find the topic dimensionality that maximizes that empirical likelihood of the left out papers So we started out just doing it on full text We we left out a few things that we thought were important one is standard English stop words To is author names because we found when if you do this You don't leave out author names most of the topics end up having a couple people's names in them And we didn't want that so basically we got rid of any name that That showed up on any paper as an author in the in the database except if your name is pain or something like that That happens to also be a cognitive term There is someone whose last name is PA in and then we also left out brain structures Because we didn't want the topic modeling to be driven by sort of the brain structures that were popping up We really wanted to be sensitive to the conceptual stuff around cognitive processes So here's what some of the topics look like and so the topics are not ordered right? We there's a hundred and thirty top are sorry 160 topics these are just a few examples and The idea is that each of these are sets of words that define a particular topic that that different ones of these papers are about And so you can see that it finds some that are just about very general stuff like that you would say in writing any paper Right figure abstract those kind of things Study analysis. This is one of my favorites Which is basically? Spellings that British people use So but you also see you can get some very very detailed ones here's one about Alzheimer's disease MCI One about aging here's one about sort of gambling neuroeconomics one about memory So it does a pretty good job of picking out sets of words that seem to be you know We can all look at these and say oh, yeah, that's a sensible topic, right? That's about X But there's a lot of stuff here that that isn't really cognitive right and we were really interested more in getting at the cognitive structure, so We took a next step which was to basically Only use the terms from the cognitive atlas So basically we take that the words and phrases that are in cognitive atlas and we model the phrases just as like a single token And then we throw out all the other words So we have in this case when we did it we had 545 terms in the atlas And here we get about 130 or we get 130 topics. That's our dimensionality and So here's some examples so now we get topics that are much more focused on cognitive stuff, right? Because that's the only terms we've let in and The underscores here just mean that that's a that's a compounds term from the atlas So you I've sort of focused on memory here, right? You get three different memory topics that are all about different aspects Here's one about working memory one about episodic memory one about semantic memory Here's one about response inhibition one about cognitive control And you can see that each of them maps across a decent number of documents in the corpus, but certainly not all the documents, right? It's relatively, you know, usually less than 10% of the documents Load on any particular cognitive topic Okay, so This tells us that there's interesting structure that we can pull out using these topic modeling tools now we want to ask does can we map this back on to brain activity and We don't have the raw imaging data for each article, right, but It turns out as you know that brain activity is usually reported in a somewhat standardized Format in these sort of tables in papers where it's in this XYZ M&I or Talorak coordinate system and The the five thousand eight hundred papers that we have are chosen for particular reason which is that Tal Yarkoni was able to develop a tool called automated coordinate extraction they can actually pull out the activation coordinates from all of those papers and In a paper in Nature Methods last year we showed that that we had if you compare it to David Van Essen sums DB manually annotated database. We get pretty good precision and pretty good recall Against that database so we seem to be doing a pretty good job of actually getting these coordinates accurately and so what we can do is you know for each of those papers we have the full text and we have the the activation coordinates and In first time and I sort of try to convince you that this automated coordinate extraction thing actually works So we can create meta analytic maps that for example, this is just using single terms yet So we're not up to using the the topics, but this is Looking at the association of activity at each voxel in the brain with the present with the Sort of over-presence of a particular term So I forget what the threshold is but this is basically when I say that the paper is over-represented in the term visual it means that it occurs more often in that paper than it does in most other papers and You see that you get the regions that you would expect for visual auditory and sensory maps It also works in sort of more complex stuff So for sort of working memory executive control you see kind of as you expect overlapping maps for lots of these different concepts Here's maps for language and again you see this sort of left hemisphere activation that you would expect and Finally emotion reward social processing again just making the point that we can this is just looking for the words in the paper Now single words in the paper We can do a pretty good job of pulling out kind of you know what we already know about About the localization of those particular functions A more the more interesting question is whether you can actually classify Whether a paper is going to over-represent a particular word based on its Its activation pattern so JB mentioned the reverse inference question that I've sort of been talking about for quite a while This is one way to try to get at that how well can you tell what a paper is about given the the brain activation? And so in this work, we used a naive based classifier and asked at a couple of different levels you know can we predict for example whether a paper is about working memory or emotion or pain where about means that it over-represents that particular term and We did cross validation and in this case we did it across 25 high frequency terms And so first I'll show you the pairwise Classification data, which is basically can we decide whether a paper is about one or the other of these things and then we actually move to multi-class So here's the pairwise data and basically if it's green That means that we can do an okay job of classification. We're in sort of the 70% range well above chance The blue ones are the ones where we're not doing very well. So for example, let's see that's imagery and attention are sort of pretty hard to pull apart and So What this starts to maybe tell us is that some of these concepts that are hard to pull apart might not really be Either they're being used in in sort of imprecise multiple ways in the literature or they're really not different concepts I'll come back to that This is what we get if we try to do multi-class classification across many different terms and again the the accuracy is is not great But it's well above chance the the sort of dotted line down here is chance. This is our accuracy up to Classifying which of ten different terms is going to be present So it tells you that despite the incredible sparsity of that sort of you know three three dimensional M&I space representation You can actually do a pretty good job of pulling out the maps that can drive this kind of classification All right, so now What what can we do in terms of the topics that we've pulled out? So I've shown you that it works for individual words. How does it work for topics? So so I mentioned that you know for every document we know it's loading on each topic and Each document loads on about six point five topics on average So we have the the activation coordinates for all those papers And then at every voxel we do a chi-square test to basically say is the activation of that voxel across papers associated with the loading on that topic across papers and we and then we do a whole ring correction for each of those and So we can get an association map between a particular topic and activation. So here's an example This is showing threshold correlation thresholded correlations. So everything that shows up here is FDR corrected for this whole brain Blue means negative correlation red means positive correlation this is the map for memory working memory maintenance visual working memory and All the maps I'm going to show you the the upshot of them is yeah, they kind of make sense It's actually a challenge to know where we go beyond kind of saying. Yeah, this already tells us what we already know and That's a I think that's an interesting point for discussion But but certainly we see very clearly that this is able to pull out probably in an even cleaner way than the single word Analysis so for example, here's episodic memory recall verbal memory and you get you know nice bilateral medial temporal lobe and retrospinial cortex Here's our semantic memory one where you get this Left is right here. So you get all this left prefrontal temporal stuff Here's that Response inhibition one where you get the right prefrontal stuff that you expect along with basal ganglia Here's the cognitive control one again. You get prefrontal sorts of things that one expects from the cognitive control literature There's a motor one so you get exactly what you would expect motor cortex And you can see that there's also some that so here's for example one that loaded on a relative Sorry, this is the number of papers it loads on the previous ones We're all loading on you know several hundred papers this one loads on a relatively small about 1% of the papers Is that yeah about 1% of the papers in the in the corpus? And it's about regret surprise reasoning arousal and you find this sort of fairly focused stuff down in the amygdala So it says that it can actually find relatively subtle things in the literature that you wouldn't necessarily see if you were just you know There probably are not enough papers that use the term regret to actually find You know a robust map if you just look for that term But using the topic mapping because we can sort of integrate across terms. We may be able to get more power to actually find that So we next wanted to ask whether we can use this to find out something about mental disorders So remember that you know, I mentioned the idea of the endophenotype The idea that we want to be able to sort of figure out what's sitting in between, you know, the disorder and the and the genes And so we started by basically doing the same thing that we had done with the cognitive atlas terms But now we do with the disorder term So we took a set of we basically came up with our own lexicon based on NIF Standard and on DSM which sort of spans across both neurological and psychiatric disorders Um, we that gave us 56 disorder terms and they're here We had to do some synonym mapping because there's a lot of different ways that people can use all of those terms So we map them all into this set of 56 items And here again, you get things that make a lot of sense So here's one for amnesia and Alzheimer's disease and Corsikov syndrome and vernacles and you get primarily bilateral medial temporal lobe and interestingly all of this kind of Lateral and medial parietal stuff, which I think might actually tell us something interesting as Hopefully it's clear that one of the challenges for us is really figuring out what's a discovery and what's noise out of this stuff And and I'm actually really interested to hear if people have ideas about how to address that challenge Here's one for gambling drug abuse impulse control disorder and you get basal ganglia and Ventromedial prefrontal cortex Here's one for dyslexia specific language impairment and you get these left hemisphere regions that are usually associated with that And here's a final one for anxiety disorder panic disorder again. You get bilateral amygdala So again, we can we can pull out Pretty robustly the maps of regions that we know to be associated with these terms We can also ask about kind of the higher order structure there's a lot of interest these days in Sort of how our different Psychiatric disorders related to one another with the idea that they might be actually Describing sort of underlying dimensions rather than so for example schizophrenia and bipolar disorder Many people think are not really separate disorders that they're kind of falling on some sort of on a couple of different dimensions So what we did was we took those topic maps for each of the different topics and clustered them in in Brain space to basically say how using hierarchical clustering how do the The sort of neural representations of those different topics relate to one another and interestingly you get Several clusters that make a lot of sense. Obviously. This is arbitrary in terms of where I put my My my tree cut here, but it was a pretty obvious Place to put it over here and sorry about all these these crazy acronyms But basically these are this is aphasia and dyslexia.  These are all the sort of schizophrenia ADD conduct disorder basically what are called externalizing disorders in the literature and Then these are all of your depression anxiety gambling Phobia eating things like that what are called largely what are called internalizing disorders? So it shows that not only can we pick out kind of you know individual mappings of brain systems to Two particular disorders, but we can pick out the larger clusters of those things based solely on the brain maps that come out of this This meta analysis So in the last question we wanted to ask can we actually discover anything new can we discover any new endophenotypes? so that would be groupings of disorders and Cognitive processes that group together via sort of common representation in these brain maps and to do this We use the sparse canonical correlation analysis where we basically come up with you know weightings across mental functions and disorders that basically end up projecting into a common brain space and You know again here we find some things that sort of make sense So for example and sorry about the tiny text Well, we found a bunch of stuff related to you know mood Induction reward reward anticipation and anxiety disorder depression gambling obesity There's another one about emotion Valence and it maps to amnesia schizophrenia autism So you start getting kind of Clusterings across disorders now This is really a case where it's hard to know what's discovery and what's noise and so we You know we haven't pushed this part of it very hard yet And I think it's it's going to be interesting to see kind of where we can go with it if we can actually drive some new Hypotheses for example that one might be able to find relationships between particular disorders it based on particular brain systems using this sort of approach okay, so So let's say that you know we so clearly the the topic mapping stuff gives us some information about the structure in the you know in the literature and and Kind of what how these terms relate to one another but it doesn't give us sort of strong enough structure that we want to really start Building ontological links, so we're still going to need people We're still going to need domain experts obviously to come in and do the annotation on on the ontology on the cognitive atlas But let's say that you know in in at some point in the future We actually have such a such an ontology built One idea then what what can we do with it right? We want to we would hope that it's actually useful and the reason that I as a scientist got involved in this the intuition that I have is that Once we have these ontologies we can use them to actually tell us which parts are right and which parts are wrong So my intuition about you know all of this psychological stuff is the a lot of it You know a lot of it hasn't really changed since William James wrote his 1890 principles of psychology and And probably has to be incorrect right a lot of it is what we call folk psychology is kind of how we intuit our minds to be structured Which may well not be a very good? Way to actually figure out how the mind works So what we want to do is ask you know once we have the ontology asked are there Are there parts of the ontology that seem to comport with how the brain breaks things up? Are there other parts that don't? So one way that we're thinking about doing that and we haven't actually we don't have the data to do this yet But it's kind of a a promissory note on how we can think about doing this in the future is Thinking about this in terms of meta-analytic testing of cognitive theory So let's say in this case. I'm just going to talk about behavioral data so let's say I have four behavioral measures on different tasks and One and I have an ontology that says well these two particular measures Rely on a concept called inhibition and these two particular measures rely on a concept called updating all right, but somebody else and sorry and and those that Claim about the ontology has a particular implication regarding the covariance Structure amongst those data right it suggests that these things that rely on the same concept should be more correlated with one another Than they should be with things that rely on the other concept. So that's our little Covariant predicted covariance matrix up there Somebody else would claim that oh, they're all just Related to some very general thing called executive function that can't be broken up and That predicts another covariance matrix. That's different So if we have data across all these measures We we have observed covariance. We can actually use Techniques like meta-analytic structural equation modeling to ask which of those actually fits better with the observed data Right, so then we can start to basically say how do how do particular? Ontological claims fit with the data and that's part of why we want to be able to capture multiple different senses of Are multiple kinds of ontological claims within the cognitive analysts so we want to do this with real data and Our intuition is that the data that we get from Neurosynth probably is not sufficient to do that In part because I think that just you know finding terms in the text is not a strong enough method of annotation that we really need Something that's that's probably more human centered Or at least something that's human verified Such that we have annotations linking the ontology to each of to any document that we're looking at The second thing is we need a really broad range of tasks that tap so we basically need We can't really we don't want correlations between What particular task is being used and what particular concept is being measured each concept needs to be measured by multiple tasks? And we need to have voxel-wise data So instead of the the coordinate-based data that that I've shown you we really need data at the voxel Because many of these things they might not be distinct at the kind of very broad level But they might be distinct to the level of pat of finer-grained patterns of activity That's become clear in the literature and so in thinking about this we got excited about trying to To actually implement data sharing for fMRI and most of you probably know the history of data sharing for fMRI which started Back around 2000 with the fMRI data center Which generated a lot of controversy and in the end ended up sharing about a hundred data sets, but Stopped accepting data about seven years ago and has not shared any new data in quite a while And as far as I know doesn't plan to share any new data So so sensing the need for open data sharing We developed this project called the open fMRI project. It said open fMRI dot org It basically started with me when I moved from UCLA to UT Just saying I'm gonna take all the data. We have to anonymize them any way to move from UCLA to UT We're gonna take all these data and make them available online openly for for download and We've we've tried to come up with structures such that they can be easily analyzed We've come up with a very Tight format that all the data sets are formatted by so once you know that format You can easily just go analyze any of them And there actually exists a night pipe workflow to do that full analysis that that Sautra created We right now have 14 data sets with about 250 subjects and we have more coming in We got a grant from the National Science Foundation that supports us to sort of run the site and put our own data in And also supports a number of other sites with a part-time data manager Whose job is to basically take data from that lab and feed it into this to this project And we've also had volunteers from other sites who've Who've given us data as well and we're hoping that that will increase One thing that we do is we integrate the description of the tasks in open fMRI With the cognitive Atlas project So this is the open fMRI page for a particular data set It's rhyme judgment data set and you see that it says there's one particular task here with two conditions And when you click on that it links out to