70 years. That's the amount of time since the US Army has conducted a multinational combined arms river crossing. The Hungarian engineers put in a bridge that allowed our soldiers who were road marching last night from Slovak to come in and do a river crossing operation and cross part of the Danube River. What an outstanding capability that demonstrates how our partnership with our allies with the Hungarian Army leads us to have a capability inside of US Army Europe. The crossing itself was a significant event historically, but there are other reasons this exercise was such a success. I think the one thing that I would say that highlights the huge success of this training is that the military is centered around doing a complex thing at an exact time, at an exact location. And I think today demonstrates the outstanding capabilities of our NATO partners and the Hungarian military. After the vehicles completed crossing the bridge, distinguished guests in attendance got to be a part of history by walking across the bridge on foot. Reporting for US Army Europe in Hungary, I'm Army Sergeant Alan Brutus.


Welcome to this lecture on weak maximum principle and its applications. The outline for today's lecture is first we introduce weak maximum principle and prove it and then we look at some consequences of weak maximum principle. We will discuss weak maximum principle only for domains in R2 for Rn it is similar. So, let omega inside R2 be a bounded domain. Let you be a continuous function defined on omega, such that you can be extended to the closure of omega as a continuous function. That means you make sense for points on the boundary of omega and that too in a continuous manner. So, collection of such functions is denoted by c of omega bar or omega closure. When omega is bounded every function in c of omega bar attains both its maximum and minimum values because omega bar is a compact set continuous function and a compact set attains both minimum and maximum values. But somewhere in omega bar the location is not known but somewhere in omega bar definitely both maximum and minimum values are attained. Now we have a question for any function u that is for any given function u in c of omega bar can we guarantee that the maximum is always attained in the domain omega or maximum is always attained on boundary of omega? So, can we answer this question for any arbitrary continuous function on omega closure? Answer no we cannot say this because there are functions which attain maximum in omega only and not on the boundary and there are others which attain maximum only on the boundary of omega not in omega. However, if u is a harmonic function that is u is a solution of Laplace in u equal to 0 then u attains its maximum value definitely on boundary of omega. This is the content of weak maximum principle. So, let us describe what is weak maximum principle. Let us state it as a theorem proof is very simple. Let omega inside R to be a bounded domain. Let u be in c 2 of omega intersection c of omega bar and u is a harmonic function in omega. Then the maximum value of u in omega bar is achieved on the boundary omega. We have a question here.  What do you understand from the conclusion of this weak maximum principle which is here? Choose all options that apply. It is a MSQ question which you are already very familiar with that means more than one answer can be correct. First option A is there is a point on boundary of omega at which u takes the value m. Second option there is no point in omega at which u takes the value m. Definitely the conclusion is saying that maximum value of u in omega bar is achieved on the boundary. That means there is a point on the boundary at which u takes the value m. So, A is correct. What about B? B is correct or not? B is true or false? When we write statements in English we have to be very careful when the maximum value of u is achieved on the boundary. So, if you put extra emphasis on this word ease, it is ease achieved on the boundary that gives an impression that it is not achieved in omega whereas this statement does not say. So, you are likely to tick B also but that is not true. There are harmonic functions which attain maximum inside omega as well as on the boundary of omega as guaranteed by this theorem. So, you have to be very careful with the conclusions which are written in a language like this. You should not give extra emphasis on these kind of words in the language. Be careful. We have come across such statements in the first order PDEs also. Proof of weak maximum principle. Step one, if a function u has a local maximum at a point in omega, omega is an open set then the second order partial derivatives are always less than or equal to 0. So, dou 2 u by dou x square at the point p as well as dou 2 u by dou y square at the point p is less than or equal to 0. Both of them are less than or equal to 0. As a consequence Laplacian u at the point p is less than or equal to 0 because Laplacian u after all by definition is u x x at p plus u y y at p. Both of them are less than or equal to 0. Therefore, Laplacian u at p is less than or equal to 0. Thus, if v is a function such that Laplacian v is positive in omega that means this kind of condition cannot be satisfied by v. Laplacian v at p is always greater than 0. Therefore, it is never less than or equal to 0. Therefore, we can conclude that maximum value of v on omega bar is never achieved in omega. It is achieved in boundary of omega because it is definitely achieved somewhere in omega closure. It is not achieved in omega. Therefore, it has to attain on the boundary of omega. This is the main idea in the proof of weak maximum principle. What we are given is a harmonic function. So, Laplacian u is equal to 0. Therefore, this idea cannot be implemented straight away. So, we construct a v such that Laplacian v is positive and hence v has a maximum on the boundary of omega and using that information, we show that u also has maximum on the boundary of omega. So, define the function v epsilon by u of x y plus epsilon times x square plus y square. So, when epsilon equal to 0, you are at u of x y. So, this is you can think this is a perturbation of this function. But what kind of perturbation? I am going to consider epsilon positive x square plus y square is always greater than or equal to 0. Therefore, this term is always greater than or equal to 0. In particular, v epsilon of x y is always greater than or equal to u of x y. We will use this observation later. And v epsilon is a C2 function in the domain omega because u is a C2 function. What we are adding is definitely a C2 function. For the same reason, v epsilon is also C of omega bar. The reason being that u is in C of omega bar, this function is continuous everywhere in R2 in particular on omega bar. So, Laplacian v epsilon is positive because what is Laplacian v epsilon? It is Laplacian u plus Laplacian of this. What is the Laplacian of this? It is epsilon times Laplacian of this. So, v epsilon having this property that Laplacian v epsilon is positive in omega, it attains its maximum only on the boundary of omega. Let us denote by m maximum of u on the boundary and l to be maximum of x square plus y square on the boundary. So, we have v epsilon of x y less than or equal to m plus epsilon l for every x y in omega, for every x y in omega. Why is that? Because m plus epsilon l is precisely the maximum of v epsilon and maximum of v epsilon is maximum of u plus maximum of epsilon times maximum of x square plus y square. That is the reason because we have observed that v epsilon maximum is attained only on the boundary. So, therefore the values of v epsilon for x y in omega is always less than or equal to maximum of v epsilon on the boundary of omega which is less than or equal to m plus epsilon l. Since u of x y is less than or equal to v epsilon of x y because this what we are adding is a non-negative quantity. So, epsilon is positive. Therefore, we have this inequality and v epsilon of x y we know is less than or equal to m plus epsilon l. Therefore, u is less than or equal to m plus epsilon l for every x y in omega. Note that the last inequality holds for every epsilon positive and this side there is no epsilon. So, as epsilon goes to 0 what we get is u of x y is less than or equal to m and that is what we want to show. What is m? It is a maximum of u on the boundary so what we have shown by this inequality is the value of u at any point in omega is less than or equal to the maximum value of u on the boundary. In other words maximum is definitely achieved on the boundary that completing the proof of weak maximum principle. A quick corollary of weak maximum principle is what is called weak minimum principle. Let omega be a bounded domain in R 2. Let u be c 2 of omega intersection c of omega bar and harmonic function. Then the minimum value of u in omega bar is achieved on the boundary. Proof is very simple. If u is a harmonic function minus u is also a harmonic function. So, let us consider v equal to minus u. Then v is a harmonic function. Apply the weak maximum principle to the harmonic function v and conclude. So, drawing the conclusion is left an exercise to you. It is a very simple thing. So, let us understand the conclusion of weak maximum principle. What does it say and what it does not say? So, weak maximum principle is proved for bounded domains. That is to be remembered. Look at this function u of x y equal to x. Of course, it is a harmonic function Laplace in your view is 0 throughout R 2. But I am now considering this only on this domain R 2 from which I have removed the closed disk with center at the origin and radius 1. So, this is not a bounded domain. In fact, is what is called an exterior domain as we discussed earlier. Where does u achieve its maximum value? Of course, u does not have a maximum at all. The weak maximum principle is silent on whether the harmonic function will take or will not take the maximum value in the domain. It is always saying maximum value is taken on the boundary but never says a sentence about what happens in omega. Let us look at this function u of x y equal to x square minus y square. This is a harmonic function this is a polynomial. So, this is also called harmonic polynomial sometimes. It is a harmonic function everywhere because Laplace in u will be 2 minus 2 that will be 0. So, Laplace in u is 0 everywhere but I consider on D 0 1 the disk of radius 1 with center at the origin. It attains its maximum only on the circle S 0 1. Why is that? If at all it attains maximum inside the disk inside the open disk we know that derivative of this function must be 0 gradient must be 0. What is the gradient of this function? It is 2x comma 2y. Where is it 0 at the origin? So, at the origin value is actually u of x y equal to 0 at the origin but 0 is not the maximum because clearly you can see if you are looking at the point u of 1 comma 0 that is actually 1 thus 0 is not a maximum value. Similarly, it is not a minimum value also. So, the only critical point that is where the gradient is 0 by definition in the disk is the origin at which u takes a 0 value 0 is not minimum value of u also. So, this is a function where maximum minimum is not attained inside the disk it is attained only on the boundary. On the other hand if you look at u x y equal to 1 it is a harmonic function it is a constant function. So, maximum and minimum both are 1 it is achieved everywhere in the domain as well as on the boundary. Let us look at some consequences of weak maximum principle. In lecture 6.1 uniqueness of solutions to Dirichlet boundary value problem was proved. In fact, we proved uniqueness for the Robin boundary value problem and Dirichlet boundary value problem turned out to be a special case. Uniqueness result can also be proved using weak maximum principle. In fact, weak maximum principle because it says maximum of u is attained on the boundary it compares two quantities maximum of u in omega is less than or equal to maximum of u on the boundary because it is in the form of inequality we get some estimates. So, weak maximum principle gives rise to a stability estimate we are going to see that. So, that is proving continuous dependence of solutions on the Dirichlet boundary data. Uniqueness is a simple consequence of the stability estimate. Let us state the stability estimate. Let omega inside r2 be a bounded domain and for i equal to 1 to 2 let ui be c2 of omega intersection c of omega bar solve the Dirichlet problem with right hand side same right hand side f and gi as the boundary data. Then the following stability estimate holds that is maximum of mod u1 of xy minus u2 of xy as xy vary in omega closure is less than or equal to maximum over boundary of omega of mod g1 xy minus g2 xy. If you want this is the distance between the Dirichlet data and this is the distance between the solutions in omega bar. So, define w equal to u1 minus u2 look at what problem w solves Laplacian w is 0 because Laplacian of u1 as well as Laplacian of u2 is f and w equal to g1 minus g2 on boundary of omega applying the weak maximum principle we get w of xy is less than or equal to maximum of the Dirichlet data the boundary data on the boundary because w is a harmonic function maximum is attained on the boundary therefore we have this inequality of course this is less than or equal to maximum boundary of omega mod g1 minus g2 because g1 minus g2 is always less than or equal to mod g1 minus g2. On noting that minus w also satisfies a BVP as above what does minus w satisfy Laplacian minus w is 0 and minus w equal to g2 minus g1 on boundary. So, we can apply weak maximum principle for minus w and what is the boundary data for minus w g2 minus g1. So, therefore weak max principle gives this now we know g2 minus g1 is less than or equal to mod g2 minus g1 which is same as mod g1 minus g2 therefore we have this. Now what do we have w of xy is less than or equal to certain quantity minus w of xy is also less than or equal to the same quantity for every xy in omega if a number and a negative of that number both of them are less than or equal to the same quantity it means the modulus of this number namely mod w of xy is less than or equal to that number. So, stability estimate follows from the last two inequalities. Now let us look at uniqueness of solutions to Dirichlet boundary value problem. Let omega be a bounded domain in R2 and consider this Dirichlet problem. We want to show uniqueness how do we show that we have to take g1 u2 satisfying this boundary value problem subtract look at the boundary value problem that is solved by the difference. If u1 and u2 are solutions to this problem u1 minus u2 let us call it w it satisfies Laplace in w equal to 0 and w equal to 0 on the boundary. So, from the stability estimate we get the uniqueness of solutions to Dirichlet boundary value problem. A remark on uniqueness result recall that the uniqueness result was already proved in lecture 6.1 recall that its proof required that the normal derivative of u is defined on the boundary and thus uniqueness result could only be proved for u in c1 of omega bar that is u in ct of omega intersection c1 of omega bar. Thanks to maximum principle uniqueness result is valid for any harmonic function which belongs to the space c of omega bar. In other words ct of omega intersection c of omega bar. Here I am mentioning only the smoothness what is required on the boundary. In the domain of course u is in ct of omega and uniqueness result does not hold on unbounded domains. Consider the Dirichlet boundary value problem posed on the upper half plane Laplace in u is 0 and u is 0 for all x in r. So, upper half plane the boundary is the x axis. So, this BVP has at least two solutions u1 of xy equal to xy xy Laplace in will be 0 and when I put y equal to 0 this is 0. So, it is a solution to this boundary value problem. Of course 0 is also a solution. So, we do not have uniqueness for Dirichlet boundary value problems on unbounded domains in general. Summary weak maximum principle was proved. We deduced continuous dependence on boundary data for Dirichlet boundary value problem from the weak maximum principle. Thank you.


Good evening, everyone. And amongst us, we have Mr. Justice Suresh C. Gupta, a former judge from Bombay High Court. And since we have been calling a lot of speakers and we have the pan in the audience, we are getting requests that once there is a commercial understanding of the nuances, we should take something forward with him. And Mr. Suresh Gupta, I have been told, I would be very candid that he's an expert in commercial aspects, arbitration aspects and the contract. We had a lot of discussions or we can say brainstorming on the topic so that actually the point can be hammered in the right way. And so much so, in fact, today morning also, Justice Gupta called me up and said that let's narrow down the topic and simplify to the blocks, which as a judge or as a lawyer, as an arbitrator he has failed, that people could understand the topic. That is why it's very look simple, but once who understands will understand professionally as a judge, etc. How relevant this is making of a contract, communication and acceptance of a proposal. Taking you from the topic I said that we had a communication, and we are kind of justice Gupta was kind enough to accept our proposal. And while we take this session forward, he will make us understand whether it will also constitute a contract that our communication and acceptance to make us understand how its contract is made. That will be that is on a lighter way.  And thank you sir for accepting our invite, and it's such a pleasure and we'd also like to thank this Russian Dalvi was a connecting point to connect with him. Thank you sir. Good evening everybody. First, let me begin by complimenting because he and his team for these wonderful events which they have been holding. And I've gone through the earlier episodes and it's wonderful work that they have done. So friends, today we are embarking on a new and interesting journey into the very first and basic law, forming the branch of commercial mercantile law, namely the law of contract. Let me ask you what is at the core of any mercantile law. It is enforcement of a promise. What does the plaintiff tell the court? He says, sir, the defendant made a promise. I looked for its fulfillment. I was ready to perform my part. But the defendant never made it good. So please enforce it by directing him to either perform his promise or compensate me for its own performance. That is precisely what a mercantile plaintiff ordinarily tells the court. So our today's discussion concerns how a promise is made, how it becomes binding, or in other words, how does a contract come into being? We are making just a beginning and that too at the very beginning. Let me put it this way. Our contract act, which is one of the oldest mercantile laws in India, explains all this, what we are going to hear today in eight pithily worded provisions, sections 2 to 9. We shall be today taking a quick review of these provisions. This review is basically designed for common folks as well as students of law. So it will be my endeavor to keep to the basics and explains things as simply as I could. Friends, the contract act opens with a provision called interpretation clause contained in section 2. It explains what a contract is. At the heart of any contract is an agreement as you will agree. Though an agreement mind you by itself is not a contract, we shall see how. But first, what is an agreement? How is it made? And what is it composed of? The contract act is a 150 year old enactment made as far back as in 1872. So the definition of contract and of the agreement being one of the most basic concepts. One should have thought that these are long settles signed and sealed, sealed and delivered as they say in law. Yet the subject of what a contract, what is a contract or an agreement still engages the court's mind as late as in 2017. The Supreme Court in Vedanta Limited's case has something to say about this definition. It said every transaction to be recognized as a contract must, in its ultimate analysis, resolve itself into a proposal and its absolute and unqualified acceptance. So the whole thing starts with what is known as a proposal. What does a proposal consist of? In law, it has three components. The first is a person's willingness to do or abstain from doing something. The second is the communication of such willingness. The proposer must signify his willingness to someone else. And the third is the purpose of such communication. It is not enough that he simply signifies his willingness to that other. He must do so with a purpose and that purpose must be to obtain the ascent of that other person to whom the act or abstinence is proposed by him. So when he signifies to another, his willingness to do or abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the ascent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal. So that is what a proposal is. Now as the Supreme Court says, the other necessary component is the acceptance of that proposal by the offering. When a person, the person to whom a proposal is made signifies his ascent there to the proposal is said to be accepted. Now this acceptance has two elements. First, it must come from the person to whom the proposal is made. It can't come from any other person and he must communicate it. Once he does that, the proposal becomes a promise. So now we have two parties, the promissor and the promissy and what they have between them is a promise. But mind you, we still do not have an agreement. Let alone a contract, further elements are necessary for coming to these stages. The promissor has promised and the promissy has accepted the proposal. But that is no agreement. For an agreement there must be what is known as consideration. It is only when at the desire of the promissor, the promissy or some other person does or abstains from doing something, there arises a consideration. Such consideration may be a matter of past, present or future. At the desire of the promissor, if the promissy either he must have already done nor abstained from doing something which is called past consideration. Or does or abstains from doing something present consideration or must promise to do or abstain from doing something that's a future consideration. So there must be this kind of consideration. So in short, when the promissor offers to do or abstain from doing anything and at his desire, the promissy accepts the offer, willing to do or abstain from doing anything in return, each offers a consideration for the other to act or abstain from acting. And then do we have an agreement? Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other is an agreement. So far so good. But what about the contract? When shall we have it? Well, one last element remains and that is the enforceability of the agreement. It is only when the agreement is enforceable by law that it becomes a contract. So we finally have now a definition of contract. An agreement enforceable by law is a contract, very understandable. But how so ever understandable it is, it does give rise to a host of intricate issues. A nightmare I should say for clients and a paradise for lawyers because you would agree. Let us think about it. Offer acceptance and consideration. If all three elements are present, there is an agreement. And if that agreement is enforceable by law, we have a contract simple, but not so very simple. Take the case of Colonel MacPherson. A Colonel in British India, he owned a bungalow in Markara known as Morvern Lodge. When Appanna was interested in buying it, he asked a Colonel's manager to send a cable to the Colonel and convey his offer of rupees 4000 for the bungalow. Mind you, this was in the year 1944, so 4000 was a huge sum. So the manager sent a cable saying, have inquiries, Burkara bungalow is for sale, wire lowest figure. There was no reply from the Colonel, but Appanna was insistent. He now directly wrote to the Colonel that he was prepared to purchase the bungalow for rupees 5000. And if that was acceptable, the Colonel should inform him to which bank he should send his check and he would do so. Again, no response from the Colonel. Appanna still would not give in. He jacked his offer to rupees 6000. This time, another manager sent a cable conveying Appanna's new offer. This time, there was a reply from the Colonel, a terse one won't accept less than rupees 10000. Appanna immediately accepted what he called a counter offer from the Colonel. He wrote, I hereby confirm here is 10000. But before the deal could be done, the manager received further higher offers from others, the highest being rupees 11000. He then cabled the Colonel, hold offer for more than bungalow rupees 11000, strongly recommend acceptance. And the Colonel accepted this new offer. The purchaser paid the amount and occupied the bungalow. Appanna went to court. According to him, there was offer, acceptance and consideration in his case, and therefore a concluded contract. He sought its specific performance. The official commissioner's court accepted the plaintiff's case and awarded him compensation. In appeal, the Supreme Court said no. There was after all no concluded contract. When the Colonel sent his cable saying nothing less than rupees 10000. What he sent was not an offer which could have been accepted. What he did was he merely invited an offer. What thereafter flowed from Appanna was an offer, an offer of rupees 10000, an offer which the Colonel never accepted. What the Colonel cable conveyed in his cable, in other words, was not an offer, but an invitation to offer. I am not interested in selling the bungalow for anything less than 10000. If you have anything below this, don't bother me. Make an offer only if it is minimum rupees 10000, that 10000 or more, that is what the Colonel meant. And Appanna never made that offer. So there was no question of acceptance and therefore no contract. So you see each of the elements that make up a contract does give rise to its own peculiar issues. First of all, how is communication of a proposal or an acceptance to be made? Is there any formality involved? Does the acceptance have to be expressed or can it also be implied? What if the recipient of the communication simply stays silent? And when is the communication complete? All this has been dealt with by the two following sections, sections three and four of the contract. Sections three specifies what a communication is and section four describes when it is complete. A proposal or acceptance may be made. The words used are deemed to be made by an actor or mission by which a person making it intense to communicate it or rather, which has the effect of communicating it. So it is from the point of view of the recipient, whether it has the effect of communicating it. But the communication, this communication may be made in different ways. It can either be by a written or spoken word or even for that matter a signaled word. Sometimes a word may not even be required at all. If you hail a taxi by waving at it, what are you doing? You are communicating your proposal and what is that proposal? Your proposal is to take a ride at a rate to be determined according to the taxi meter. And if the taxi driver allows you to hitch a ride by admitting you inside his vehicle, he communicates his acceptance. No words are exchanged and yet a contract has been formed. But mind you that the words are not necessary does not however mean that mere silence of one party to the offer may amount to its acceptance. Why is it so? Because the law does not cast any duty on the person to whom the proposal is made to even reply to that proposal. And hence, acceptance cannot be inferred from the offer is mere silence or inaction. The reason obviously is that silence and inaction by their very nature are equivocal and there can be more than one reason or the offer to be silent or inactive. There must be in other words a more trustworthy, a more certain way of communicating acceptance. Here again, there is an interesting footnote. So the general rule is that silence or inaction cannot be construed as an acceptance. Under certain circumstances, the offer is silence coupled with this conduct which takes the form of a positive act may constitute an acceptance. This is what the law calls an agreement sub silent show. The case of Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited versus Great Eastern Shipping Company is a very well known authority on such agreement. By a charter party, Bharat Petroleum had hired vessels from Great Eastern for two years. This period was extended on the same terms and conditions as the original charter party. Sometime before the end of this extended period, oil companies including Bharat Petroleum, they sought permission of the Ministry of Petroleum for a further extension of their charter parties, the ministry declined. So the oil companies floated a fresh tender for carriage of petroleum products along the Indian coast for a fresh period of one year that is after the originally extended period of the original charter party. In response, Great Eastern submitted its bid. But before the bids could be finalized, one of the bidders went to the high court questioning the evaluation process. That petition was disposed off with the court directing the tender evaluation committee to fix the charter higher rates and further directing that no contract for the proposed fresh period of one year need to be entered. Since the new tender period was about to expire by the time the high court took up this case finally. But in the meantime, Great Eastern's vessels all the time continued to be chartered by Bharat Petroleum. In this period, Great Eastern had communicated its willingness to any agreed new rate if it was fair and reasonable for one year and on the same terms and conditions and provided all nine of its vessels which were then under hire were continued to be used. There were some proposals counter proposals but nothing came of them for about two months there was no communication the vessels however continued to be chartered. Sometime later, an arrangement, a provisional arrangement was proposed by Bharat Petroleum at 80% of the charter rate as an ad hoc hire Great Eastern didn't accept that the vessels however continued to be on charter. The matter then finally went to arbitration. The arbitral tribunal concluded that they had no jurisdiction to decide the reference. Since what was invoked by Bharat Petroleum was the old arbitration clause which was part of the original charter party which had come to an end. The disputes on the other hand had arisen subsequently and for this subsequent period and altogether different arrangement was in place. And in this arrangement there was no arbitration clause simple. The Great Eastern challenged this decision. A single judge of the High Court set aside the award. The matter went in appeal before the Supreme Court. The short question before the court was whether on the expiry of the extended period of the original charter hire, the original charter party had come to an end and with it, the arbitration agreement had perished. The Supreme Court said it was no doubt true that the general rule was that an offer was not accepted by mere silence on the part of the offering. But the court said here after the extended period came to an end and bids received pursuant to a fresh invitation with pending evaluation. The Great Eastern had informed Bharat Petroleum that they were agreeable to apply new rates for use of the vessels provided all nine vessels were used and on existing terms and conditions of the charter party till the tenders were decided. So, though there was no agreement between the parties to that effect, nevertheless the court said Bharat Petroleum continued to use the vessels which were on hire with them under the original signed charter. And this conduct on the part of the parties in the court's view when in particular Bharat Petroleum silence on Great Eastern's communications coupled with the fact that they continue to use the vessels manifestly went to show that except for the charter rate. There was no other dispute between the parties. Bharat Petroleum had accepted his Great Eastern stand sub silent show and it continued to bind itself on all other terms and conditions of the charter party, which obviously included the arbitration clause. Thus, the Supreme Court ruled there was an arbitration agreement even for the subsequent period. And the tribunal had the jurisdiction which was a classic case of acceptance sub silent show. So what is the test here. The test is simply an objective test. The task of the court is to discover what each party could be said to convey, or rather what the other party was reasonably entitled to conclude from the behavior or attitude of the maker of the communication. So the court is required to review how the parties acted, what the parties said or wrote, and then infer whether the intention expressed by them in their acts or words was to bring into existence a mutually binding contract. Now section four tells us when the communication is complete. The communication of a proposal is complete as against both the proposer and the offering when it comes to the knowledge of the offering. But whereas the communication of acceptance is concerned it is complete differently as against the proposer and the acceptor as against the proposer it is complete when it is put in course of transmission to him so as to be out of the power of the acceptor. And the communication is complete as against the acceptor when it comes to the knowledge of the proposal. There is an illustration of the act in the act for each of these propositions. A proposes by letter to sell a house to be at a certain price. The communication of the proposal is complete when we receive the letter. And then B accepts the proposal by a letter sent by post the communication of the acceptance is complete as against a when the letter is posted, not when it is received. But as against B to whom it is addressed, it is complete only when the receipt when the letter is received by a. For example, communication of a proposer proposal. Requires knowledge of the offering the moment the offering however accepts it by sending an intimation such acceptance is complete as against the proposer as soon as the intimation is sent or transmitted. The law does not require that intimation to be actually received by the proposal. One of things there is a corollary provision which is consistent with this scheme of communication and completion of proposals and acceptance and that is contained section five of the contract act. It deals with revocation of the proposals or acceptances. The proposal may be revoked according to section five at any time before the communication of his acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards. As we have seen the communication of acceptance is complete as against the proposer when it is put in course of transmission so as to be out of the power of the acceptor. Before the communication is put in such course of transmission, the proposer is free to revoke his proposer but once it is put in such course by the acceptor, the proposer is not free to revoke his proposer. So when a makes a proposal and it reaches B, it is within the power of a to revoke it at any time before B posts his letter of acceptance but not afterwards. As for the acceptance, it may be revoked at any time before the communication of acceptance is complete as against the acceptor. So when B posts a letter of his acceptance before the letter reaches A, he is free to revoke his acceptance but not afterwards. Let us see how this works in life. There is a case of Janardhan Mishra who was an employee in health and medical services department of the UP government. His resignation from service was a subject matter of an appeal before the alabadhaiko. He had resigned and that whether this what happened to this resignation was the subject before the alabadhaiko. It was his case that some higher ups in his department were harassing him. And as part of this harassment when he was going to office, they took his resignation on the spot by use of force. So the very next day, he lodged a complaint with a request that he might not be relieved from service based on the forcible resignation. The appointing authority after a few days without responding to his complaint proceeded to accept his resignation and relieved him from service. The lower court ruled in favour of the department. It said that a resignation once tendered cannot be withdrawn without the permission of the appointing authority. And it was entirely in the appointing authority's discretion whether to allow such withdrawal. So the alabadhaiko actually upheld the lower court's order on some other grounds. It did not agree with this view on the employee's inability to unilaterally withdraw his resignation. The alabadhaiko said that in the absence of any statutory rules governing the matter, submission of a resignation by an employee was like a proposal for bringing the contract of service to an end. According to section 5 of the contract, a proposal could be revoked at any time before communication of its acceptance was complete as against the proposer. The court said the plaintiff appellant in this case before it was a temporary employee of the government and there was no rule regarding regulating the resignation from service by a temporary government servant. The only rule was to the effect that such service was terminable by a one month notice given either by the government servant or by the appointing authority. The court said that going by the principles, the general principles of law of contract in sections 4 and 5, if before the acceptance the government servant were to withdraw his resignation, the appointing authority could not refuse permission to withdraw. If such withdrawal was received at any time before the acceptance of his resignation or before such acceptance was put in course by the appointing authority so as to be out of its power to retract. So when we have seen, we have now seen when a revocation can be made. Let us now see how it is to be made, how it is to be made. Section 6 talks about how revocation of a proposer is to be made. According to section 6, the revocation of a proposal can be made in four different ways. The first of course is by communication of the notice of revocation, its timing of course must be in keeping with section 5. The second is the lapse of time prescribed in the proposal for its acceptance or if no time is prescribed by the lapse of a reasonable time without communication of the acceptance. There is a case of Mangalam Express cargo, the Delhi High Court case where the High Court was considering the debarment action taken by the respondent railways against a contractor. This debarment was on the ground that despite acceptance of their bids, the petitioners did not perform the contracts. In that case, the petitioners had submitted their bids incorporating a clause in the tender conditions which required them to abide by their quoted rates for a period of 90 days from the date of opening of the tenders. The tenders were opened on 1st May 2015 but the acceptance letters were issued only on 30th July 2015 that is to say after expiry of 90 days. So the offer being valid only till 90 days and the acceptance having come there after according to the court there was no concluded contract between the parties. So no obligation to perform and since the time prescribed in the offer letters had elapsed due to prior to the acceptance the offer set through revoked under section 6 of the contract act. So the railways action of debarment was struck down by the Delhi High Court. So this was a case where the time for acceptance was prescribed in the proposal. In another case of Ramsgate Victoria Hotel, the defendant wanted to purchase shares in the hotel. He put in his offer for a certain price and paid a deposit to his bank account to buy them at that price that was in June. He did not hear anything from the hotel company until 6 months later when he received a letter of acceptance from the hotel company. But by that time the value of the shares had dropped significantly and he was no longer interested. Though he had not formally withdrawn his offer he did not go through with the sale. The company brought an action for a specific performance. The court held that the hotel company's action ought to fail. According to the court the defendant's offer was made as far back in June. A reasonable period had elapsed since then. Six months had elapsed and the offer was thereafter no longer valid for acceptance to form a contract. And what is a reasonable time is of course in any given case would depend on the subject matter. In this case the court held that six months could be said to be reasonable time in the case before it. Whereafter the offer for shares could be said to have expired by lapse of time. So this is the second way of revoking a proposal. The third way of revoking a proposal is by the failure of the acceptor to fulfill a conditional precedent to acceptors. What the section suggests is that if a condition is to be complied with by an acceptor before acceptance. Its non-fulfillment will prevent the formation of a contract where a section is not unfortunately not very happily worded. The meaning of the term condition preceded to acceptance is not very clear. But in plain language I can explain it this way. If the proposal is conditional then it would lapse if the offer he does not accept the condition. For example, there was a case called a Piperite sugar mills case where the Supreme Court was considering the case of an employer who was proposing to transfer his mills. And as a result as the trade union had threatened a strike. The employer made an offer to the union that if this strike were to be withdrawn a certain amount would be paid to the workers from of the profits that he would make on the transfer. The union did not respond, there was no correspondence and the transfer went through. The union thereafter demanded money based on the employer's offer. The court said no, there was no acceptance of the condition of offer that being thus to make an offer to withdraw that strike. There was no such offer and hence no liability on the part of the employer to pay any amount to the workers. So that's the third wave of revoking a proposal. The fourth way is by the death or insanity of the proposer if the fact of such death or insanity comes to the knowledge of the acceptor before acceptance. If the death or insanity occurs after the acceptance then of course the legal heirs are all the guardian as the case may be in the case of insanity will be bound by the contract because it has already come into existence by means of offer, acceptance and consideration both supported by consideration. There are of course exceptions like when in the case an offer is for personal service which anyway comes to an end after the death of the offeror or even of the offering. There was a insurance case, Amandu Nisa versus LIC where the life insurance policy of the insured had lapsed and then death took place. The policy holder having died before the revival procedure could be completed when the process but was not completed. The claimants were held entitled only to the paid up value of the lapsed policy and not the full amount of the policy. As renewal was possible only during the lifetime of the assured and the rights and liabilities under the new contract revived contract did not begin until the new terms and conditions were accepted. If an offer is addressed to a man who dies without having accepted or refused it, his executors have no power to accept it. This is so both in England and India. And because no proposer can be presumed to have intended to contract with a deceased person's estate. So we have seen now four ways of communicating revocation of a proposal. Now to convert a proposal into a promise. The next principle is that the acceptance must be firstly absolute and unqualified. That is the mandate of section 7 of the contract. Secondly, it must be expressed in some usual or reasonable manner. Unless the proposer describes the manner in which it is to be accepted. But if it is not so accepted in the manner proposed by the proposer within a reasonable time, the proposer must insist that the proposal shall be accepted only in the manner prescribed by him and not otherwise. But if he fails to do so, then he is said to accept the offer, he is said to accept the acceptance. The idea behind this rule, which is sometimes called the mirror rule, is that the offer and acceptance must correspond. The acceptance much matched the terms of the offer. If there is a variation between the offer and the acceptance in respect of any material term, the parties cannot be said to be at idem, then they are at cross purposes so that there is no real correspondence between offer and acceptance. Now, the intention of the offer to accept. It must be expressed with such certainty as to leave no manner of doubt that the terms offered by the proposer are assented. A mere acknowledgement of an offer or a reply that the offer intends to place an order does not amount to an acceptance. So also seeking a clarification of an offer neither amounts to its acceptance nor even to making of a counter offer. An acceptance given under protest also does not result in a binding contract. Now, we must note one distinction in this behalf. Sometimes acceptance is made subject to payment of deposit or consent or confirmation of the third party. A question may then arise whether this acceptance is conditional and therefore not binding on the proposer. Now, it all depends on whether any such condition is a condition preceded to the performance of the contract or a condition preceded to the formation of the contract. If it is a condition preceded to performance, then it is a promissory condition. The acceptance in such cases can be said to be unconditional. It does result into a contract. What the condition qualifies in such cases is the performance of the acceptor's promise is qualified by this condition. So that if this condition is not performed, the acceptor would not perform his promise or part with his consideration. That is a promissory condition. But if on the other hand, the acceptance comes with a condition preceded to the formation of the contract, then such acceptance by itself does not create a contract. It may sometimes be termed as a counter proposal on the part of the acceptor who then becomes a proposer and whose proposer is then subject to acceptance on the same terms and conditions as are applicable to any acceptance. An acceptance with a variation in the terms of the proposer or with a qualification is a counter proposal, which must be accepted by the original proposer before a contract is made. An interesting case arose in this behalf in the matter of Devkar exports versus New India show-offs. The affluent Devkar exports had imported an expensive machine which was financed by the Maharashtra Finance Corporation, MSFC. It was insured with the respondent New India assurance against the risk of fire. Now long after the expiry of that policy, MSFC sent a check for renewal of that policy. A formal stamp receipt was also issued by New India assurance confirming receipt of that check. By a subsequent letter, New India wrote that though it had received the premium amount, no proposal was received from the appellant Devkar exports. So it was not in a position to issue the fire insurance policy. So it sent a standard proposal form to the appellant Devkar along with this letter. The appellant filled in and signed the proposal form and delivered it to the insurer. Now in the signed form he stated that this insurance cover was required by him for a period from it is 12th March 1988 to for 18 months, 12th September 1989. But the insurer issued an insurance policy dated June 89, 30th June 89 extending the insurance cover for a period of one year. But this was with effect from the date when the premium check was received by that was sometime in August 88. So the cover given by the insurance company was between August 88 to August 89. This policy was received by MSFC. They did not raise any objection about the period of the cover. And as luck would have it, the machine was damaged in a fire accident in February 90. The appellant launched a claim with the insurer. The claim was rejected on the ground that there was no cover anymore. As of February 90, there was no cover. The appellant approached the consumer commission, then he went to the civil court. And after all that, he came to the Supreme Court in an appeal. And its argument before the Supreme Court, but it's a very ingenuous kind of argument. It said that when the insurer was not able to issue a policy of insurance for the period required in his proposal, then the only alternative for the insurer was to issue a policy to be effective prospectively from the date of its issue. And the date of issue being 30th June 89. The policy should be treated as covering the machine against fire is during the period from June 89 to June 90. And if that is so, the date of fire, on the date of fire that is February 90, there was an existing cover. Ingenuously put. But the court also made a very ingenuous observation. It did not find merit in the appellant's argument. What the court said was that an insurance policy was a contract based on a proposal and acceptance. The appellant made a proposal. The respondent accepted the proposal with a modification. Therefore, it became a counter proposal. Once that counter proposal is issued, the appellant had three choices. The first was to refuse the counter proposal, in which case there would be no contract. The second was to accept either expressly or implicitly, in which case there would be a contract, but in terms of the counter proposal. The third was to make a further counter proposal, in which case there would again be no concluded contract. Unless the respondent agreed to such counter proposal. But even that did not happen. But the court said the appellant did not have the fourth choice which he was exploring of propounding a concluded contract with a modification, which was neither proposed nor agreed by either party. So if the appellant did not agree to the policy covering the period August 88 to August 89, instead of what he had proposed, March 88 to September 89, 18 month period, which was originally proposed by him. If this did not happen, the result would never create an insurance contract effective from June 89 to June 90, that was impermissible as a result of these provisions. So that's how it is to be made. Now, the acceptance may come, not merely through its communication by the acceptor. The performance of conditions of a proposal or the acceptance of any consideration for a reciprocal promise offered with the proposal is an acceptance of the original proposal. This is provided in section eight of the act that is called acceptance by conduct as against the other modes of acceptance, which is verbal or written communications contemplated by section seven and nine. But it is well settled that a proposal may be accepted by conduct. What needs to be seen is whether the conduct of the offeree, either in performing the conditions of the proposal or in accepting the consideration offered by the proposer amounts to an unequivocal acceptance of the offer made. In this case, Bhagwati Prasad versus Union of India decided by the Supreme Court. Here, a railway contractor had a claim against the respondent railways, two consignments of iodized salt, which were booked by him, were not delivered by the railways. So he launched two claims for rupees 53,264 and rupees 51,686 for non delivery of the two consignments. The railways admitted the claims only to the extent of something like 9,000 and odd in both cases and issued two checks for these admitted amounts. The checks were encashed by the contractor and he thereafter filed a claim for the balance. The contractor's case was that he wrote a letter treating these checks as payments accepted under protest and he was entitled to claim the balance payment in court. On the other hand, it was the case of the railways that the checks were sent with a note that they were issued in full and final settlement and if there was any dispute about this settlement, they should be returned. The court held that it was proved that the checks were sent under specific instructions of the railways as claimed by them and that they were encashed. This, the court said, amounted to the acceptance of the railways proposal by Kondak. The court found that there was no proof that the letter was sent to the railways before encashing the checks. The court observed that if there was no evidence that retention and encashment of the checks were with a reservation and such reservation having to be communicated before conveying acceptance by Kondak. The proposal must be treated as having been accepted by Kondak and the contractor would have no claim thereafter. Now, here we must remember one thing. It's not always necessary that the performance of the conditions must be notified to the offeror. It may be sufficient that the conditions were performed. The most obvious example is of a publicly offered reward where a person who recovers a particular lost object is offered an reward. In such a case, the party finding the object has to prove nothing more than that he performed the conditions on which the award was offered. He may not have communicated that he did so. Section 9, which is the last section of our discussion, provides for what are known as express promises and what are implied promises. If a proposal or acceptance of promises made in words, the promise is said to be expressed. Insofar, it is made otherwise than in words, it is said to be implied. A proposal or acceptance may be expressed orally or in writing, a party signing a written contract or a written offer in a document accepted by another writing, by the offeree, by fax, telex, telegram, by word of mouth, either in the presence of each other or on telephone, voicemail. These are all examples of express promises. On the other hand, if there is no express offer or acceptance, but the act or conduct is such that it can only give rise to an inference that there is an offer or acceptance, the promise is said to be implied. An example of an implied term is to be found in the old case of Haridas-Ranchoddas versus Mercantile Bank, decided by the Privy Council. In this case, the bank had instituted a suit against defendants Haridas-Ranchoddas in Bombay High Court. The suit was to recover an overdraft balance due from the defendants to the bank and the interest on that balance. The interest charge was compound interest with monthly rests on the amount, amounts from time to time withdrawn by the defendants. The defendants claimed that there was no contract of compound interest. They relied on the express clause of the contract, which simply provided for interest at 7.7% per annum calculated on daily balance of the overdraft. What the court found was that whatever may be the strict interpretation of this clause, the bank invariably struck a balance on its customers' accounts on the last day of each month and charged interest on that amount. And the interest so charged was added to the monthly balance and the resultant balance which included that interest was carried forward to the debit of the customer as the balance due on the first of the following month. The passbook of the defendants clearly showed all this. So both the trial court and high court took the view that the defendants knew that the bank was charging compound interest and agreed to that interest being charged in that way with monthly rests and the privy council agreed with this view. So here by the course of conduct consistently followed by the parties, the term for computation of compound interest was implied into the contract. Now these terms are implied in broadly three ways. These terms implied by custom or usage, terms implied by law and other terms implied by courts. Custom usage of course is the usual understanding of persons entering in like transactions in like circumstances. Every trade has its way of doing things. On the other hand examples of implication by statute are there is a section in sale of goods act which implies rights of an unpaid seller. Then a provision in the transfer of property act section 65 which provides for implied contracts by a mortgager. So apart from custom and statute, it is also permissible to the court to consider the circumstances in which terms can be implied. A contract is many times partly expressed, partly implied. It is not just what is set out expressly in a written contract that constitutes the terms of that contract. If on the reading of a document as a whole, it can be fairly deduced from the words used by the parties that they had agreed to a particular term. The courts would allow the parties to set up that term. Sometimes the courts do it to imply to lend a business efficacy to a contract. So these are all the third type of implied terms. So friends with that, we come to the end of our today's topic. Mind you, we only discussed so far what is a contract and how it is made. As I said in the very beginning, we have only made a beginning. For making any enforceable contract, there are various other vital elements such as free consent of parties competent to contract, lawfulness of the consideration forming the basis of their contract as also lawfulness of the object of that contract. All of which go into making of a lawful contract. They are all interesting facets, but these I'm afraid we'll have to wait for another day. Thank you. So I was just feeling as if I'm back to my law school, the way you clarified the things. It helped me to relive my missing and in fact, thank you. One of our followers and he's a principle he writes an authoritative and an encyclopedia flow of jurisprudential traditional torrent of general principles of contract. Who goes to justice? This is by a professor, Dr. Mohan. Principal question to the college of law. Another message has come excellent session sir looking forward for more and more sessions. Okay. It was a wonderful evening and it was nice to talk about these basic principles after a long time I was talking about all this. And in fact, the way you were explaining I felt as if I was studying from a professor who could explain that things and it only shows the knowledge how deep it is. Thank you. Since I was talking to you in the morning and whether we can take it in English or Hindi, because we are seeing all sessions are coming excellent sir amazing session sir thumbs up. So, since we have taken the entire session and we have not received any questions I said because I felt myself that it was so wonderful explained that people who so ever is a student or dealing in commercial law etc. But actually enjoy this session. I can see all these comments coming up and it's nice to read them. I was also watching on the YouTube people are actually loving it. I do not know off the cuff it can be. It's saying no questioning only listening. Thank you. So, thank you. Thank you. I will just ask sir if this in the way you explained illicitly in English, if it has to be explained in Hindi, what could be the gist of all these sessions in a bird eye view. I have a sense of know would be much better in English I remember that. Yeah, and I love to take make special efforts, you know, because I may be slightly more comfortable talking in Marathi, but that's my mother tongue but Hindi. Let's try it for the first time though I will not be. I was mentioning to you I heard justice Nandra jokes, Hindi, and it was so endearing, you know, the language, the way he was explaining in Hindi. It was pleasure to hear that I may not be able to do that. I'm not even for a moment expecting because myself, maybe the flow of English as a normal person if you once speaks it's different. But if you have to explain the legal policies and legal connotations, it's entirely different. Some gist if you can be it can be mixed also in the English combination, so that if I feel that an audience who watches this and he has more clear of an ending, you can understand. Let's attempt that. I remember saying that it's better to try and fail rather than failing to try. That's really well put. Yes, excellent session, knowledgeable session, please come along with more topics. Thank you because good day, good evening, good day to all of you. We all get from the feedback what we get, then we keep on insisting upon the speakers or our entire endeavor is you would have also seen that to bring the best of the speakers from back. I really appreciate it. Thanks. So let's try for the first time. Hello. I think you have logged out. It seems that sir has logged out, but thank you friends for staying connected with us. And tomorrow, we have a session with just a swing Thomas and just sharing the topic with you. The topic for tomorrow is legal here's legal representatives and nominees. Is there any difference so subtle between the between them.


of clean energy, my favorite state. I'm your host, Mitch Ewan. Our underwriter is the Hawaii Energy Policy Forum. That's a program of the Hawaii Natural Energy Institute. I'm pleased again, yet again, to welcome our guests, Toby Kincaid, a true pioneer in the solar industry who I've known for what, almost 35, 40 years going now, not quite 40 years, but a long time. And he just got over COVID and he's a real champ. He should have been a submariner because he has a real get up and go attitude, which I love. So welcome to the show, Toby. And we're going to delve into your history of solar. And you have a lot of knowledge about the solar industry. I mean, you form most of it, I think. But we're going to have a brief history of the solar industry. So Toby, over to you. And I think a good place to start is just to start off and tell us what is solar energy anyway, just as a background to get us all into the subject. Sure. Well, all of the ancients knew that the whole world is solar powered. So it's a very intimate thing. But back in the day, everyone kind of thought solar energy was one thing, sunlight. Actually, that's kind of a misnomer. It really should be called sunlight. So back in time, let's go back to 1666. Isaac Newton famously painted his dorm room black. The windows were all black. And he scraped off a little bit of the paint so a little beam of light could come in. And when he was developing his work on optics, he would put this prism in and he'd say, oh, that's extraordinary. Sunlight isn't one thing. It's seven things, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. And this was an extraordinary thing because now sunlight was many things and it had a lot of intrigue. Well, when Newton developed his optics, he really taught us there's two kinds of optics, geometric optics where the wavelength doesn't matter and physical optics where the wavelength really matters. So in geometric optics, for example, if you had a reflector, you might have heard of angle of incidence equals angle of reflection. Well, that's true. It doesn't matter what the wavelength is. But when Newton put his prism there and refracted those lights out, oh my goodness, all the different colors, that really kind of was a game changer and that's physical optics where the wavelength really matters. So if you take a stick and put it in a glass of water and you see it bend, that's the different wavelengths traveling through water at different speeds. So Isaac Newton kind of opened the door that sunlight is far more involved than simply one thing. Well, then we fast forward to 1799 and Sir Herschel, Sir William Herschel, climbed a mountain and he wanted to duplicate Newton's experiment.  And what he wanted to do is ask the question, hey, do each color, do they have different temperatures? So he started putting thermometers on each of the colors. Kind of interesting. Well, he brought more thermometers than he needed. So he put a few off to the right and started making his measurements. And then famously, he kind of looks over and notices, oh my goodness, beyond the red where there shouldn't be anything, all of my thermometers are hot. What's going on? What's this? And he said, there must be something in the solar spectrum, which we cannot see, but definitely has a lot of energy. And he discovered infrared. So now the seven colors of light became eight. So then in the same spirit, Johann Ritter said, okay, what about the other side? Is there some energy we can't see on the other side of light? Yeah, the violet. And so he took some photographic paper very early on, which is just paper and silver chloride. And they noticed if you put that in the sun, it turns black really fast. But if you shine yellow light or red light or blue light or green light, it wouldn't turn black very rapidly. But as you move towards the shorter wavelengths towards the blues and the indigo and the violet, it would accelerate and turn black faster and faster. So I thought, okay, I'm going to repeat the experiment of rehearsal. And then I'm going to put some of this photographic paper beyond the violet and see what happens. And lo and behold, it turned black. And he goes, oh my goodness, there is energy in the solar spectrum shorter than the violets, what we call now ultraviolet. And this now turns seven, eight, now we have nine things in sunlight. Wow. So it's a really kind of an amazing optical soup of all these different colors. Well, there was a big mystery in the 1800s. They just they knew about ultraviolet light. And when they were experimenting with electricity, they would shine it onto some metal. And they noticed that electricity was formed. Now, when they shine red light, orange light, yellow light and blue light, nothing happens. But when they shine ultraviolet light on metal, suddenly electricity is happening. And they're like, what's going on? Well, no way to understand this. And the whole mystery wasn't solved until 1905. And in 1905, Einstein published these five papers, the special relativity, general relativity, a couple of papers on Brownian movement, which is how atoms would drift around. But his fifth paper changed the world. And that was the photoelectric effect. And what he pointed out was, and this is his famous equation, that if you can see it on the screen, what he said is the energy you're measuring in the electricity, the kinetic energy of the electrons is going to equal the energy of the photon minus heat. And he was the working function of the material, kind of the resistance of the material. So he defined light as hf. The energy would be Planck's constant, this really small number times the frequency. So the higher the frequency, the higher the energy.  Now, there's kind of an analog in music. So if I make a tone, if I have that higher tone, what's happened? Well, I've doubled the frequency. So the ancient Greeks knew, for example, if you took a string, stretch it tight and pluck it, you'd get a sound. Then if you pinch it halfway and pluck it, you get an octave higher. You doubled the frequency. So this was kind of a really important realization that every color of light contains more energy. And the higher the frequency, the higher the energy. Now, this turns out to be the father, the turning point of not only solid state physics and photovoltaics making electricity directly from sunlight, but this is the basis of all of our modern solid state devices all came back to Einstein's equation, where everyone thinks of E equals mc squared. But, you know, that's esoteric. But as far as this equation of the connective energy of electricity equals the energy of a photon minus the work function of a material, that was incredible. And so I'll set up the basis now for how a photovoltaic cell works. And what they do briefly is they take two sheets of silicon and they diffuse some boron on one side. And on the other sheet, they put some phosphorus. Now, boron has one less electron than silicon. So relative to silicon, it's more positive. And then with the phosphorus, it has one more electron than silicon. So it's more negative. And when you put the positive and the negative, the P and the N junction together, you have a solar cell. And what they do is they put some grids, some wires on the top and on the back, and you connect a wire from the front through a light or some load to the back. And Einstein tells us that because silicon, for example, has this work function, this band gap, they call it, of 1.1 electron volts. So Einstein's saying if you want to make electricity, anything below that, below the red light, longer in wavelength, you won't make a single electron. But if you get above 1.1 electron volts, hey, you're going to start knocking out electrons. And so Einstein really gave us our modern world with this photoelectric effect. And we've got this amazing spectrum of these. It's not sunlight as one broadband spectrum. That's not quite accurate. It's actually a collection of these very narrow bands. And now, with all of this together, we can do three major things with solar energy. With the longer wavelengths, we could do photothermal. So you're going to keep something up. In the visible and middle wavelengths, you can do photovoltaics as long as the electron has more energy than the band gap. And that's what Einstein taught us. And then you have the higher wavelengths doing photochemistry. And the most important, of course, would be photosynthesis, which uses a very narrow band of red and a very, very narrow band of blue. And you drive all of the photosynthesis that actually provides all the oxygen on earth and all of the base nutrition. So even if you ate an animal that only eats meat, eventually you're going to add an animal down the food chain that ate a plant. So it's the plant kingdom that is as our lifeblood here on planet Earth. So that sets the scene that solar energy is a really dynamic. If you were to look at the sun, you would see all different points of light, all different colors all going everywhere. And so this was the basis of our modern understanding of solar energy. Well, that's totally fascinating. And that was what in the 1700s, that's not that long ago, I don't think. We've come a long ways in a couple of centuries. And it's certainly after Einstein, as you say, a century later, and we do things they would have never imagined. So solar energy is dynamic and it provides, well, can provide everything. So the ancient Greeks captured solar energy. How about telling us a little bit about what they did? That was back in the BC BC before cars. Yeah, this was back now. Now, how do humans use solar energy? Well, let's go back or forward from when we were talking about to 25 centuries ago, so fifth or sixth century BC. Now, Wow, Greeks had a problem. They didn't have any fuel. This was the Bronze Age and everyone's burning wood. So where do you get wood? In the fourth century BC, it was a death sentence. If you cut down an olive tree to make charcoal or to burn it, it was so vital to the economy. So the idea of an energy crisis dogs every civilization through time. Well, so they didn't have any wood. So Socrates, for example, he used to say that the ideal house would be cool in the summer and warm in the winter. And so what a concept. It's a wonderful philosophy of life, right? So in architecture, what the Greeks figured out is if they did the first of the east, west, north, south streets, so that everyone had access to solar energy. Actually, access to solar energy was a human right long before the idea of voting for anything. So it's kind of an amazing the kind of humanity that they recognize that everyone has to have some heat and some light. And so with architecture, what the what the Greeks did and they were really freaked out about this this deforestation. I remember Plato wrote poems of lament of his dear Attica that it was deforested in all the soft and rich parts have fallen away and that only the bees can survive, you know, because everything was cut down. So this was a big issue. So they thought about it and realized, okay, let's start innovating something. They took any window or door and above it, they would create an Eve. So during the high sun, it would shade. But when the sun was low in the winter, it was allowed access into the portico or into the windows and buildings. And so on that picture, you can kind of see where they had all of these things that they would recommend that you would now here you have a kind of a portico in the center where you had a cistern. So the southern part is kind of the lower right hand side. And you could see the slope would allow the sunlight at low angles to reach the northern part of the house and go in through the portico and into the into the north facing rooms. And it would heat up the floor and they would have that radiant heat. So you can imagine people padding around on the warm stones, you know, in winter. Fantastic. And Socrates and many others had all kinds of advice. If you're going to build a second store, you build it on the north side. So you because if you build it on the south side, you shade the rooms in the north, you didn't want to do that. So all of these techniques. And here you have this house, which not only had lighting and heating through the winter, but you also had the roofs collecting rainwater and the cistern in the center. So what a remarkable, sustainable way to have a house 25 centuries ago. Yeah, they didn't have computers in those days to figure it all out like we do. I guess they all they had like a scroll of papyrus and they draw it out and figure it out and think about it. Oh, very much. And then execute it and experiment. It's really fascinating to talk about this. Amazing. So solar energy wasn't just esoteric to the ancient Greeks. It was life to the ancient Greeks. So now let's move forward in history and let's maybe go to the ancient Romans. Now the greenhouse effect was long known by the Romans. They had the hypocost where they would burn wood and had hollow walls and floors to heat up their baths. But they noticed that they had usually three baths, a very hot one, a medium one and a cool one. And in the medium one, they'd simply would make some windows to the top, put some glass blazing over it. And not only did you get light in the bath, but it would actually help trap heat. Now Caesar was famous for loving a particular fruit. I'm trying to remember cucumbers. He loved cucumbers. So he had his gardeners create little greenhouses so that they could move it around during the wintertime and grow cucumbers for the emperor. So the greenhouse effect was very long understood. And so by the ancients, they made tremendous use of solar energy technology in the most practical way they could. And that's kind of fascinating because they had a big fuel problem. Wood, you know, by the third century BC, a third of Italy was denuded of trees. Everyone was burning wood because how are you going to cook? How are you going to get some heat? And most importantly, how are you going to smelt iron? Now the Bronze Age, that was copper and tin and you're still making high temperature. But when we get to iron, they had to make 3000 degrees, lots of wood. So the Romans had a fleet, a Navacari Lombardi, something of that nature in land, ship fleets, and they would send around soldiers and stop somewhere, deploy some soldiers. The rest of them would cut down the trees, hew the trees, big dig pits and throw the trees in and light them on fire and then cover it with dirt. In a couple of weeks, it would leech out all the impurities and you're left with charcoal and they would import that back. So the idea of wood and fuel was a massive problem for the ancient Romans. They actually imported wood from the Caucasus, which was 1000 miles away from Rome. So this was the energy crisis always dogs everybody. Okay, so moving forward to the 1830s when people actually started to cook with solar, why don't you talk a little bit about that? Sure. Now we're kind of jumping on passing over like 2000 years.  Now back in the ancient Greeks, one of the things they did in Greece is they take a little bowl and pound some silver really thin or gold and they would make a reflector and the Vestal Virgins would start the holy fire from the golden rays of the sun. And so there was no pollution of men making fire. And even in Mesoamerica we see that they did the same thing and all the villagers would run up to the temple many miles away and they would light the fire from this initial fire, bring all the flames all the way back to the villages and then everyone would start their fire and so it was this holy connection to the life giving energy of the sun. In Mesoamerica the gold was actually tears of the sun. So just wonderful romantic notions. Okay. So I'm going to fast forward burning mirrors for the thing and they made them larger and larger. Francis Bacon in the 13th century proposed burning mirrors for the crusaders and the crusades. He was thrown in jail for probably a variety of things because he was quite outspoken. But so the idea of burning mirrors was a really big thing. Okay. So now we've jumped forward to the 1830s, late 1830s. And here we have the father of concentrating solar energy. His name is Augustine Machot. Machot was a French brilliant mathematician, later a professor. But when he was a young man, he went to the French Academy of Sciences and said, hey, give me a grant because I have some designs for solar cooking and other apparatus that would be great for the French foreign legion. Now the French foreign legions were in mostly in North Africa, Morocco and Libya. There's no trees. There's no wood. So if you have 200 soldiers and they're doing whatever soldiers do and they come back to the commissary, what are you going to feed them? Some cold gruel or something? So the Academy of Sciences said, oh soccer, you know, see the players here do it. And so he traveled there. And the soldiers loved him because if you hold up that slide, what he did in the beginning is he designed these little tripods. And he had the little reflectors that would fold out like an upside down umbrella. And they pounded silver very thin in these little slacks. And then in the middle, he put a carafe or kind of a hot pot.  If you have fish, put fish and rabbits, rabbits. Okay. So he put a little beef, if you're lucky, and salt and pepper and close it up. And so for four or five hours in the hot sun in Libya, someone would come around and kind of adjust it and move it manually to follow the sun. And then at the end of the day, everyone had this fantastic beef stew that was, it's like a solar crock pot. And it was just delicious. And you know, the two cultures that, to me, the French and the Japanese take their food very serious. So for the French, it was quite extraordinary. And so Machaud was really on the path here and he was extraordinary. Now, on that lower part of that drawing, you'll see where he did something revolutionary. He combined two things that have never been combined before. He took the light trapping glass of a greenhouse and combined it with a burning mirror.   And the sunlight would warm up one half of it, but the, to get the backside or the north side, he put this burning mirror reflector a couple of feet back and it would shine on the back. And after again, four or five hours, you would have the most selectable stew. And you imagine, you know, you think of army rations being pretty tough. Imagine in the middle 1800s what they were, but the French were, were enjoying these wonderful, these wonderful home cooked meals. No, they loved Machaud.  And that was a condenser. And so when you heat the wine with the sun, that the alcohol would evaporate at a lower temperature than the water, go up, hit the top bulb and then kind of seep through that little flute and give up heat and condense into liquid and would drip into the most marvelous brandy. So here he's stilling wine with a brandy. Yeah, you got all the French. No, very practical. But everyone was thrilled with this guy. And he also built water distillers. And that was a big thing for all around the world, like in Indonesia, or in Indochina, where they had different colonies, is you couldn't drink the water. There's too many diseases. You had to boil it. That took lots of fuel. So it was a great innovation. He started building distillers. This guy was amazing. And then the next slide, if you go to that, he did another thing is he created a water pump that had no moving parts, no fuel gauze. And what he did, if you could see, it's kind of hard to see, but on the right hand side, they would put water in this vessel, which had a glass top and kind of a metal bell jar inside. They'd fill it halfway up with water and then have a feed tube. They had a valve on the right side and you'd turn off. So once you prime it and then put the tube into the water you wanted to draw, you just let it sit. It wouldn't drain out because it's kind of a hydrostatically would hold the water there. But what happens is the sunlight goes to the glass, heats up the bell jar. The bell jar would heat up the internal air and the air would expand and push on that column. And instead of nature takes the path of least resistance, so it couldn't push the water back down the well. But it could when you open the valve, push it up that little thing to the left that's a little tube and it would lift the water a meter high or something, a couple feet up. And everyone was astounded now. It wasn't a very powerful water pump, but here you have Masho designing and building quite an engineer himself, as well as a mathematics prodigy. And he became a professor at Tours in mathematics. But his dream was to power steam engines. Oh, yeah. We have something about that. Oh yeah. Now France had an energy crisis, you know, like we've heard before, and they were trying to compete with England in the first industrial revolution. Well, England had lots of coal and it was near the surface and they had railroads that were coming online and they only had to go kind of a short distance. France was a big disadvantage. Now they had coal, but it was way south in the Pyrenees. And so they didn't really have the railroads to bring it. So Masho goes back to the Academy of Sciences and said, I'd like a grant to develop larger and larger steam engines. And they said, Oh, wonderful. Go for it. So he started building these large steam engines. And if you go to the next slide, I say in the 1870s, but there was a lot of trouble this 1870s. Napoleon III declares war on Prussia. Prussia promptly goes in and sacks half of France. So they had a problem there, but they got to his lab and the Prussians took everything. Thirty years of all his prototypes, all his work, his library, all his papers, he was wiped out. And I think it kind of gave him almost a mental breakdown. Poor Masho. But he had an assistant called Piffray. And Piffray said, I want to continue your work. And he said, please, please continue this. So what you're seeing is kind of my sketch of a wood block I saw from 1879, 1880. And there was the Paris Exposition. And so here's Piffray building this big steam engine that would shine a conic reflector like he developed before onto the central boiler. And he ran a steam engine with all the Parisians walking by with top hats and parasols. And he ran a steam engine that ran a printing press and when print out bills that say, hey, you're just looking at a solar produced printing, you know, this is 1880. So Piffray was taking on what Masho had developed. And Masho, this was around the world, people were astounded by this. How could you run a steam engine with solar energy? And how could you do it in Paris? It's not a really sunny place. Right. Right. So the big thing that everyone was really trying to do was water pump. Because, you know, this is a time when they didn't have the modern oil age, they didn't electricity was just not quite yet until the 1890s. So the idea of farmers everywhere around the world trying to pump water, they had to bring, they had to run a steam engine with coal or wood. But that was problematic. It's your remote farm. How are you going to get all this fuel? So Masho had this dream. He wanted to set the world free at an industrial revolution of solar energy. So an extraordinary man in what he did. Okay. Okay. So now we've got a minute, we've got a minute and a half. Oh, oh, so soon. I'm so sorry. Okay, next slide. So this is what Masho did, inspired the work by Anais. And Anais had an ostrich farm in Pasadena, California, an ostrich farm. And what he did is he greeted the ostriches for the feathers. And he'd sell the feathers back east of New York for the women's hats. They had a fortune. Anyway, he was very enterprising. And so he started selling tickets. And I remember one of his ads, I remember reading, it said, come on the weekend and visit Pasadena to see the ostriches and, for no extra charge, see the solar motor. And so what Masho did, based on Masho, what Anais did, is he built a really big Masho conical concentrator as a water pump. Now, Anais had 300 acres of an orchard of citrus. And he was lucky because his water table was very shallow. It's only about 16 feet. But his engine pumped, get this, 1,400 gallons a minute. I had to look it up to be sure. Yeah, a minute. And everyone in Southern California and in Arizona, whether they're thinking, oh, this is going to be something incredible. And this is in the 1890s. But we'll go fast. So we jumped to the next slide. Now, he had some problems. A windstorm destroyed it, unfortunately. And so now I'm going to go back to the Civil War and talk about John Erickson. Now, John Erickson was the most famous nautical engineer in the world, everyone knew him, because he invented the monitor, the first iron clad of the Civil War. And he has, I think, 114 patents based on ships. He invented the propeller. So he said, after the war, I'm going to devote my life to solar engines so that we can grow food everywhere in the world and poverty could be eliminated. We don't have time, and I didn't write them down.  Okay, so let's go to the next slide. So Erickson set up this parabolic trough concentrator. Okay, he had some trouble as well. And then he was inspired or inspired a guy named Frank Schumann. Now, Frank Schumann was amazing because he went to Egypt and said, I'm going to build a big one. These are 200 feet long, these parabolic troughs, which would concentrate the sunlight down the center line. And he put some tubes and he was building a big water pumping system. Well, in 1911, his tubes were all made of zinc and they melted. I mean, as I read some of the newspaper articles, they said like, wilted rags. And so he goes, ah, I'm too good. I'm too hot. So he replaced them all with cast iron. And by 1913, he was pumping in the desert in Egypt for a cotton plantation, 6,000 gallons a minute. It was astounding. The whole world was just all by God, we're going to see this tremendous solar revolution. And of course, unfortunately, World War One happened and he was backed by Germans all in Deutsch marks. So when the war happened, all this money was worthless. And the eventually went into disrepair. But he had this wonderful photograph of women with their parasols walking around looking at this incredible solar machine that's going to change the nature of the world and pump water for all the farmers everywhere. So are we running out of time? We're out of time. Oh, I'm sorry. Okay, we'll have to stop there. But so the quick takeaway would be that solar technology has evolved and humans have strived to make use of it. And boy, can we. We can do, Masha pointed out, and later Erickson, and the naus and Schumann, that you can do all of these things very practically. And this is 120 years ago. So, you know, it's amazing what these guys are doing. Yeah. Okay, we're gonna have to leave it there. Toby, I'd love to spend another half hour with you, but we only had the 30 minutes. You've been watching Hawaii, the state of clean energy on Think Tech Hawaii. And today we've been talking story with with Toby, who has a fascinating history of solar energy. And I could listen to it again, maybe we'll have to come back for a second half. And how smart these people were all the way back to the ancient Greeks, all the way up to like the late 1800s. Amazing what we have. So thank you so much, Toby, for educating us on this fascinating history. Thank you. And thanks to our visitors. I mean, our viewers are tuning in. I'm Mitch Ewan. We'll be back in two weeks with another edition of Hawaii, the state of clean energy, aloha.


أخواني أريد أن أخذك في مرحب معرفة معرفة نورانية ترى كل شيء في هذا الدين هو بسبب معرفة تجد أن أمير المؤمنين يقول أن أول الدين معرفته أول شيء في رلجن رلجن هو معرفة الله سبحانه و تعالى و تجد أن هذا هو جنر القائد رولة الثامب نحن في كمونتنا لأولادنا لأولادنا مدارسنا لأولادنا عندما نريد أن نساعد على المساعدة أمير المؤمنين Where is the starting point? If we understand the words of أمير المؤمنين he says أول الدين معرفته يعني the first thing in religion the basics of religion the basis of religion is معرفة الله معرفة الله سبحانه و تعالى has to do with أسول الدين أقائد that's why you find معرف الله the issues that are taught in الملكلام توهيد عدالة نبوه إمامة and معاد the fifth one is معاد معاد meaning afterlife يوم الكيامة when we say that the five aspects of أسول الدين توهيد عدالة نبوه إمامة and كيامة when we outline the fifth أسول الدين is كيامة it may not technically be accurate because كيامة or يوم الكيامة is a part of the afterlife معاد is afterlife that encompasses everything يعني it encompasses أالم البرزخ it encompasses أالم الرجع it encompasses يوم الكيامة in the محشر and it's 50,000 years and it also encompasses جنة and جهنة إحنا in our مضحب followers of أحل البيت we believe in all these five aspects so together they come all together collectively as معاد for you find أمير المومين says that the beginning point of religion is معارف يعني to do with أسول أكائد أكائد is known as أسول الدين يعني the roots of religion the foundation of religion whereas on the other hand the thick is an expression of فروو الدين يعني the branches when you have a tree the strength of the branches is based on the strength of the root if the root is healthy if the root is well grounded the entire tree flourishes فإحنا we take lessons from this when we want to embark on the journey of spirituality when we want to introduce دين to our children when we want to make our children our youth and ourselves more religious than the starting point is أسول الدين and not فروو الدين you take a child right now and you force him into learning all the أحقام of فروو الدين he may not necessarily pray and be compliant towards prayers so long as he doesn't know what توهيد is if he doesn't understand the concept of توهيد but شنوه صلاة he's praying to who he's praying for what he may not be compliant in his صلاة which is why when you turn your back from your child the first minute they get or the first chance they will not pray or they will not fast why the understanding of توهيد that understanding of فروو الدين is weak the optimal of the prime situation is what that the beginning point of religion for the children is أسول الدين if they understand توهيد from a very young age by the time they reach بلوخ they are compliant with their صلاة and they are compliant with their song not because it is forced on them by their parents because they do it with their heart they love they have understood they are now their فروو الدين they are praying and they are practicing of the religion is based on معرفة on the other hand you find that throughout history emphasis on فروو الدين without emphasis on أسول الدين leads to نفاق we have a big research in regards to this and the network of أحديث that show us one of the ألامات إن شاء الله سبحانه و تعالى و تعالى and one of the lectures that we have is the signs of ألامات of a منافق because this issue of نفاق was touched upon very sharply by say that إنساء العالمين إن حر خطبة فدقية in مسجد النبوي and it is important that we contemplate on the words of say that إنساء العالمين so you find that one of the traits of نفاق is over importance on فروو الدين or using فروو الدين as a shield to cover defects in أسول الدين you find that بحث very very interesting how the أئمة have taught us how to recognize things like these make sure we are safe from their fitna make sure we ourselves don't have those characteristics of all these إن شاء الله with the trophy of Allah in the nights to come but the starting point as we said أسول الدين معرفة and within this معرفة of توهيد is معرفة of نبوة and معرفة of إمامة and then there is this one personality say that إنساء العالمين who connects the institution of نبوة with the institution of إمامة


Everybody forced here ripping a box of 2022 tops chrome baseball hobby for Jeffrey S. Good luck Jeffrey and got silver back there We'll do it the ends Here we go I think I pulled a super fracker in a while last box of the night to got to make it a good one Refractor of Tristan McKenzie Pitch well to playoffs this year. It's like 180 pounds so can wet though green wave rookie Alexander Wells 50 of 99 Yeah, I saw it Orange speckle wander that that pulled earlier sick Hyper Matt Olson. Yeah, there's some monsters lurking in those silver packs They don't always hit but man when they do future stars doll back refractor Joey Votto You got a Bruhan Eli Morgan. Yep. It was the 25 orange speckle extended base short print the 25 That's he's refractor Woodruff O'Neill Cruz rookie base Still looking for the first auto Chris, I'm you on Moncada refractor Manny Machado Rookie Otto Zach Lothar louther base Part of the city Jose Ramirez my trout 87. All right. Let's see a nice auto here refractor Corey seager Pinschart Byron Buxton Prism rookie Matt Veerling Yeah, it's that that's a decent ballpark Hobbs of what it would be refractor Acunia It's definitely over two and under three somewhere in between there. It's it's really tough to say with something like that specifically, you know what I mean Yeah, that's a Nice group break especially in like a group break where it was like random styles. I'm pretty sure They happen we see it almost every day refractor hunjian Ryu base rookie wonder Franco The red zone yeah part of the city vado Rookie prism Gavin sheets Refractor Brandon Lau $49 a spot. I got that orange Michael J rod. Yeah, that's what happens aqua wave auto Brian Reynolds 189 of 199 future stars magical Peter Lonzo and the silver back now come on Show us a short print or some crazy auto flipper who here Sharon Durand 87 and a refractor of Jose Ramirez on the back. That's gonna do it Jeffrey. Thank you again We will see you In a bit. We'll get these out to you


constantly calling, texting, messaging him, trying to be connected to him all the time, day and night, getting upset when you're not, and when you haven't talked in a day or two, right? And a lot of women don't realize, and it's one of those things where this might not actually be you feeling like you don't deserve a good guy, but it might be something where you don't understand that this is normal communication behavior for a lot of people. And so what ends up happening, whether you are acting this way because you feel like you don't deserve a guy, or whether you're acting this way because you don't know that that's like, most people have kind of time between kind of communications days sometimes between communications, especially in the beginning dating phases, this can put a guy off because it seems like it feels like you're kind of coming from the space of desperation, the space of neediness and the space of feeling like you don't deserve it. So you have to do something in order to make it happen, right? Which is the flip side where we do get a lot of women in our community who do this where they kind of grasp on and they feel like they have to be doing something all the time in order to make a guy feel a certain way, which is this kind of like trick, it's this counterintuitive thing where that actually pushes him further away rather than making him feel closer to you. And so yeah, all it does is it just tells them that you're needy desperate and that he has to act a certain way for you to feel good about yourself. And that just makes him want to pull away even further. And so just chill out.  I talk a lot about that. That's kind of the lifestyle component that we talked about here.


Istanbul's Hyderpasa Rail Station is continuing to reveal its secrets, with the recent discovery of a 1500-year-old church during excavations as part of the Marmare Project. The ancient church is thought to be from the 5th century AD, with archaeologists continuing to carefully carry out excavations to unearth the mysteries of the area. Archaeologists have unearthed hundreds of ancient artifacts here, recently including pieces of old pottery, coins and Ottoman-era waterways and even graves dating back 5000 years. Earlier this year, a 2000-year-old road containing artifacts dating back to the Byzantine period were discovered during the construction of a hotel in Istanbul, as reported in the Daily Saba. The construction of the hotel was suspended after the Istanbul Cultural and Natural Heritage Preservation Board No. 5 was informed about the finding through photos and a report and launched excavation work at the site. Researchers noted that the ancient road had various stores and more artifacts can be found following excavation work. The Heritage Preservation Board will decide on the fate of the ancient ruins and the hotel construction. Discovering ancient artifacts during construction work is very common in Istanbul, which was the capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires. Such discoveries have also been made during constructions. For instance, in February 2018, workers found a 2000-year-old sarcophagus at a school construction site, while a number of ancient artifacts were found at the construction of the Hydrapasa Rail Station. According to the reports, the sarcophagus is from the Roman period and was discovered at the construction site of a high school in the neighborhood of Acibadem. Archaeologists were immediately called to the scene to examine the ancient tomb, however archaeologists are yet to make a statement regarding the details of the sarcophagus. Just a short one for the moment, guys, regarding these ancient discoveries in Turkey and we will be back just shortly with more ancient and lost history. In the meantime, comments below and, as always, thank you for watching!