Well, what about two? What's happening?  Smashing the like button to defeat the evil YouTube algorithm because it really helps out with the channel No, but seriously there are some really good opportunities out there for two-year degrees I think a lot of people overlook two-year degrees and they just go straight for the four-year ones And I think that's a little bit of a mistake and some of these options can even get you to the six-figure level And they have high demand as well And you'll notice throughout the video that a lot of these degrees are gonna have a few key things in common And these are things that you can take note of so let's jump right into this one with number 10 Which is biomedical engineering technology now this one is going to start off around $47,400 a year in the first five years when you're starting your career and then when you're moving into more of a mid-career pay It's going to be around $80,700 a year and what you're going to be an expert in if you go into this career path is the Manufacturing installation calibration of all kinds of different technology that they use in healthcare facilities So as you can see with this one, it's a combination of two extremely hot fields So on one hand you have engineering slash technology and specifically the technician side of that and on the other hand you have health care Which I've talked about this a lot before it's one of the fastest growing career fields combine those two skill sets together And you get biomedical engineering Technologist and this is a really good one to get into and it's also very similar to the next one on the list number nine Which is biomedical engineering. So this one is going to start off around $44,000 a year starting off in your first five years and then $80,900 in mid-career pay and whereas the last one was more interested in Maintaining and stalling and repairing these machines that are created for health care facilities and hospitals This one is going to be more focused on the creative or the design aspect So both of these are really good and it kind of just depends on what your personal preference is But the next one on the list number eight is going to be instrumentation and control now This one actually starts off at fifty five thousand seven hundred dollars a year and then mid-career pay is around eighty one thousand two hundred dollars And basically on BLS instrumentation and control engineering is a branch of engineering that studies the measurement and control of process variables And the design and implementation of systems that incorporate them So these are different variables that you have to keep track of in all kinds of different industries and technologies across the world So things that you might keep track of for instance would be temperature, humidity, flow, pH, force and speed As you can see, this is a very useful skill to have Industries companies across the world need people who are good at keeping track of this sort of thing And I can see this one being really good now and being really good years and years into the future So one career that you might end up going into if you got this degree would be an electromechanical technician This is just one example, but they make around fifty eight thousand dollars a year Which is extremely solid for an associate level degree Now you're probably going to notice a lot of patterns on this list Especially when it comes to the associate level degrees There's going to be a lot of things that are related to health engineering and technology And the next one number seven is no different its instrumentation technology This one is going to start off at about forty six thousand seven hundred dollars a year And then the mid-career pay is going to be around eighty one thousand seven hundred So this is going to go over a lot of the same processes as before measuring different variables that are really important But it's going to be more aimed at becoming a technician That's pretty much just calibrates or fixes different instruments And one career that you might move into with this associate level degree is going to be an electrical and electronics engineering technician They make around sixty five thousand dollars a year and it's just an associates degree with over one hundred and thirty thousand five hundred jobs available Now you'll notice with a lot of these that the job outlook is usually not going to be as good as with a four year degree And the reason for this is because there's less of a barrier to entry It's so much easier for someone to do a two year program A lot of the times it's even less than two years They do some accelerated program and so the barrier to entry is much lower And so therefore a lot more people go into it That is one of the downsides of getting a two year degree But the upside is that you don't have to go to school for nearly as long And a lot of the time you can complete the degree in a community college Number six on the list is going to be fire protection engineering And this one is going to be a degree that starts off around thirty seven thousand one hundred dollars a year And then mid-career pay is going to be around eighty three thousand one hundred dollars And this one kind of sounds like exactly what it is They basically just use different concepts when it comes to fire technology and fire science To protect people businesses technologies, etc from natural fires as well as man-made fires that can occur in the workplace It also uses engineering principles to protect the environment from these sorts of fires that tend to break out And one career that you can go into with this and become is a fire inspector So fire inspectors make about sixty thousand dollars a year And they're growing at about eight percent, which is much faster than average And that's really high on a list that includes mostly associate degrees Number five on the list is going to be computer science and engineering This one is going to start off around forty thousand six hundred dollars a year And then mid-career pay is going to be around eighty three thousand seven hundred Now it is possible for you to become a software engineer with just a two year degree That's totally possible But generally you want to try to get a four year computer science degree if you're trying to break into that field One career that you could go for instead though is a computer support specialist So they make around fifty four thousand seven hundred dollars a year There's a ton of jobs available eight hundred and sixty three thousand and there is a ten percent job outlook So these are extremely good stats, especially on a list that is just two year degrees This one is definitely one that you should look into I recommend anyone, whether it's a two year degree, four year degree, six year degree, eight year degree Look into computer science software engineering and technology There is a ton of opportunity opening up in that field Another career that you could go for is web developer and yes I know people do break into web development without any degree whatsoever It's possible But getting a two year associates degree if you have no idea what you're doing is probably going to help you out a lot Web developers make around seventy three thousand seven hundred dollars a year There's a hundred and sixty thousand jobs out there BLS does recommend that you get an associates degree in order to go for this type of job And it's growing at thirteen percent, which is much much faster than average number four on the list is going to be project management Now project management is going to start off at about forty eight thousand nine hundred dollars a year And then mid-career pay is going to be somewhere around eighty nine thousand three hundred dollars So basically in layman's terms what project management is a lot of companies are moving towards more of a project based Workflow where they'll have teams work on one project at a time And as a project manager, you're going to be the person in charge of making sure that that specific project is successful So your big goal as a project manager is to achieve the goal that your boss assigned you in the given amount of time I'm oversimplifying it there But what i'm trying to say with this one is it's a very coveted skill set and I can see why it made it so high on This list now there are so many different directions You can go for with this one and I think a lot of it is going to be business related So how much you make is going to depend on the company you work for what specialty you're in What industry you're in and a bunch of other different variables And I know people personally that have cleared six figures with just a two-year degree in project management Number three on the list is going to be software engineering surprise surprise software engineering pops up again So with this one you're going to start off at about forty eight thousand one hundred dollars and then mid-career pay is going to be around 90,700 which is absolutely excellent for a two-year degree So this one is closely related to computer science But it emphasizes the skills that you will need to get into software engineering, which is a subset of computer science Software engineering also tends to be one that pays a little bit better than the broad topic of just computer science And there are a ton of different directions You can go with this one and what you make with a two-year degree when it comes to software engineering is going to depend on Your skill, but overall this is a fantastic degree And I think it's one that's worth getting especially if you just want to get a two-year degree Number two on the list is going to be one that I've mentioned before on this channel and that is going to be radiation therapy So this one is going to start off around sixty one thousand four hundred dollars a year And you're going to get up to about ninety three thousand three hundred and mid-career pay So this is one that's obviously in the healthcare field And you're going to notice that healthcare has a lot of degrees at every single level two year four year six year and eight year That are really solid options Now I've talked about this before but the downside of radiation therapy is you are going to be treating people Who are likely going through cancer and they're needing radiation for that So this can be a really tough job and you have to have a certain type of personality in order to do it But according to bls they make around eighty five thousand five hundred dollars a year There is a ton of jobs right now eighteen thousand six hundred and there's going to be even more in the future It's growing much faster than average at nine percent overall. This is an excellent one for you to look into It's tough to handle I don't know if I could handle it personally But if you can do it then definitely look into radiation therapy Number one on the list is going to be physician assistant studies This one you're going to start off around fifty five thousand six hundred dollars a year and mid-career pay is going to be somewhere around Ninety eight thousand three hundred dollars now I've mentioned a lot on this channel how I think physician assistant is a really good career for you to get into And this would be a really good place to start if you're thinking of becoming a pa Which is a six year master's level degree now You can also get employed in other things that are related to this There's a lot of like technician and assistant programs and all that sort of thing in the health care field But pa is one of my favorite careers and the stats are absolutely fantastic for it According to bls you get paid around a hundred and twelve thousand dollars a year There's a hundred and eighteen thousand jobs available and it has an insane 31 job outlook, which is I think actually the highest out of any of the jobs that are pretty common So overall I think that two year level degrees are not quite as good as four year degrees when it comes to your ROI, but it is really situation to situation They might be right for some people in certain situations And it is a little bit difficult to tell because I used pay scale in order to get the statistics for this Pay scale uses self report data now They you know get self report data from millions and millions of different people But it's difficult to tell whether these people who are self reporting actually went on to get a bachelor's degree Or a master's degree or a doctoral level degree. So that's something where you would have to do your own research You know, that's just boots on the ground messaging people who have these associate level degrees either on linkedin Or maybe joining facebook groups in these different career fields And you always want to make sure to talk to several different people Don't just get your opinion from one person And this is something you notice pretty much at all levels, although some are different than others Business health engineering and technology tend to do really well at just about any level that you're at Another thing that I really want to mention about two year degrees is you can really find some diamonds in the rough If you do your research So the thing about these two year degrees is they might lead to a job where maybe there's only like 3,000 of these jobs available. There's not enough jobs for it to even make it onto bls So they're really difficult to find and they're extremely niche But if you are able to find jobs like this, you can get into them with just a two year education And they can be extremely solid now I think I should mention that there is some danger to this as well because of the fact that there's not that many Of these jobs available. There's a very good chance that they might get replaced Whereas let's say something like accounting where there's literally millions of accountants It would be very difficult to replace all of those accountants And I don't think the government would actually allow that to happen Or if they did allow it to happen It would take decades in order for it to fully phase in But if it's a job where there's only like 3,000 people No one is going to care if that job gets replaced These are just the facts and I've seen it happen a few times with a few different career opportunities Now surprisingly reddit seems to be a pretty good place to do the initial research on these types of degrees and careers Obviously you don't want to just blindly believe someone on the internet But these are the types of careers that they might suggest and then you can look into that career Maybe join a facebook group with people who are actively involved in that career or do other types of research on it Overall two year degrees are not going to be for everyone But it's definitely something that you should consider A lot of the time you can do a two year degree at either a technical college or a community college And this is not going to be nearly as much as paying for a four year degree Which is going to end up costing you around $40,000 a lot of the time Check out my other videos right here. I made them just for you Go ahead smash the like button hit the subscribe button ring the notification bell and then comment down below Any thoughts or criticisms etc that you have on the video? Thank you so much for watching and bye for now


Hello. Good afternoon. All of you, please type in your name in the comment box. Okay. See, today we are going to start. It's not basically a topic, right? It's not a separate chapter given in any book, right? But since we are going to have this kind of the concept that we are going to discuss today, this concept or this type of reaction we are going to discuss in the various chapter that is we have to study in organic chemistry. Okay. So since we already know that in organic chemistry, we have mainly reactions, right? So those reactions will have certain mechanism, correct? So what is the mechanism of a given reaction? How the reaction proceeds, right? What are the intermediates we have? How the intermediate forms? And again, the relative stability of the intermediate. Okay. So all these things mainly about reaction I am talking about for intermediates will have a separate glass. Correct. So today we are going to start the we are going to study about the mechanism of the reaction. Okay. So this is, so this is we have, we call it as reaction mechanism. Reaction mechanism. There are three, four different types of reaction we have. And in that, what is the mechanism of the reaction mechanism means what? Mechanism is nothing but the detail step by step description of one particular reaction, right? Mechanism is nothing but the explanation or detail step by step explanation of any reaction is the mechanism of that reaction. Okay. So suppose if I write down one reaction here, any reaction if I write down, the reaction is suppose rx, right? And if you have any nucleophile and u, right? Nucleophiles are negative charge reagent. Okay. So in this, the product we get here is R nu. And then x minus goes out. Okay. This is one reaction I have written over here to make you understand that what we are going to study today. Yes, Bharat, SN1, SN2 we will discuss today. So all of you please attend this session very carefully. Okay. Because later on what happens, suppose I will tell you here, there are three, four different reaction we have here. Suppose for example, if I take substitution reaction, okay. Substitution reaction, just a second, just a second I have an urgent call. For example, suppose if I say substitution reaction, okay. Elimination reaction, addition reaction. All these are different, different types of reaction we have. Okay. So this, you know, the explanation of this substitution elimination and addition, we will discuss here only. Right. Later on when we start hydrocarbon or other chapters, I will tell you that this reaction follows elimination reaction. This reaction follows substitution reaction. Okay. So there I will not discuss again the mechanism of these reactions. Okay. How the reaction proceeds. Okay. So it is, you know, it is very important for you all to understand the mechanism here itself. Okay. My job will also be, will also be easy next year in 12th class to make you understand the reaction mechanism. Right. The mechanism of reaction. Okay. So that's why if you, if some of you are not attending, do watch this session later on whenever you get time. Okay. And please attend this session very carefully. Okay. So coming back to this reaction, I have written one reaction here RxNu-RNu plus X-. This Nu- is a general thing I have written here. This is a nucleophile. Okay. Nucleophile. This nucleophile, electrophile will use very often in organic chemistry. Okay. So what is nucleophile? I will tell you. Nucleophile is what nucleo stands for nucleus. Right. This is nucleus and this is lover. Okay. So nucleophile means what? Nucleus lover. Nucleus lover. And we know the nucleus is what? Nucleus is positively charged. Right. Nucleus is positively charged. So hence positively charged species, this nucleophile are positive charged lover. Right. So this must have negative charge on it because opposite charge attracts each other. Right. So nucleophile is nucleus lover. Nucleus lover is positively charged. Right. Nucleus is positively charged. So obviously nucleophile, since it is a nucleus lover, it must be negative. So nucleophiles are what? Nucleophiles are reagent. Similarly, there is one more reagent we have. Okay. There is one more reagent and we call it as electrophile. Okay. So you write down all these things. Okay. So since it is an online class, so I will not dictate you each and every line. Right. Will not dictate you each and every line. So whatever I have, I am writing down here just to write down in a copy. Okay. Electrophile, similarly if I explain, electro stands for electron, file is lover. Right. So electron file is lover. So this electrophile is what? Electron lover. Electron lover. And since electron is negatively charged, so these electrophiles are what? These electrophiles are positively charged species. Okay. Positively charged species we can say, we can also say these are electron deficient species. That is also you must keep in mind. Whenever you define an electrophile, so electrophiles are electron deficient species or any positively charged species. Okay. Nucleophiles are negatively charged. So these are electron rich or all molecules which contains lone pair. Right. The molecules which contains lone pair or negative charge on it are called nucleophile. Okay. So if I write down the example H2O, H2O is a neutral molecule. Right. If I write down here BF3, BF3 is also a neutral molecule. But if I ask you which one is nucleophile and which one is electrophile, your answer will be what? H2O and BF3. Which one is nucleophile and which one is electrophile? Tell me. H2O is what? H2O is a nucleophile. And why it is a nucleophile? However, it is a neutral species. Okay. H2O is a neutral species. Then also it is a nucleophile. BF3 again, it is a neutral species or even I can write down here ALCl3 also. Right. So BF3 being a neutral species then it behaves as electrophile. This is also a neutral species nucleophile. Okay. So the point is this H2O molecule has two lone pair on it. Okay. Lone pair of electrons are the unbounded electron available on the atom. So it has two lone pair but BF3 does not have any lone pair. It has six electron. So it is electron deficient species. Okay. So BF3 since it is an electron deficient, so it has tendency to accept electron and that's why it reacts or it attaches with any electrophile. Correct. So this is what the point we have. So simply nucleophile and electrophile if you have to define, to define nucleophiles are the nucleus lover, negatively charged species fine but it, those molecules which has lone pair also that may also behave as a nucleophile. Ether may also behaves as a nucleophile sometimes. Right. Alcohol also may behave as a nucleophile. Okay. Electrophiles are what? Positively charged species, electron lovers. These are positively charged or electron deficient species like BF3, ALCL3 and all. Correct. So the point is the reaction which I have written over here. This reaction there are two molecules which are reacting here. One is this alkyl halide Rx and other one is nucleophile I have taken over here. Right. So in any reaction there are two different components. There are two different substances. Correct. One is, we call it as substrate. One is substrate and other one is reagent. Okay. So this reagent can be nucleophile or electrophile. Here I have taken the example of nucleophile. Is it clear? Right. So substrate and reagent. What are substrate? Substrates are those compounds which are being attacked. Right. Substrates are those compounds or molecules. Molecules which are being attacked. Regents are those molecules which attack substrates. Attack on substrate. So reagents can be molecules, can be ions. Right. So reagents are those molecules are ions which attacks on substrate and substrates are the molecule which are being attacked by the reagent. Okay. And the product we get here. Now here you see this nucleophile. This nucleophile if you see this reaction you forget all these things substrate, reagent, nucleophile, electrophile everything you just let it be. Just you see this reaction rx plus nu minus gives rnu and x minus. So x minus is leaving out. Right. So this is what this is a leaving group here. Right. The ions which goes out we call it as leaving group. Leaving group. So three, four terms we have discussed so far. Nucleophile, electrophile, substrate, reagent, leaving group. Right. Now if I talk about the different types of organic reaction. So next heading you write it down. Types of organic reaction. I have just now explained few terms that is you know that is that will be used that will use in in the discussion of these reactions. Right. Nucleophile, electrophile, substrate, reagent. Okay. That's why I have that's why I have explained these term first. Okay. So next you write down the types of reaction. Okay. So there are mainly three different types of reaction we have here. And the first reaction is substitution reaction. Substitution reaction. We also call it as displacement reaction. Displacement reaction. More often we use substitution only but displacement also we can use. The second one is elimination reaction. Elimination reaction. And the third one is addition reaction. Addition reaction. Okay. So these are the three main different types of reaction we have which will mainly study in organic chemistry. Okay. So we'll discuss these reactions one by one. Okay. So first reaction you write down the first type we have that is substitution reaction. Substitution reaction. In this type, I'll write down here, in this type of reactions, in this type of reaction, one atom or group, substrate molecule is replaced by replaced by another group. In this what happens in this, the carbon skeleton does not change. In this reaction, carbon skeleton does not change. It will be sp3 only. Okay. See rearrangement reactions. Also we have one type of condensation reaction also is there but you know what happens. These reactions, see condensation reactions are those reactions in which molecules like NH3, H2O goes out. Okay. These are not the main types. Okay. We can have, see reactions can be defined in various different categories. Okay. We are discussing about the nature of the reaction. Nature means what, nature means what, what all steps are involved, what are intermediates are involved in this reaction. On the basis of that, the reaction out of three types. Okay. Physical chemistry you must have studied. The reactions are classified into different, different categories. Like suppose, if I ask you on the basis of direction, the reaction are classified into two categories, reversible and irreversible. If you talk about the number of phase present, the reaction again are classified into two categories, homogeneous, heterogeneous. Okay. If the reaction like this, like this, the reaction are classified into various different categories depending on the, what basis we are taking. But here in organic chemistry, we are talking about the various steps involved in the reaction and how intermediates forms. Okay. So on the basis of that, the reactions are mainly classified into three categories. After these three, we have one more reaction that is rearrangement reaction. Okay. In which the rearrangement takes place. But that reaction we will discuss in all these only. Even in substitution also rearrangement possible. Okay. So that we will see in this section. Right. So substitution reaction, carbon, skeleton does not change. Correct. Now in this, the important thing here we have to discuss is nucleophilic substitution reaction. Okay. Next to write down nucleophilic substitution reaction. Now nucleophilic substitution reaction means what? Like nucleophile will attach at the substrate, the previous example that I have taken here, you see here, this is the nucleophile. And that nucleophile is attaching with this alkyl group. Correct. With the substrate. So it is nucleophilic substitution reaction. And in this, some, you know, leaving group goes out, like here we have X minus. Correct. So you see here, the next one we are talking about nucleophilic substitution reaction. Very important reaction we have nucleophilic substitution. Okay. In this reaction, you write it down. It is the attack of nucleophile, nucleophile, a saturated carbon atom, saturated carbon atom bearing substituent. Substituents are nothing but the leaving group. Bearing substituents known as leaving group, known as leaving group results in, results in substitution reaction. Or you can also write nucleophilic substitution reaction. So in which what happens here, one group or atom gets, get displaced. Right. For example, the previous example only I will write down.  So what happens here, the leaving group takes this bond pair of electron and goes out. Okay. Leaving groups takes this bond pair of electron goes out. This R become positively charged. This will be negatively charged when this go out and then this nucleophile attacks onto this R plus and we get this as a compound. So this is what one leaving group is getting displaced by this nucleophile. That's why it is substitution reaction. Substitution reaction. Right. Now you see the application of this. We can have many different nucleophile possible. Okay. And according to this nucleophile, we'll get different, different products here. For example, suppose if I write down this Rx, how this reaction is useful for various different topic that we are going to study is you see this. In this one you see, you can take many different nucleophiles. Suppose the first nucleophile I am taking OH minus negatively charged. Right. The second nucleophile suppose I am taking is OR minus here. Right. Another nucleophile I can take CN minus. We'll discuss the mechanism. First of all, I'm trying to make you understand what different, different products we get by this kind of reaction. Okay. CN minus. We'll get again NH3, NH3. Another one we have suppose RCOO minus. All these are negatively charged species. These all are, all behaves as a nucleophile. So what happens in all this reaction? This OH minus behaving as a nucleophile will replace this X minus in this reaction. Right. And the product here it will be what? ROH plus X minus. Here it will be ROR plus X minus. Then it will be RCN plus X minus. And it will be RNH2. RNH2 plus we'll get X minus, H plus. So HS minus we'll get. And then we'll get here ROC double bond O. Okay. Or to differentiate this here, write down this R dash. This R dash is this. Okay. So what all different products we are getting here? You see, we are getting first what we are getting? We are getting alcohol first. Then we are getting what? Ether. After that it is cyanide. And then we are getting amine. And this is one degree of mine. And then we are getting ester. So you see by this kind of reaction, we are getting many different products. Alcohol, ether, cyanide, amine, ester. Right. So all these chapters will, when we do this alcohol, ether and all, we'll discuss this that this reaction follows nucleophilic substitution reaction. Okay. So there I'll just tell you that this reaction is nucleophilic substitution reaction. Okay. We will not discuss this reaction again over there. Okay. So that you must keep in mind. Now you see, now here you see this all these here we have this is substrate. This is nucleophile or reagent substrate, reagent and living good. Okay. So now in this what happens, this is nucleophilic substitution reaction. Now the nucleophilic substitution reaction can be affected by the nature of nucleophile, its strength and concentration. Okay. This reaction, you write down here, nucleophilic substitution reaction, substitution reaction is affected by nature of nucleophile, nature of nucleophile, solvent, nature of substrate, because all these molecules are involved in this reaction. Okay. Nature of living group also we can write substrate and living group. Okay. How good the living group is all these factors influence the nucleophilic substitution reaction. Okay. Now this nucleophilic substitution reaction are also of two types. Okay. It is, it is nucleophilic substitution. It is classified into categories. The first one is, the first one is unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction. Now this is important. In short, we write this as nature in the sense of, see how, see when I talk about nucleophile. Okay. So nature of nucleophile means what, how, what is the nucleophilicity of that particular compound? What is the density of the negative charge over there? If it is more, its nucleophilic nature will be more. Okay. If the density of negative charge, suppose if I talk about NH3 and H2O. Right. NH3 and H2O. Or if I talk about NH, sorry, this one. Ph3 and NH3 we take. All these are nucleophile because it has one lone pair electron. We have, maybe it has a nucleophile. Okay. You see the electron density is same. Right. Now electron density is not same because the phosphorus size is more than that of nitrogen. So here the electron density is less. Okay. So this is a better nucleophile over here. Right. Similarly, we can also compare H2O. So when I talk about the nature of nucleophile, when I say it means how easily the molecule can attack onto the positive charge that we are getting here. That is what it means. Okay. Nucleophilicity basically. So unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction. In short, we write it as Sn1. Like this we write. Okay. Sn1 reaction. N stands for nucleophilic as is substitution and one is unimolecular. Okay. Sn1 is what? Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction. Okay. Now this reaction you write down. This reaction proceeds in two steps. Two steps. This is the two step reaction. Okay. That step one is what? Step one is the formation of carbocation. Formation of carbocation. This is a slow step. And since it is slow step, it is the rate determining step. Determining step. Okay. Now you see how this reaction takes place in one step. Again, I will take the same example Rx. In the first step, the reaction is slow. Means this molecule is the living group. This atom is the living group. Takes this bond pair of electron. So this electron pair shifts over here. We will get R plus X has two electron and negative charge of it. Okay. So this is what? This is heterocyclic. This is heterolysis actually. Okay. One atom takes the bond pair of electron. Okay. So this is heterolysis. Okay. Heterolysis is right. So when this X takes this bond pair of electron forms negative charge and this R becomes positive charge. Okay. Now what happens? Since we are taking nucleophile over here, so that nucleophile will attack onto this carbocation positive charge atom in step two. Right. So step two is nothing but the attack of nucleophile. So what happens?  Now when the carbocation forms, the attack of nucleophile or the second step is very fast step. Very fast step. Okay. So slowest step or the slowest step is the rate determining step. Rate is nothing but the speed at which the reaction is proceeding. Right. So we will discuss about rate in detail when we do chemical kinetics. It is in 12th class. Okay. So we will not focusing on, here we will not focus on what is rate of a reaction. Okay. So rate of the reaction is nothing but the rate or the speed at which the reaction is proceeding. Okay. That we will discuss in chemical kinetics. Okay. Now in chemical kinetics also we will discuss a term that is order. Okay. So Sn1 reaction is nucleophilic substitution and one stands for, it represents the order of the reaction. Order of reaction. Okay. So this reaction follows, next you write down, follows first order kinetics. First order kinetics. Again this order term we will discuss in chemical kinetics. Okay. Just you remember two, three things in mind for order. It is an experimental quantity. Okay. It is an experimental quantity. Okay. Definition let it be for order right now because I do not want to go into that discussion now. It is not required here. Just for order you just keep in mind it is an experimental quantity. So in Sn1 when you say Sn1 it is nucleophilic substitution unimolecular first order reaction. Okay. So order of the reaction is 1. What represents the order over there? Okay. That you must keep in mind. Now when you write down the rate of this reaction rate is defined by the slowest step. It is the rate data mining step. Okay. It is RDS rate data mining step. Correct. So rate can be equals to any constant K into the concentration of the reactant species which is nothing but Rx. Okay. So this is the rate law expression. Okay. Again this is there in chemical kinetics. We will discuss this over there. Now here we are getting this positive charge which is a carbocation. Now what is carbocation? Tell me. What is carbocation? Carbon has only 6 electrons. Okay. Carbon with an extra pair of electrons. How carbon can have an extra pair of electrons? Then it will be negatively charged. Correct. So you see here. Next thing. See carbocation is what? Carbocation is a reaction intermediate. We discussed this in GOC also. Okay. Here I will just tell you a little bit about it. Reaction intermediate. All reaction intermediate are highly unstable, highly unstable and very reactive. All reaction intermediates, very reactive. For example, you see if you have this carbon atom like this, carbon, carbon, carbon. When the carbocation forms, heterolysis takes place between this carbon and halogen bond and here we get carbon positive charge on it with three different carbon it attached like this. Here the hybridization of carbon atom is what here? What is the hybridization of carbon here? It is sp3. Here it is sp3 and here it is what? It is sp2. Correct. Sp3 and sp2. So here the carbon atom is in this state it is sp3 hybridized, tetrahedral geometry. But when the leaving groups goes out to form a carbocation, its hybridization changes to sp2 and this becomes linear also. This becomes linear also. So when it is linear, then attack of nucleophile takes place. Correct. Now you see the SN1 reaction we have, it proceeds with the formation of a carbocation. So we will try to get the more stable carbocation always in this reaction. So we will try to form, we will always try to form more stable carbocation. So first we will get which one Marath? Which one is not planar or linear? The carbocation is planar, right? Carbocation is planar. Yes, carbocation is planar. Carbocation is planar because it is sp2 hybridized. So I will come back to this planar part again. Just give me some time. We will always try to form more stable carbocation. And what is the order of stability of carbocation we have? We know this benzyl almost equal stable. Then we have 3 degree carbocation, 2 degree, 1 degree and at last we have methyl carbocation. This is the order of stability of carbocation. So now when this is the order, so if you have any 2 degree carbocation forming by the elimination of living group, right? And if it is possible that by any means you can shift this 2 degree carbocation into 3 degree carbocation, right? So first we will do this a rearrangement and then the reaction takes place, right? Point here it is what we always try to form more stable carbocation. If the carbocation is 1 degree, then we will try to form 2 degree or 3 degree carbocation if it is possible, otherwise we let it be, okay? So for example you see here if I write down this molecule say we have example I will write down. And one more thing this carbocation are electron deficient that also one of the property we have you write down it is electron deficient reaction intermediate electron deficient. For example you see if I have this CH3, CHBr, CHCH3, CH3 and the nucleophile we are taking suppose OH- what is the product in this we get 2-methyl 2-butanol 2-methyl butane to all, correct? So all of you are getting 2-methyl 2-butanol, okay? So now you see how this reaction proceeds. First of all what happens the living group goes out, okay? So the reaction is what? The reaction is SN1, okay? So SN1 reaction we are assuming the first step is what? The living group goes out and we get CH3, CH, CH, CH3, CH3 and here we have Br and when the living groups goes out we will write Br-negative, okay? And we get what? CH3, CH, CH, CH3, CH3 and here we have the positive charge on it, okay? This carbocation is 2-degree carbocation, right? It is 2-degree carbocation and we know what 3-degree carbocation is more stable than 2-degree carbocation. So what happens here you see that since here we have one hydrogen if this hydrogen comes onto this carbon atom if suppose if I write down the hydrogen bond like this with this carbon like this if this hydrogen take this bond pair of electron and this H-minus will attack onto this carbon atom then what happens you see? This will get CH3, CH2, CH, CH3 and CH3. Now from here since hydrogen has taken bond pair of electron so this carbon will have the positive charge, right? Now you see this carbon atom is tertiary 3-degree which is a more stable carbocation. So this is a conversion of 2-degree to 3-degree carbocation. This kind of shifting we call it as 1, 2 hydride shift. You must have studied this 1, 2 hydride shift, correct? So now because of this kind of shifting the 2-degree carbocation converts into 3-degree which is a more stable carbocation. Now on this only the nucleophile which is OH-minus will attack onto this and the product will be CH2, CH3, CH, CH3, CH3 OH, okay? So it is 2-methyl butane to all because of the hydride shifting, okay? 1, 2 hydride shifting. So this kind of shifting is important in SN1 reaction. We are talking about SN1, not SN2. There is no H here, right? There is no H here, fine. We do not have H here also. We do not have H here. We do not have H here by mistake, right? So this is the answer we have. Your answer was correct, okay? So now coming back to the another part here which is again important that is stereochemistry of SN1 reaction. That is why I have started in the last class stereochemistry of SN1 reaction, okay? So you will not understand this right now, okay? So let it be this part, okay? So what you will do, we have to discuss this also here, stereochemistry of SN1 reaction, right? Only one thing you try to understand here, only one thing you see. In detail, we will discuss this when we finish stereochemistry, okay? We will come back to this again. Suppose we have C, any halogen atom X, here we have phenyl, here we have CH3, here we have hydrogen, okay? Now when the leaving groups goes out, minus X minus, we will get this pH, H and CH3 with positive charge onto this carbon atom. This is sp3 hybridized tetrahedral. This is sp2. It is planar. Now when it is planar, the attack of nucleophile, okay? Any nucleophile can be from any site, right? So if you have a nucleophile say OH minus. Since it is a planar molecule, so this nucleophile may attack from the top or from the bottom since it is a planar molecule, correct? So when it attacks from the top, you will have a definite molecule and from the bottom also you will get a definite molecule. Both will be different from each other, okay? So actually you see what happens, little bit of optical isomerism, I'll explain you over here. This carbon atom, can you tell me what is this carbon atom? Since I guess all of you have started a bit of optical isomerism also, stereochemistry also. What is this carbon we call it as? Have you heard about chiral carbon or something? Chiral carbon, chiral molecule, okay? So I think Kormungala guys have started this of it, okay? Anyways, anyways. So I'll just give you a brief introduction here, right? Because it is a part of stereochemistry, so that's why we have to study that particular part first. See chiral carbon or dose carbon, chiral carbon are sp3 hybridized carbon, sp3 hybridized carbon, which has different groups. So when I write down this carbon, suppose we have chlorine, OH, CH3 and H here. So this carbon is sp3 hybridized, okay? And when all the atoms are different, you see chlorine, OH, CH3 and H, all these four groups are different. So this is a chiral carbon, right? This is a chiral carbon means chiral carbon or dose carbon in which like those carbon which are sp3 hybridized and have all four atoms or group different, okay? So for example, you see if I write down this molecule, CH3C, CL, OH, CH, double bond, CH, CH double bond, suppose BR we have here, here we have CH3 and CHCCH3, CH3 and here we have H. In this molecule, it tells me how many chiral carbons are present. In this molecule, how many chiral carbons are present? Bharat, Gargi, RMN, here we have five bonds, right? So you just, how many chiral carbon? This is CH3. The last one is CH3, CH3, H. How many chiral carbon you are getting? Only one. Now coming back to this, what is the condition for chiral carbon? Carbon must be sp3 hybridized with all different four groups or atoms, right? So this carbon is sp3 hybridized, but we have three hydrogen present. So this is not the chiral carbon. This carbon, again it is sp3 hybridized and four groups are what? One is chlorine, other one is OH, third one is methyl and fourth one is this whole group, right? So this is one of the chiral carbon we have, right? So this is the one chiral carbon we have. This carbon is sp2, not possible. This carbon is sp2, again, not possible. This carbon is what? sp3, correct? This carbon is sp3. So we have one group is OH, other one is H, third one is this group, and fourth one is this whole group. So this carbon is also chiral carbon. Fifth one is sp3 hybridized, but since both groups are methyl only, so this is not a chiral carbon. So we have two chiral carbon possible here. Is it clear? Tell me how many chiral carbons are present in a benzene thing? How many chiral carbons are present in a benzene thing? The second one you see. You have to see two conditions you have to apply, Garry. First of all, the carbon must be sp3 hybridized, okay? And all atoms are, because carbon is tetravalent, right? Carbon is tetravalent. So we can have four different, four groups attached to it, okay? These four groups must be different, P, Q, R, S. If the carbon, sp3 hybridized carbon, attached with four different atoms or group, then only it is chiral carbon. That's what the condition is. So you have to check, you have to, you know, cross check both conditions, sp3 and four different group, correct? That's what I have applied for each of these carbon atoms, and you will get two carbon atoms on the chiral carbon. Understood? So if somebody asks you how many chiral carbon are present in a benzene ring, right? So in benzene ring, none of the carbon atom are sp3 hybridized, correct? All are sp2. So that's why there is no chiral carbon present into this. Zero will be the answer, correct? Now coming back to this question now, okay, chiral carbon. And one more thing, let me tell you, those who have studied a bit before in the school or by yourself only, you understand one thing very clearly over here, okay? chiral carbon.


Let's take a quick overview of different valuation methods that could be applied in small firm or unlist different contexts.  Multiple comparables is based on finding companies that are somehow similar to our focal company. For example, if we find a company that is similar to ours, that has 10 million euros of revenues and has a valuation of 1 million euros, then we could infer that our company that is a bit smaller but similar that has revenues of 1 million euros would be valued at 100,000 euros. So the idea of comparables and multiples is that we find multiple comparable companies and then we infer the value of our company based on these comparable companies. The discounted cash flow valuation technique is based on calculating cash flow projection and you project how much free cash flow or estimate how much free cash flow cash that could be distributed to shareholders. The company generates every year and then you discount those to the current prices and you take a sum and that's your valuation. So the valuation using discounted cash flow is based on the idea that the company's value is determined by the amount of profits that it generates for its owners. And then we have the balance sheet approach. This is not very commonly used but it's basically could be applied when we sell a company that does not really have any viable business anymore. We just sell whatever equipment, whatever things the company owns. So we look at different assets that the company has and we sell those assets separately to the highest bidder. This typically produces smaller values than any of these other techniques because this balance sheet technique doesn't really take the value of the business itself into consideration. Then we have techniques or one technique that is particularly developed for investments in the startup companies and it's called the venture capital technique. And this venture capital technique or venture capital method is not really applicable to larger companies but it's built or designed for a scenario where an investor invests money in form of equity to a company with the plan of divesting within the next five or six years. Then in the venture capital approach you estimate the terminal value of the company or the exit value what is the price that the venture capital is likely to get when they divest their ownership and then you discount that to the current prices. This is for high risk investments and it works a bit different to the discounted cash flow method. Importantly all of these are techniques that are applicable to financial investor. So these don't consider strategic investors. Strategic investor is an investor that buys the company to get synergies or perhaps to get a competitor out of the market. So for strategic investor the reason for buying a company is something other than finance. So these values and techniques are based simply solely on the final performance of the company without taking into consideration of any potential synergies with the buyer. So the buyer is basically a generic here. There are no specific things about the buyer that would affect the values.


Hi everyone, welcome to the University of Greenwich Open Day. My name is Farah and I work in the Outreach and Educational Partnerships team here at the University of Greenwich. And today I'm going to be talking about all things T-Levels. So what exactly are T-Levels?  They launched in 2020 and it is a two year programme of study for 16 to 19 year olds. So they follow the level 2 qualification of GCSEs. One T-Level which runs for two years is equivalent to three A-Levels. And really T-Levels are all about a combination between classroom based learning and also a work placement as well. And they are developed in collaboration with the government, businesses and employers. And really they're about giving students the opportunity to learn but also practice those skills in a workplace environment. And the certification is managed by the Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education. So the T-Level structure they do differ slightly from A-Levels and BTECs. So they are 80% classroom learning and 20% industry placement over two years. So basically what that means is students spend 80% of their time in a learning environment, in a classroom, learning the content and learning the skills that they need. And then with the other 20% of their time they use those skills that they learned and put them into practice in an actual workplace industry environment. The placement in industry has to last a minimum of 45 days. And basically it is a wonderful opportunity for students to get really valuable experience working with an employer and getting a really early insight into what that field is like, what that area is like and also give students a chance to think about their career prospects. So maybe it is an area that they feel like they would like to work in in the future and having that work placement really determines that for them or kind of impacts them a lot that that's maybe a career that they would be interested in. So T-Level Grades, just to mention that the University of Greenwich does accept T-Levels at their full UCAS tariff. So basically what that means is UCAS tariff points are a system that all universities in the UK use and you need a certain number of points to get on to a course and study it at university. So various courses have differing UCAS points and you can only find what the exact UCAS points are on university web pages. So you can go on to the University of Greenwich website, find all the courses we have on offer and when you click into them you can see exactly what the UCAS points that you need are to get on to the course and get a place. So what does that mean in terms of your grade at T-Levels?  This could be from Distinction Star to Pass. So for example, if you've got a Distinction Star at T-Level, this would be 168 UCAS points and that is actually equivalent to three A-Stars at A-Level and also three Distinction Stars at BTEC. Also if you've got a Merit that is equivalent to 120 UCAS points and that's equivalent to three Bs at A-Level and also Distinction Merit Merit or Distinction Distinction Merit at BTEC. So you can kind of see here basically what the T-Level grade means in terms of UCAS points. So the course is available and how do you apply to university after you complete your T-Levels? So for T-Levels again we accept them at the full UCAS tariff rates and that's for entry into our undergraduate programs including extended courses. So extended courses are when a program has a foundation year built in. So instead of being a three year undergraduate degree program, it changes to a four year undergraduate degree program with the first year being a foundation year and also entry into our degree apprenticeships. And degree apprenticeships are part-time study at university and part-time work with an employer. Like I said, like all level three qualifications like A-Levels, like BTECs, T-Levels are also assessed on the UCAS tariff. So for specific courses they will have different UCAS tariff points. So for some courses you might need 112 UCAS points. For other courses you might need 120. This will differ from university to university and from course to course as well. In order to calculate how many points you have, how many UCAS points, you can use a really handy tool called the UCAS tariff calculator. And this is the link that you can find it. So it's ucast.com slash ucast slash tariff calculator. And all you need to do is put in that your qualification is T-Levels, what grade you have achieved, and then it will calculate what that is equivalent to in UCAS points. And then you can determine what grades you need for what points and then what courses are available to you or whether you have enough points for the course you're interested in. Just to note as well that alongside UCAS points, which are the Level 3 qualification, you also need other specific requirements for certain courses as well. So some courses do require Level 2 qualifications. So for example, you might need a Level 2 Math in English at a C or a 4. Some courses also require a science GCSE at a certain grade in order to be eligible for that course as well. So just be aware of that and be mindful when you are researching courses. What UCAS points do you need in terms of your level T-Level qualification, but also do you need a certain GCSE and certain grade at that to also be eligible? To apply to university, you do the same thing as a Level of Students and BTEC students do as well, and that's applying through UCAS. So to apply for undergraduate degrees in the UK, you use a system called UCAS. So T-Levels are no different from every other qualification. You apply through the same route, which is through UCAS. So in the next few slides, I'm just going to demonstrate some T-Level routes. So for example, if you study a certain T-Level, there could be a really matching course at undergraduate level, so I'll just demonstrate some of that, some of those. So for example, if you studied a T-Level in design, surveying and planning for construction, at the University of Greenwich, we have a course ESC Quantity Surveying. So this is a nice match for your T-Level to progress into an undergraduate degree. Next up, we've got the T-Level in Education and Child Care, and the University of Greenwich course that we have on offer, we have a BA in early years. So this is also a nice match up from a T-Level in Education and Child Care into the higher education course of early years. So you have that good match and a good progression from level three to University level. Also, if you study a T-Level in digital production, design and development, a matching University of Greenwich course that we have is BA, Graphic and Digital Design. So it's just another good route from your T-Level in digital production, design and development. You could obviously look at a course in Graphic and Digital Design. It's just a nice match up as well to help you with that progression. And that is the talk today on T-Level. So thank you for listening. I really hope that you got some really good information on what T-Levels are and what some routes into University are, what courses are available. But like I mentioned, we do have full course web pages. So you can find all our undergraduate programs on our website. It goes into a lot of detail about what the course is like, what modules you'll study, but also lists all of the entry requirements that you need to get a place on the course. So things like what UCAS points you need, but maybe what GCSEs you also need as well. And also make sure to use the UCAS tariff calculator to calculate what UCAS points you have from your T-Level qualification. So I hope that was helpful and thank you for listening. I hope you have a good rest of your day. Goodbye.