here everybody. Welcome to Grand Rounds. We'll get started here. What our first presenter is Dr. Krista Knar. She's our Neurolofomology fellow extraordinaire. She did her residency here with us when we were super happy that she was able to stay for the fellowship and were able to work with her again this year. And as you all know she loves loves to present. And so she actually wasn't going to do a Grand Rounds, but she begged Dr. Warren to let her. So because of that we have the pleasure of hearing from her today. So she's going to talk to us about corneal nerves and migraine. Thank you Trent. Good morning. This is meant to be a brief overview of one of the projects that I've worked on this year and it is on a topic that is near and dear to Dr. DeGree's heart. She is always present even when she is not here. So just to provide some definitions, migraine is defined by recurrent headache. You have to have had at least five attacks in your lifetime. The duration of pain should be around four to 72 hours and this is untreated or unsuccessfully treated headache. And then you must have two of the following. A unilateral pulsating pain that's moderate or severe in intensity and worse with activity, nausea and vomiting, photophobia or phonophobia. And other etiologies for headache must have been excluded. Episodic migraine is migraine that is less than 14 days per month and chronic migraine is what we'll be focusing on which represents 7.7% of the migraine population. And these patients have headaches for more than 15 days of the month and eight of those days must meet criteria for migraine and it has to be present in this pattern for three or more months. According to the Migraine Research Foundation, there's approximately 36 million people in the U.S. that have migraine and it's one of the top 20 reasons for disability in the U.S. An untreated episodic migraine progresses to chronic migraine at a rate of 2.5% per year. So the trigeminal system is thought to be involved in migraine and basically when you get activation of the system there's vasodilation of the vessels which end up irritating the meningeal tissues and if we remember back to medical school those are pain responsive tissues. So for corneal pain you have nochiceptor, you've got C fibers and A delta fibers that are the trigeminal afferents of the cornea. They travel back to the trigeminal subnucleus caudalus in the brainstem, synapse, second-order neurons travel up the spinal thalamic tract to the thalamus and then from the thalamus they go to the somatosensory cortex where the information is decoded as pain and also simultaneously to the limbic system which is responsible for the emotional response to pain. An interesting fact just to go back, the cornea has the highest density of nochiceptor fibers of all tissues in the body. It's estimated 16,000 per square millimeter which is 20 to 40 times higher than dental pulp and like 300 to 600 times higher than the density in skin. So this is a montage because corneal confocal microscopy can be used to image the the sub basal nerve plexus as we all know and these nerves enter at the limbis and they radiate in towards the center of the cornea and then they form a whirl pattern just inferior to the center of the cornea and this is a dynamic structure that does change and remodel over several weeks and this is just another image from corneal confocal microscope and it shows how the nerves can look different whether you're looking at the superior and inferior temporal or nasal or central view and just to point out these those white spots right there are not nerves those are dendritic cells or lingeron cells that are thought to be involved with inflammation. So the purpose of the study are the trigeminal aphorines different in chronic migraine patients versus non-migraine patients that's what we set out to try and figure out. So patients were recruited all of the controls came from the cornea suite already so they had had an eye exam so they didn't have to have as much extensive testing the migraine patients came from headache clinic with a diagnosis of either chronic photophobia excuse me or headache so they had a more extensive exam and so at that exam they had to have a slit lamp intraocular pressure because we needed to rule out corneal disease they had to fill out the dry eye questionnaire which is the DEQ 5 the photophobia questionnaire they had to meet the criteria for chronic migraine and fill out that questionnaire and then corneal sensitivity tear breakup time and basal tear secretion were also tested and then of course both groups had corneal confocal microscopy done inclusion criteria for the study subjects they had to meet the International Headache Society guidelines for chronic migraine control subjects could not have any migraine and then exclusion criteria for both was any systemic illness or medications known to cause a peripheral or sensory neuropathy any corneal disease or any prior corneal or intraocular surgeries which could also alter the morphology of the corneal nerves so this is an image taken from one of the migraine patients on the left-hand side is a raw image and then on the right-hand side is an analyzed image and so this is where you know there's differences in studies arise because you have to trace this by hand on a bamboo tracing pad and so you the analyzer defines the major nerve the nerve branches so the red is the main nerve fiber blue are the branches and green are the branch points this information is recorded in pixels height by width and then it goes into the CC metric software and it's converted into microns per area and it gives you the data for the nerve fiber length nerve fiber density nerve branch density and tortuosity coefficient so the results of our study the migraine patient average age was 39 and the control group is 45 women were more common than men as you would expect in the normal population the average dry eye score is 2.7 in our group for the migraine patients most of them have symptoms of dry eye a score greater than 7 is indicative of symptomatic dry eye interestingly the tear breakup time the basic tear secretion and corneal sensitivity were all normal in the migraine group which I guess isn't that surprising because we all know that these tests we use them to try to identify dry eye but it doesn't do a very great job which is why they're looking at tear osmolarity and different things to try to define this all of the chronic migraine patients had photophobia and 18 of the 19 had chronic inner ectophobe photophobia meaning they have light sensitivity even when they don't have a headache of the 30 control patients 13 didn't even finish the questionnaire they said wasn't even applicable and 10 of them answered yes to one question which is bright lights or bright sunshine bothers me at time so they had intermittent photophobia but not chronic so these are the descriptive statistics that we looked at again the nerve fiber density nerve fiber length nerve branch density and the tortuosity index which is a measure of how curvy the branches are and so this is compared in the chronic migraine and in control groups and basically what we found is that the nerve fiber density and the nerve branch density is diminished in the chronic migraine groups compared to controls and this was statistically significant and the tortuosity coefficient is much higher in chronic migraine patients versus controls the nerve fiber length shows a trend towards decreased density in the migraine group compared to the control controls but this didn't quite meet statistical significance and this is interesting because this is exactly what's found when you review the literature looking at diabetic patients they all have decreased nerve fiber length nerve branch density and nerve fiber density and increased tortuosity which and that's a neuropathy so dr. degree was quite excited about this some limitations of our study corneal confocal microscopy is still used mostly for clinical studies or research is not widely used in the clinic and so there's still not normative data for different populations based on age gender ethnicity however you can find statistically significant difference between groups that have been studied there were two imagers and two individuals that did the analyses however we did have a massed observer that view the images and they did not find difference between the quality of images and there was no statistically significant difference between how the images were analyzed and again our sample size is small but this is actually quite comparable to what is out in the current literature most of them have like 18 in their study groups so what is really going on you know to cause this substance P and calcitonin gene related peptide are known to be released from corneal trigeminal afference and animal models on migraines show much higher levels of substance P and calcitonin gene related peptide and these molecules are responsible for vasodilation of the blood vessels activation of mass cells and release of cytokines so is it possible that there's a sterile inflammation that's going on that leads to a neuropathy or is this just a neuropathy that can trigger migraine or continue or add to the chronification of migraine basically we don't know this is just the start so there's lots of different areas that need further study for one is there a difference in the corneal nerves between episodic migraine patients versus chronic migraine patients we looked at normals versus chronic migraine is dry eye a confounder because people with dry eye are known to have sterile inflammation and higher dendritic cells in their corneas when you look at the literature so you know is that what is doing this if we looked at tear osmolarity would that correlate better with the symptoms of dry eye and you know again is this an inflammatory is all of this an inflammatory process so you could in further studies you can count the number of dendritic cells and the most recent like in the last year they've started to look at this but this is even newer than looking at the sub basal nerve plexus and so there's even less normative data on that but in the future that'll be something that's probably looked at more intensely and then you could try treating these patients with autologous serum tears which have neurotrophic growth factors or there are topical neurotrophic growth factors that you could treat these patients with then you could reimagine them and question them on their symptoms of eye just ocular discomfort or dry eye and see if there's a difference after being treated and then another question to be answered is do these patients have hypersensitivity normal corneal sensitivity or hyposensitivity most of the measures that we have in use for clinic right now like the Cospenaeus Thesiometer cotton tip applicator those are all very rough tests to tell us whether or not you have normal sensation versus hyposensation there's a few researches these yameters that have a wider range of pressure but those are not available unless you get special rights to it but that would be maybe helpful to find out if these migraine patients have hypersensitivity and special thanks to the neuro ophthalmology group and Dr. Gordon Smith in the Neurology Department and Meg and these are my references any questions


Morphisms, I have a space of morphisms here and I should associate a morphism in something with a discrete topology. If all the morphism spaces are locally path connected, then a continuous map from a space into a discrete thing is just the same as a map of sets from pi zero of that set into the other set. So this is true if all Cx, y are locally path connected just because taking pi zero in that case is left adjoint to giving the discrete topology. Okay, so morally this thing is like left adjoint to that functor except not actually true. So that's that construction. Now if I take H of CDB, that's an ordinary category. That's an obvious functor to the category I talked about yesterday. An object here is an embedded sub-manifold. Just forget that it's embedded and take the induced smooth structure. That's an abstract manifold with the smooth structure. If I have a morphism here, I can take because of this condition, it has kind of canonically parametrized colors near the ends. And then I could just take the diffeomorphism class as a corbotism with this induced CN and C out and so on. And that diffeomorphism class does not change if I have a path in this space. So path in this space then becomes an embedded bundle over an interval and then the two endpoints are gonna be diffeomorphic. So if I write pi zero here, this would be the kind of isotopic class or the class in pi zero and the diffeomorphism classes then well-defined. And this preserves composition so this is a functor. So that's how these are related. And I claim that if the dimension of V is big compared to D, then this is an equivalence of categories. And in particular that's gonna be true. If you take that co-limit over bigger and bigger V, how am I doing on time? Good. Claim HCDV to cop D as an equivalent. Let me just claim that it's weakly contractable. Yeah, that's maybe a better claim to make. And this means weak equivalent. If there's any doubt, it's better to just say weakly contractable because that's all you ever need instead of worrying about if it's one or the other. So let's do that. Okay, why is this an equivalence of categories? Or maybe as you had also said, regarding this question of identities, not that I wanna dwell on that. A non-unitial category having identities, the way you usually write it, it looks like extra structure, but really it's a property because of this easy exercise that identities are unique if they exist. And if I take HCDV then that does have identities like composing with a cylinder. If I take Pizzerio of the morphism spaces, I can like deform back to where I started in some way that I'll not write down. So this is unital, just a comment. Why is this an equivalence of categories? Well, why is it essentially subjective? Oh, this is if the dimension of V is big compared to D. Essentially, subjective means anything is isomorphic to something from there. So given some abstract closed D minus one manifold, why is it the underlying smooth manifold of some sub-manifold of some Euclidean space? Well, that's precisely what witness embedding theorem tells you. If the dimension of V is at least twice this number, then the excess of embedding into V, then just take the image of that. It's gonna be defimorphic. Choose M, I can embed it into our twice this, 2D minus two. And then dimension of V just means it needs to be big enough that there's a linear embedding of this into V. So it's essentially subjective if dimension of V is bigger than or equal to 2D minus two by Whitney. Beading. Then we have to check fully faithful. Why is it full? That means surjective on the home sets. That's very similar. If I have two embedded things and I have an abstract comportism between them, why is that the underlying thing of an embedded comportism? Well, you need to embed that abstract thing into V cross an interval. And sort of extending the given embedding of the endpoints and a version of the Whitney embedding theorem also tells you that. So full is the same argument. Maybe you need 2D because you're trying to, or maybe even 2D plus one. You're trying to embed manifold of dimension D. Faithful has to do with the embedding spaces being connected. So if you have two abstract, you have two embedded things that are defimorphic real endpoints. Why can I realize that defimorphism by an isotopy? And a fancy version of the Whitney embedding theorem also tells you that the embedding spaces connected provided the dimension of V is high enough. Something like 2D plus two or something. Embedding of an abstract comportism between two embedded things. This is unique opt isotopy. If you pick two embeddings, there's a path of embeddings between them. And that means if you take pi zero of the morphism spaces there, you'll precisely get the morphism sets there. Okay, that's the relationship. And that's the sense in which I've sort of lifted this thing. So under this construction, it goes to a category that's equivalent to cop D, provided dimension of V is big enough, or take the code limit. Okay, that was a long discussion about that. Now, if, okay, and these spaces are locally path connected. So there is a, so if I take HC and then take IOTA. So I have the same objects. And then a locally path connected space has a continuous map to its own pi zero. Just send a point to its path component. This is given the discrete topology. So I can regard that as a functor from there to there. Now this thing here is, of course, surjective. And if I regard it as a continuous map, it is one connected. So one connected means bijection on pi zero, surjection on pi one. But pi one, that's trivial. So that's, of course, true. And it's set up to be a bijection on pi zero. So that means, okay, where am I going? It's a little bit out of order. Let me get back to that for a moment. I want to take classifying space of a topologically enriched category. And I just do it the same way. Take the nerve. Now take the space of, I mean, take the same underlying set as before. Np of c means composable p-tobbles of morphisms. And now I've topologized morphisms, so just give this the product topology. Then the nerve is a simplicial space. And I just define the classifying space as before, as the geometric realization of the nerve, which means the disjoint union of Np of c cross delta p. Well, I just use the topology here and give this the product topology, this the quotient topology. So it's simplicial if this is a category, if it's only non-unital, then this is a semisimplicial space. So that's what I should have said. Semi-simplicial means I only have, I don't have degeneracies. And then I should not quotient out by the thing that involves degeneracies. So let's do that. Sometimes called the thick realization. Good. So, okay, where I'm going is, I have this canonical map here. I want to take b of that and ask how connected is it? Turns out it's always two connected, no matter what topological inverse category you start with. And that's what I was just starting to explain there. And zero c is just the set of objects, maps to n, zero, h, c, which is also the set of objects. So this is a bijection. And one c is the total space of morphisms. So in other words, the distro and union xy, c, x, y, n, one, h, c, given the discrete topology, is just pi zero of this space. But mapping a space to its own pi zero is always one connected. Same argument applies to n two. This is also one connected and therefore zero connected. So in general, for all p, the induced map of n p is two minus p connected. And then there's a general fact about semisimplacial topological spaces, that if you have a map of such things, where the map of p simplices is, well, k minus p connected, then the map of realization is k connected. P of c to np of h, c. This is always two minus p connected for all p. And this implies that c to n, h, c is two connected. Well, that's great because at the end of last lecture, we were looking for a space with a two connected map into b of cop d. And then we can just use this embedded compotism category. So if dimension of b is big, c d v to a h, c d v, rather than this was equivalent to a d, induces two connected map from b, c d v to b. So this thing I call x at the beginning of the lecture. And last time I can use this one. So it induces an equivalence from the fundamental group of it. So for classifying field theories, we can use this space instead. So maybe the first time you see this, it looks like that was a step in the wrong direction. I had just an ordinary plane category and now I have to talk about topologically enriched and so on. But that's until you know better. What turns out for this space, you can just write a formula for its homotype type in terms of something that looks simple. Where I don't know a good formula for the homotype type of this thing. So this is a version of a theorem. I proved with Ip Madsen would re-determine twice. That's a formula for not only the fundamental group of it, but the whole homotype type. So, okay, before I can write the answer, I have to give, I'll tell you one or two things. So that's the grass manion of d planes and v. R, what should I call that? No, x something, the d dimensional linear subspaces. So the usual grass manion of d planes and v. The usual topology. Over that there's a vector bundle called the universal vector bundle and it's orthogonal complement. It's just the space of pairs of x comma v in the grass manion cross v itself. So that little v is in the orthogonal complement of the space. So this is a vector bundle whose fiber dimension is dimension of v minus d. And then td comma v is a tom space, this bundle. So that means the one point compactification of the total space. After homomorphism you can also take the disk bundle and take the quotient by the sphere bundle. So this is a space, finite dimensional CW complex. Then you take that for r plus v. The r has to do with the morphism directions. And then you take the v fold loop space. So this means the space of pointed maps from SV td comma r plus v where SV means the one point compactification of v. So if v is rn then this is just SN and this is the n fold loop space. V is rn, r plus v becomes rn plus one and this becomes the n fold loop space. So that's what the theorem is about the homotype. In terms of things that are kind of familiar in homotopy theory, in the original paper we proved this in the direct limit where this co-limit over bigger and bigger v but it's also true for finite dimensional v. No all finite dimensional v, yeah. Even like if the dimension is equal to d. Let's see, is that true? Yes. So you always have the m to z here. So if d is bigger than v, both sides are a point. And yeah, no conditions. And there's also a version with orientation and any tangential structure you like. Let me not write that down, but. In the last few minutes, let me just explain what that says about pi one. Okay, so in a special case, okay, just to repeat what I said before, there's, as far as I know, no good formula for the homotype aside of this thing. But, so this is maybe evidence that this topologically enriched thing is a more natural object. Let me spend two or three minutes on the case d equals one and v equals r where I drew this picture before. Let me make the picture a little bit more complicated. Here's a morphism from five element set to a three element set. In that case, Grassman one of r plus v is Grassman one of r two. The space of one, unoriented one planes in r two, also known as r p one. I mean, also known as a circle, but let me write it this way. This vector bundle over a circle, if you think about it a little bit, this will be the Mobius band, the non-trivial one dimensional vector bundle over a circle. If your one point can pacify the Mobius band, you get r p two. Then you take loops of r p two and you take the fundamental group point. Well, the fundamental group point has to do with pi zero and pi one. So pi zero of loops of r p two. That's pi one of r p two, which is Z mod two. Whereas pi one, the fundamental group, loops of r p two, some base point. Pi two of r p two is pi two of s two, which is Z. So that tells you that the fundamental group point of loops of r p two, up to equivalence, it has just two objects. I mean, it has two isomorphism classes, but if I pick one of each, the isomorphism group is gonna be Z. So up to equivalence, this is gonna be, I think people sometimes call it, okay, I'm gonna write Z disjoint union Z, for this means the one object group point with isomorphism group Z disjoint union itself. So that's determining the universal function from this group point, this group category into a group point and it will be this group point. Okay, let me end there.


The first thing I wanted to say is that like the first thing be careful about all the advice you're going to get about marketing and business like I know it's weird but really I mean even for me like because it's easy to be overwhelmed as you all know that the consuming all this content and especially when you start hearing people give you different advice it's like well what's one is right. And I kind of came up as I was thinking about this question came up with this, I love acronyms, I came with this acronym. And I don't know why I keep using ABC as an acronym because it's easy to remember I guess ABC. So here the only three things that matter, especially in the beginning. Okay, the only three things that matter. Authenticity. Meaning like screw all the advice you're getting from business coaches marketing experts, you know, thought leaders. Authenticity is what matters meaning like is the strategy that I'm being told to do to feel good to my conscience to my soul to my feeling of how I want to connect with, with, you know, my audience, if it doesn't feel right doesn't feel good. If it's not authentic to you whatever that means, even some advice from me right that doesn't feel right to you don't do it, because you're just working against your own sovereignty, your own free will your own, you know, conscience. Eventually at some point you might learn enough where you go that feels authentic now right maybe but so authenticity of strategy of tactic is so important ignore everything, including for me doesn't feel authentic to you. And only do the thing that feels authentic. Number two, be beta beta beta test everything. I wanted to experimentation that's E so B is beta testing beta test everything everything honestly. If this is only advice you get in business. I've been in business now, full time for 13 years full time like full time income for 13 years I'm grateful for that. And I've taught so many people I've coached so many people I've seen so many colleagues hundreds of colleagues go in and out of business right multiple times sometimes the only thing that matters is experimentation. In other words, honestly, nothing I say is the absolute truth and nothing, some Marie for Leo or fill in your business, Amy Porter few fill in the business expert of your choice. It's all BS.  And actually a lot of times when you when you try out their stuff you're like, from my own grounded perspective, that's BS too. They all sound truth, like they all sound so confident.  Your own grounded experience is the only truth because you've experienced it yourself because of that. And sure you might have other experiences in the future that counter what you experienced previously but it really it's incorporates it right anyway. Beta test everything everything is has to be experimented with. You don't know until you try it out until you really it's like even if you learn not a single other word from me for the rest of your life. And not a single word from any other business expert, you can create a successful business. If you just are willing to test everything. Try everything out. Really, that's the that's the secret of it. No one wants to tell you this, you don't have to buy any of my courses. You have to buy any courses from anybody. You just try everything out. The C is consistency or continuation. Perseverance is what I wanted to say, but that's P. So I had to find a C word consistency continuation, never giving up from the authenticity and the beta testing. Honestly, if you just never give up consistently do authentic beta testing, you will win you will have a successful whatever six figure seven figure eight figure whatever figure business you want. In whatever joyful way that you want it. Nothing I say or anyone else says, like, if I could just say that to everybody in the world, and then I die, I'll be I'd be happy like I fulfilled my, my, I fulfilled my purpose as a business coach, if I could just say that to you. Because everything else is BS. Now you have to do this formula this strategy is the only way you're going to build a list. Oh, you have to build an email list who says the F you have to build an email list. That's optional. Who says you have to create a funnel. That's optional too. I don't have a funnel. Right. And my email list is not using the typical strategies for building email list and I'm doing great with my email list. You know, 5000 people at a 50% open rate unheard of.  So it's like, so much as BS out there about what's right and to do in business. So that's all I wanted to say. And now I can die. I'm happy now. All right, so. So that is, yeah, that I think I'm going to end the segment right here, because that's it. Right. So comment below if you want to ask anything else.


All right, so good afternoon everybody. My name is Brittany Stennis. I am the Ospo strategist for the open source program office at Fannie Mae, so pretty cool. I focus heavily on the community of open source software, inner source, upstream contributions, and then all of the gray areas in between that we all know lives in open source. So I'm really excited to be here today closing it out. We made it through Austin. Woo, that was a rough go, but we did it. And so I just really wanna thank the Linux Foundation for having me. This is just super great. And so the story that I'm gonna tell today is a little different than what we're used to have been hearing this entire talk. It's more of kind of a story about how somebody that didn't go the traditional computer science degree path ended up being an Ospo strategist at a big company. So it's pretty cool. So I'm gonna talk about where I was in my career and how I got to be here, so it's pretty cool. So yeah, so let's just go ahead and get started. So a little bit about me. I was born and raised in the city of Cleveland. When I was 18, I could have went to college right away, but I was accepted to the University of Akron. And despite what everybody loves about LeBron James, I am just not a big fan of the city of Akron. And honestly, I just wanted to get out. And true story, I love the Grateful Dead growing up. I did. And I waited tables all throughout my teenage years.  And then I just took off and traveled to the country and followed the dead. Crazy, right? So I just, I know my mom was mad and a lot of people were upset with my life decisions, but I just needed to get out there. I needed to see what else was out there. I didn't know what I wanted to do. I just wasn't ready for college. Just felt like it would have been a waste of money at that current time. So fast forward two years later, I traveled across the country and gutted out LA transit bus, a 1959 crown bus that was converted into vegetable oil. And I decided, I'm like, okay, I'm done. I went back home. I went back to Cleveland. I went to community college and decided to explore. I had grand dreams of becoming a musician. And then I got into classes and I realized I'm not that talented and it is what it is, but I needed to pivot. And so I knew there was one thing that I needed to do and I wasn't ready to stop traveling. So I decided to enroll in Temple University in Philadelphia and take up education. And this enabled me to move once again back away from Cleveland and continue to explore the career as I was growing up. And now the funny thing is I'm back in Cleveland now and I really couldn't be happier. There's just like a really strange thing about being in your hometown.  And so like I said, a little bit, my past experiences are really interesting and lots of shifts, pivots and taking lots of chances.  I graduated in 2011 and within two weeks of graduation I ended up landing a job at Philadelphia Montessori Charter School teaching fourth and fifth grade children. It was fantastic. Quickly I got promoted to lead teacher and then we did amazing things at this school. You know, my first year of teaching through mutual hard work and a lot of fun, these children and I, we were able to bring their state test scores up from this below basic level by 55%. We were able to also not only do that, but we were able to nationally be recognized for closing the achievement gap in science. And that was amazing because we upped the science levels of these children by 75%. And it was so awesome. And honestly, they did most of the hard work. I didn't do, you know, I taught them, but they did all the work. And what's really interesting is I had a student reach out to me this past week on LinkedIn, he's a junior at Penn State and he is currently taking up computer science, which I mean, yeah, I felt a little bit old but I'm like, I started young, it's fine. So that was really cool. And so, you know, when I was at the school, I became the head technology trainer. You know, I didn't really know too much about tech at the time, but I know that we were gifted a grant of like 100 iPods or iPads and a couple MacBooks and some smart TVs and nobody knew how to use it. And I was like, all right, I'll try it. And so then I became the head technology trainer. And so that kind of led me to my second path. I decided I kind of reached where I needed to go in the school. And I decided to work in educational technology. You know, there's just such a gap in the space, obviously, nobody knows how to use these tools, especially teachers in the field, to help their students. So I got this job at this place called American Reading Company, great program for children's reading. And I actually just became a help desk technician for their online metrics gathering tool. And then quickly I just realized what teachers could do and what they couldn't do. And I just decided to take it upon myself to start training these folks on this tool. And then it basically started training internal salespeople as well. And then kind of rose through the ranks or teaching the phonics program to all of these folks. And then it started led me to work with superintendents and beyond, which was really cool. And then so I became a director, you know, and I came to realize I plateaued. There was no more for me to go. Like I just, there was nothing else to do. And I just had to start looking for another path. And so I met somebody that worked at Comcast knowing my background.  I was like, okay, I don't know. I thought about it and I could see the tower from my West Philly house. And, you know, I never thought about it. Like, you know, what would they want with me? Right? You know, I don't have a traditional background in engineering. I did not feel good about my own skills. And I'm like, oh my gosh, I don't know how this would match. Do I have to work dress pads? Do I have to put a button up shirt? Blazer, bow tie? I don't know, you know, that's not my style. It's like, would they be interested in someone like me? So I took a leap of faith and I applied and I got hired to be a community manager for their open source program office. So shout out to Nithya Ruff. Ospo, what is it? Ospo, award winner of the year. She's the best. And so she took a chance on me and she hired me. So I jumped off the cliff into the unknown once again. You know, I was insanely nervous about making that jump. Like, I was a teacher. I was working in education. Now I'm a full-time worker. You know, what does that mean? I don't know anything about what I'm doing. You know, but I had to try because everything's moving so rapidly towards this digital age. And you know, I'm realizing that there's so many different opportunities in that field. And you don't have to be a traditional engineer to branch into it. And that was my initial trepidation. But then I learned about the great world of program management means a lot. You can do so much. There's so many great things that you can do that's not directly tied to coding. And it's amazing to be a woman in tech. And we're making waves and great strides. But as we've all heard throughout this entire time, there's still a lot of work to do. So I took the chance. I made the leap of faith. And thank goodness I did. You know, fast forward two years later, I'm now working at Fannie Mae, establishing an open source program office. Just like what we heard earlier in the week about Goldman Sachs. Like, that's where we're going. And that's super, super exciting. And it's like, I'm working with this great group of individuals with shared common goals, shared interests. And like, we're really trying to transition the whole concept of financial tech. And it's gonna be really cool. So just keep your eyes out on that one. And so I get to work with some of the greatest people. Some are in this room. And it's just like, immediately I was welcome. Open source allows you to be welcome, understood. And like, I'm a very goofy person. And so I didn't feel like I had to put on errors. Which I think is so important to feel comfortable. So this, you know, as we move forward, I'm just saying, like, if anybody ever feels nervous about making a jump towards something unknown, I say, don't be. Take that chance. Because what's the worst thing that could happen? You could always go back. My grandma said, well, if you don't wanna move there and you don't like it, just move home. You know, you could always do that. But so I just say, keep going. So I took the chance on open source. You know, like, open source, like software and the concepts of an OSPO, it's changed my entire life. I'm sitting here, I'm talking to you. Like this is super cool. And like, you know, if you would have asked me five years ago, if I would be doing this, I would have called you mad. It's wild. And so there's so many facets to open source software, which are all incredibly interesting. And so like I said, I work on this fantastic team. I'm a strategist, I'm a manager. I'm leading a team in open source program office at a huge financial company. It's crazy. And so I get to wake up every morning and I'm actually legitimately, no joke, ready to go to work. Except for on Mondays, but I'm Garfield on Mondays, it's fine. And so I know like we're making a great impact and it's really, really, really exciting. So it's like in the future, I'll be managing once again open source software projects. I'm helping engineers from all across really the world to contribute back to projects, which is awesome. You know, I'm gonna be creating, we'll be creating and owning impactful projects that will be taking next level steps. So that's a lot. So how do I manage with this workload? Honestly, you know, how does this all tie in to the purpose of what we're chatting about today? So a lot of my day-to-day practices came from being a teacher.  I thought it wouldn't, but it was an incorrect thought.  And I was worried I wouldn't be able to apply these skills, but I did have legitimate imposter syndrome. I don't know anybody in this room who has not had it, who has not had imposter syndrome, right, right? And so I was so nervous, but with these skills, as I progressed in my career, I realized that I had everything I needed, community. It's super similar to a school environment. You know, there's lots of different players, as we all know. You know, there's a hierarchy alongside the bureaucracy that we do have to navigate. And navigating an open-source community sometimes reminds me of navigating a hallway in a high school, you know, so it's pretty wild. And organization, with any career, it seems so straightforward, but you have to be organized. So dealing with children, you need to be organized. So why not apply these same principles? So just keep cool. So if you're having a day or not ready, I realize that the students would notice. If you have six and a half hours a day with these kids, five days a week, and not only do you have to keep them busy and engaged, you actually have to teach them and keep distractions low so they can teach others. And then you're working with all different types of folks, because I was a special educator as well, so you have all these different learning dynamics and different types of learning styles in a room, and it was wild. So it's like, I take the same mindset with me like my day to day. I'm not teaching polynomials or fractions or verbs or adverbs anymore, but I approach the day the same way. Every morning I have my notebooks ready. I have my meetings organized. I make sure that I take 15 minutes at the end of each day to prepare for the next, because as we are working from home, I know I've been guilty of this. At the end of my work day, sometimes I'm still working, and I need to stop that because you just can keep going and going and going because you don't have to leave your house. So I make sure that I just break, stop, reset, plan for the next. And so lesson plans to program plans, I found this to be really interesting. When I was creating this presentation, I was thinking about it and I'm like, okay, how can I tie this in? It's like a super similar process, right? So you do need superior planning for streamlined processes and automation. So my life was consumed with lesson plans. I was Friday, like Fridays, Sunday nights, planning out the week, planning everything out. Little did I know that I was actually creating sprints. I was creating stories. I was creating issues. I was creating epics. I was actually creating KPIs or OKRs, setting myself up for success for these kids every quarter. And I was able to take that and apply it to what I'm doing now, which is super cool. And a lot of these things take patience and understanding. And I like to look at lesson planning and program planning like a chess game, right? Every move needs to be calculated, mapped out, be able to shift on a dime to achieve the goal. So yeah. So just like in the classroom, I need to work with stakeholders all across the country. I work with high-level superintendents, executives, budgetaries. And I was able to carry all of this over to the current workspace. Now I have to conference work with lawyers, strategic IP, executives, my peers, other teams, so many different projects, and external community members. So I get to work with so many folks. So it's like a very nice balancing act. And then public speaking, right? So like many others, the idea of public speaking is a daunting, daunting task. And I'm naturally a gregarious person, and I love talking to people. And you would think that that would have carried over from college. It didn't. It did not at all. I was like very nervous in college just like to talk. I'm like, ooh. So it wasn't until I got into the classroom where I started to kind of loosen up that's one thing about these little kids. They listen, and they hear everything you say. I have been guilty of saying certain things, and they have been repeated. Sorry, kids. But it's just like the same thing. In presentations to adults, many of us do have the bad habit of multitasking and not paying attention. I see that you all are paying attention, so thank you. And so I learned that you have to capitulate your audience and not be nervous, right?  But it's OK, you're right? I look at public speaking like I do with education. The people that are in this room, thank you, want to learn. And that's awesome, right? And I want to share that information and my information that I know to the best of my ability, right? And so it's the most confidence that I can. And it's all about knowing your content. And sometimes even if you don't know it, you can definitely fake it just about delivery. Like, oh yeah, that makes sense, right? OK. And so now I've been at this for almost four years, and I've been lucky enough to speak at numerous conferences. I've been able to speak with GitHub. I've been able to speak at the Open Source Summit North America now twice. This is cool, thank you. Inner Source Commons, and then all of these internal other types of conferences, which is pretty neat. And so like I said, jumping off the cliff into the unknown has really never been so rewarding. And so I just lived by these skills. Teaching brought me places I never thought were possible. I learned so much from my students. I learned so much from all of you. And I apply these into my day to day, but not just within my career, but in my life.  And so I would get short. And I think we're all, we can all be guilty of it just like not listening, not understanding, getting frustrated because we just didn't take a pause or a breath to listen. And so I realized that through reflecting and being kind that you can bring these skills into your everyday life to make not only your life better, but all of your teammates and stakeholders around you. And so kind of going back, I really care about community. I really care about giving back. I think it's one of the most important things we can do. And so I was really concerned, like leaving the education field, I wouldn't be able to give back to my community. But that turned out to be nothing farther from the truth. With open source, you can just reach so many people. And not more of that can be true of what just happened with this pandemic. I was approached by an engineer knowing my past and my skill set and how I could talk to folks and hopefully get some things done. And he asked me if I could rally people to work on a project called CHIME, an open source project. It was called the COVID Hospital Epidemiology Tracking App. And this app was directly correlated in keeping the curve lower in Philadelphia at the height of the pandemic. Because the doctors were able to track it and see when the curve was going to bounce. And then we're able to designate different sorts of, they call them guidelines, based off of this open source application. And so that was really exciting. And so what this nonprofit code for Philly did, we were able to also get a very nice donation to them based off of the work that we do on the company of Comcast that I worked for at the time. And they took that money and they were able to create a tech fellowship program. And this tech fellowship program was established in order for folks that didn't have the ability to go to college, didn't have the ability to get a job or write out of college. They needed help building their resumes. They needed help doing all these things. And many times we see if you do not have paid technical service or technical experience on your resume, you do get overlooked. And so what this tech fellowship program did is they established a way for folks to continue to work with nonprofits in the communities that they care about and were able to get paid so they could put that on the resumes in order to get hired, which was very, very, very cool. I was super excited. I'm working with the working group at Fannie Mae, the women's working group at Fannie Mae. We're going to be establishing some really good STEM stuff for our communities, which I'm really excited. And pretty soon we'll be at Grace Hopper doing some mentorship sessions and more to come on that. So that'll be pretty cool. So as we're wrapping here, I just say, honestly, just never stop learning. Since I started my career teaching and now I'm at Fannie Mae, I've legitimately learned so much. I've worked with code in the past. But now I'm coding on a day-to-day basis. I've never done that before. It was crazy. I'm like, ooh, camel files, ooh. I know that's way below what everybody else in this room knows, but whatever. It's fine. And so I created my own website. I've created technical blogs. I was able to speak about these high technical projects, which is so huge. And I'm guiding engineers in their technical projects and learning more and more every single day. And it's just imperative that into any role, you go in with a growth mindset so you can succeed. And with that, I think I went a little fast. But thank you. I think we have some time for questions. But I don't know if anybody's going to have any or the people. So thanks for sharing your story. That was really great. I'm wondering, you came from a non-technical area into this very technical area. What was helpful to you as you made that transition? What did people do around you? Did you have mentors that did things? I think about people in my own organization that we want to upskill or improve their ability, some of which come a very nontraditional path as well. And I want to know, what can I do to support those people in a better way? I love that question. It is absolutely true. So I had organic mentors. I did. They were folks that were just there building me up. I was provided strong documentation. I was provided clear guidelines. I was able to be given a clear path. Some folks, they learn certain things and they just want to keep going, go, go, go, go, go, and then you're getting very high level bits of deep content information that's not going to serve and build, if that, you know what I mean. So it's really good when you have folks starting out, play to their strengths, ask them what they enjoy doing the most, and then start nurturing that. So let's say, for example, inner source, or no, let's do open source, right? Open source contributions. And they're like, I'm really excited about this, but I'm thinking about espons. I'm thinking about this. Say, well, why don't we focus this right now? And then when we take that skill set, we'll build into the next thing. And so setting that career path for them, don't make them write pages and things like that. Let them just reflect and think about it. And that's what I was able to do. I was given tangible goals to meet, and each one of those goals turned into a building block in order to get to where I'm at right now. And that's my best advice. You're welcome. Anybody else? Talked really slow. But yeah, I think that that's it. If there's nothing virtually, I want to just once again thank the Linux Foundation. You all are fantastic. This was a fantastic conference and thanks for taking the chance on me. All right.


My family loved watching, well, my dad loved watching war movies. Him and I would always just sit on the couch, watch Saving Private Ryan, Band of Brothers, the whole way through and just obsess over it and like, oh, wow, when I was a young kid I was just getting so excited about World War II and the whole allure of being a paratrooper. The day came when I actually did join the Army and I set a set of goals for myself. I wanted to become a paratrooper and I wanted to go to the 101st. I went to airborne school right after basic, got sent to Italy. In Italy, I was exposed to the culture of the old world and World War I. So that further heightened my interest in World War I, putting World War II aside. Started with a helmet and then set a webgear and a uniform just so I could piece it all together and kind of get an idea of what it would have been like to be in World War I as an American doughboy. Italy came to an end so I got sent back to the States and I landed myself in Fort Campbell, Kentucky. So I am now a paratrooper in the 101st, which is, I think, pretty awesome. Then while exploring the Tennessee area, I discovered Sergeant Alvin St. York State Historic Park and I had seen videos of reenacting but I'd never done it before so I was like, yeah, that sounds like fun. I'll just put my kids together and I'll come out and join. So I came out, met a bunch of great people and they were all wearing their doughboy kit and so was I and I thought that was just the coolest thing ever. So I started coming to a bunch of the events and just living life as a doughboy in 1918 France. It definitely showed me that I take a lot of the modern stuff for granted, like transportation, logistics, uniforms for that matter, we're definitely not wearing any wool or hobnail boots anymore. Seeing where the Army came from and what it is today makes you really grateful that we've achieved so much. Military discipline definitely plays a part in being a good reenactor. You're not going to portray a soldier in World War I with an unshaven face or just no military bearing at all. So being an active duty soldier definitely helps to achieve a proper World War I or just reenacting a general impression. And it also works in both ways too because you do this, you look at the old school Jolene ceremony and then you see how it correlates and forms modern Jolene ceremony and especially like A station medical practices and stuff like that. I think each of them play a part in making the other one better. If you do this now when you're around people that are dressed like it and you know what it's like to wear the uniform and then you look at a picture from World War I and he's wearing the same thing, you automatically put it in your mind how he must be feeling. If it's a hot day, he's obviously going to be sweating because it's wool. So you can almost kind of connect when I was a little kid seeing little images of doughboys and I was just thinking, oh look at that, it's World War II. I'm like, no it's World War I. So I just became obsessed with it because everyone talks about World War II and it overshadows greatly World War I. It's just a little niche in the history books that people nowadays seem to forget about. It's important to me because every soldier needs to remember where the army came from. It's not just the modern army, it's the foundation that the army was built on through World Wars and different conflicts that formed the modern army for what it is today.


You know, when I met with President Donald Madrid in Mazerland, he mentioned your visit to the United States for the annual meeting between two Congresses. And I'm delighted that this year, the Inter-Parliamentary Conference occurs in close proximity to the Presidential Summit. It's only proper that our respective legislatures maintain their own dialogue on the range of issues that comprise our bilateral relationship. On some issues, our views differ. There's one issue in which I think we all agree. The need to remove the scourge of narcotics from our societies, and the need to work with other governments to attack and defeat the drug traffickers. Mazerland, President Donald Madrid, and I spoke at length in our mutual need to do more to confront the traffickers. This characterization of the drug trade is a threat to Mexico's national security, underscored the dangers posed to all domestic societies. And his announcement on Tuesday of the creation of a cabinet-level task force to oversee the war against drugs shows a renewed sense of the Mexican government's determination to deal with, I should say, the drug peddlers. I was required to submit this week a report to our Congress as to whether Mexico and a number of other countries were taking sufficient measures to confront the drug trade. And in recognition of the considerable effort that Mexico has undertaken, I was able happily to certify that Mexico met the criteria set forth by Congress. Under the law, Congress will now review my determination and could overrule it. I don't think they should. There'd be reason for that. I hope this doesn't occur, for I believe strongly that Mexico's efforts justify the decision that I have to certify the effort they are making. But at the same time, I don't want you to get the impression that we're satisfied with the results of our cooperation. Despite some recent successes, we are losing the battle to stop drugs entering the United States from abroad, including your country. And we must do much better on both sides of the border. So I would like you to take back the message that we're pleased with the cooperation we've had from your country, but both of us need better results. Narcotics is a problem that can only be solved if all the nations confront it with the utmost resolve. Therefore, I urge both delegations to the inter-parliamentary conference to treat this issue in an open and honest matter so as to foster even greater cooperation in drugs. And I want you to know that I'm speaking for both of us. We both have much to do in improving what we are able to do in curbing this menace to both our countries and particularly the youth of our country. So if we want to do more, I hope you do too. And we stand here ready to work with you on everything we can do to finally eliminate this threat to our societies and to our young people. But again, I want to thank you for all that you are doing and for the reason that we've had as good neighbors as we should do this. So you know, I'm a good race, and I'm looking forward to meeting and greeting each one of you individually in this, because I think you're taking while we're doing that until the end. So here I go. So we need to do the future, right? No, not much more. Go ahead. All right. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you.


Because the voting population is influenced by many different issues, political scientists have found it useful to study specific target groups. Their studies of the characteristics of the human population is called demography. This research helps determine what types of issues motivate various groups to become active in the voting process and why some of the demographic groups are more likely to show up at the polls on Election Day. The demographic categories in which the population groups are most often broken out by are age, gender, race, education, and income level. These demographic groups often yield insight into voting patterns. For instance, demographic research shows that people under the age of 25 have a very low rate of voter turnout, possibly due to any of several factors. This age is highly mobile, so many are not registered to vote. Also, many of them do not feel affected by voting or the elections and do not feel a strong social obligation to voting. Let us never forget that government is ourselves and not an alien power over us. The ultimate rulers of democracy are not a president and senators and congressmen and government officials but the voters of this country. Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1938 A large percentage of the baby boomer generation, however, turns out at the polls. This age group came of age during periods of political and social unrest, which has instilled in them a strong sense that voting is their civic duty. Gender has also long been a factor in who turns out to vote. Historically, men have been the stronger participants. But because of the 19th amendment and changes in women's roles in society, this trend has gradually changed. In the 2000 presidential elections, a slightly larger number of women voted than men. A person's race also seems to affect the likelihood of them voting. A larger percentage of white people vote than any other racial group. Statistics also show that African Americans are more likely to vote when there are issues on the political agenda they consider important to their daily lives. And even though the Hispanic American population has low voter turnout, a high percentage of Cuban Americans come to the polls to stand up for their preferences. In general, however, the newer immigrants are to the U.S., the less likely they are to vote. Another factor in whether a person is likely to vote is their education level. As you might expect, studies show that people who are highly educated are more likely to participate in politics as voters, candidates, political officials, and party workers. High school dropouts show one of the lowest voting rates. And going hand in hand with education is a person's socioeconomic status. People in upper income brackets are more active in politics and at the polls. And as you might expect, unionized blue-collar workers participate in higher percentages than low-paid or unemployed workers. So, by analyzing the statistics provided by demographic research, political scientists are aided in forecasting which people will show up at the polls on election day. How likely is it that a person will vote in an election or participate in an election campaign or other political activities? That likelihood is gauged by what is called voter intensity and several factors affect the degree of this intensity. When people feel strongly about their role as a voter, when they have a personal stake and interest in the hot issues of the day and when they feel connected to the political system, their voter intensity is high and they're more likely to vote and take an interest in political activities. On the other hand, when people have the mindset that their vote won't make a difference, when they don't feel compelled to wait in line at the polls and when they're generally disinterested in politics and have little or no knowledge of the issues or the candidates, voter intensity becomes low. The ignorance of one voter in a democracy impairs the security of all. John F. Kennedy, 1963. Voter intensity is directly related to political efficacy or people's understanding of and impact on politics. There are two kinds of political efficacy, internal and external. Internal efficacy refers to how well people understand the political system and whether they get involved in political activities or simply stand on the political sidelines. People who have a strong understanding of the issues and candidates have high internal efficacy and they are likely to vote and participate. External efficacy refers to whether people believe their efforts and ideas make a difference in policy decisions. If a person believes that their votes and political involvement will affect political policies, they have high external efficacy. Another factor that influences voter intensity is issue saliency. This term refers to whether people believe the issues on the political agenda matter in their everyday lives. Issues like raising or lowering taxes, abortion and gay rights would typically be referred to as salient issues because they tend to peak voter interest and produce high voter turnout at the polls. Complex issues such as foreign policy and the national debt typically have very low saliency with voters because they are more difficult to understand. Consensus and polarization also affect voter intensity. When a large percentage of the nation is in consensus or agrees on political issues, many voters become apathetic and do not feel their vote or participation is needed. On the other hand, when the nation is polarized on an issue or is highly divided on a policy agenda or candidates, it is common for people to feel more convicted about politics. In a polarized time, it is more likely that people will want to add their vote and their efforts to campaigns to ensure their views are made policy.


If we want to fully understand CPUs, we'd have to get into a lot about circuitry and electricity and even material science to understand how they are created. But as programmers, all we really need to know to program a CPU is what's called its programming model. The programming model is the abstraction presented to programmers that elides over all of the details of circuitry and voltages and so forth. Those sorts of things which we really just don't need to know to program the CPU. So, first off, from the programmer's perspective, what a CPU does is it executes instructions. And the sort of instruction a CPU understands, of course, is some sequence of bits. In short, the CPU is hardwired such that when a certain sequence of bits is read by the processor, it interprets that as a particular instruction and acts upon it accordingly. So, CPU instructions are sometimes called binary instructions or sometimes machine instructions. And so, the code which is read and executed by the CPU is often called machine code. Now, of course, any particular CPU design is hardwired to understand one particular set of instructions. There are a few things, though, which any CPU needs to be able to do. So, first off, any CPU needs one or more instructions for copying bytes. Mainly, instructions for copying bytes from one address in memory to another address in memory. Secondly, we need some instructions for doing basic arithmetic. So, say, you need an instruction that says something like, take these bytes of memory and these other bytes of memory, treat them both as representing numbers and add them together and store the result at this location. Thirdly, any CPU should be able to do what's called bit logic. A not instruction, for instance, takes an input byte and simply flips all the bits. And then we have additional logic operations including and, or, and exclusive or. All you need to know about them at this point is that they are what you use when you want to manipulate the individual bits of bytes. Lastly, any CPU needs to have what are called jump instructions. When the CPU executes code, it retrieves its instructions from memory. And each time after reading and executing an instruction, the CPU then reads and executes the next instruction in memory, the one that immediately follows it. So you can think of a CPU executing code as starting at some particular address and just working its way sequentially through memory. However, if the CPU were to always execute instructions in a strict sequence through memory, then our programmers would never branch. They'd always do each time they run exactly the same thing. So to branch, we need jump instructions. A jump instruction simply tells the CPU to jump to some particular location in memory and start executing there. And very importantly, we need jump instructions which are conditional, meaning that first the CPU tests for some condition, and if that condition is true, then to jump to the specified address. Otherwise, don't do the jump and just continue execution as normal by executing the instruction which follows immediately in memory. Now, you may be wondering what kind of condition would these conditional jumps involve. Well, usually it's something very simple like, say, looking at a byte of memory and if all of the bits are zero, then do the jump, otherwise don't. Inside a CPU itself, there are some very small storage locations called registers. Registers serve basically two purposes. First, there are what are called status registers, and then what are called general purpose registers. The status registers contain little pieces of data that concern the operation of the CPU itself. For example, some CPUs operate in different modes, and so such a CPU will typically have a register where it stores some bits that designate what mode the CPU is in. For example, when a CPU is executing instructions, it needs to keep track of the address of where it should get its next instruction. The register which holds this address is usually called the program counter, and in fact, when you execute a jump instruction, what you are doing is modifying the program counter, thereby causing the CPU to change where it's going to get its next instruction. The general purpose registers in contrast are so named because the intention is that the programmer should be able to store whatever they want in these registers for whatever purpose. In most processors, though, the general purpose registers serve the central role because the operations which we perform, copying bytes, basic arithmetic and bit logic, they can only be performed in many processors on data in the general purpose registers, not stuff that's in memory. So say many CPUs don't have any instruction which will copy directly one byte of memory to another byte of memory, instead what they have are copy instructions which will copy bytes in memory to a register and then a separate instruction which copies from a register to memory. So in such a processor, when you want to copy data in memory, you first have to copy each byte into a register and then in a separate instruction copy it out to memory. And similarly in many processors, there's no arithmetic instruction which will add stuff that's in memory to other stuff in memory. We have to first copy whatever we want to add into registers and then add the contents of the two registers together. So you may be wondering how many registers we're usually talking about and how big are they. Well most registers are just a handful of bytes, usually some small power of two like say 4 bytes, 8 bytes or 16 bytes. On an Intel 64 bit processor for instance, most of the general purpose registers are 64 bits in size, 8 bytes. As for how many registers, well the Intel processors for example have a few dozen general purpose registers, some other chips have upwards of a few hundred and then the sort of CPU you might find in a really cheap device like say a toaster at best maybe has four registers. So when we write machine code, very often the big part of the game is in dealing with the fact that we have only a limited handful of registers. And so we have to be very careful about when we copy stuff into the registers from memory, we first have to often store stuff in the registers out in memory first so we can get back to it later. So a CPU's programming model primarily consists of its instruction set, what precisely are the instructions which that CPU supports and what are its registers, what are they named, what purpose do they serve and so forth. And the design of these two things, the registers and the set of instructions are really very much intertwined and together they are often known as an ISA, an instruction set architecture. When you have some machine code and you're wondering does it run on this processor, the question you are asking is what is the ISA of that processor. If you have two processors made by different manufacturers but they both support the same ISA, then they both can run the same code, the same machine code. So for example the PC platform is built around Intel's x86 instruction set architecture and for a long time up to about the mid 90s the only x86 processors you could buy were directly from Intel itself but then AMD came along and started producing processors which supported x86 and so they can run the same code. So x86 is one very dominant ISA today, there's also the ARM ISA MIPS and the not so prevalent anymore Motorola 68K, those are some other examples. But understand that instruction set architectures tend to develop and grow over time so the x86 ISA for instance hasn't remained still as Intel releases new processors, their newer processors support all of the instructions of their older ones and they have all the same registers except they might support more instructions, more new instructions and they might have more new registers. So x86 is really an umbrella term that covers all of the ISAs starting from Intel's processors in the 70s all the way up to their processors today and specifically when Intel released the 386 processor they designated that upgrade of the x86 ISA, they designated that I832 and then finally when they released a 64 bit processor in the mid 2000s they called that ISA x8664. But again these upgrades just add new instructions and new registers so all the old code will still run on a modern processor. If you get a new Intel 64 bit processor today it will still run I832 code because it still supports all the instructions and registers that I832 expects.


I'm Gary Thompson and I'm from the South Australian Courts Administration Authority in Adelaide. We won an award for the best health and safety system in the public sector. Often people sort of think about safety as being a machine guard or something like that, but really for us safety is about a culture and an attitude and a caring about our work colleagues and everybody that our organisation touches in relation to consumers of our services and stakeholders and all those sorts of people. We started about three years ago with an audit by WorkCover which was to say the least a bit unkind. So we set ourselves a challenge to say we were never going to get an audit like that again. And in a very short time we got this body of support from the organisation that just kept building and then we thought let's go and actually put ourselves up for something in relation to it. We're proud of what we've done. Our people have worked really hard and so we put a nomination in the relation to it and fantastically we were successful.


This one's an amazing story, right? So in the United States, in many states in America, you know, squatters can enter a vacated home. And if they're not, I think if they're not evacuated from there in 30 days, they gain squatter rights. And basically, it's almost impossible to get rid of them. It's almost impossible to legally get them out. In New York City, a fed up homeowner was arrested. After squatters basically took over a million dollar home that she inherited from her parents. And they changed the door, changed the locks, and it was their home and she went there and she tried to change the locks and she was arrested. Squatters once, she was arrested. You have to go through this legal process of trying to get the squatters out that can take months, years, cost you a fortune, and in trying to get people who are using force against your own property, violating property rights without any, you know, clear cut, unequivocal. You are somehow the problem. You are the bad guy, right? You are the bad guy. It's pretty stunning. Yeah, pretty stunning. And so this was in New York City, right? But you have the same thing in Washington State and Oregon, a bunch of places down the country in Bellevue in Washington. There is a serial, this is kind of interesting. It was a serial squatter, a serial squatter named San Kim. He moved from a house to house. I'm getting this in the free press, which each squat taking so long to reserve, he's got free housing basically. When his recent victim tried to get back into the property he owned, San Kim complained to the cops and the cops arrested the landlord. He was issued a straining order from going within 1,000 feet of his property and the squatter. I mean, you find a vacant house, it's yours, or at least it's yours for a long period of time while the legal system churns to try to get you out of there. Now, all this comes from a legal theory that basically says, this is leftist legal theory, comes out of Yale probably, right? Property ownership is violence and as a society we should do everything we can to make it helpful for property owners. And that's what we're trying to do, trying to make it almost impossible for property owners to defend their property, trying to make it almost impossible for property owners to prevent people from stealing their property, from using their property without permission. And this is all a consequence of kind of a Marxist or neo-Marxist view that all property is theft. You've probably heard that, the leftist yell this at every opportunity. All property is theft, so therefore let's steal it back. This is America. This is the country that was built on the principle of individual rights and among those, you know, property rights. Of all our rights, the right to life, the application of that right is property. It's the ability to use and maintain and sustain and you're the things that you won't. And the United States now not allowing it, not allowing it. It really is stunning, really stunning. I can't, I don't think this exists in other countries. Maybe I'm wrong, but I just don't, I mean, and if all the countries in the world you'd expect, you'd expect it, you'd expect this to be outlawed here. But this is the left dominant of the legal system, the left's dominance of law schools in spite of the Federalist Society's work. This is what happens. It truly is disturbing. Ian Gilmour says at one point, squatters are a huge problem in Germany. Interesting, interesting. What would be interesting is if, how the Germans sold the bomb. I mean, I'd be curious how that happened. Maybe Ian knows. All right, I guess there was a squatting movement and I'm sure the moto was, it was, you know, property is theft, private property is theft.