whoosh whoosh. I don't know why I did that, I just wanted to do that. I don't even know what I'm doing today. My dear, I'm filming a video talking about visual hallucinations of my experience and what it's like to live with them. Hello, hi. Welcome back guys. If you're new here, hit the subscribe button. I'm a weirdo and I'm a mental health content. This video is one that I kind of wanted to make a while ago but never actually made and I don't actually have a reason as to why I never made it. I just didn't. I'm in a really strange mood today. What's good? Today I'm talking to you about my own experience with visual hallucinations. Anyone who doesn't know me? Hi, I'm Lydia. I'm 20. Not for much longer. 21 soon. Yay. I have been diagnosed with mental health issues for over five years now. It's continued a lot of my life. Today I'm talking about something that has impacted me since childhood. Something that has now been confirmed as being part of a dissociative disorder that I'm diagnosed with, which is known as derealisation. I'm also diagnosed with personalisation. They are both dissociative disorders and they are the main things that contribute to my hallucination. Obviously, like BVD and anxiety doubt also play into what I've been told. The main cause of it is the dissociative side of things, which makes sense. It makes sense. Anyone who does not dissociative disorder, it is a dissociative disorder is where one dissociates from a situation, which basically means disconnects from a situation around them. It's very common among PTSD and can also be a part of the mental health conditions such as mood disorders, psychotic disorders and personality disorder. And obviously, dissociative disorders. Hi. I'm existing over here. I also die when I am. Well, also, bing to you too. Damn. The only good thing about where I live in London is you don't hear sirens when I film, which means there's no problem with sirens when I film. The only problem is the underground, which is over the left and it's loud. I could go out and film just there. I have no reason to sit in film doors. Other than it's cold. Like it's very cold. Do I go out? No. Do I go out? Maybe. This is a video that I put onto a poll thing on my channel.  I have the community tab now on my channel, meaning I can post polls, pictures, previews and all that stuff. I'm considered a creator now. Thank you, YouTube, for acknowledging my existence. I appreciate you. The poll part on the page has, for now, at this current moment I've had a hundred votes. A lot of votes. First, I think I need to define what a visual hallucination is, so you know and so would clear throughout this video, so you don't have to keep checking your definition while I'm talking. A visual hallucination is where you see something that isn't really there. To me, what happens for me is I see things merging and moving and transforming. And the first time that I ever noticed this happen, I made a video and I will link that in the description down below. Visual hallucinations are scary. And I'm not talking about some LSD trip. I'm not talking about some drug trip. I'm talking about real psychiatric issues.  I think he's wrong. I will never, never, never, never, never support drug use. Just because personal experience with drugs, for me, visual hallucinations are pretty much a daily thing. I live with it on a daily basis. If throughout the day I tend to be okay because it's not as bad, but at night when I'm in a drug room and I filmed a clip when my last little episode happened with this major, so it terrified me. It was horrible. I see the shadows move. The thing that scares me of these is the hand ones. Like the hands or something that I see you like, like that. Like I see that but there's no one there. Like physically no one can be in here.  Like my door is always locked.  No one could physically be in here to do that. So I put the hands through and why would anyone want to do that? Why would anyone want to put shadows on my wall for me to see them? They would want to go on the floor and you know, yeah me. The issue with this is it terrifies me. And there was one incident in Lancashire where it was the worst and it's never been as bad as that moment. That night was single handedly the most terrifying thing that ever happened to me. It was horrible. It was hard. It was easily the most terrifying experience I've ever had with hallucinations. That's a lot to say because I've had some pretty intense experiences and like I say, this happens on a day basis. I see shadows moving and things like making like turning into different shapes and I see that every day. That's my norm. I can deal with that. I can live with it but this one episode I was asleep. I had fallen asleep and I woke up about two o'clock in the morning and in my flat there was but I had an ensuite which appeared locked from the inside. You can only lock them doors from the inside. My bedroom door was locked. My window was open and I woke up and I just kept seeing this door open. Imagine it's this. I'll recreate it a little bit over my door. I'm a film student but how can I read it? Like you know what I mean. I'll just demonstrate what went on. So I was lying in my bed and the door kept opening and this hand kept coming through and I swear to you it literally like the shadow of a hand came through the door, clicked on the light switch for the bathroom and obviously the light was already on in the bathroom but it flicked it on and it came back in and I threw something at it and then it did it again and then it locked itself from the inside. I literally heard the door lock and my thought was I was like what the fuck? Who's in that?   I was crying. I was, I was a mess you know. I was terrified of what my mind had constructed because it was so real. It was, it was happening and it was scary and I kept seeing like these little snowflake things dropping down. I kept seeing like water pouring in and I kept feeling like rain drops hitting my arm and seeing nothing and I was panicking.   So I was like they locked everything inside. I was like there's someone, there's gotta be. I was like I saw them, I physically saw them and took me into the kitchen and my flat and I was very, hello Mr. Fly, goodbye Mr. Fly. I was so panicked and so afraid and terrified and I was crying. I was, I can't put into words how fearful I was in that moment because I was like but there's gotta be. I didn't, I couldn't believe that my mind was kind of struggling. I still didn't at the time like I ended up going to rainy. The security phone ambulance because it was very obvious that I was not with it and I appreciate that. I do. Like a lot of people appreciate that. I was an emotional mess that day. I wasn't even there. I was like I literally, I was, I don't understand emotions very well. I don't cry around people. I don't, I don't have that kind of emotion in me. I find it very hard to be that that like it's upset and terrified as I was. I was crying and to get me to a point where I'm phoning someone else to say hey this isn't gonna happen to me. Someone's gonna do something that's gonna happen, it's gonna happen. I was not only was I irrational, I was seeing it like it physically happened but it didn't. Like to see your own door opening and then see a shadow hand come through it like was terrifying and I haven't had anything that intense happen since then because thankfully my bathroom is behind my bed now which thank the lord. That episode is something I haven't really spoke about on here before because it has so much. There's so much emotion in it and it's a very real thing that happened and now what happens for me is like I will see shadows but I'll see them coming from like walls. Like there'll be a wall. I don't know if there's a wall. I'll see like hands going through there. I'll see movements. I'll see the walls bending in and moving and shaking and that's what I see physically every night and it's kind of why I don't like going out alone. And I think because I have to do something to distract from the shadows I do only, I am fortunate I only really have it with shadows. There are sometimes where I see like flashing colors and balls of light and whatever but I can disconnect from that. I do know that that's not real. The shadow thing is it's quite a hard thing to comprehend and it goes on all the time and like I said it's a very it was a real moment. That was at that point when that whole episode happened when I saw someone opening my door and flicking the lights which and locking the door from the inside I physically heard this door lock and I saw the door lock go across but it didn't. It didn't happen at all. Like the building security appears in the symphony. It's like Lydia and there's no one there. Like there's nothing going on like what and I was crying. I was like there's someone in there that I to be in that much emotional pain and at that point I was like I can't even trust me and thought so what if it's playing tricks. I got so irrational so quickly and it was around the time that I was really struggling with mental health as a lot of you guys know I had a bit of a hellish start of the year. I started I mean January to July but I'm doing good now and that moment happened it happened around three to four days before my last admission to hospital which as you guys know was the most intense thing that happened to me in July. That episode was a huge point in my life where I was like I can't even trust why I see and to honestly to live with it it's it's hard because there are times where I have to get reassurance from people around me I'm like I don't trust shadows that sounds really bad to say I don't trust shadows because like I said my mind makes things transform shapes which is a normal part of the conditions I'm diagnosed with like don't be wrong it's a completely normal thing for me to feel but it's a very normal thing to deal with with the conditions I have and yes I could go on medication to help however it would mean stopping all the other medication I'm on which helps a lot like when it's minor I can deal with it. If it got ever got any worse then yes I would like go on medication for that. Seeing shadows move it's not the worst and I'm not saying that I like have this major thing now it's nothing serious or major it's my daily life I say it's very hard for me because shadows me they don't seem real because when I look at a shadow it never looks like I think it's supposed to be reflecting like the image of like if I was to make a shadow with my laptop I've all demonstrate this. What I see is it's quite hard to explain that right? I just can't really demonstrate. Both sides were waving and shaking like I said I don't trust shadows because what I see isn't accurate I know it's not accurate like that's why I'm capable of living like that. I'm gonna play you a small clip from a few nights ago and you'll see what it's like when I'm the thing is when I'm tired and when I haven't slept I'm feeling emotionally down it obviously inevitably is worse as with any mental health condition if you're not doing well it's going to be worse like that's just that. I filmed this a hallucination episode and I said what I saw and I said how it made me feel and I filmed the wall and I have rewatched the footage I know what it's like and it does show you exactly what I mean I don't know what you're doing because it scares me it's gonna shadow your stomach and your tummy and change your shape can you see it behind you see shadowing me down the hill and all that can I see it? I think it means. All I want you to know is if you are struggling with it and I don't know how many of you are honestly it's not so when I talk about much so I'm presuming not that many of you will maybe you do I don't know. This is a very real thing that I struggle with and I know what other people do too I've spoken to some hello fly. This fly just like seems to want it's like facetime like hallucinations are easily scary like they are terrifying. The main issue I've had is I can't turn around and talk to my mum about it because my mum doesn't understand my mum thinks dissociating is the same as hallucinating so try to explain the differences and explain what hallucination is to it that is what hallucinations are like to me. As for hearing voices and stuff I only have that kind of hallucination when I'm when I'm not learning medication or if I'm very suicidal if I'm suicidal I'm probably hallucinating as well. Hi Mr. Fly, that is all I've got for you guys today if you would like to hear more stories let me know in the comments down below. Very happy to carry on doing it I'm where I start doing more storylines we're doing a vlogmas this year kill me now but yeah I'm also going to be doing some Christmas themed videos which I've already got planned out. If you are new here hit the subscribe button leave a like comment and subscribe I start Serenity's Outro for a third time I'm a great person I'm a great girlfriend though you don't know who Serenity is Serenity is my girlfriend. If you haven't already bought my book it's a thing I have a book I wrote a book the link's in the description down below and make sure you have the notifications turned on because you'll be able to vote in which video you want to see next. I hope you're doing amazing and I will see you guys soon with a new video. Also even more the fact my hands are red. I dive my hair obviously. Anyway I'm gonna go and edit this and the bloopers and then cry. Follow me on my socials that's what I need to do. Follow me on my socials I could never be a beauty guru though let's be real I could never be a beauty guru. I'm too much of a flop for that. Every time you use the flop, your brain. No my brain's knowing at the moment. I hope you are doing amazing and I wish you all the best for the current future. That was a very weird outro. I need to leave. I need to just stop. Bye guys!


The Moringa tree is often referred to as the Miracle Tree, with a Miracle Tee, or even the Tree of Life, which is probably why all the big money medical misers of the world aren't promoting it all that much. This amazing tea comes from the Moringa Olifera Tree, which has been called the Drumstick Tree because of how its pods look, and we're talking drums drumsticks, not turkey leg drumsticks. It's also called the Horse Radish Tree because of its pecanth aftertaste, and the Ben Oil Tree because of the oil that's derived from its pods. Some people even call it Mother's Best Friend, the reason why it's called that will be coming later in the video. Moringa comes from Northern India, and what makes it so unique is that it's considered one of the least wasteful plants in the world, meaning you can use every part of the Moringa plant, from the leaves down to the roots. Moringa has also been dubbed one of the most nutritious plants in the world. Moringa leaves contain a whopping 92 nutrients, 46 natural antioxidants, and 18 of the 20 amino acids, including all 9 of the essential amino acids the body can't produce naturally. This includes a colossal 27 vitamins, many of which blow away the big names of the nutritional food and veggie market. Moringa Battle! But before you go crazy in the comments I've heard various versions of this, but according to one study, Moringa vs Carrots? See ya! Moringa has 10 times more vitamin A. Oranges? Please! Moringa has 7 times more vitamin C. Milk?  Moringa has 17 times more calcium. Yogurt? Yo, better get outta here, cause Moringa has 9 times more protein. Bananas. Oh come on, it can't be bananas. Yes it can! 15 times more potassium! And if you aren't astounded yet, how about Moringa vs the Almighty Spinach? Moringa crushes its iron content by 25 times! There are some sources that say the gap isn't quite that big. But all of the sources agree, Moringa is still crushing all of these competitors. Isothiocyanates. Can I just really get that right on the first take? That is accurate, yes. Studies show that these are powerful inflammation fighting warriors that can help reduce pain and fight chronic inflammation problems like strokes, diabetes, arthritis, and even obesity. It can even help with the painful swelling of di- I can say isothiocyanates, but apparently I can't say the word condition. It can even help with- Wow, it's getting worse. It can even help with the painful swelling condition called edema. There is even research on Moringa helping to heal wounds. However, all of this research is on Moringa extract, so it's hard to say right now how much the T will actually help you. A study on rabbits. Yay, rabbits! Showed that Moringa lowered serum cholesterol levels by 50%, pretty significant. And the formation of plaque in the arteries by 86%, even more significant. While the experts of course want even more research. Obviously, the benefits of Moringa T have been thoroughly backed up by existing research with flying colors so far. Is your mind blown yet? Well, if not, let's get you there. I found multiple studies on how Moringa T can help boost cognitive abilities and memory. It can also help with Alzheimer's, dementia, and even help reduce those unwieldy migraines and chronic headaches. For a headache sufferer like myself, that definitely makes Moringa sound a little bit heaven sent. And these- TENOMENAL POSNIC POWERS! Or benefits. Don't stop there. Because it's so good at aiding serotonin and dopamine levels, it can even help balance your mood and help with anxiety. If digestion and gut health is your bugaboo, Moringa T has a wide variety of extraordinary benefits. Bugaboo. I like that work. Is there any chance we can make it cool again? Two separate studies on mice showed how Moringa can help regulate and improve digestion, and how Moringa T relieved acid reflux symptoms. Its anti-inflammatory and antibacterial benefits help to fight gastritis, colitis, and more commonplace problems like gas, bloating, cramping, and that ever so uncomfortable constipation. Not briefly mentioned earlier how Moringa T can help regulate blood glucose levels. You didn't say that? I did say that. I didn't say it like that. I didn't say it with an accent, but I said whatever. In particular, experts say it can be extra effective after a meal. There was also a study that showed how Moringa can help with insulin levels when eaten with a high carbohydrate meal. So have your tea before, during, or after your meal, because apparently it's going to help you one way or another. Oh, and in case I don't see ya, good afternoon, good evening, and good night. Most of these studies haven't been on humans, and the only human studies we have in this category are very small, but very promising. One study showed that 30 women had a 13.5% reduction in fasting blood sugar levels. Another study on just six people, why just six? No idea. Found that Moringa reduced the rise of blood sugar by 21%. If you want to talk miraculous abilities, then this may very well be the most astounding aptitude of Moringa tea. Studies have shown that Moringa is effective against, get this, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, oral cancers, and possibly other cancers as well. That's a lot of cancers. How, you may ask. It can not only neutralize cancer causing free radicals, but can trigger cell death in growing tumors. But that's not even where it stops. Oh no, the miracle that is Moringa tea can even help improve the effects of chemotherapy in cancer patients. All in all, sounds like Moringa tea is earning its heavenly reputation. Like and share. Like share the video, not like share the singer.   One particular glowing clinical trial showed how a combination of Moringa and turmeric tea over 8 weeks lost an incredible 165% more weight than the placebo group. In addition to helping with the aforementioned digestive issues that can occur with PMS, experts say a hot cup of Moringa tea can also help with mood swings, pains like menstrual cramps, and the aforementioned migraine problems. Man, have I already covered all these benefits for women? Y'all just double covered today, ladies. Hold on. There's always more. One study says that Moringa tea can help prevent stunted growth in children during pregnancy. And here we go. The reason why Moringa tea is called Mother's Best Friend. Moringa can also possibly act as a galactagog, increasing natural lactation for breastfeeding. Make sense now? Is it just me, or is anyone else here galactagog and think of Battlestar Galactica? If you didn't before, you'd probably think of it every time now you hear it. Galactagog. Galactica. Galactica. Galactica. Boo-yah! Everybody's gotta love the sex benefits. Am I right? Huh? No? Okay. Studies have shown Moringa can boost testosterone, help with erectile dysfunction, increase sexual performance, and pep up everyone's libido.   If so, you might want to rethink your life choices. And then get some Moringa tea and or some medical assistance. Nowadays, arsenic toxicity is mostly caused by contaminated food or water. Luckily studies on rats thus far have shown Moringa to be effective against arsenic contamination. Though of course it would be nice to see some human studies to back this up as well. You know some guys just can't hold their arsenic. Antioxidant power is one of the best things to help with skin and hair problems. Whoa, surprise fact. Moringa boasts a massive orac score of 157,000, which is indeed miraculous, as that places it in the top 10 of all herbs and spices when it comes to antioxidants. Moringa teas amino acids, vitamins like A and B complex, and minerals like iron and zinc all help to promote stronger, shinier hair. Moringa also helps to improve hair growth, soothes dry or even burnt skin, and evades that dreaded hair loss. Science shows that Moringa can even help with acne and skin breakouts, anti-skin aging, boosting collagen production, and even adding suppleness to your skin. Granted, studies show that for many of these skin and hair benefits, you might be better suited using a direct topical application to your skin. But the tea definitely can still help, I mean there's even hair rinses involving Moringa tea. Moringa's multifaceted capabilities can also help protect your liver against damage caused by anti-tubercular drugs. And that's just the start. It's polyphenols can even help speed up the repair of damaged tissue in your liver. It's even a mighty protector against heavy metals, toxins, or drug exposure. And on top of all that, Moringa's even been shown to help with kidney stones. That's kidney and not liver, but hey, you can't ask for more than that, can you? Maybe you can, because Moringa tea can also possibly help with all of these conditions as well. Right, yeah, I mean come on, you can't stop it. Moringa's the best. I know some of you gotta be thinking, what's the catch? True, the FDA doesn't currently regulate Moringa, but most experts have been saying for centuries it's generally safe for use. Moreover, Moringa tea is considered safer than other forms of Moringa, like its roots and bark, which can be a lot more corrosive than Moringa tea and cause nasty problems like paralysis and miscarriages. But as for the tea itself, the most likely problems will occur from over-consumption. And most of these side effects are various forms of stomach distress that you're gonna expect to have when you over-indulge in something. The most important thing to watch out for is having Moringa tea while you're on certain prescription drugs. Blood pressure, thyroid, and blood-thinning drugs in particular can be affected by Moringa usage. And while there is evidence out there that says Moringa tea is fine for breastfeeding, some experts say to err on the side of caution as more research needs to be done. Probably the biggest negative with Moringa tea is it's not a tasty, tasty treat. Get agrees? Though some say it has a nice earthy taste similar to matcha tea, though many say it tastes more like spinach and triggers their gag reflex. So having your cup of Moringa tea with honey, lemon, or other herbs is definitely gonna make it more enjoyable. When making fresh Moringa tea, you're gonna want to steep the leaves in boiling water for about three to five minutes. And it longer is just gonna encourage the questionable flavor.  Who are you? The optimal dose of Moringa is a maximum of 70 grams per day, which means having a cup of the tea isn't gonna be a problem, as an average cup will maybe have 5 to 10 grams at the most. And like with most teas, having three cups or less of it per day is probably best. Thus ends the saga of the most holy of teas. To learn about another amazing tea watch this video next. As always, be kind, take care of each other, and let me know in the comments down below if you've ever experienced the amazing powers of Moringa tea.


As former Vice President Atikua Bubakar emerges the presidential candidate for the People's Democratic Party PDP, some groups express their displeasure. And crisis reportedly erupts in the all-progressive Congress APC over its presidential primaries as new chairman, Senator Abdullahi Mahadamu, is accused of refusing to implement the national community's decisions. Well, this is PlusPolitics, I am very unequal. Former Vice President Atikua Bubakar emerged the presidential candidates of the People's Democratic Party PDP for the 2023 elections in the party primaries held over the weekend. He won with a total vote of 371 votes out of the 767 accredited votes to defeat his closest rival, the river state governor, Nyesum Wike, who polled 237 votes. However, with Atikua being a norsen, clenching the ticket at a time when souths and elders are asking for a presidency, therefore leaders in the south and central regions in the country under the auspices of the southern and middle belt forum have described Atikua's win as an affront to the people of the south, and they have asked politicians in the region to reject any nomination for the office of the vice president. Well, joining us to discuss this is Samoan Manosike, the executive chairman of Iquiria Local Government Area in River State, and Ahmed Bahari, former presidential candidate of Sustainable National Party of Nigeria SMP. Thank you so much, gentlemen, for joining us. Thank you for having me. Great. Thank you. Great. I'll start with you, Samoan. Let's look at what transpired over the weekend in Abuja with the emergence of the former vice president, Atikua Bubaka. For some people, it came as a surprise. For some others, it's something that they expected being that he had been emerging for the past three election cycles as the flag-bearer for the People's Democratic Party, but then your principle was in the running for that ticket. Were you surprised? No, no, no. Why would I be surprised? I'm a politician. I'm a member of the People's Democratic Party. We went to the program. We went with our whole mind and our body as politicians, and as politicians, we always tell ourselves, we'll go for every election that we win, until we get to the floor of the house and things go the other way. The money top will continue. For us, what's important is the party. Like I said earlier, the government has to look at it as a strategy, that in the transparent process, whoever emerge, he will work for the party. You know, repeatedly the way they go, when he was received by the group of reverse states, with a rousing welcome, it turned out clearly that he stands for the party and that it's unfortunate that the same certain elders who are clamoring for power to be brought back to the south, failed to have the mechanism of calling those people that have been elected as governors from the southern states to come and stand by and do that, which they have told the people of the south that they will do. So are you insinuating that the southern governors, are you saying that southern governors didn't? It was clear that there was an accepted candidate, not for the stepping down of Tambua in that election, when the process had begun. He was cruising to victory, and I think he himself confirmed it. Even his supporters and followers had to go specially go and thank Tambua, who gave up his own votes and told his people to turn their votes to Atukua Mubaka. So that's what changed the narrative. And who gave up the glory, were not put out. But nobody is going to deceive anybody in the south that southern is not taking the position. There's no position anybody is taking. Because if we are actually taking position, the governors from the south who voted against the southern candidate, who knew they had the capacity and the competence to manage the resources of Nigeria and to bring victory to the role of Nigeria, who I would have done it before, they would have to stick with him, they would have. But that is history now, as politicians who work for our party, who work for the People's Democratic Party to win, and by the grace of God almighty, they will have got to be done in our lives. I just want to push you further. You talked about the southern leaders not standing by their southern candidate. I mean, we saw Governor Fiashe also in the running. We saw Governor Odom Emmanuel of Oqiba also being in the running. Of course, you'd expect their delegates to support their governors. But again, when you say that there is no position by southern leaders, what does that mean? And all that you've said is anything to go by. What does that also say about you and the people in the south? Are we really ready for this presidency that we have all been agitating for? We're not really at some point. Because it doesn't make sense that a governor from the south will sit with his colleague governors and take a position and say, this is what we want at Soutanas. They call it the first meeting. In fact, the first meeting was called in one of the Soutanas, who decided to vote the other way. In his own state was the first place where a position was taken. And he, after standing strong to host the southern governors and taking a position, he ended up showing to the people of Soutanas. He was just deceiving them. He was interested in his personal gain. Because it is clear from the statements that were made by General Milai a while ago in a program called Generalist Hangar to TVC, he said clearly that the state governor, in the case of the state governor, voted for Atukua to work 100%. So when you look at the trajectory of the election, imagine a governor term, and governor Kowa, and the governor passed a state closing ranks with the governor of Cuba states. What would have been the results? Okay. The governor of Soutanas would have won. So for us, that boy is not aware that this election is not for him to win.  He has decided to play the game he wants to play to set the interest and he thinks he should start. But it's a lesson for us to be sad to learn. So if you are concerned, if there's no reason we can ask the governor of Cuba states, he never came to this race because he was a Satan. It was the Satan governors and their team that agreed that this is the turn of the South. And so we must stand out to support one of our own. Okay. All right. I want to take clear this. For the other governors, all of our brothers from the South, like the Southwest, who stood out to say we will stand with the truth. Nobody can change the go-posts in the middle of the march. No document there. We have the records. We know them. And as young politicians, we will have it in our mind to tell the history and the stories of what transpired a few nights ago. All right. All right. Let me go to Mr. Bohari. Mr. Bohari, looking at the caliber of persons who were running for that particular ticket on the platform of the People's Democratic Party, including someone you supported firmly, did they really stand the chance, as opposed to the former vice president, who some would say has had a long political history and, of course, somewhat may reverberate across the country? So I think one of the things that has been important to me is the fact that all the other politicians were running again and aspirants were fleeing to the primary court seven times. And so that actually distinguishes him from most of them who were given the shot up for the first time. And here, he used to be an expert in this game. But more than anything, what I want us to realign is that even though he had more proficiency than the rest of them, that was the major reason why those of us who were collaborating for the emergence of the Southeast president were saying very mentally that we wanted the parties to join the 2023 elections in the Southeast to be seen as to make it very easy for the entire country to work together for the emergence of the Southeast government. Do not forget, in 1999, there was a lot of education from the South West. And as a result of those educations, the country came together and presented two South Westerners, two little women, at the end of the election. We showed them what to do. And in 2010, finally, what to do, we have a shelter in some countries and stopping, requesting that they collaborate and present in the Southeast. And at that time, we will meet with Mr. Mohamed Buhari. I think that we're having connection problems with your line, Mr. Buhari. So I'm going to go back to Mr. Wanusike.  So Mr. Wanusike, let me come to the issue of former Senate President, I am Pius, I am. Now, he put out a statement, of course. He congratulated former Vice President, Atikua Bubaka, on his winning the party tickets for the PDP. But he also spoke about, you know, issues within the party.  He talked about burning issues that Nigerians within the party were not focusing on burning issues. He said that instead, they were focusing on old, primordial sentiments, and these are his words. So I ask, if what he speaks of during the primaries, if this is what has been happening at the PDP, if he came down to us looking at burning issues as spoken about by these particular candidates, do you think that maybe certain people would have had more votes at the end of the day? Because I mean, I listened to all of the speeches, and so many of these candidates had very interesting speeches. But is it really about speaking on these burning issues or about the capacity and ability to carry out, you know, or bring solutions to the table? Well, let me say clearly, by as I am, he's an elder, and so I would choose my words as a former Senate president where he on the somewhere he's speaking from. But for the PDP of today, the only problem we had was that there were those who decided to shift the go-pods at the middle of the match they wanted to a little power. Our worry as young members of the party is clear. Democracy is in three fronts. Construction of the federal book of Nigeria, the Electoral Act, and the construction of the party. And then the construction of the party says that in every time there's an election or an electionary contest that for equity and justice and fairness, power should be zoned, denoted or disowned. It was based on this concept that in 2017 prior to the 2019 election, the PDP met and zoned the presidential candidate to denot. And that's why those certain candidates showed interest. But why? All these matters we're discussing now are issues of the past, and concern. What do you mean by no certain candidates showed interest? In 2019 PDP primaries no certain candidates showed interest. It was a battle between the notarists. And we backed Amino Tambua. It is a known story, a known fact and you are aware that the governor even made enemies because of the aspiration of Amino Tambua of the other states. But ironically, Amino Tambua is the one that came and turned the table when he has seen clearly after the 2019 meeting in Abuja that even the non-tarn delegates were telling them clearly that they are interested to vote Governor Zaboyesom. We are aware of all the late night policies that were heard in the houses of notar leaders, both military former military leaders and even current notar leaders working themselves in different places in Abuja and different parts of the North and looking for formulas to the sludge of Governor Zaboyesom who in their own state I'm going to ask my question again in case you didn't get my question. My question was the former senate president is saying that voting was based on burning issues as opposed to prime model sentiments that then of course it would be free for incredible and the right people will emerge as much as he congratulated that he said that these votes were based on sentiments. Now I'm asking if it came down to voting based on burning issues I mean because like I said lots of people had very interesting things to say the only thing that voters should go by I want to say clearly to you man and for answering this question because I think I've answered it maybe it suits you. See, that's what we call party primaries and it's electionary it is called internal party contest in internal party contest you throw issues to convince party followers and party members it's different from the issues you raise what you have to do with the general election I want you to get that clear. The issues he's calling prime model sentiments if he's saying that he has not contributed enough in the party yes people will talk about it if we say that he has abandoned the party in the past when the party had crisis yes people will talk about it if he has a constitution that says power should be either zone to the north or to the south we must talk about it because if we're not having a constitution then it will be foolish for us to talk about it so there is only a primordial sentiment in votes the voting process is convincing party members because in the overall interest of the party is supreme in every of our presidential candidates are qualified to be president of Nigeria as we speak but when you have two teams one must be better than one okay so we are happy that even the man who today has claimed the ticket of the party has confessed that in all his political life for the very first time a young man from the south has stood all tall have been accepted far not have been accepted far west I think that we have Mr. Ahmad Buhari back, Ahmad can you hear me oh my goodness I think we lost him again but let's move on to other issues let's look at the issues of 2023 I mean in 2022 we're all getting set for the elections come next year and at this point in our history again what should be front and centre for our political aspirants whether they be running for governorship whether they be running for presidency House of Representatives because again we see that the delegate system is what finally throws up whoever the party feels as a candidate and then of course the voters are the messy of whoever the party you know feels for us and so we have to pick the lesser of evils permit me to use that word loosely but should we not in any way be talking about how educated enough the delegates in political parties should be sensitive also enough to be able to pick the right person again not just because of what they have done within the party but if they're capable to run a country I ask because we have President Buhari who everybody literally everybody spoke up for and said oh he's capable of doing certain things and changing the course of things in Nigeria I'm wondering has he been able to fulfill that and if the PDP and every other party does not look at that from a delegate system will we really be able to get the Nigeria of our dreams well it is obvious like you say it is true that most of the delegates need to be properly educated because I believe if to have high level of awareness most times it will be difficult for it to compare people to do what is based on ethnic, nationality or religious orientation and so it is very very important that the political education must be passed of the things they can be aware of what is expected of them having said this we must understand what is in democracy if we truly want to practice this democracy which is a borrowed culture which we understand that is even the best simplest form for them to govern themselves we shouldn't borrow some parts and no for instance in the American system when they say American party these are our rules and our regulation they speak to it when they say in the democratic party these are our rules and our regulation these are our ideas they speak to it we are saying that people should please allow the rule of the political party stand you don't change the goal post at the middle of any match it's not acceptable and I think what we see going on this country will only change if a lot of leaders stand up to say never again will we allow ethnic sentiment religious sentiment and the color of a man's skin and his tongue decide our conscience during voting no we should be able to look at people who are content of their character their capacity and their sincerity when they say they can do a job because all the presidents they have not done any one no one, not one and that's why we are saying all these candidates put together who have worked with him none of them are qualified to be president of Nigeria because they were there with him when he had the opportunity to manage Nigeria's resources for eight years all right, let me try again I think we now have Mr. Ahmed Bohari Mr. Bohari can you hear me yes I can hear you quickly I just want to squeeze in two questions to you I pose the question to Mr. Wanaseeke the person that you supported former senate president Ayum Parish Ayum had raised an issue with sentiments, primordial sentiments within the party and this was one of the primaries that ended over the weekend and he talked about looking at burning issues and we're also looking at the scores during the primaries so I'm asking if it came down to it if what he's saying was anything to go by do you think he would have garnered more votes and secondly many have actually questioned the PDP's strategy in winning 2023 with an ordinary candidate emerging and also people have been pushing for southern candidates and of course many are saying let different political parties zone tickets to the south in fact there are several groups who have said that they will not support any political party that fields an ordinary candidate come 2023 so with those two questions I'd like to hear your thoughts so this is what I think I think the PDP put together a very transparent exercise the primaries was clean, it was open however the players played the politics the way they did from my own perspective as much as I have been primary for the emergence of an evil president on the day of the election I could clearly see that the south wasn't prepared to win that election I'll give you an example one of the master's troops on that day was when someone clearly said he was giving his support to Asif Abu Bakr now what I would have expected from the southern contestant was for them to quickly rally around each other and agree to support one of themselves if they had done that would have a fierce battle but it didn't happen and so the delegates were convinced that whoever is going to likely win this is not to forget that there are some delegates from the north who voted for VK similarly there were delegates from the south who voted for Artiku again my only result to all of this is the fact that Artiku is as clearly proven in some way nationally over the years so this kind of gives me some comfort believing that more than anything else the country needs a unifier right now this unifier is somebody that is going to make us remember that we are first Nigerians before we are any tribe or religion so my appeal to all sides of the device is that we should look forward towards progress towards peace towards unity and towards the nation quickly let me ask you this this is not the first time like I said in my opening that the former vice president is emerging he's been emerging every single time and he has lost and that's why I ask that question but again is the PDP again setting itself up for failure and what's the guarantee that Artiku will win that position so like I said in the beginning Artiku Abu Bakar has emerged as presented himself for the primary election seven times and out of the seven times he only emerged in 2019 and now 2022 so it's important for us to get this correctly to know that in all the time he has tried this he's only been lucky to emerge twice in 2019 and then this time around and those two times he also was unable to win the general election so I ask again is the PDP setting itself up for failure or what has changed number two Ari won the election the primary election four times before he eventually emerged as president so again these are all the dynamics of the policy the fact that he has tried it seven times and emerged just twice it is very very possible that he could win this time around you don't forget that it's going to be contested against APC and APC has got to put this game correctly otherwise Ajikum might just eventually be called a president so we look for it okay well unfortunately our time is fast spent I want to say thank you Ahmad Buhari is a former presidential candidate of sustainable national party of Nigeria S&P and of course Samarwanaseke is the local government chairman of the local government thank you so much gentlemen for being part of the conversation thank you for having me thank you all for staying with us we'll take a quick break and when we return we'll be discussing the upcoming APC primaries and the strategies and plans it is going to be deploying for the coming election stay with us


So we're out at our hem at skate park right now and there's the perfect little ledge for me to practice backsmiths and I got my tripod so that's what I'm gonna do. Try to get on a few backsmiths. Dan's here.   How today you're not? I'm gonna do a compilation of me. I figured out how to backsmith. Oh really? Well, you need wax. I'm gonna get it. This is pretty wet already. Yes. Yeah. Yes. On that, right there. I'm gonna show you how not wet it is. It seems pretty wet to me. See how sticky that was? I was like, you're crazy. You're an inch in a way. It's like four years. This is my channel. Now. Dan's saying everything's sticky, but he's here just sliding like 10 feet. Oh, okay. That's incredible. Look at that. It's just going. It just does it for you. You're going downhill too. This kind of has that Redland skate park effect where it kind of goes down here. They're only around the drains. Oh, okay. Drain, hump up, drain, hump up, drain. Like it's the same pattern. So it's like. You don't get my train out here. Yeah. What are they? Is that where all the wax go? That's where you put all your wax. Oh, what? With the tuck knee and the safe hands, the special hands. I've been working on a style. You've been styling it out. Yeah, I've been like really into style. Oh, this guy, the most casual guy ever. See what you have on board for Dover, dude. I liked it. So we were both kind of struggling with this bumper rail. It's kind of kickery. First time I tried a 50-50 I locked in towside into that spooky loop out. Not a fan of this thing. If you're a skate park skater, you'd probably love it. Almost first day. Next try. A first gentleman. Any better. I'd say you're kind of comfortable with bumper rails.  Don't try to get on at the start. Get on like once you get up and over. Maybe I just have too much ADHD for him. Like I can't wait. I'm like, get on the rail now. Yeah, you have to pop like slow. It's on like a flat bar. Yeah. There was a gentleman here earlier playing music off a speaker. And he just shot me in the mouth. I didn't kick him out. Dan was pressed about it. So I decided to go say g'day to him and say, do you mind turning it down a tad? Guy was playing music. And he left. I was going to do it. Dan vibed him out. I was like dancing to it. And Sean didn't like the fact that I was dancing and not filming him. So Sean goes over to this guy. If he literally goes, you. It's kind of like a myth, dude. You know what? I've never gone out to someone and been like, wait, turn your music down. He was like, he was like, oh, you think that's a knife? The guy's like, what are you talking about? He's like, that's a knife. I'm in an undisclosed location right now. I rode my bike over here. And it's just walls upon walls and walls. Most of the walls are buffed. There is some toy stuff up everywhere that might have been here for a while. So yeah, anyway, I'm just looking for a spot to do some throwies. Maybe a quick, quick feel piece, maybe. All right, I'm just going to go for a nice straight letter right here. Try to make it look nice. Nothing crazy about pieces because I just would rather have a sketch. But this one doesn't seem like it looks too bad. If you get me, quick, basic kind of straight letter. Not too bad considering I never freestyle like this. I'm just going to do a black feel. We got a white outline and shadow. Got my hardcore white.  Why didn't I grab any pink dots? I grabbed black and blue dots, obviously, because they're good for outlining pieces. But for bombing, you want something like fast and heavy. You can just get up really quickly. I got blue dots and gray dots and have this stock Montana whatever. That's similar.  You never know when you're going to need one. This cap is so dusty. Let's throw the shadow on a. I'm a droplet type of guy. Why it just makes sense to me. This piece, this piece of throwie, whatever, it might not actually be too bad. Once I get the outline on, I might switch caps. Honestly, I might put a blue dot on. This shit's way too dusty. Thing about using different brand paints is sometimes they react weird. I probably could have let this one dry a little longer before I chucked the outline on in the shadow, but whatever, I don't want to be here too long. It doesn't look too bad. It doesn't look half bad at all for like a little freestyle piece. I just feel like this letter combo just flows together so much better than my regular word. It's not too bad at all. Even for me to say that this isn't too bad of a piece for just a quick freestyle, like let's put something out. I feel like as a rider, I feel like as a graffiti rider and riding the same letters for like literally years and years, it kind of boxes you into thinking, oh, this letter has to be this way. This letter has to be this way because these are all common letters. I use a K, I use an E. I don't use L, B or an O, but it feels like when you're writing a different word, you have that kind of open-mindedness and you don't have to worry about like your piece looking like your piece. Like generally, if you would meet me and then know my history and graffiti, you wouldn't see me do a piece like this, because this is all new to me. Like I have like fresh eyes, fresh mind, the kind of thing, if that makes sense. But this looks pretty sick. It doesn't look bad at all, I don't reckon.


In this video I want to talk about the complications of gallstones. We are going to start with gallstones. You might be confronted with a patient with gallstones, you might be confronted with gallstones in the exams. What do you do? How do you think about the complications of gallstones? Well, there is one easy way to go about it and that is to think back at your anatomy. You did anatomy at med school and it was important for this specific reason thinking about the complications of a disease based on the anatomy. Now think of the anatomy of the biliary tree. You can really just open a book or just bring it up from long lost memory. You have a gallbladder. From the gallbladder there is a tiny little duct called the cystic duct. It joins up with a common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct and that common hepatic duct, remember, it splits in two and then goes into the left and right lobes of the liver. That common bile duct comes all the way down and joins with the pancreatic duct into the duodenum and it really depends where those stones are that will give you these complications. Now the vast majority of patients with gallstones, remember, will not have any symptoms at all. Those are actually quite dangerous patients because you'll do an ultrasound for some vague abdominal discomfort symptoms and gallstones will be discovered. Now are those gallstones the cause of this problem? It is really something that you have to deal with. In many situations we'll do an upper GI endoscopy just to look for pathology because, remember, this upper GI area can have very similar symptoms. All the diseases of the upper GI take can have very similar symptoms at least and you've got to be very careful. Just to discover gallstones on an ultrasound does not mean you necessarily have to do something about it. So the first thing is, gallstones in the gallbladder, no symptoms whatsoever or some vague symptom that might not be related to the gallbladder at all because, remember, you don't want to take out or send your patient to have their gallbladder removed and the patient comes back and the symptoms are still there because they were never related to the gallstones. That's a horrible situation. So asymptomatic is the first one. Now the stones are in the gallbladder. One of the first proper symptoms, I'm going to call these symptoms really a disease, not really a complication. Well, let's call them a complication for now. So the gallbladder contracts after eating and the stone goes into the little neck of the gallbladder and gets stuck. It can't go into the cystic duct. This gallbladder is trying to contract to express the bile. It cannot, and there's tension in that system and it really is extremely painful. That stone falls back. Suddenly there's a release of that high pressure and all the symptoms are gone. So it's this patient with a while after eating getting these intermittent, very severe pain and it disappears. It's called biliary colic. So that is the first real complication. It's called a complication of gallstones. The second one is where this might become an acute thing that that stone is stuck and some real inflammation sets and leading to colisostitis. The whole gallbladder is inflamed. There might be bacterial overgrowth. We never know if there are bacteria or not just when we see simple colisostitis and hence we always give antibiotics or acute colisostitis. What happens here though is that the pain does not go away. The pain does not to leave. It is something that goes beyond say a six hour time period and we usually have to admit those patients. When you do the white cell count it might be up and they might even be running a bit of a temperature. So anatomy, remember the gallstone is still there. When the gallstone gets beyond that into the bile duct what can happen now? Well it can get stuck in the bile duct and that can give you obstructive jaundice and if there is inflammation and infection the patient is severely ill with colonitis. Colonitis remember pain, fever and jaundice with these patients if they become septicemic of course they become hypertensive they become a bit delirious they become a bit of a septic shock that is a very serious situation. Right at the end the gallstone can go all the way down get stuck together with a pancreatic duct and now we are going to get biliary pancreatitis. It is all anatomical. Remember some of the pancreatic juice is now going to get free and we get pancreatitis. One of the rarest ones that you should never mention first of course somewhere along the line the gallstone erodes into the small bowel and it can be a direct erosion from different pathways but it can go all the way down the small bowel and it can get stuck at the aliocecal valve and we get this gallstone small bowel obstruction. Whether that is mechanical or paralysis of that area not of concern here it is extremely rare over the last couple of years I have seen a single patient with this condition so you leave that one for last. So just anatomically that is the main problem you just think about the anatomy you will answer that question exam when you see a patient you will be able to deal with the possible complications of gallstones. The patient gets sent for an ultrasound they ask you about the report that says that they have gallstones they want to know more you can explain it to them really by way of the anatomy. Now there are a few more subtleties to this remember any type of infection inflammation in the biliary tree we can get abscess formation in the local area we can get abscesses even in the liver we see that in very neglected cases locally with severe colostitis you can also see an empyema that is just a gallbladder full of pus that develops that can even rupture and you can get pus and bile into the abdomen. So just think locally where you start off with a smaller complication just expand things and make them worse liver abscess is pretty colossistic abscesses etc. Empyema that is pus in the gallbladder itself. You can do it anatomically and you will be able to get all the complications of gallstone disease.


This is the first lecture of this course on chemical engineering thermodynamics I thought I would give you an overview of thermodynamics in the chemical industry the outline of this lecture and I am going to use power point only for this lecture and the outline of this lecture is as follows I talk about the chemical industry in general then I tell you a bit about thermodynamics then I am going to tell you about the masters in their ideas that is the people who actually develop the subject of thermodynamics. Tell you about the important aspects of chemical engineering thermodynamics that we will discuss mainly work and equilibrium in particular I will talk about work of separation and show you that thermodynamics actually predicts market prices reasonably well and then we will discuss a bit of reaction equilibrium and finally I will close with a molecular picture of mixing I must say that classical thermodynamics does not depend upon the molecular structure of matter and it is actually independent of that but the molecular picture helps give you a handle on understanding what the properties mean in molecular terms. So I will start off by telling you something about the chemical industry the first thing that strikes you about the world of chemicals is you think there are infinite chemicals but basically there are 4 groups they classified to 4 groups and the raw materials that we discussed are usually oil natural gas, coal, biomass, rock salt, sulphur, air and water and the major fuels are LPG, gasoline, diesel, kerosene the bulk chemicals are divided into base chemicals and intermediates about 300 intermediates and the specialty chemicals are those that are made from bulk chemicals these numbers will increase but certainly not infinite it is reasonable number that you can handle. The chemical industry basically consists of the following consists of a reactor usually at the core whole lot of separation and recycle systems heat exchanger networks and utilities this is broadly the picture of the chemical industry and the after the reactor there are separation processes and I have tell you something about separation process because industrial separation process can be divided as shown in this picture roughly you have equilibrium separation processes which constitute about 55% of the total and then you have 30% rate governed separation process and you have mechanical separation process in the balance the equilibrium separation process can be basically designed on the basis of thermodynamics itself thermodynamics deals with equilibrium and many of these processor work operate so close to equilibrium that you can make quantitative predictions with thermodynamics. The point is that separations are expensive most chemicals do not occur in the pure state in nature so separation process contribute to major part 70% of capital investment it is estimated in the petroleum and the petrochemical industry is on separation equipment alone now that is about the chemical industry about thermodynamics thermodynamics is subject with extraordinary with the applications you can ask questions that you may not think are significant but as diverse as how tall can trees grow how old is the universe and so on thermodynamics as a supervisory of an intangible role in engineering it sets the boundaries of design fundamentally it will tell you what is the maximum possible thing for example what is the maximum work you can extract from a system or what is the minimum work you have to put in order to produce a change of state and so on. And in chemical engineering the applications are in phase and reaction equilibria in calculating separation work and in design of equipment in near equilibrium processes the 55% separation process are practically designed on the basis of mass balance energy balance and just thermodynamics now the perfection of classical thermodynamics if you I do not know if you have seen this book by Lewis and Randall on thermodynamics one of the best books it is a well mark it is an old book it is been reprinted I think the revised edition is by Pitzer and Kurt but if you look at the preface even Lewis says when you visit an ancient monument you see only the perfection of the completed whole enter such an edifice that is still under construction you realize that these great structures are but the result of giving to ordinary human effort a direction and a purpose I think the point that Lewis makes particularly is that thermodynamics as a subject appears so complete and the completion itself gives it a perfection sometimes a little frustrating for the novice because it seems as if you are drawing conclusions out of nothing but I think it is nice to go back to the masters who gave direction and purpose to the edifice called thermodynamics and ask what did they contribute some sense it is nice to have a sense of history of the subject. So let me start with a few of these people Galileo Galilee must be recognized as the person who introduced in effect the scientific spirit he said you not only have to collect data you have to then use your right brain to arrive at conclusions for reaching conclusions and then when you hypothesis you have to also verify experimentally because a lot of your imagination of the right brain is often wrong because Galileo did not talk about the right brain the left brain but in our context we can explain what he said in these terms Isaac Newton of course was the one who essentially as far as thermodynamics is concerned introduced the concept of work and told you how work is calculated. Sadik Arnaud is the case of a rare case of an engineer contributing to fundamental science the second law actually came before the first law and the Sadik Arnaud introduced the idea of absolute temperature then there was Joule who introduced the conservation of energy in a very rigorous form I will say a few words about each of these people and Rudolf Clausius who introduced the word entropy. So this is I cannot get a picture of Galileo as a younger person fortunately but Galileo was the father of modern science and all effectively Newton discovered the laws as you can see there of calculus gravity motion and optics and then turned 626. So this was an Englishman whose contribution well known then with Carnot and Clausius the French engineer scientist you are moving a couple of centuries after Newton and Galileo the Carnot is the was a bachelor who died young essentially came up with the second law. The German physicist and mathematician Clausius was also a neologist he was had a knack of coining words that remain in use even today. So he introduced the word entropy let me talk a little bit about their ideas the heat to work conversion essentially Carnot pointed out as asymmetric and he introduced the concept of a heat reservoir that was so large that little addition of heat and little taking a little heat away from it does not change its thermodynamic state and he introduced the concept of a reversible heat engine he realized that in order to produce work you have to have a cyclic operation otherwise the amount of work produced would not be significant and he introduced the concept of a heat engine that would work both ways and the thermodynamic concept of absolute temperature came from Carnot again you also talked about the efficiency of the reversible the Carnot now called Carnot engine operating between two heat reservoirs at T1 and T2 and said that the efficiency must be 1-T2 by T1 he said no heat engine can be more efficient in the Carnot engine. The entropy definition was actually given by Clausius although it was Carnot who pointed out the delta Q by T while delta Q was a function of path delta Q by T defined a quantity that was a change in a property and he used this to define entropy as a function of state and the conclusion was that the entropy of the universe which is the only isolated system we really know can never decrease. So Joule and Kelvin these are pictures of Joule and Kelvin Joule was characterized by dogged persistence and say a few words about what he did then talk about Lord Kelvin but what Joule said it was even before Joule was known that there were two ways of exchanging energy with the system and between the system and the surroundings and it was Joule who essentially asserted that there are only two ways as far as a closed system is concerned the interaction energy interaction was either an exchange of heat or exchange of work and he did several experiments to show that this is true he supposed to have told the Royal society again and again demonstrated this in front of the Royal society till the members of the Royal society were absolutely convinced they did not want any more persuasion but Joule insisted on doing it in several ways. But he essentially showed that heat and work are equivalent and the internal energy is a function of state the internal energy of the universe a constant of course internal energy he defined as the difference between heat and work will give you a more precise definition as we go along and he pointed out that the internal energy of an isolated system is a constant Lord Kelvin was one of the greatest supporters of Joule, Lord Kelvin came from the aristocracy whereas Joule was an ordinary citizen and this support is very valuable but Lord Kelvin known to be very embarrassingly self-confident the story that he wrote the tripods and he sent one of the attendants asking him to go look up the results of the tripods and said find out who is second and he suppose the attendant seems to have come back and said Lord you are second so he was actually he was very confident that he was going to be the first anchor somebody else had to be second but he provided a lot of support to Joule in the Royal society in those days. Then a little later this van der Waals and van Laar van der Waals again from Netherlands both of them and van der Waals is a Nobel laureate one of the first in the area of thermodynamics and he also an opportunist he apparently got his son to succeed him and he was the first one to produce an equation of state that is even now used as one of the best equations in conceptual terms it has no conflict in any fundamental way with thermodynamics the laws of thermodynamics he talked about copied capillarity and he also introduced the idea of corresponding states van laar was a student he was socially awkward and but he was a great scientist and he is the first one to produce a classical thermodynamic theory of solutions and still one of the best. Then there were Boltzmann and Gibbs Boltzmann was a moody German he actually finally committed suicide but his ideas were far ahead of time and introduced kinetic theory essentially and then there was Gibbs Boltzmann on the tomb of Boltzmann this formula of S for an isolated system is given S is equal to K log omega where the omega is the number of microscopic states in which the macroscopic system can exist and Gibbs was one of the most remarkable people the best of the early expositors he also developed the statistical mechanical principles he was a remarkable man he was in Yale for many years without any payment and subsequently he was finally recognized before he finally recognized another great scientist and his book on elementary principles of statistical mechanics still reads beautifully and after about 150 pages that he had written all of this work was done in isolation all by himself he finally calculates a specific heat of argon and he makes a comment that the our the specific heat that we predict does not agree with experiment therefore we must consider our methods as tentative actually couple of years later the specific heat is actually remeasured it was found that Gibbs's prediction was right in the old experimental data was wrong. So it is an absolutely remarkable person and a lot of results a lot of things you can do classical thermodynamics in many ways is a very complete subject and a lot of things you think you can derive on your own you will find in a footnote to Gibbs's notes it can be shown that in the results recorded there. So basically let me just say that classical thermodynamics is essentially two laws it says the energy of an isolated system is a constant and the entropy of an isolated system is ever increasing the equivalent statement of the laws as far as we are concerned is that the internal energy u and the entropy s are functions of state you know other functions of state like pressure, temperature, composition, volume and so on but these two were introduced because of the two laws of thermodynamics once these are introduced the rest of it is practically calculus you can derive all the results in thermodynamics through calculus essentially chemical engineers are interested in two kinds of applications one is criteria of equilibrium and the other is extreme mind work. Let me talk a little bit about closed systems the combined form of the two laws and we will see these in some more detail as the course unfolds but I am trying to give you an overview here essentially we are going to draw the conclusion that the change in internal energy is less than or equal to Tds-delta w the convention used here for work is that for work and heat the conventions are heat is positive if it is added to the system work is positive if it is work done by the system the modern convention is actually the other way around so in terms of delta w and delta w the science in this presentation in most of the course would actually be the opposite of what is presented in most books today's books but it is a trivial difference because finally in terms of actually measurable quantities the equations will be the same. So in isentropic processes you can show that the maximum work you can get when a process when a system changes from one state to another is actually equal to minus the change in internal energy and minus w which is the work done on the system the minimum work you have to do to produce a change of state is equal to delta u in isothermal processes we will show that this is actually equal to the free energy change delta a for PVT systems delta w is PDV and the equilibrium criteria and becomes simply u is equal to minimum at constant SNV because you can rearrange that first equation you put du is equal to delta w is equal to PDV so you get du is less than or equal to 0 in SNV are constant which means u has to be a minimum at equilibrium but this is a constraint of constant SNV so if you subtract of minus Ts on from both sides you get the result that a should be a minimum at constant T and V then at constant SNP similarly h should be a minimum and g will be a minimum at constant T and V it is clear that because temperature and pressure temperature and volume are the pairs of variables that can be held constant through easily you can monitor these values so a being a minimum and g being a minimum are the important equations. If you look at open systems you have to subtract of flow work so you define redefine shaft work or useful work is delta w plus what I have written there and if you put that in you can ask what is the minimum work you have to do in a flow process in a steady adiabatic process and you get the result that my minus delta Ws by delta m is equal to delta h similar in steady isothermal operation it is equal to delta g. Now this is also valid for systems with negligible hold up and a chemical plant for example if you take a whole plant where raw material center and the products leave at ambient temperature and pressure no matter what happens inside the plant you can calculate simply the delta g between the product and their products and the raw materials and this is the minimum work you have to do because the actual work will be much more it is remarkable that thermodynamics is able to make such predictions while not paying attention to the details. So let me show you an example is an example of an undersea portable device I have a tank one and tank two this can be used for example for working on the hull of ships and this is a portable device is carried on the back of a diver and you can ask how much work can this do what should be the what you have is air in tank one at very high pressure which expands into tank two because you are talking of pressures under the sea and the pressure can be quite high even at 10 meters can be quite high. So what you do is always have an evacuated tank which is much larger into which the air expands and in doing so it does work WS you can ask what is the amount of work done. So I have given you some example tank one you started 5 atmospheres 50 atmospheres and go tank two is at one atmosphere at t is equal to 0 and you allow the air from tank one to go into tank two the volume of tank one is 5 litres and tank two is 50 litres and you can ask when comes to equilibrium what will be the final pressure you can show that the pressure is 5.43 the operation is isothermal because the whole thing occurs under water into particular depth in the temperature is constant effectively. So what you can do is calculate therefore the maximum work maximum work according to thermodynamics is delta A and you are talking of M1 the mass of air in tank one having a change delta A1 that is a specific Helmholtz free energy small a and M2 delta A2 that is the gas in tank two and the second part is compressed the first part expands. So you have a network done of 46.9 kilojoules. So if you are looking at what we are really looking at is mixtures in the in chemical engineering thermodynamics and you have to start to the basic laws for DG for example because the Gibbs free energy is the most important variable because typically chemists deal with close systems and they use A as a very important variable the Helmholtz free energy and chemical engineers deal mostly with closed systems. So we are looking at G as the most important variable the Gibbs free energy DG is simply minus SDT plus VDP plus some or mu I DNI you are looking at the natural function of temperature and pressure and mole numbers and the change in G with respect to Ni at constant Tp etc and other mole numbers is a variable that will appear again and again it is called partial molal property GI bar it is given a name chemical potential mu I mu I has other definitions but basically you can take the first equation DG equal to minus SDT plus VDP plus mu I some over I of mu I DNI and because if you are looking at a process that at constant T and P and because mu I is an intensive variable if you look at changing G from a system with n moles to K times n moles you actually get this result by integrating the first equation you get G is equal to some over Ni mu I this is true of any partial molal property. So in particular for the chemical for the Gibbs free energy the chemical potential is the partial molal property and G is simply equal to some over Ni mu I and you can write this you would by differentiating this again and comparing with the first equation you get what is called the Gibbs-Duhem equation minus SDT plus VDP plus some over Ni mu I gives you pointed out that chemical potential is actually the natural variable for discussing thermodynamic theory not composition but like the composition variables the mole fractions for example out of n only n minus 1 are independent because there is a constraint that some over Xi is equal to 1 or some over DXI is equal to 0 an equivalent equation can be derived for the chemical potential and that is this equation here because chemical potential is given by this equation from calculus and you can use the Gibbs-Duhem equation re-express the Gibbs-Duhem equation by substituting this for D mu I and you get a simple result that some over I of Xi dou mu I by dou XA the sum over all I is equal to 0 for every J equal to 1 to R minus 1. So you have a total of R minus 1 equations for R chemical potentials in any given phase therefore there is one degree of freedom now you can therefore guess the composition dependence of the chemical potential of one species then all the others are determined by the Gibbs-Duhem equation the simplest of these solutions is called mu I is equal to mu I reference RTL and Xi and if it is valid all the way for the whole range of compositions then when Xi is equal to 1 mu I reference becomes the chemical potential of pure I. So as I said the Gibbs-Duhem equation has R unknowns and R minus 1 variables and R minus 1 equations sorry so it has no unique solution the central problem then has to build models for any one chemical potential instead of doing it for one chemical potential you try and do it for delta G mix because delta G mix is simply the free energy change due to mixing of components. So after mixing the Gibbs free energy is Xi mu I sum over all I and before mixing it was all pure substances so it is Xi mu I pure and delta G minus delta G ideal is called G excess. So if you can make a guess for G excess then you can calculate the chemical potentials and in given G excess for example in a binary the chemical potential mu 1 is simply delta G plus X2 times partial of delta G with respect to X1 and this is formally written as mu I pure plus RT log gamma I Xi where gamma I represents the non-ideality and RT log gamma 1 is G excess plus X2 delta of G excess by delta X1. So this way all you have to do is guess what G excess is or delta G of mixing is the various models for this because you have complete freedom only thing is the model that you propose has to give results that agree with experiment for a large number of systems then it stays in the literature otherwise it is forgotten. So the models for example a one law model doles are like these two are classical thermodynamic models the others are all molecular models you have various models like the Wilson the Unique Wacke the Scachard Hildebrand the Flory Higgins model and so on. So basically what you are looking at is bounds for work you have to calculate the change in the thermodynamic properties either U or A or the specific enthalpy or the specific Gibbs free energy particular interest in separation process is the free energy of mixing as I pointed out already delta G mix is delta H mix minus T delta S mix all of the models normally calculate try and calculate H delta H or delta S and then set the other have a default option for the other for example you can say delta H is 0 and I will calculate the entropy of mixing or you can say delta S mix is the same as the delta S of ideal mixture and calculate delta model delta H delta H ideal delta G ideal is simply RT times XI log XI just to give you an illustration take work of separation for example you have let us say a distillation column in which you are separating ethyl benzene from the three xylenes para meta and ortho and I have a certain feed I have a certain overhead composition in a distillation column I have a middle composition the bottom composition the question is how much work is required for this. Now the minimum work that you have to put into the system is simply G of the products minus G of the feed and in this case there are three product streams so delta G of P1 plus delta G of P2 plus delta G of P3 minus delta GF you can write it in terms of delta G for each stream because the pure component free energies will cancel in any case. So delta G ideal in this case turns out to be 2.86 kilo joules per mole if you use a regular solution model we will learn all these models later in the course you can show that that gives you an excess free energy of minus 1.88. So net delta G is 0.98 which is the minimum work that you have to do it should be minus W within parenthesis then minimum because it is work done on the system. Now delta H is 0.81 so you can the enthalpy contribution is approximately 80% this particular case that we discuss is an example of a dominant enthalpy effect. Now if you look at work per mole minus RT times X1 log gamma on X1 plus X2 log gamma 2 X2 represents delta G and it is the minimum isothermal work to be done to separate one mole of a binary mixture into X1 moles of component 1 and X2 moles of component 2 of this minus RT ln of gamma on X1 is the work needed to produce one mole of the substance from its naturally occurring state of composition X1. Now in a free market the price you would expect the price per mole be determined by the work needed to produce it and I will give you an example of a plot this is from Jetson King the classic book of 1970 and he plots log of the price in dollars per pound against log of the weight fraction it should be mole fraction times the activity coefficient but as an approximate crude approximation you can use the weight fraction and if you make a plot you get a remarkable straight line the two data are from completely different sources. This one is the market price and the other is the log of the weight fraction as it occurs in nature and this approximately calculates the work required. So you can see that the thermodynamic work required correlates very well with the price the slope also depends and the slope of this will depend on several factors including the economic conditions the wage wages and so on. Now you look at it is a free market so everything falls in place look at some data for India that we plotted this is 2001 data it is old data but it still gives you a flavour you can see that petrol is much higher that is artificial because you have an excise duty on petrol and you can see that pre urea pre subsidy is right bang on the line the actual price of urea is much lower in order to get the vote of the farmers and to make it available for the farmers the government makes it available at much lower prices sugar again is a political decision to subsidize sugar and so you get sugar at much lower price than the work warrants. So criteria of equilibrium I would not say a few words about the other aspects of thermodynamics at constant T and P thermodynamics will tell you that G should be a minimum and G is n i mu i you can write it in terms of activity coefficients and it is either the activity coefficient is gamma i x i it is a liquid mixture it is equal to P y i times V i if it is a gaseous mixture different ways of expressing the non-ideality and by asking the delta G be equal to 0 for equilibrium you actually come to the conclusion that RTL K K is the equilibrium constant is equal to minus delta G reference the reference state should be chosen judiciously and finally for face equilibrium you can show that the chemical potentials in two phases the same substance should be equal at equilibrium. And let us for example let us take a very simple example almost all the overs appear as sulphides or oxides in the case of zinc it is zinc sulphide you roast it in oxygen what do you expect to get you can show that you expect essentially zinc oxide the reaction possible reactions are listed there zinc sulphide plus oxygen will give you zinc oxide plus sulphur dioxide and the delta G 0 the free energy change in standard state is minus 280 look at all the others sulphur dioxide going to sulphur trioxide zinc plus sulphur trioxide giving a zinc sulphate and zinc oxide giving a zinc plus oxygen all of these are positive and you can say only the first reaction needs to be considered the product will be zinc oxide. So thermodynamic can tell you right away what to expect in terms of product you can of course quantify quantitatively calculate them then you take couple of reaction for example these reactions where carbon dioxide plus hydrogen gives you carbon monoxide plus water and then CO plus hydrogen can give you carbon deposition now you ask if you do not this carbon can deposit on the catalyst and choke and make the catalyst ineffective and so you want to know what should be the pressure at which you should operate or what should be the range of pressures over which you should operate this example that T is equal to 1000 degrees normally the temperature is chosen on the base of kinetic concentrations not on the base of thermodynamic concentration and some data is available you can do this calculation quite quickly and show that for pressures below 2.5 atmospheres you will have no carbon deposition these are very powerful conclusions from where we started. So let me summarize results the thermodynamic theory is so beautiful and so complete that it sort of gives you results of the same form in many contexts if chi is a characteristic intensive property at equilibrium right through thermodynamics will tell you how to calculate chi from one of the criteria that we already discussed and also tell you that the change of log chi with respect to T is given by an equation that says minus characteristic enthalpy change by RT squared similarly the change of log chi with respect to P will give you a characteristic volume change by RT and the maximum minimum work will be change in the appropriate energy function these are the summary of results that you get in thermodynamics they are always the same form and let me now pass and give you a molecular picture for example in the case of one example as I said classical thermodynamics does not depend upon the molecular structure of matter if you look at the picture from a molecular structure however it is quite insightful if you look at the dissolution of salt in water in the salt molecules are added to water the because of the high dielectric constant the ionic forces are much weaker in water and the salt ions can separate. So effectively the salt has more states in which it can exist and therefore its entropy actually increases molecular theory tells you that the entropy depends on the number of possible states in which system can exist and this entropy of the salt increases while the entropy of water decreases because the presence of salt molecules. Now the increase of entropy of the salt is much greater normally than the decrease of entropy of water and dissolution is therefore spontaneous because the resulting entropy change is a driving force the energy absorbed to break the bonds in the crystal in order to do this at a molecular level you have to break the bonds in the crystal and this energy we will call this E, A and energy released when ion water bonds are formed let us call it E, R now the comparison of E, A and E, R will determine whether the dissolution is going to be accompanied by a temperature change for example in the case of NaCl E, A is approximately equal to E, R and the dissolution is more or less isothermal if you take ammonium nitrate E, A is so much greater than E, R that the resulting decrease in temperature is so significant it is often used as an instant cold pack. So what a molecular theory does for you is give you a mechanistic handle and therefore most of the theories in thermodynamics for calculating property changes come from molecular theory. The classical thermodynamic theories are very few as I said I mentioned Van Laar and Dohlser Lake for calculating delta G and they both came up with classical theories we will discuss them in the course. So in summary the whole purpose of this course is to help you calculate thermodynamic properties and therefore calculate changes in thermodynamic properties. It is these changes that are going to be very important as far as the chemical industry is concerned and because you are prediction of both equilibrium and the maximum work that you can get from a system as well as the minimum work you need to put into a system are both determined by these changes. So I think that is the summary of the course you can see that there is a relevance of thermodynamics directly to the industry that plot that I showed you of specially the agreement between the correlation between the price in the market place and the mole fraction or the weight fraction of the substance as it occurs in nature is a particularly revealing. So this is sort of a motivation for studying the subject you must realize that when the master set up the subject it was not at all clear that there were going to be such far reaching applications. It is a remarkable fact that by pursuing the laws and pushing the frontiers you can get results of great significance for the modern chemical industry as well.