Welcome again. In this lecture, I will introduce a toy version of a very popular pioneering CPU called MIPS. So, I am going to refer to this toy version of MIPS as M MIPS, M probably stand standing for mini MIPS or micro MIPS. So, this MIPS is a pioneering risk CPU, risk stands for reduced complexity instruction set computer. This complexity is bracket, it is typically read out as reduced instruction set computer. The reduction is not real in terms of number of instructions, reduction is in that sense of the complexity, the simplest. The instructions are quite simple and the simplicity of the instruction set leads to simple and elegant micro architecture. And micro architecture by that we mean the data path and the controller which kind of define that is the CPU. So, later on in a couple of subsequent lectures, we will describe a multi cycle data path implementation of micro MIPS as an illustration of the concept of an FSM driving the data path, which we have already illustrated in the other simple examples of GCD and shift add based multiplication. A CPU micro architecture has always been an interesting and a wholesome example of digital system. So, that is that is what makes it kind of relevant in the context of this course or so. And a VLSI or FPGA implementation aspects of a CPU micro architecture, this mu this is mu architecture micro architecture, this forms an important component of the pedagogy of VLSI design. So, we will be able to address in this couple of lectures some aspects of implementation issues and comment on it at least and this you will get some pointers to go further than this towards more specialized courses on processor design or you know VLSI architecture design. So, there is a good reason for a good example of this kind which is a very standard example in various courses specifically on micro computer architecture and digital system design. So, in micro MIPS micro architecture will be focusing on a very small subset of instructions that would illustrate although it is small subset it would still illustrate most of the important fundamental ideas in the micro architecture and the implementation. So, this MIPS micro MIPS or mini MIPS is a 32 bit architecture by that I mean the instructions are 32 bit wide and data words are also 32 bit wide. There is good amount of uniformity in this RISC risk processors which make things simpler to design, simpler to analyze, simpler to like you know implement. So, and at the top level at a behavior level a processor is described by its instruction set architecture, we kind of understand what kind of instruction that processor is capable of executing executing and then the data path and the controller are designed to facilitate execution of this but those particular instructions with the help of components like ALU register files, multiplexers, shifters and so on so forth. So, this even the small subset of MIPS which we call MIPS is capable of very standard arithmetic logic, data movement, branch and jump kind of instructions. So, I am just saying some standard things there is nothing yet to focus specifically on. So, it is a standard CPU of toy example of a standard CPU that we are going to consider here. It will although it is small it will still illustrate most of the concepts. So, for example, any standard CPU I will toy it here again a standard CPU should be capable of executing an add instruction arithmetic instruction. So, typical example of arithmetic instruction is add. So, MIPS in particular has this like as the instruction by which it sort of to which the arguments are the destination kind of index which is which specifies the destination I will tell you what exactly that four means or dollar four means and a pair of source indices. And the MIPS has one micro architecture of micro MIPS has a so called register file which is a collection of registers every register is 32 bit wide and there are 32 such registers. So, these registers are going to be referred to as R 0 or reg 0 R 1 and so on R 31. And in particular this reg R 0 is really not a set of memory location it is all hardwired to ground all zeros. So, it would look as if the registers number 0 always contains 0 the trick is to hardwired to the ground. And the other 31 registers are general purpose they are I mean most of them are general purpose and every one of them can be written to this one you cannot the R 0 you cannot write to it always contains the constant. So, now this coming back to this instruction this 4 3 6 they refer to the indices of this of the registers in the register file. So, this particular instruction the semantics of it is that two of I mean this two register this two indices specify this the source registers from where the source operands will be could be read out and then they will be added. And the result of the addition is going to be kept in the register with the index 4. So, R 4 register with the index 4 is going to be loaded with the result of addition on this two operands which two operands the contents of registers at the index 3 and register number 6 ok. So, R 3 and R 6. So, in this particular instruction the contents of R 3 and R 6 are going to be read out and the result is going to be somehow rooted back to R 4 something like that ok. So, the data path is going to definitely have this register file which has 32 registers data path would also need to support because the instructions needs to support addition this should be a support for addition instruction. So, they must be an adder subtractor kind of ALU and there should be some set of routers like multiplexers which will help the things go I mean which will root the data from appropriate register it towards ALU and the result of the ALU back to the register file. There will be more things of this kind required. So, will develop will gradually can evolve the picture we can evolve this complete micro architecture by understanding the need of each and every instruction of this kind, but then the that is quite a routine exercise. So, I will be slightly I mean I will be covering this a bit fast at a fast pace ok. Yes, now specifically what we need to understand is that how the instructions are represented. So, let us get back to the same example and instruction like add ok. So, clearly you know recall what this means is R 4. So, this 4 is this the index of the destination register and 3 and 6 are the indices of the source registers ok. This the encoding of is as follows as I remarked every instruction in this CPU is going to be 32 bit wide and the this 6 MSB is more significant bit of this 32 bit from 0 to 31 are the opcode of add ok. Then we have 5 bits representing the we have 5 bits representing this particular 3 that is a first source index. So, that is this number 0 0 0 1 1. So, this is equivalent to 3 that whatever we are specifying as one of the source operands. Then the second set of 5 bits is going to like you know encode this number 6 which is to be an interpreted as this second source index and then number 4 which is the index of the destination register for the addition operation and that is 0 0 1 0 0. So, we are going to use 5 bits for every such index because there are this all this 3 indices in an instruction like add which operates on pair of registers the contents of pair of registers and it puts a result back in the in one of the registers in the register file. So, this is called an R type of instruction R type instruction ok. So, just purely working on the register information in the register file no role of any data memory or anything else here ok. So, so there are we require because there are 32 registers we require 5 bits to encode the indices of them and this 5 bits this triple of 5 bits is going to contain this index of the source index of the source another source and index of the destination. So, this covers about discovers up to here we have used of 16 bits 6 bits for this and 10 bits for this and then this is 5 more bits in the remaining 11 bits right 10 bit number 10 to bit number 0 we have some extra information in the context of add it will also like you know there will be some the encode of add will not be completely like described by this 6 bits. In fact, this 6 bits coupled with the I think it is again 6 more bits this this bits and this bits together is going to be is going to going to indicate that this particular instruction is an add instruction working on this pair of indices or describing the source and this index sorry this pair of indices describing the source operands and this in this particular index describing the destination operator. This will ignore what this this this is where some for some shift instruction the amount of amount of shift is described here again this requires 5 bits 5 bits can specify up to 32 number up to 32 31 I think whatever this is in shift instruction this will be used as shift amount we will not be bothered about that. In fact, we are not bothered about this like details at all we just need to get an idea about how this in the simple manner this instructions are encoded. So, you get add then we will get couple of other examples and that that would suffices to get an idea about how the instruction looks like and how parts of the instruction are to be used for further processing in the micro micro architecture. In general add has the like structure that we will specify the index of the destination and also specify the index of a pair of sources and semantics is r d s t r s r c 1 plus r s r c 2. Similar to add instruction we have subtract instruction with similar structure where this d s t s r c 1 s r c 2 are again numbers from 0 to 31 representing the indices of the registers and other than this 2 arithmetic instructions we have the logical pair of logical instructions for doing bitwise r and bitwise and again the same triple of indices and there is one interesting instruction called set less than s l t again which is. So, this instruction is interesting it has the semantics that r of the destination register is to be loaded with one provided the content of the register indicated by the first source index is less than the content of the other register in which is indicated by the second source index in the instruction. If r of this contents of register with this index is less than contents of register with this index then the destination register is going to be loaded with one that is we are setting the destination register to one setting means setting to one typically otherwise we are is setting it to 0 or we are clearing it otherwise. So, it looks like it looks a bit funny or like too specialized, but it has a lot of use I mean it is going to be very much useful in the comparisons comparison based branching because we are not going to we are going to restrict our attention to a very simple small subset of this already reduced complex instruction set and that instruction set should still be sufficient to be able to do any kind of computation. So, this s l t in conjunction with a simple branch instruction conditional branch instruction called BEQ which again has very similar, but slightly different, but a register mostly register based format branch EQ takes a pair of register indices source one and source two compares the contents of this two register this register specified by these two indices and if they are found to be equal then it would make a relative jump to an address specified by some constant specified here in the immediate field this IMM stands for immediate read this as immediate just clarify it soon anyway I just talk quickly talked about BEQ because I mean brought it brought of the mention of it because BEQ in this s l t in conjunction with BEQ is going to be a very powerful kind of instruction. So, more about that in any standard text on computer architecture especially many text books which use MIPS as a vehicle to describe the concepts of computer architecture and organization standard books one of the best known book is by Patterson Hennessy and so on. So, the many of you might already be familiar with it. So, I am not going to spend time on this. So, other than like you know. So, we have seen some R type instructions like add sub R and s l t they work on their of the type instruction the destinations register specifier and source pair of source register specifiers that is a format of this such instruction they could be more of this you know in the standard MIPS. Then other than this the we have so called I type instruction immediate type instructions in which not everything is from and registers and going to the register, but an example of that is like you know immediate version of this add instruction. So, this is to be read as add immediate. So, add immediate format of that is there is a destination specifier because finally, the result has to go somewhere, but what are the source operands? The source operands are not pair of source indices source register indices, but just one of them is going to come from a register specified by a particular by an index here a source index and the other source operand is going to come from this immediate field. Now, where is this immediate field? So, again look at recall the 32 bit instruction format for add it was like you know 6 bits where for opcode and similarly, the most significant 6 bits will be used for opcode of add immediate, then there will be 5 bits for the destination. So, 5 bits for the SRC 1 the first source specifier, then the next 5 bits will be for destination this particular DST information destination index will be stored in the next 5 bits that cover 16 bits and the remaining 16 bit will store a constant that is that is to be added to the content of this register specified by SRC 1 and result is to be loaded into stored into this register specified by DST. So, let us look at an example add immediate it is simple anyway add immediate say dollar 4, dollar 6 and say 173 in decimal. So, this is going to be 6 bit opcode of add add I and then this is the 0 0 1 0 0 sorry that is a destination right. So, this will be the source and then followed by the index of the destination register that is 0 0 1 0 0 and 16 bits this is an 8 bit number right less than 250 255 0 0 0 1 128 plus 32 that is 160 plus this is 13 plus 32 45 plus 128 set. So, it will be the 16 bits this is number 4 this is number dollar 4 dollars 6. So, the semantics is that is R register number 4 is loaded with the addition of contents of register number 6 and this binary number which is this which stored in this immediate the 16 bits here. If you compare it with the encoding of the add instruction add instruction required 3 register indices 2 for source and 1 for the destination. Here we require only 1 register index for source because the other source operand is going to come from the 16 bits here and the destination which would have been in the third set of the 5 bit indices now it is going to be over here. So, these 16 bits are going to be free for holding an immediate I mean holding a constant which is to be treated as an immediate operand. So, this is the immediate operand 16 bit immediate this is the specifier of direct operand this is the specifier of immediate operand and similar to add there will be add I there will be subtract I immediate with the same format. So, this is an add I and subtract I and similarly R I logical R and logical and immediate are examples of I type instruction immediate type I format instructions knowing knowing their of code figuring out that it is the instruction say add subtract immediate I add immediate we know that the bits of the instruction R to be interpreted as source address source index destination index and 16 bits for immediate unlike in the case of the R type instructions when we have to look at this like you know bunches of the triple of 5 bits for 2 source indices and 1 destination index and remaining some of the bits can be ignored there is no role for immediate operand in the R type instructions like add subtract or SLT and so on. So, I think SLT immediate is also available in the MIPS instructions at architecture. Now, other than this there these are arithmetic logic kind of instruction that we have seen so far and I also mentioned to you about a branch is equal to instruction that will have a pair of there is no role of destination as such there is a pair of source indices SRC 1 SRC 2 and there is an immediate field. So, here the encoding of code of BQ will be here in the 6 bits and then SRC 1 will be here in the 5 bits SRC 2 will be in next 5 bits and this 16 bits will be used for specifying a constant. What is the meaning of this semantics of this instruction? The program counter which stores the instruction or address of the next instruction is going to be updated with current program counter plus 4 will just come to this plus 4 ignore it for a while. The main the role of immediate is this program counter is essentially updated with is like you know updated with this is treated as a relative offset and this is treated as the 16 bit number is treated as the word offset. Remember that I mentioned that this CPU is 32 bit wide, but we are using the addresses at the byte level. Next word of 32 bit is going to be 4 bytes away and so this immediate field is being interpreted as the number of words like relative offset in terms of number of words. So, this is this is the amount like by which I mean that this is the offset which is to be added to the program counter to get an next value of the program counter that is where the next instruction is supposed to be. So, this is the conditional jump which is of the relative jump kind and but the main thing is that this word of word offset has to be multiplied by 4. So, shifted by 2 that will shifting shifting it left by 2 will have the effect of multiplying it by 4. So, this multiplication by 4 will convert this word offset into a byte offset. So, immediate so offset in terms of byte address. So, assume that the memory can refer to individual bytes. So, the addresses refer to different bytes. So, if you want to go to the next word then you have to change the address by 4. This plus 4 you ignore it for a while we will talk about it later. It just one of the settled features of not too important. MIPS has taken a decision like you know just part of the architecture it was decided that the relative address the relative offset would be offset would be added to PC plus 4. So, PC plus 4 is the default next program counter right default value of the next program counter. But so instead of like you know just that default is going to be updated by the offset. So, the compiler or the assembler should make sure that if you are if you try to encode the address of like you know jump if you try to encode a jump address then you know it should not be this difference between the address of that place to jump and the current instruction, but rather the difference between the location value to jump minus PC the address of the next instruction the default next instruction which is PC plus 4 that is why this funny thing. So, very quickly we will just wind up the couple of other instructions. In fact, important instructions that are left are like load and store. So, for the instruction that we have seen have been of the type arithmetic logic or the control flow branch jump is also there unconditional jump, but let me just ignore it for a while I mean it is not a very important I mean you can easily extrapolate by understanding the architecture for this instruction what will be happening for jump. So, let us look at the memory these instructions which work with the memory. So, load and store these are memory based or other memory type instructions they involve a memory access instruction sorry this absolutely necessary right just by doing just by providing the ability to do arithmetic and control branch and jump you are not going to be able to get data or archive data in places registers are there 32 of them let us plenty for a lot of applications, but not in general situations like where you might require a lot of data they will have to be stored in arrays, arrays could be much bigger than the number of registers that you have. So, you need to make use of data memory and that is why to access the data memory you have you need to have a couple of instructions to provide for that and one such is load this will load something from the memory the syntax is load specify the target index the index of the register in which you are going to load something what you are going to load is specified over here I am just using different kind of names which will suggest the purpose. So, the semantics is the register whose index is given by this target target target index between 0 to 31 this. So, this specifies a register from the register file that register is going to be loaded with contents of data memory at appropriate location which location at appropriate address that address is in that address is calculated by reading out the contents of the register specified by this base and again we have the shifting left by 2. So, the encoding of this instruction load instruction is going to be like this is 6 bit of code for load 6 bits then you have a 5 bit representation of this particular like you know the base a specifier base register specifier then 5 bit for specifying target and that leaves us with 16 bit. So, again now this immediate is going to be regarded as an offset because this is address calculation right this is calculation of an address of some location in the data memory and since we have this 32 bit registers all the register if it is to be loaded with something it has to be loaded with 32 bit content and that has to be like you know a word from the memory 4 by 2 word. So, this immediate 16 bit immediate field is treated as a word offset, offset with respect to the base which is specified in this in the register with this particular index. So, this is as you can imagine you can easily imagine that this will this facility is provided for array kind of indexing. So, this is also an I type instruction because there is a role of immediate field and corresponding I mean complementing load we have a store instruction whose syntax is similar and index specifying a register and index specifying another register and an immediate field, but this semantics is it store right storing something from like something from a register file into data memory. So, data memory at location certain location is going to be updated with the contents of contents of R T the register with the index R T and which location in data memory just the way it was done in the case of load. So, address calculation is same as that for load instruction this is going to be the base address that is why we call that register base register plus immediate by the way I was just prompted that I made a slight miss one point in describing the branch instruction this is branch if equal to this is the read the cement the syntax of this is it takes pair of source indices describing the registers which are to be used as source operands and specifies an immediate field as an offset for relative jump relative branch. So, meaning is that PC is to be updated with PC plus 4 plus if and conditional right if the contents of registers at the indices source 1 and source 2 are equal. So, recall this is the word offset like you know so to make converted into byte offset we shifted by 2 left shifted by 2 and this PC plus 4 is the default next program counter that that is updated with this offset. So, if this is done if the equal to equality holds you know this the contents of this to registers are equal otherwise PC is going to be updated with just the default again this plus 4 why because this is the I mean instructions are 32 bit wide and addresses refer to bytes. So, we to refer to the next word the next instruction we have to add 4 address of next instruction word a word instruction is word long right 32 byte long it is a 32 bit architecture. We can study the variations of this anyway but right now for simplicity of the presentation we are assuming data also to be 32 bit instruction to be 32 bit, but we have to kind of explicitly convert the word addresses to byte addresses because the addresses refer are mentioned at the byte level right. So, that was just for a some is that point while describing the BQR instruction in a hurry. Let us quickly look at the role of this I mean the use of this memory instructions. So, memory access instructions for example, and there is this immediate field and the source index has to be treated as the base. So, here on this slide you see some typical like you know kind of C code statement where you have an array a the contents of the location 8, 8 location of array a is to be added with the variable h and the result is to be put in variable g. So, let us say the compiler has kind of associated g with the register number 1 associated the variable h with register number 2 and the base address of a is stored in the register number 3 let us say. So, now this one is this particular C statement is going to be compiled into a mix code and then the index a is referring to the 8th word right start of the of the array a. So, 8th word is going to be required is going to be at the offset of 32 bytes because there are 4 bytes per word. So, that statement is going to be converted or compiled into this pair of statements of course, one is for loading something from the data memory because the array a is going to be stored in memory only the base address of the array the pointer to the array a is stored in the register in one of the registers specifically the register number 3.  So, look at the syntax it is saying that dollar 4 is specified as a target address that is a address of the index of the register in which the word data memory word has to be loaded into. So, why number 4 that seems to be some temporary location. So, you load the something from data memory which is at offset of 32 bytes from the base address stored in register number 3 that is 32 dollar 3 32 is the is going to be stored in the immediate field of the instruction dollar 3 refers to the base register that means that is number 3 is going to be stored in the SRC 1 field of the first bunch of 5 bits in the load instruction encoding. And this number 4 refers to some register which we are going to use it as a temporary location storage for the 8th word of array a which we have loaded into which we are read from the memory. Now, for the next instruction what we need to do is we just need to add to H this memory contents that we have read out H is going to be bound to register number 2 that we are assuming. So, we need to add the contents of register number 2 and register number 4 because that is where we have just in the previous instruction the data has been loaded into. So, the add instruction is specifying that in the destination register number 1 load I mean update the destination register that is number register number 1 with the addition with the result of the addition of register number 2 and register number 4. So, this pair of instructions together is equivalent to the C statement G equal to H plus 8. So, this is the simple illustration of how the immediate field is used the offsets are calculated by shifting by 2 and the base address is stored in one of the registers and the offsets are specified in the immediate field. And so, like you know this shows that such a simple small instruction set can also take care of your need of working with arrays which is the most elementary data structure, but powerful enough to mimic any kind of advanced data structure. So, in principle you can write any kind of program with the simple instruction set it is in the sense to ring complete. We do not need to go into that, but it will suffice not only for our explanation of fundamentals, but also it is a complete CPU by itself although tedious to program varies we will have to execute a lot of instructions of the simple kind to do something routine. So, this was the base instruction 32 is the offset and similarly we can look at couple of other examples, but I will leave it to you to study it on your own registers are used compared to the data memory because they are much faster than for access than memory typically in a single clock cycle you can access a register, but for accessing SRAM or DRAM we require longer time then yeah. So, we will not go into that again, but just a small point is if you want to operate on data that is stored in memory then first you have to load it into registers operate on it using an arithmetic or logic instruction and put it put the result back in a register and then store it into memory using a store instructions. So, load and store would be required other than the arithmetic instructions or logical instructions. So, if you want to operate directly on memory if you want to operate on memory locations data and memory locations then you have to use a complimentary pair of load and store also. So, more instructions need to be executed. So, it is it is quite like you know important that compiler make sure that much of the computations arithmetic happens on data like you know most of the data that is that you require repeatedly frequently is stored in is bound to registers rather than stored in some arbitrary locations in the memory. Arrays obviously, have to be stored in memory because arrays are typically large and you do not have large enough set of registers to store big arrays, but local variables they are to be like you know use frequently it makes better sense to use them in bound them bind them to registers and similarly the there is a role of immediate operand and so on. We have already discussed that the way the steps in instruction execution what are they like you know during a single clock cycle in which one instruction executes will be assuming that our CPU simple enough that in one single clock cycle and single instruction will completely execute. Next clock cycle the next instruction will execute which would have been fetched from by using the address in the program counter and so on so forth. So, in the beginning of the instruction execution program counter will supply its contents as an address to instruction memory. Now, there is a something called instruction memory and there is something called data memory. So, why this two things have to be separate will remark on that a bit later like you know. So, once the program counter supplies an address to the instruction memory do some sometime during the same clock cycle after a bit of delay the memory is going to supply the its content at that particular location and that would be the instruction which is to be now processed. So, this is so by this time we can say that we have fetched instruction. Next looking at the 32 bit instruction we identify depending on different types of formats of instruction we identify which of this parts of instruction refer to register indices source or destination. Look at the source indices supply them to register file and some mechanism there will like you know locate the appropriate read out the appropriate registers and bring them on the at the output of the register file. Now, depending on the instruction class we will use the ALU to calculate either the arithmetic result of what we have just read from the register file or we will treat the information that we have read from the register file and some part of the information from the instruction itself namely the immediate field and use it to calculate the memory address that is required for load or store we have seen that immediate field and the source index they together kind of specify the address of the memory location in the data memory. So, one part of the address which is the base address has to be read from the register file and the offset is to be is to be obtained from the instruction itself the 16 low 16 bits of the instruction which are left shifted by 2 bits of course with the sign extension like keeping the polarity of the offset the same. So, ALU would be used for arithmetic result or for calculating the address of memory location for load store or also as we have seen in the case of branch instruction branch equal to the target of the branch that location has to be that address has to be calculated again by this same ALU. Fortunately like one main ALU is going to be used in one clock cycle depending on whether the instruction is arithmetic or whether the instruction is load store or whether the instruction is branch for one of this purposes. So, we do not need three separate ALUs for this thing at in any given clock cycle only one of this kind of activity will be happening. Of course, we require a couple of other ALUs that will I am sorry I just made a like this is completely wrong what I said. In fact, we are going to begin with single cycle CPU and we will be requiring multiple ALUs just the way which is hinted at there is something called instruction memory and something called data memory two separate like blocks of memory this we will require multiple ALUs. And the reason is that in any given instruction we will even if it is an arithmetic say if it is an arithmetic kind of instruction we will require ALU to do arithmetic at the same time we will require the some other ALU to do calculation of the next like next instruction right PC plus 4. If it were a branch instruction then we will require one more ALU to add like you know in the same clock cycle we will require one more ALU to add to PC plus 4 the offset offset left shifted by 2. So, we will require multiple ALUs we will soon get a clearer picture of that after like of course, like you know after we have calculated the address in case of certain memory add like you know instructions like load and store we will actually access the data memory by supplying that address and either reading taking the data from the data memory for the load instruction or storing the data in some data into the data memory that is on behalf of the store instruction. And like in the meanwhile during the clock cycle one of the ALUs would have computed PC plus 4 that is incremented PC this would be a simple ALU which will essentially be adding a constant it can be optimized adder. And the result of that is going to be kept ready to be loaded at the end of the clock cycle into the program counter. So, PC is going to be updated with the target address or PC plus 4. PC plus 4 is a default and in case of branched address if the branch condition is successful then another ALU would have updated the PC plus 4 I mean would have added offset to PC plus 4 and that result would be ready to be loaded into PC ok. So, we will soon see what kind of components will require in the data path will require a program counter or register which will be updated at the end of every clock cycle either with PC plus 4 or with a target address or with destination address in case of unconditional jump will require memory definitely we require memory, but here we see that we require instruction memory as well as data memory separate blocks. We will see the reason for that moral is obvious I will just mention it in a minute or so. Then we require a collection of registers organized in an array of registers which we call in a standard terminology we call it reg file. Then an ALU will require more ALUs as we will see soon. We can mention some more things about individual components a bit later. This is how abstract but a simple picture of the micro architecture will look like ok. Note that this is only data path the controller will describe shortly a bit later like ok. Again you see the role of program counter instruction memory register file ALU data memory. In addition you see two more ALUs which are more specific one of them is a very specialized adder which is adding four the one on the top left portion of this slide and then that all evidently that computes PC plus four which is the default next program counter address. But in case the instruction is branch then there should be a facility of update upgrading I mean sort of updating this PC plus four by adding a part of the instruction the immediate field shifted left by two to that by another adder and that should be rooted back to PC ok. We will see this is just a picture I mean we are not yet fine looking at a data flow we will soon look at it over the next couple of slides. But you see the wiring here they has the PC can supply the contents of PC will be going to the to the specialized adder which is adding four ok. PC is going to be at the input of program counter we have either the contents of the specialized adder which is adding four or the next ALU which would be adding part of the immediate field offset ok. At the output of instruction memory we have a couple of wires a few wires going to the register file which are basically there are 32 bits 32 lines coming out of instruction memory because we are reading our instruction which is 32 bit long a few of the bits going to the register file specifically those three lines that you see are like the 32 bits of instruction are coming out over here. Evidently this is this the this three sets of wires are basically bunches of five wires it five bits the specifying the source the source indices source one and source two and a third like you know in optional cases like add register type indices another bunch of five bits ok which we have seen in certain instruction there is a role for it. This oval the green ovals are multiplexers drawn in this funny way this is some standard convention used in the book by Paterson Hennessy we will have to get used to it just to keep this diagram less cluttered and more abstract ok. So, we will come to that anyway. So, this this blue blocks are like you know this left shift by 2 because we know that we have to take the image some portion of this instruction the 16 bits namely the lowest 16 bits they have to be left shifted in certain situations when we have to use them as offset word offsets in case of memory address calculation for load store or in case of the branch target calculation in case of the instruction like branch equal to ok. Then the output of register file corresponding to the two source indices the two of the registers are read out and they typically are used as inputs to this ALU ok. So, this one is used as the first input and this one is typically used as second input, but there is a multiplexer here and that tells us that the second input to the ALU can come from where it can come from the left shifted version of part of the instruction which is the which is for the purpose of like you know shifting the immediate field by 2 bits and using it as a second operand to ALU this will be happening in case of as you can see load and store instructions ok. Similarly, this left shifter shifter will be used for calculation of the branch target address adding the offset shifted by the immediate field shifted by 2 to the to PC plus 4 that has already been computed by this particular ALU ok. And you see that this multiplexer will optionally let either the PC plus 4 or this branch target address calculated with the help of immediate offset ok. So, this multiplexer is going to be controlled this is going to be controlled by this situation in the instruction that whether the instruction is branch whether the branch condition has been found to be successful or not it will all depending on that this multiplexer will choose whether this one is to be set through or this one is to be sent through ok. Coming back to the ALU this is the multiplexer at the second input of the ALU there is I have not drawn the complete picture there are couple of other sources. In fact, this picture is a bit incomplete because it shows that the immediate field has to be left shifted by 2, but that is for the load and store instructions for address calculation, but for add immediate instruction the 16 bits of this instruction have to be directly sent over to the second port of ALU ok. They do not have they should not be shifted left by 2. So, I should show another alternate path to this particular another alternative possibility to reach the second input of ALU ok. So, this in this manner we can describe the wiring of the data path components. For example, ALU output is to be either rooted back as data input to the register file. So, that that data which is the result of the ALU computation say on behalf of add instruction or subtract instruction or or instruction is brought in here and it is going to be stored in a register specified by the by this 5 bits ok and so on so forth ok. So, anyway instead of showing you vaguely we can look at more specific pictures for different instructions. For example, here in this slide we have I have marked in thick red flow of data on behalf of some instruction and you should be able to guess for which kind of instruction this kind of flow of data occurs ok. So, see what is happening over here what is being depicted is that from program counter the address is going to the instruction memory ok. The program counter contents are also going to this adder the constant 4 is going to this adder and the result of this adder is that is the one which is going to be rooted by this multiplexer back to program counters. That means at the end of this clock cycle the program counter is going to be updated with PC plus 4. So, apparently in this particular scenario there is no role of this particular adder what it does is of no interest to this particular to program counter ok. Now, let us look at the other part program counter is going as an address to instruction memory the contents of instruction memory are coming out here and there 5 bits of them are fade over here 5 bits are fade here 5 bits are fade over here. There is an interesting multiplexer here we will talk about it a bit later and what we see is that corresponding to this 2 bits this pair of 5 bits the register file realizes which pair of in register start to be read out on this 32 lines and on this 32 lines. So, this 2 pair of 32 lines this pair of 32 lines act as source operands to this ALU. ALU will work on the contents of registers which have been read out here on this lines the result of the ALU is going to be sent back through this multiplexer back to the register file. Again you see that there is no role of anything coming out of data memory it is not going to be rooted by this multiplexer to some place. So, what do you guess I mean this is some kind of data flow that is happening on the data some data processing that is happening in the ALU a flow of data through this multiplexers in approach from appropriate sources many of this data lines are inactive in the sense that they do not seem to matter. So, what do you guess I mean what must be what could be the instruction which is causing this data movement and data processing they could be multiple options. I mean in fact clearly it looks like it does definitely it is not a branch instruction because there otherwise would have been a role of this. It is a register type instruction because you see that all this three sets of 5 bits are of use. So, this 5 bits this pair of 5 bits are indicating the pair of source registers the contents are being available at this pair of 32 bit outputs and the result is coming back into the register file. So, it is a R type instruction where the three operands I mean the pair of source operands and the result are all like specified with respect to the register file. The destination is in the register file the sources are in the register file. So, it is the R type instruction and it could be add or subtract or or or like you know and depending on how the ALU is configured. There is some control signals to the ALU which will set the ALU in a addition mode or subtraction mode or logical operation mode. So, it could be an add instruction or a subtraction instruction or logical or logical and or set less than for example. So, next we can look at this example there is a bit of slightly different data flow. So, again you can guess you see that may not be complete in this picture, but here this red thick red line carried over to this. So, this means the PC plus 4 is being computed and is being rooted back to and kept ready at the input of program counter.  So, at the end of the clock cycle program counter will be updated and in the in the beginning of the next clock cycle we will be processing I mean we will be effectively using this new address as the address to the instruction memory next instruction will be fetched out and it will be processed. So, this is what is happening over here again since there is no role of this this cannot be a branch instruction, but you see that the instruction that has been read out fetched 5 bits of this instruction are going over here and although I not shown it too clearly the next 5 bits are are going over here. So, this is the destination this you can guess I mean I deliberately not shown this labels because this is I am treating it as an exercise for you to do a lot of guess work and get more familiar with the data path of this and it is basically quite simple, quite easy to work out from scratch and assimilate the understanding of that. So, there is a 5 bit index for specifying one of the one of the source operands there is a the remaining 5 bit next 5 bit is going to be used as destination address. Now, look at the ALU, ALU receives the ALU processes as one of the source operands the result from the register file which is basically the first source operand specified by this the index of index specified by this particular 5 bits. The second set of 32 bits from the register file is of no interest what the other input that ALU is using is coming through this multiplexer this multiplexer is allowing this input which is basically which is clearly the 16 low 16 bits of these the instruction that has been read out. So, it is an immediate field a shifted left by 2 bits right it is passing through this left shift combinational block it could be a barrel shifter the result of the ALU is clearly in this case it must be the address right address is being sent out to the data memory and that the data memory is access at that address and that contents of data memory are rooted by this multiplexer unlike in the previous case this multiplexer is taking the contents from data memory whereas, in the previous case for the add or subtract instruction this multiplexer was taking the result of the ALU and it was being sent to this input port of data input port of the register file. So, this is the 32 bit data that is going to be latched into a register specified by this target information. Over here this multiplexer is the one which is going to take care and not let this 32 bit data which is irrelevant and instead let this immediate appropriately shifted immediate field into the second port and compute a load the address memory address compute a memory address and so on so forth. So, this must be since it is reading the data memory like it must be a load instruction if it were writing into the data memory it would be a store instruction. So, this data flow must be for this configuration of data path must be for the load instruction load word instruction. Now, what about this one as you can guess there is a role of data memory something is being written to data something is being provided here the address is being provided and here the data is being provided where is the data coming from yeah the data is coming from this second output of this register file which basically is the content of register specified by this 5 bits the second set of 5 bits over here. There is no role of destination address over here because register file is not being written into whereas, a 2 like you know 2 registers are being read out from the register file first of them is being used as base address that base address is being added to the word offset and that becomes the address information for data memory and the data to be stored into the data memory is coming from the second register it is specified by this sets set of 5 bits. So, again no role of this branch related area this is a store instructions data path to now here. So, this way like you know one can study that this one can analyze that this particular data path is more or less adequate of course, there is just one or two minor things are missed out here that optional like for example, I mentioned that if it where we were to show add in the simulation or the how the data flows for add immediate instruction then we would require the 16 bits coming from 16 of the 32 bits coming from the instruction memory to be routed without shifting into the second port of area. So, this multiplexer will have to be big enough to be able to either send this 32 bits or this 16 bits in with sign extension I did not remark on that or like the immediate field without shifting or yeah this three possibilities have to be supported by this particular multiplexer. So, it has to be at least 3 to 1 multiplexer this has to be 2 to 1 multiplexer this is another 2 to 1 multiplexer 2 input 1 output multiplexer and so on so forth ok. As an exercise you can like you know sketch out the trace out the configuration of data path or the data movement for the branch instruction branch equal to it is quite simple. So, with the with this I will stop just last comment that we need to like and understanding the performance issues we notice that longest delay is the one which we know that is the one that determines the clock period. So, the longest delay is along critical path the critical path is the one which causes the longest delay of combinational logic and here intuitively is clear that load instruction is the one which has the longest like you know delay because that is where the lot of data processing and data movement is happening in particular for the load instruction memory is being read out the contents of parts of the instruction that has been read out are going to the register file register file warms up it supplies the like you know supplies one this is a one operand to ALU the other operand comes from the instruction itself ALU computes the address of the memory location from which we have to read the data. So, that addresses to be sent to data memory data memory has to kind of take its own time generate the read out the data for you and that data has to be routed to the register file. So, there are some 5 sub stages in a load instruction comp. So, this seems to be the longest instruction even compared to longer compared to store and other instruction. So, evidently the critical path is going to be decided by the way data moves for load instruction and then you see realize that for many other instructions like you know things are much simpler for branch equal to there is much quicker completion of the work of this processing of that particular instruction. So, the instruction the clock cycle which is long enough for the longest instruction must be west might be west full might be a bit of west for the instructions which would have prepared a result much earlier like you know branch target address would have been computed much earlier by the way there is a role of ALU other ALU in the branch target instruction that you can see when you do the exercise yourself. So, there is a performance issue here the clocks a period is bad enough long enough for accommodating the longest instruction. It is not feasible to have varying period for different instructions sorry for the typo here spelling mistake to vary ok not feasible to vary period for different instruction that is fine, but we can improve this performance by a multi cycle execution or pipe lining. So, in the next couple of lectures we will talk about multi cycle a version of the CPU which is where we see the role of a finite state machine and that is a that is what we wanted to discuss mainly. This was just a background setting up a background of CPU architecture micro architecture that it is there is a data path and similar data path will be used with a bit of changes and it would be adapted to multi cycle execution with the help of a finite state finite state machine which will act as a controller of the data path. Here if you take a closer look the control of the data path means like you know control of the multiplexes control of the ALU which is all combinational in a given cycle knowing the instruction we know completely how the multiplexes have to be like you know controlled how the ALU has to be controlled and how the memory has to be controlled. So, there is there is no need of any statement any kind of state information inside a controller itself controller is purely combinational ok. I will stop here.


Good morning internet family. I'm just opening my eyes here. She's got my jacket on my tube Figure what's going on? Oh, that's so nice bright.  I don't have the weasel with me. He's at home I had to leave him there because last time I brought him to the customer I just delivered to yesterday.  I on the other hand am here At this petrol pass I'm gonna go in there and hopefully they have coffee if they don't shame on them and then I'm gonna go about two miles that way and Pick up a load of wood and take that wood home The wood is actually going to Iowa I'd like to go through with it, but I just don't have the time this truck needs some maintenance again Like I was telling you yesterday the oil feed line where you pour the oil into the engine has a crack in it So that needs to be replaced. Also. I believe my wheel Alignment or my steering wheel alignment needs to be aligned And I have a noise coming out of my Front left steer. Well my my left steer my driver's side steer. I guess I only have front steers I don't have rear steers. They haven't developed rear steering trucks yet So my driver's side steer It's got like a little bit of a noise coming out of it And when I delivered a load into BC about a week ago or two weeks ago I Had to climb a bit of a curb to get into their yard because it was a new yard And they didn't have a driveway built yet And it was just you had to go up the curb to get into their yard It was a little curb and I hit it very slowly But when I went up I hit with my driver's side first and I was turning and I heard a click And I checked it all out. It looked fine, but I think it might have damaged Something in there, so I want them to take a look at it just to be safe I'd rather be safe than sorry, so that needs to get done as well and Then I'll probably be leaving Tuesday or Wednesday Like I've been saying past days I sort of want to have Tuesday just to sit at home and do nothing But I might use Monday for that because Monday the truck will just be the shop I'll just go sit at home then. I also have to shovel all the snow off my roof because we still have that roof leak we're dealing with and It's caused by ice dams on the roof the ice going up underneath the shingles when it freezes and then melting and coming Down through the nail holes, so I have to make sure I get all the snow off my roof before it melts again And does that again Lots of stuff to do but for now. Let's get our coffee and let's get our load. Let's strap it down Let's go home Well pretty much here already. I didn't even have time to drink my coffee yet But I got my coffee anyway. I knew this would happen, but I I Kind of also know that there's probably gonna be a little bit of a lineup Because I think they opened up half an hour ago. Oh Somebody hit the ditch here. Oh Too fast buddy. It's winter time Take her easy it. What kind of license plate is that? I don't recognize the license plate on that vehicle It looked like a Mexican license plate. I am told to follow this kind gentleman. He's a funny guy He's always working here when I come here. I Always like it when people are in a good mood puts me in a good mood And also the fact that I didn't have to wait for any other trucks I'm first in line.  I don't know where it all comes from, but somewhere up north. I'm guessing No idea what I'm even picking up all I had was a number attached to it and he knows what it is so It's going to the States like I said, so it's can't be too much I can't haul too much weight even though I have a triax on my truck from the trailer right now I can only haul the same weight that a tandem would pull And they don't have a scale in this yard here either so that's I hate it when Shippers that load heavy freight when they don't have a scale on their yard bugs me, but Just got to look at our pressure air pressure gauges, I guess Just not as accurate Where are we going there bud? Are you taking me? Right here right in the middle right in the middle right here What's he gonna say he's getting out of there now? Walk around here usually points me right where he wants me. Oh, yeah Ripping down the ditch Okay, we'll trail isn't it? That's a snow pass trail That truck is just giving her or maybe that's a an access road for the railway. I have no idea Oh, it's a sketch one There's another guy pick up ripping down the ditch Another it's another railway worker. So that must be some kind of railway access road But it the funny thing is there's a railway there But there's a ditch between this road that they're on and the railway So what's the point of that? Why don't they just drive on the road? What in the world? What are they doing? I'm pretty sure that's a snow pass trail That's it's designed for snowmobiles and they're wrecking it by driving their vehicles on it Huh, what do I know three more people driving down the ditch I don't know that road leads along the tracks just off to the right out there. You sort of see it go straight out there Weird it's like a winter road for railway workers We're here in Davidson Saskatchewan between Saskatoon and Regina It's a nice heavy haul right there.  I guess he's shutting down for the night Dollying down. Oh, no, he's dollying up. He's he's giving or he's going on from here. I guess Okay. Well here. I'm just at the flying jade So I'm just gonna put some go-go juice in my tanks and continue on down the road. It's time to go home Oh, I don't know how how I know my jacket's a little dirty again. It's time to go home Do some laundry Means I've been working hard and it's time to go and have a break here sticking up and everything So I was just talking to Britt. She got some good news We got the go-ahead from the the dog doc the dog doc the vet and The vet cleared them to come on the truck with me or cleared Frankie Frankie has made a I guess a full recovery at this point The opinion of the vet and we trust the vet there The vet the dog doc the dog doctor So the next trip I'm still gonna be going out on my own I'll have diesel with me on my next trip though because I really miss him so emptying here But everything is so dog hair free and clean like my blanket is still clean I don't even have to wash that when I go home.  I'm gonna have diesel with me And then the trip after that In March second week of March third weekend into March Britt's going to start coming with me on Every second trip or so or every trip for a while. I mean we'll see you know like any married couple We'll see how long it takes for us to get sick of each other and then she'll stay home for a bit No Go away and get my give her her space get my own space over there for a trip or two And then I'll come back and I should come with me again So it is getting a little bit chilly at night again But look I've said a few times already we're through the through the thick of winter the coldest part of winter We're on the way towards spring This is my load Just simple lumber. I don't actually need the tri-axis so I don't know if they're gonna transfer it onto a different tandem trailer Once I get to the yard, but this is going to Iowa So it's not even that heavy But who knows maybe they're gonna send this trailer back to Ontario for another load of that steel Won't be me though. Got my tarps back here Yeah, it was a good run. I had a lot of fun on this trip. I like pulling oversized loads Look at all that all that vapor and exhaust coming out of that refinery It only does that when it's really cold outside. It's not too cold right now. It's about minus 18 But it's cold enough for that So we're just going around Regina here right now and I got four and a half hours remaining on my clock yet Not too sure where we're gonna go to I'm sort of getting tired already But the next stop we have or the next truck stop is flying Jay in Balcony Baloney really want to stop there yet I want to keep going. So maybe we'll go to Musimum Maybe whitewood Maybe Grinfell Either way, we'll probably be stopping in a small town South eastern part of problems of Saskatchewan I don't think I'm gonna make it all the way to Brandon in Manitoba, but you never know I have the hours to get there, but why push myself so hard tonight when I can't get home tonight Anyways, I got to sleep somewhere and get home tomorrow It doesn't matter where I stopped at this point. It won't get me home any sooner So I guess I'll just go until I don't feel like going anymore Well, everybody It's morning time But I have to say good night to you Got here last night. Now I went straight to bed. I slept good Well, that's sort of a lie. I'm kind of sore The bed here on these cushions. It's a little thin I know I had a mattress in here at one point, but I want to be able to use the table So I have to have these cushions on here so I can fold up into a table, right? You've seen it But I need to find some kind of mattress topper That'll make it softer It's the morning time anyways, and I just wanted to wrap up the vlog and say thanks for watching We made it to whitewood Saskatchewan A little co-op here There's a lot of fun Looks like everyone who is here last night is already gone. I thought I was getting going pretty early apparently I'm getting going late. So I better say goodbye. You guys start tomorrow's vlog so we can get going ourselves We will be home in tomorrow's vlog. I want to stop by the gym on the way home in Steinback I left my water bottle there. It's a Tupperware one my mother-in-law Britt stepmom Creates or not creates Tupperware sells Tupperware And we got these jugs from her and they're very good, you know, they have lifetime warranty and stuff and I left it at the gym. It's very expensive, but good thing. I called them and they're they're saving it there for me. So I Won't make my wife upset by losing a Tupperware water bottle You guys like Tupperware Maybe I'll leave the link to her Tupperware site down below this video and if you guys Or any of you that you know are into Tupperware, they are actually very the best products out there I'll admit to that and they have a lifetime warranty and if any of you are interested in that I'll leave the link down below in the description as well. Now her name is Cynthia and It's Facebook page, but it would have to be within The region of like around Winnipeg though if you guys are local if you guys are Around the world or further like in the States, you'd have to find your local your local Tupperware dealer Guys back in there. I'm tired. I'm just waking up. That's why I can't really form sentences again.  Thanks for watching


But you just want me to sit here, right? Okay Right. Um, do I just talk into it into the microphone? Like this. Yeah. All right. Hi My name's Tom and I'm an Autistic. I've come to this briefing today to tell you all and That is all see you later I've tried I've tried some other skits, but that that seems to be the freshest one out there


In science and in particular physics and astronomy, you know, there are much fewer women than there are men, and I think it's a little tough for females coming into the field. It's a little intimidating, but you know, gender does not matter. Women and girls are just as good at math, and you know, I think there's a perception out there at sort of the middle school age that girls just aren't as good at math and science, and that's just not true. They can be if they're interested.  Don't cut it off, because it opens a lot of opportunities. Those particular areas, if you can do well in those things, you can do well in other things. I mean, it kind of applies to other areas as well.  Don't be afraid to ask questions, and that is advice for anybody. Gender doesn't matter, but I think it's easier for women to kind of think, okay, well I don't want to appear like I can't keep up or that I'm not as good, and so they might tend to be a little bit more quiet and not, you know, but my advice is just don't be afraid to ask questions and to ask for help, and if you can find a good mentor, that helps a lot. And it may not be the first mentor that you have. You know, I know some people, men and women who have had, you know, not the best mentor, and that has kind of made them distasteful of the field. So if you're not working well with somebody that is mentoring you, that's okay. Find another mentor. Try different things. Don't be afraid to try things. Don't be afraid to take opportunities. I think that was one thing that really allowed me to get where I am today is, I took advantage of opportunities even if they were scary. I was, you know, moving out of state for an opportunity. You know, it's worth it. It's worth, once you get over the fear, it's worth just trying new things and not being afraid to take chances.


Mr. Brain freeze I teach all my condolences to anyone Turkish or see indeed indeed Very much very much and it's not Just those who were Turkish and Syrian that either were people from other nationalities there as well, right? But people in Turkey and Syria indeed and 7.5 at 7.8 initial hit. I'm a geophysicist It's a weird thing to say about earthquakes Earthquakes and tornadoes and natural disasters not disasters, but natural events Geologic events Intrigue me. That's one of the reasons I wanted to geophysics, right and earthquakes, especially they're the the energy being released on earthquakes is on F and believable right like the energy being released in an earthquake is phenomenal All right, and it's a Richter scale, right? It's a logarithmic It's powers of 10 right how much more powerful as a two compared to a one ten times How much more powerful is a three compared to one a hundred times how much more powerful as a four compared to a one a Thousand times right now just imagine San Francisco back in whatever time got hit with a six point five or whatever it was pretty devastating for This was seven point eight over ten times more powerful, right huge huge and By the way, just regarding the earthquake was I've been following someone in news it got hit from one understand I got hit with a seven point eight, right? They had a follow-up of a seven point five, right? And you know some people are going down a rabbit hole Unnecessarily to a certain degree while you don't want to go down there, but everyone's going oh There's hundreds of earthquakes happening now, you know There's been a five or four or four and a half six and a half blah blah blah, but that's what happens when you have a large earthquakes there are hundreds of Earthquakes that happen before after it right and if you With earthquakes, I remember studying earthquake predictions and stuff If you're able to do things in real time and process the data and have it all Usually before a major right, there's a There's a peak. There's a build-up, right? There's pressures being released. There's a lot of things that happen So the hundreds of earthquakes after the seven point eight and seven point five are normal Those are normal, right? The reason I'm using the word normal is because As a geophysicist I can honestly tell you there's no doubt in my mind. There are earthquake machines out They're just like there's We can we can manipulate the weather Right, so they're interesting rabbit holes. You can go down the whole thing, right? Alligat, I'm in Birmingham, UK, UK Huckleberry Uh, hey chicho Benawa I love to see it. It takes some job orders indeed Bon matin noah Plotonic blurs. Hello. Hello Welcome over and we can get a couple of pints of Guinness in the or Kilkenny I have to know this window shopping. Uh-huh. It was dark, man I have to know it was dark for the first five minutes. It was like I was indulging of course and then after five minutes. I was like, oh man, this is really dark A coffee shopping. I like the coffee shopping aspect of it Like love the coffee shopping aspect of it It's uh lines. I heard turkey shifted three meters. That's a huge distance for a whole nation to show. It's huge Seven point is gigantic From what I remember, uh An earthquake of magnitude 11 or 12 will will crack the earth Right? That's that's how serious we're talking about Logarithmic, right? Huckleberry. I think natural disasters seem like they're getting more common I'm not sure there's a conspiracy behind it or anything like that But it's definitely good concerning a volcanic activity is kicking up for a more established solar flares are kicking up Or could we could be going on to a Ice age I haven't followed as indefinitely. I used to I used to do Joe Chico Isn't a devastating earthquake happening in Los Angeles just a matter of time before it sits on a fall Oh, for sure. It's a matter of time. The question is we're talking geologic timescale, right?  So where I am right now, which is west coast of Canada up here This is on the same fault line as a san angeles fault line. Oh, sorry. I'm not done. That's mexico the san angeles fault line going through california going through Los angeles san francisco San Angeles kicks up here to where I am But the fault line or a branch of it. Anyway, there's lots of fault lines here, right? The fault lines in west coast of california are Closer they're shallow, right? So the earthquakes that happen there. They're closer to the to Population centers because it's more densely populated as well as closer to the earth surface, right? The fault line that goes through off the coast of vancouver island west coast of canada. That's a deeper fault line, right? and it's a little bit off-coast so That earthquake this earthquake here that would be happening at some point is not going to be as devastating As one that would happen in southern california if it was the same magnitude, right? Because it's deeper where I am Right and that matters as well Very cool stuff very cool stuff Cheryl, how are you doing salutations salutations on charter days a chicho been a long time so i caught a stream hope all is well indeed indeed Plutonic for turkey is the possible place for the biblic great flood possibly nozark is on Nozark is on mount ararat, right? Supposedly Okay, that's where the The ship was found Of what do you call it fossilized? I believe I think Maybe not fossilized, but petrified maybe Mr. Ropetop, how are you doing checking in from the road love maps always good to know where you are and where you're going in the lions Is it 12 magnet earthquake probable? In this current time no no no the highest we've had I think was a 9.5 Five maybe it was alaska It was alaska And it happened off the coast here and it shifted The land i'm going by memory gang that I studied like 30 years ago, right? But what I remember it lifted parts of alaska up six meters or 15 feet or 15 meters something like that so six meters or 15 meters or 15, you know Metric versus imperial right so it lifted it up huge chunks of alaska created a gigantic tidal wave That went down here and went Towards japan and stuff That was huge Right, so just imagine if you can do the mathematics here. Let's do the mathematics The one in turkey the one in turkey was 7.8, right So 7.8, right 7.8 earthquake in turkey, okay The aftershock or the next big one was 7.5, right? And there's like hundreds Of earthquakes happening below here that are anywhere between six lower, right down to 3.5 3 and lower as well, right? Okay, now if you want to know what the How much more powerful one earthquake is relative to another earthquake you do this, right? So forget this part, right because we don't care about the little aftershocks They're still going to knock stuff down, right? They're going to knock down buildings because a lot of buildings that didn't go down initially with the 7.8 and 7.5 They're cracked, right? So they're going to go down with these guys six will take down buildings six and a half They'll take down building even five and a half when building structures have been Compromised they'll take them down, right, especially in certain parts of the world, right? The earthquake Earthquake proof buildings are not earthquake proof, right? But if you want to know the The difference, right the how much more powerful a 7.8 is relative to 7.5 You put it to the base 10 and you do a division, right? So 7 Sorry 10 To the power of 7.8 divided by 10 to the power of 7.5 So here I'll punch this in from my end to you guys do it from your end to I'm a little slow on my computer calculator. So here 10 to the power of 7 point 8 Okay, equals the link. It's huge divided by 10 to the power of 7.5 7 point 5 Doink Oh, because it's okay. Hold on. I gotta do it like this. So basically Don't do it the way I did it. I'm trying to think of a what do you call it do meant with As if it was a grabbing calculator So you would do this when you're doing division of powers is 10 to the power of 7 I don't want to go into the rules of this, but you subtract these, right? So you go 10.10 to the power 7.8 minus 7.5 Which is equal to 10 to the power of 0.3 So all you got to punch in is 10 to the power of 0.3 to find out how much more powerful it is, right? So 10 to the power of 0.3 Not in my physics teaching Mindset right laying the stuff out to the power of 0.3 Okay, so it ends up being twice as more powerful, right? So 7.8. So this ends up being basically 1.99 What was it 9 1.99 something something 8 something? What was it? 5 9.99 9.99 5 you rounded up to 2 that's more places even it's 2.0, right? So 7.8 you know, let's bring a fresher on so 10 to the power of 7.8 divided by 10 to the power of 7.5 Is equal to 10 to the power of 0.3 and this is equal to 2 so two times More powerful was the next earthquake was the first the first earthquake was twice as powerful As the next one that hit in a couple hours, right or whatever number of time it was within the day or something, right? Now in alaska I believe I believe we had 10 to the power of 9.6 9.4. I think let's let's let's be on the safe side or average it out 9.5 happened alaska Okay, might have been a 9.2. Let's go 9.2. Let's go 9.2 So in alaska we had earthquake of 10 to the power of 9.2 Okay, extremely powerful divided by earthquake in turkey 10 to the power of 7.7 0.8 So this is going to be oops. That's supposed to be a 2 Okay, so this is going to be 10 to the power of 9.2 minus 7.8 Okay, so what is that subtraction is 92 92 minus 7.8 8 times 12 4 7 1 1.4 10 to the power of 1. Whoops 1.4 Okay, punch time in your calculator. See what you get apologies for not reading the chat I get distracted the numbers easy It's like look chicho numbers all the way what? To the power of 1.4 1.4 right That's 25 times more powerful right So one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded happened earlier in early 19th century early 1900s, right was In alaska up here and that was 25 times more powerful than the earthquake that just happened and turkey in syria Right 25 times more powerful Right now the death toll in turkey Last I heard was around 6000 that's going to kick up to Who knows like really we don't know We can do it. We can do an estimation right or a guesstimation Most likely the death toll is going to kick up into 20 30,000 right that's what the odds are just 30,000 people missing I don't know like how fast people can get to them and stuff like this But it's going to be well over 20,000. I'm pretty sure right Just imagine what the death toll would be If an earthquake hit that was 25,000 25 times more powerful than what just hit there Right Joe. So 5400 uh death toll right now. Okay. Okay Okay, thanks Joe Oh, very interesting has there been earthquake? Yeah, there was an earthquake in turkey in syria Mr. Brain freeze. I think They measured this earthquake even in japan with magnitude point 1.2. Wow. Wow. Wow. Wow.  Okay Joe another source says 6200. Yeah, that might have been one that I heard this morning But I'll tell you a story about earth scientists geophysicists and stuff like this Earthquake prediction is a huge thing, right? Like really it's a huge thing people want to know how to predict earthquakes because you're going to predict earthquakes You can save a lot of lives, right Um And it means you understand a lot more about the earth I had a teacher in grade 12 geology teacher and an earth science teacher in grade 11 geology student grade 12. He heard there was a good prediction Very Vancouver, right? There was a prediction that there was going to be an earthquake in japan At a certain period. I can't remember when it was. It was the 70s maybe or the 80s. He he heard about this prediction And he flew to japan He flew to japan Because he heard there was going to be an earthquake and he wanted to be in a huge earthquake, right? He never been in a huge earthquake. He was aching for it, right? He stayed there. I believe two weeks. He told the story to us, right? A week or two weeks and the earthquake didn't happen, right? So he got on the plane and On his way to Vancouver the earthquake hit right And he kicked himself for getting on the plane and flying back But there's there isn't anything you could do. I can't remember when this was and it was an earthquake If I were going by memory six something that it hit, right? Oh god, I thought the chilly earthquake is still the most powerful earthquake in 1960. Fortunately, a low death toll Yeah, yeah, I don't know. I know the alaska one was one of the biggest ones I don't think was the biggest one, but one of the reasons the alaska one didn't have that huge of a death toll was because in early 1900s There weren't that many people live in alaska even right now. There isn't that many people live in alaska So earthquake death toll and natural disaster death toll really depends on population density, right? Huge huge huge Line slightly off topic, but for the scale of the disaster It's barely being covered in the news at least in ireland. Anyway, ireland is really good with the news uh geopolitically turkey isn't on Great terms with eu nato. I wonder if mainstream media isn't showing it as much as a way of Shining them maybe maybe Or was this Part of the turkey will regret not allowing uh Finland and Sweden to join nato right If you want to go down the rabbit hole What is the reason we don't get earthquakes up in northern europe? What is the difference between here and there uh tectonic activity tectonic plates like just imagine all this landmass all of this Used to be all together in one lump Called panjaya. I believe that's the word and to spill it off to gondola land or something else. I can't remember and basically all of The plates like right here. This is the mid-atlantic ridge, right? Goes through right mid-atlantic ridge What this is is two plates that used to be together, right? So these guys used to be here Okay, and then a crack formed because of mantle So basically take this here. Let's assume this So let's assume We're here, right? So Here's usa or north america. Let's say america, right? I'm gonna get a new sheet Writing like this is difficult america, okay, and here's africa Right Right, so here's america. Here's africa right now. They're like this, right? In the past they were like this And what's happened is at the mid-atlantic ridge if you consider this the crust Okay, and then in the bottom here There's that's the crust. Here's the mantle Mantle Mantle and we're drawn a line here. So this is in the past, right? This is not included here, right mantle. There's Convection currents Going like this and the mantle is malleable, right? So when these guys were together This convection current was doing this And splitting The plates apart, right? So this is Where that was happening So these guys slowly move away from each other and there's lots of different plates That are all over the place like every all of these ridges everything you see like Everything together, right? Now what happens here's a here's the reason why we get earthquake activity and There's different types of earthquake activity. You can get plates doing this So So just imagine these lines being plate. So top view top view top view Here's one type of earthquake you can have One plate going like this and another one going like this right So these two plates would do this If you live in an area where the plates are moving across from each other They go like this now the plates aren't lubed Right, so they're not smoothing gently Across each other, right? It's rough So the plates usually they're being pushed. Well, they could be being pushed together, right? They're rough, right? So you push you push you push And then it does this that is your earthquake, right the energy released there is unbelievable, right? Let me Do this another type of earthquake tectonic activity you can have is The ocean crust Right is heavier than continental crust Right, so what I drew here? Okay Consider this part the ocean crust And this is the continental crust, right? So continental crust is lighter than the oceanic crust rocks So what happens if you're floating something on top of something lighter when they meet? Right because another type of activity you can have is Plates again top view coming towards each other, right? So if one plate the ocean is heavier Then the continental, right? One thing that happens is when they meet so those are top view here side view Side view Side view for this one would be like this. Here's the continental plate Here's the oceanic or oceanic crust It sinks Right these are the trenches Deepest parts of the ocean really, right? So what we have Is this plate coming this way this plate? It's not plate that this plate coming this way But this this part of the crust is oceanic. This is continental. So what what it does it does this, right? So Let me do this so it's going all right. Well, okay, so this so this is the ocean coming down It goes down Right, and it's the same type of effect. We're over here. Sorry my head. I gotta balance it It's the same type of fact. It's not smooth sailing. Just It's not blue again. It does this Oh That is an earthquake, right? Devastating devastating another type of Plate activity you can have is two plates of the same density Here, right India Himalayan Him a Mount Everest and stuff like this they meet And if they're the same density then they go up Mountains Right mountains you can get mountains as well when the oceanic is going down and crunches up the Continental and the contents of me. So super cool stuff goes on Super cool stuff goes on and We live on this planet on this amazing planet Right amazing planet world conflict world conflict The gang I missed a lot of chat apologies. I don't know if I'm going to go up check it out. Let me check it out She know name of the guy who flew to Japan and missed the earthquake. I can't give you the name I can't give you the name I can't out the guy with tonic words chitra in your Estimation, thank you very much for the follow mid mid 3f Uh sounds Elvin In your estimation, how much do we humans know about the earth? Build up and the possible different layers beneath us and the mechanics of plate tectonics We know a fair bit. We know a fair bit the only thing I would I wish I came across regarding the earth um, because this wasn't taught to me when I was studying Uh at university doing geophysics and geology or sciences and all this jazz, right? We were taught that Petrocarbons, right oil Okay gas was a byproduct of organic matter, right? It was years later Early 2000s and I left geophysics, right that I came across the I forget what the theory is called Russian theory Russian scientists came up with it that they say Oil is actually a byproduct of the mantle, right? It's mantle Coming up and It's renewable because it will Always be there way more than what we need and the whole theory of Oil being a byproduct of organic Life, I guess if you want to call it is bunk it's really Existent in the mantle and it's deep and it purples its way up. I'm not so sure if I believe it I would have to look into it But I'm not as interested in that topic with other topics. You only have so much time, right in our lives Joe Chicho, I've just looked at a map of the tectonic plates And you can see that the earthquake happened right on the Eurasian and Arabian plate border. So it happened here, I believe, right? So Eurasian plate here and Arabic plate here. Is that what it is Arabian plate there? Yeah Oh, my pleasure my pleasure Medriath Same, thank you for explaining. Hello. Hello Kafmetafika, what is what if the both plates are moving away from each other? Volcano, this is this is two plates moving away from each other And we get there is volcanic activity all along here, right mid-atlantic ridge, right? This is basically new earth being created, right and here Did we say we're going to map? Conflicts, so we're talking geology Awesome Awesome, so check this out. Check this out Map view, side view. Here's map top view. Oh, sorry top view top view view and side view or Profiles, let's call it side view side View, okay Here's mid-atlantic ridge. We're going to draw the mid-atlantic ridge mid-atlantic ridge is How we're going to draw this America over here way over here, Africa way over there, right? So let's put those on Africa America And I say America because it's not just the US. It's South America, North America, Central America, right? So Africa Sorry, you can't read that America plate. Here's the Convection currents of the mantle and the crust is very thin, right? Very very thin, right? Like if you consider the earth, right? The earth crust is smoother than an apple crust, okay? So all these mountains, Everest and stuff you see if you really Compare it, do a comparison shrink it down to a size of an apple It's smoother than your typical apple that you pick up from the store, right? Just keep that in mind. That's how thin the crust is, right? So convection currents coming up here and what happens? There's a split here, right? It's like this, right? So magma comes up and continues to push these things away from each other. So new earth is being created here, right? New earth is coming up Volcanic activity, ground being created and doing a split, right? From the top, if you, let's say here's the ridge, right? Here's the ridge. Let's say this is the volcanic activity, new crust is being formed. What's one of the things? What's one of the evidences that we have about new crust being formed is linked up with us knowing, realizing that the magnetic field of the earth flips, right? From the north to the south, right? And magnetic field of the earth flipping is a huge, huge, huge, gigantic, enormous, right? Because magnetic field of the earth protects us from solar radiation, right? From space, right? It keeps everything in. There's a shield, right? Magnetic shield, right? Or borealis and stuff like this, right? So the way we know this is this, when magma comes up, right? And when it's underground, it's called magma and when it comes up, top's called lava, right? And it's liquid and it has ions in it, right? Charges, charged minerals, right? Something that is charged when it's put under a magnetic field, it lines up according to the magnetic field, right? So when the earth magnetic field, let's say in north is pointing up, when north is pointing up, the new magma, the minerals, if you look at them, they line up this way, the north that way and south this way. We know that the earth magnetic field flips is because these are called striations. If you go over a certain amount of distance, right? And look at, continue looking at the minerals, all of a sudden, the minerals in a certain strip along the first oceanic crust line up in the other direction. They're saying north is down, what? North is down, what the F is going on? And then you keep on going, north is up and then north is down and then north is up, right? And then north is down, whoop, whoop, whoop, goes like this. So all along here, we see the minerals in the crust of the ocean pointing in different directions, right? Okay, this is crazy cool. And I learned about this. I learned, you know, we learned about this in school and stuff like this, but here's a story that the same teacher that I had, a fool from Vancouver to Japan to be in an earthquake, here's what he told us. He was studying at university in the 1960s. He said he was sitting in his class, right? He was sitting in his class at university. And the professor came in and said, okay, everyone's got their textbooks, he goes, yeah, everyone pulled out there. He goes, pull out your textbook. He goes, okay, pull out the textbook. This is the 1960s, right? And he goes, okay, go, go to chapter whatever, five, and all the way to chapter seven, chapter five to chapter seven. And he goes, tear them out. They're like, what? He goes, tear that those pages out, tear them out. And I was like, what? What do you mean? Why tear them out? This is what happened in the 1960s, right? So when certain so-called scientists, certain people, this is by the way, vitamins thing in there, certain people come and say, Rodriguez won. Thank you very much for the follow-up. When certain people, low IQ people, some of them scientists come out and say the science is settled, the science is never settled, never settled, right? So this professor came in in the 1960s to my teacher in the 1980s, right? 20 years later, he was teaching this stuff, came in and said, tear those pages out. And this is the reason, right? Because during World War II, okay, I believe it was American submarines, when they were transversing the Atlantic, when they were going across the Atlantic, I'm pretty sure other countries did this as well, they used to carry sort of metal detectors, magnetometers, right, in the submarines, right? And when they were trans, when they were going across the ocean floor, a little bit above it, they were measuring magnetism, because they were looking for things, right, maybe other submarines, bad ones or good ones or allies or whatever. So all of a sudden, they were mapping out the Atlantic going back and forward, right? Because the war is here, and submarines are here. So Americans were doing this a lot, right, a lot of submarines, they were creating all this data, right? And what happens back then anyway, there was a 25-year no-releasing of information, okay, gag order on anything related to the war in the United States, that's what the rule said, right? I'm going by memory, so look into all this stuff, right? So it was 25 years of silence, everything tops, you could nothing being released, right? So 1960s, right, mid 1960s, go back 25 years, you're 1940, right, 1940, 1945, right around that period, all of a sudden all this data came available, right? So if you're an earth scientist, geologist, geophysicist, would have looked at this like drooling, right? They looked at all this data and went, oh my gosh, right, make this friendly, child friend, oh my gosh, the earth magnetic field flips, why is it flipping? Oh my gosh, all those people that said, hey, wow, look at the coincidence, the coincidences, Africa sort of fits nicely as a puzzle of America, right? I wonder what, and then there's other places that sort of fit well together, wow, what coincidences, right? In the 1960s they found out, oh wow, there's something called the mid-atlantic trick, plate tectonics came into existence, the theory of it, right? And magnetic earth, magnetic field flipping, link that up with paleontology, you get major extinction events when earth magnetic field flips, you understand earthquakes better, all of a sudden the door was open, right? Wow, we learned so much about the earth just because of the data that was released, right, that was collected during World War II by, let's say, the allies, right? And once that information was released, our whole understanding of planet earth completely shifted, brilliant, right? Brilliant, right? Phenomenal, phenomenal, I'm all the way down to the bottom with posting gang, I sort of went off on a rant, but this is, this is my love, I love this stuff, so Felix, howdy chichu, how's life? In my life, I've almost finished recording a full song with one of my friends, not to boast, but I think it sounds, I said, share it with us, Felix, share it with us, put more, so we might get a Papa, a Panjaya again one day, we will, yeah, the odds are, we will at some point when things merge together, or Gondwana land, chunks, right? Chunks, kafmed fika, such a good answer, thank you, my pleasure. You asked me a simple question, I went ballistic, right? Hey, we did a little math, lions, who got the rock man, talking about earthquake? Exactly, but tonic for the chichu, how catastrophic or harmless could a pole shift be? It would be catastrophic, not harmless, because it's not going to happen within a second, it's a shift, because the earth magnetic field has a wobble to it, it deviates from true north, right? So earth magnetic field deviates from true north, true north, right? And some people say when the deviation becomes more and more, all of a sudden it's just going to go, right? But that, it's not within a second, it might, I don't know, I forget, it might take months for it to really do that shift, or weeks or years to do that shift. It'll be an extinction event for certain species, because like, you know, I know very little about biology, or plants and animals and stuff, I know some, because I watch a lot of documentaries, David Nattenborough rugs, right? But birds and a lot of aquatic animals and stuff, they use the magnetic field to, for migration paths and stuff like this, and if the magnetic field shifts, you know, where they're going to go, right? They end up somewhere else, and that could be devastating. A string-tider earthquake, maybe they pole shift as in north, and south pole switching magnetic fields, yeah, yeah, or is it pole shift something else? No, pole shift is that, the magnetic field flipping, and the magnetic field is from the crust, from the mantle of the earth, right? So, you know, sorry, flat earth people, but crust mantle would be like this, not mantle, sorry, the outer core, right? So here's the inner core, the inner core solid, right? This is mantle, this is outer core, core, right? The outer core has, is liquid, right? It moves around. When you move charge, and this gets into physics, when you move charge, you create a magnetic field, right? So moving charge, 900 maybe, when you move charge, you create a magnetic field, and the outer core is full of ions, right? And this charge moving, so it's creating magnetic field, and earth's magnetic field would be, that's north, and that's south, we're going wing, wing, wing, wing, right? Fun stuff, fun stuff. Should we get into mapping world conflicts? That's a quick geology tectonic play lesson. The flat earth magnetic field could be similar or different inside of a comparison, could be. I haven't looked into the magnetic field of the stuff for the flat earth series, I looked some stuff, haven't convinced me enough deep down, I dig into it yet. By the way gang, as far as snacks goes, we were able to get our hands some plump quints, okay? And quints is heavy fruit, this is super good. As you know, I've made jazz out of this, but quints every now and then when it's ripe like this, when it's bulky, it has a very unique taste, and I like, and this will last me like a week, that I'll keep on cutting off like chunks and eating it. It's on the dry side, it was such a unique flavor, so good. Baby Nights, yeah, I just read the last pull shift happened 780,000 years ago, and supposedly it happened 183 times in the last 83 million years. Shish, I always knew about that, but never really thought about how it would affect us. It would be huge. And that's, remember gang, we live on human time span, right? These are geologic events we're talking about. We're high frequency on a larger wave.