19. England under Richard II Richard, son of the black prince, a boy eleven years of age, succeeded to a throne under the title of King Richard II. The whole English nation were ready to admire him for the sake of his brave father. As to the lords and ladies about the court, they declared him to be the most beautiful, the wisest and the best, even of princes, whom the lords and ladies about the court generally declare to be the most beautiful, the wisest and the best of mankind. To flatter a poor boy in this basemanner was not a very likely way to develop whatever was good in him, and it brought him to anything but a good or happy end. The Duke of Lancaster, the young king's uncle, commonly called John of Gaunt, from having been born at Ghent, which the common people so pronounced, was supposed to have some thoughts of the throne himself, but as he was not popular, and the memory of the black prince was, he submitted to his nephew. The war with France being still unsettled, the Government of England wanted money to provide for the expenses that might arise out of it. Accordingly a certain tax, called the Pole Tax, which had originated in the last reign, was ordered to be levied on the people. This was a tax on every person in the kingdom, male and female, above the age of fourteen, of three grotes, or three fourpony pieces, a year. Clegemen were charged more, and only beggars were exempt. I have no need to repeat that the common people of England had long been suffering under great oppression. They were still the mere slaves of the lords of the land on which they lived, and were on most occasions harshly and unjustly treated. But they had begun by this time to think very seriously of not bearing quite so much, and probably were emboldened by that French insurrection I mentioned in the last chapter. The people of Essex rose against the Pole Tax, and being severely handled by the Government officers killed some of them. At this very time one of the tax collectors, going his rounds from house to house at Starford in Kent, came to the cottage of one watt, a Tyler by trade, and claimed the tax upon his daughter. Her mother, who was at home, declared that she was under the age of fourteen. Upon that the collector, as other collectors had already done in different parts of England, behaved in a savage way, and brutally insulted what Tyler's daughter. The daughter screamed, the mother screamed, what the Tyler, who was at work not far off, ran to the spot and did what any honest father under such provocation might have done, struck the collector dead at a blow. Instantly the people of that town uproased as one man. They made what Tyler their leader. They joined with the people of Essex, who were in arms under a priest called Jack Straw. They took out a prison another priest named John Ball, and gathering in numbers as they went along, advanced in a great confused army of poor men, the Blackheath. It is said that they wanted to abolish all property, and to declare all men equal. I do not think this very likely, because they stopped the travellers on the roads, and made them swear to be true to King Richard and the people. Nor were they at all disposed to injure those who had done them no harm, merely because they were of high station, for the king's mother, who had to pass through their camp at Blackheath on her way to her young son, lying for safety in the Tower of London, merely had to kiss a few dirty-faced roughbeard of men who were noisily fond of royalty, and so got away in perfect safety. Next day the whole mass marched on London Bridge. There was a drawbridge in the middle, which William Woolworth, the mayor, caused to be raised to prevent their coming into the city, but they soon terrified the citizens into lowering it again, and spread themselves with great uproar over the streets. They broke open the prisons, they burned the papers in Lamberth Palace, they destroyed the Duke of Lancaster's Palace, the Savoy in the Strand, said to be the most beautiful and splendid in England, they set fire to the books and documents in a temple, and made a great riot. Many of these outrages were committed in drunkenness, since those citizens, who had well-filled cellars, were only too glad to throw them open to save the rest of their property. But even the drunken rioters were very careful to steal nothing. They were so angry with one man, who was seen to take a silver cup at the Savoy Palace, and put it in his breast, that they drowned him in the river, cup and all. The young king had been taken out to treat with them, before they committed these excesses. But he and the people about him were so frightened by the rioters' shouts, that they got back to the tower in the best way they could. This made the insurgents bolder, so they went on rioting away, striking off the heads of those who did not, at a moment's notice, declare for King Richard and the people, and killing as many of the unpopular persons, whom they supposed to be their enemies, as they could by any means lay hold of. In this manner they passed one very violent day, and then proclamation was made, that the king would meet them at Mile End, and grant their requests. The rioters went to Mile End to the number of sixty thousand, and the king met them there, and to the king the rioters peacefully proposed four conditions. First, that neither they nor their children, nor any coming after them, should be made slaves any more. Secondly, that the rent of land should be fixed at a certain price in money, instead of being paid in service. Thirdly, that they should have liberty to buy and sell in all markets and public places, like other free men. Fourthly, that they should be pardoned for past offences. Heaven knows there was nothing very unreasonable in these proposals. The young king deceitfully pretended to think so, and kept thirty clerks up all night, writing out a charter accordingly. Now, what Tyler himself wanted more than this? He wanted the entire abolition of the forest laws. He was not at Mile End with the rest. But, while that meeting was being held, broke into the Tower of London, and slew the archbishop and the treasurer, for whose heads the people had cried out loudly the day before. He and his men even thrust their swords into the bed of the Princess of Wales, while the princess was in it, to make certain that none of their enemies were concealed there. So, what in his men still continued armed, and rode about the city? Next morning, the king with a small train of some sixty gentlemen, among whom was Walworth the Mayor, rode into Smithfield, and saw what and his people at a little distance. Says what to his men? There is the king. I will go speak with him, and tell him what we want. Straight away, what rode up to him, and began to talk. King, says what, dost thou seal my men there? Ah, says the king, why? Because, says what, they are all at my command, and have sworn to do whatever I bid them. Some declared afterwards, that as what said this he laid his hand on the king's bridle. Others declared that he was seen to play with his own dagger. I think myself that he just spoke to the king like a rough angry man as he was, and did nothing more. At any rate he was expecting no attack, and preparing for no resistance, when Walworth the Mayor did the not very valiant deed of drawing a short sword and stabbing him in the throat. He dropped from his horse, and one of the king's people speedily finished him. So fell what, Tyler? Fawners and flatterers made a mighty triumph of it, and set up a cry which will occasionally find an echo to this day. But what was a hard-working man, who had suffered much, and had been foully outraged? And it is probable that he was a man of a much higher nature, and a much braver spirit, than any of the parasites who exalted then, or have exalted since over his defeat. Seeing what down, his men immediately bent their bows to avenge his fall. If the young king had not had a presence of mind at that dangerous moment, both he and the Mayor to boot, might have followed Tyler pretty fast. But the king, riding up to the crowd, cried out that Tyler was a traitor, and that he would be their leader. They were so taken by surprise, that they set up a great shouting, and followed the boy until he was met at Islington by a large body of soldiers. The end of this rising was the then usual end. As soon as the king found himself safe, he unsaid all he had said, and undid all he had done. Some fifteen hundred of the rioters were tried, mostly in Essex, with great rigor, and executed with great cruelty. Many of them were hanged on gibbets, and left there as a terror to the country people. And because their miserable friends took down some of the bodies to bury, the king ordered the rest to be chained up, which was the beginning of the barbarous custom of hanging in chains. The king's falsehood in this business makes such a pitiful figure, that I think what Tyler appears in history, as beyond comparison, the truer and more respectable man of the two. Richard was now sixteen years of age, and married Anne of Bohemia, an excellent princess, who was called the good Queen Anne. She deserved a better husband, for the king had been fawned and flattered into a treacherous, wasteful, dissolute, bad young man. There were two popes at this time, as if one were not enough, and their quarrels involved Europe in a great deal of trouble. Scotland was still troublesome, too, and at home there was much jealousy and distrust, and plotting and counter-plotting, because the king feared the ambition of his relations, and particularly of his uncle, the Duke of Lancaster, and the Duke had his party against the king, and the king had his party against the Duke. Nor were these home troubles lessened when the Duke went to Castile to urge his claim to the crown of that kingdom. For then the Duke of Gloucester, another of Richard's opposed him, and influenced the parliament to demand the dismissal of the king's favourite ministers. The king said, in reply, that he would not, for such men, dismiss the meanest servant in his kitchen. But it had begun to signify little what a king said when a parliament was determined, so Richard was at last obliged to give way, and to agree to another government of the kingdom, under commission of forty nobles for a year. His uncle of Gloucester was at the head of this commission, and in fact appointed everybody composing it. Having done all this, the king declared as soon as he saw an opportunity that he had never meant to do it, and that it was all illegal, and he got the judges secretly to sign a declaration to that effect, the secret oozed out directly, and was carried to the Duke of Gloucester. The Duke of Gloucester, at the head of forty thousand men, met the king on his entering into London to enforce his authority. The king was helpless against him, his favourites and ministers were impeached, and were mercilessly executed. Among them were two men, whom the people regarded with very different feelings. One, Robert Trisilian, Chief Justice, who was hated for having made what was called the Bloody Circuit, to try the rioters. The other, Sir Simon Burley, an honourable knight, who had been the dear friend of the Black Prince, and the Governor and Guardian of the King. For this gentleman's life the good Queen even begged of Gloucester on her knees, but Gloucester, with or without reason, feared and hated him, and replied that if she valued her husband's crown she had better beg no more. All this was done under what was called by some the wonderful, and by others with better reason the merciless Parliament. But Gloucester's power was not to last for ever. He held it for only a year longer, in which year the famous battle of Otterbourne, sung in the old battle of Cherry Chase, was fought. When the year was out, the King, turning suddenly to Gloucester, in the midst of a great council, said, Uncle, how old am I? Your Highness, returned Duke, is in your twenty-second year. Am I so much? said the King, then I will manage my own affairs. I much obliged to you, my good lords, for your past services, but I need them no more. He followed this up by appointing a new Chancellor and a new Treasurer, and announced to the people that he had resumed the Government. He held it for eight years without opposition.  At last the good Queen died. And then the King, desiring to take a second wife, proposed to his council that he should marry Isabella of France, the daughter of Charles VI, who, the French courtiers said, as the English courtiers had said of Richard, was a marvel of beauty and wit, and quite a phenomenon, of seven years old. The council were divided about this marriage, but it took place. It secured peace between England and France for a quarter of a century, but it was strongly opposed to the prejudices of the English people. The Duke of Gloucester, who was anxious to take the occasion of making himself popular, declined against it loudly, and this, at length, decided the King to execute the vengeance he had been nursing so long. He went with a gay company to the Duke of Gloucester's house, Pleshey Castle, in Essex, where the Duke, suspecting nothing, came out into the courtyard to receive his royal visitor. While the King conversed in a friendly manner with the Duchess, the Duke was quietly seized, hurried away, shipped for Calais, and lodged in the castle there. His friends, the earls of Arundel and Warwick, were taken in the same treacherous manner, and confined to their castles. A few days after, at Nottingham, they were impeached of high treason. The earl of Arundel was condemned and beheaded, and the earl of Warwick was banished. Then a writ was sent by a messenger to the Governor of Calais, requiring him to send the Duke of Gloucester over to be tried. In three days he returned an answer that he could not do that, because the Duke of Gloucester had died in prison. The Duke was declared a traitor. His property was confiscated to the King. A real or pretended confession he had made in prison to one of the Justices of the Common Pleas was produced against him, and there was an end of the matter. How the unfortunate Duke died, for a few cared to know, whether he really died naturally, whether he killed himself, whether by the King's order he was strangled or smothered between two beds, as a serving man of the Governor's, named Hall, did afterwards declare, cannot be discovered. There is not much doubt that he was killed, somehow or other, by his nephew's orders. Among the most active nobles in these proceedings were the King's cousin, Henry Bullingbrook, whom the King had made Duke of Hereford to smooth down the old family quarrels, and some others, who had in the family plotting times done just such acts themselves as they now condemned in the Duke. They seem to have been a corrupt set of men, but such men were easily found about the court in such days. The people murmured at all this, and were still very sore about the French marriage. The nobles saw how little the King cared for law, and how crafty he was, and began to be somewhat afraid for themselves. The King's life was a life of continued feasting and excess. His retinue, down to the meanest servants, were dressed in a most costly manner, and caroused at his tables it is related to the number of ten thousand persons every day. He himself, surrounded by a body of ten thousand archers, and enriched by a duty on wool which the Commons had granted him for life, saw no danger of ever being otherwise than powerful and absolute, and was as fierce and haughty as a King could be. He had two of his old enemies left, in the persons of the Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk. Sparing these no more than the others, he tampered with the Duke of Hereford, until he got him to Clare before the Council, that the Duke of Norfolk had lately held some reasonable talk with him, as he was riding near Brentford, and that he had told him, among other things, that he could not believe the King's oath, which nobody could, I should think. For this treachery he obtained a pardon, and the Duke of Norfolk was summoned to appear and defend himself. As he denied the charge, and said his accuser was a liar and a traitor, both noblemen, according to the manner of those times, were held in custody, and the truth was ordered to be decided by wager of battle at Coventry. This wager of battle meant that whosoever won the combat was to be considered in the right, which nonsense meant in effect that no strong man could ever be wrong. A great holiday was made, a great crowd assembled with much parade and show, and the two combatants were about to rush at each other with their lances, when the King, sitting in a pavilion to see fair, threw down the truncheon he carried in his hand, and forbade the battle.  So said the King. The Duke of Hereford went to France, and went no farther. The Duke of Norfolk made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and afterwards died at Venice of a broken heart. Faster and fiercer after this the King went on in his career. The Duke of Lancaster, who was the father of the Duke of Hereford, died soon after the departure of his son, and the King, although he had solemnly granted to that son, leave to inherit his father's property, if it should come to him during his banishment, immediately seized it all like a robber. The judges were so afraid of him that they disgraced themselves by declaring this theft to be just and lawful. His avarice knew no bounds. He outlawed seventeen counties at once on a frivolous pretense, merely to raise money by way of fines for misconduct. In short, he did as many dishonest things as he could, and cared so little for the discontent of his subjects, though even the spaniel favourites began to whisper to him that there was such a thing as discontent afloat, that he took that time, of all others, for leaving England and making an expedition against the Irish. He was scarcely gone, leaving the Duke of York regent in his absence, when his cousin, Henry of Hereford, came over from France to claim the rights of which he had been so monstrously deprived. He was immediately joined by the two great earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and his uncle, the regent, finding the King's cause unpopular, and the disinclination of the army to act against Henry very strong, withdrew with the royal forces towards Bristol. Henry, at the head of an army, came from Yorkshire, where he had landed, to London, and followed him. They joined their forces. How they brought that about is not distinctly understood, and proceeded to Bristol Castle, with the three noblemen had taken the young Queen. The castle surrendering, they presently put those three noblemen to death. The regent then remained there, and Henry went on to Chester. All this time the boisterous weather had prevented the King from receiving intelligence of what had occurred. At length it was conveyed to him in Ireland, and he sent over the Duke of Salisbury, who, landing at Conway, rallied the Welshman, and waited for the King a whole fortnight.  When the King did land on the coast at last, he came with a pretty good power, but his men cared nothing for him, and quickly deserted. Supposing the Welshman to be still at Conway, he disguised himself as a priest, and made for that place in company with his two brothers, and some few of their adherents. But there were no Welshman left, only Salisbury and a hundred soldiers. In this distress the King's two brothers, Exeter and Surrey, offered to go to Henry to learn what his intentions were. Surrey, who was true to Richard, was put into prison. Exeter, who was false, took the royal badge, which was a heart, off his shield, and assumed the rose, the badge of Henry. After this it was pretty plain to the King what Henry's intentions were, without sending any more messengers to ask. The fallen King, thus deserted, hemmed in on all sides, and pressed with hunger, rode here, and rode there, and went to this castle, and went to that castle, endeavouring to obtain some provisions, but could find none. He rode wretchedly back to Conway, and there surrendered himself to the Earl of Northumberland, who came from Henry, in reality to take him prisoner, but in appearance to offer terms, and whose men were hidden not far off. By this Earl he was conducted to the castle of Flint, where his cousin Henry met him, and dropped on his knee, as if he were still respectful to his sovereign. Fair cousin of Lancaster, said the King, you were very welcome. Very welcome, no doubt, but he would have been more so in chains, or without a head. My lord, replied Henry, I am calm a little before my time, but with your good pleasure I will show you the reason.  Now, if it please God, I will help you to govern them better in future. Fair cousin, replied the abject King, since it pleaseth you, it pleaseth me mightily. After this the trumpet sounded, and the King was stuck on a wretched horse, and carried prisoner to Chester, where he was made to issue a proclamation calling a parliament. From Chester he was taken on towards London. At Litchfield he tried to escape by getting out of a window, and letting himself down into a garden.  Before he got there it is related, that his very dog left him, and departed from his side to lick the hand of Henry. The day before the parliament met a deputation went to this wrecked King, and told him that he had promised the Earl of Northumberland at Conway Castle to resign the crown. He said he was quite ready to do it, and signed a paper in which he renounced his authority, and absolved his people from their allegiance to him. He had so little spirit left that he gave his royal ring to his triumphant cousin Henry with his own hand, and said that if he could have had leave to appoint a successor, that same Henry was the man of all others whom he would have named. Next day the parliament assembled in Westminster Hall, where Henry sat at the side of the throne, which was empty, and covered with a cloth of gold. The paper just signed by the King was read to the multitude amid shouts of joy, which were echoed through all the streets. When some of the noise had died away, the King was formally deposed. Then Henry arose, and making the sign of the cross on his forehead and breast, challenged the realm of England as his right, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York seated him on the throne. The multitude shouted again, and the shouts re-echoed throughout all the streets. No one remembered now that Richard II had ever been the most beautiful, the wisest, and the best of princes, and he now made living, to my thinking, a far more sorry spectacle in a Tower of London than what Tyler had made lying dead among the hooves of the royal horses in Smithfield. The poll-tax died with what? The smiths to the King and royal family could make no chains in which the King could hang the people's recollection of him, so the poll-tax was never collected. CHAPTER XX England, under Henry IV, called Bullingbrook. During the last reign, the preaching of Wycliffe against the pride and cunning of the Pope and all his men had made a great noise in England. Whether the new King wished to be in favour with the priests, or whether he hoped, prior pretending to be very religious, to cheat heaven itself into the belief that he was not a usurper, I don't know. Both suppositions are likely enough. It is certain that he began his reign by making a strong show against the followers of Wycliffe, who were called lullards or heretics, although his father, John of Gaunt, had been of that way of thinking, as he himself had been more than suspected of being. It is no less certain that he first established in England the detestable and atrocious custom brought from abroad of burning those people as a punishment for their opinions. It was the importation into England of one of the practices of what was called the Holy Inquisition, which was the most unholy and the most infamous tribunal that ever disgraced mankind, and made men more like demons than followers of our Saviour. No real right to the crown, as you know, was in this King. Edward Mortimer, the young Earl of March, who was only eight or nine years old, and who was descended from the Duke of Clarence, the elder brother of Henry's father, was, by succession, the real heir to the throne. However, the King got his son declared Prince of Wales, and, obtaining possession of the young Earl of March and his little brother, kept them in confinement, but not severely, in Windsor Castle. He then required the Parliament to decide what was to be done with the deposed King, who was quiet enough, and who only said that he hoped his cousin Henry would be a good lord to him. The Parliament replied that they would recommend his being kept in some secret place, where the people could not resort, and where his friends could not be admitted to see him. Henry accordingly passed this sentence upon him, and it now began to be pretty clear to the nation that Richard II would not live very long. It was a noisy Parliament, as it was an unprincipled one, and the lords quarreled so violently among themselves, as to which of them had been loyal and which disloyal, and which consistent and which inconsistent, that forty gauntlets are said to have been thrown upon the floor at one time as challenges to as many battles, the truth being that they were all false and base together, and had been at one time with the Old King, and at another time with New One, and seldom true for any length of time to any one. They soon began to plot again. A conspiracy was formed to invite the King to a tournament at Oxford, and then to take him by surprise and kill him. This murderous enterprise, which was agreed upon at secret meetings in the house of the Abbot of Westminster, was betrayed by the Earl of Rutland, one of the conspirators. The King, instead of going to the tournament or staying at Windsor, where the conspirators suddenly went on finding themselves discovered with the hope of seizing him, retired to London, proclaimed them all traitors, and advanced upon them with a great force. They retired into the west of England, proclaiming Richard King, but the people rose against them and they were all slain. Their treason hastened the end of the deposed monarch. Whether he was killed by hired assassins, or whether he was starved to death, or whether he refused food on hearing of his brothers being killed, who were in that plot, is very doubtful. He met his death somehow, and his body was publicly shown at St Paul's Cathedral, with only the lower part of the face uncovered. I can scarcely doubt that he was killed by the King's orders. The French wife of the miserable Richard was now only ten years old. And when her father, Charles of France, heard of her misfortunes, and of her lonely condition in England, he went mad, as he had several times done before, during the last five or six years. The French dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon took up the poor girl's cause, without caring much about it, but on the chance of getting something out of England. The people of Bordeaux, who had a sort of superstitious attachment to the memory of Richard, because he was born there, swore by the Lord that he had been the best man in all his kingdom, which was going rather far, and promised to do great things against the English. Nevertheless, when they came to consider that they, and the whole people of France, were ruined by their own nobles, and that the English rule was much the better of the two, they cooled down again, and the two dukes, although they were very great men, could do nothing without them. Then began negotiations between France and England for the sending home to Paris of the poor little queen, with all her jewels, and her fortune of two hundred thousand francs in gold. The King was quite willing to restore the young lady, and even the jewels, but he said he really could not part with the money. So, at last, she was safely deposited at Paris without her fortune. And then the Duke of Burgundy, who was cousin to the French King, began to quarrel with the Duke of Orleans, who was brother to the French King, about the whole matter, and those two dukes made France even more wretched than ever. As the idea of conquering Scotland was still popular at home, the King marched to the river Tyne, and demanded homage of the King of that country. This being refused, he advanced to Edinburgh, but did little there, for, his army being in want of provisions, and the scotch being very careful to hold him in check without giving battle, he was obliged to retire. It is to his immortal honour that in this sally he burnt no villages, and slaughtered no people, but was particularly careful that his army should be merciful and harmless. It was a great example in those ruthless times. A war among the border people of England and Scotland went on for twelve months, and then the Earl of Northumberland, the nobleman who had helped Henry to the crown, began to rebel against him, probably because nothing that Henry could do for him would satisfy his extravagant expectations. There was a certain Welsh gentleman, named Owen Glendauer, who had been a student in one of the Inns of Court, and had afterwards been in the service of the late King, whose Welsh property was taken from him by a powerful Lord related to the present King who was his neighbour. Appealing for redress and getting none, he took up arms, was made an outlaw, and declared himself sovereign of Wales.  For, making three expeditions into Wales, and being three times driven back by the wildness of the country, the bad weather, and the skill of Glendauer, he thought he was defeated by the Welshman's magic arts. However, he took Lord Grey and Sir Edmund Mortimer prisoners, and allowed the relatives of Lord Grey to ransom him, but would not extend such favour to Sir Edmund Mortimer. Now, Henry Percy, called Hotspur, son of the Earl of Northumberland, who was married to Mortimer's sister, is supposed to have taken offence at this, and therefore, in conjunction with his father and some others, to have joined Owen Glendauer and risen against Henry. It is by no means clear that this was the real cause of the conspiracy, but perhaps it was made the pretext. It was formed, and was very powerful, including Scroop, Archbishop of York, and the Earl of Douglas, a powerful and brave Scottish nobleman. The King was prompt and active, and the two armies met at Shrewsbury. There were about fourteen thousand men in each. The old Earl of Northumberland being sick, the rebel forces were led by his son. The King wore plain armour to deceive the enemy, and four noblemen, with the same object, wore the royal arms. The rebel charge was so furious that every one of those gentlemen was killed, the royal standard was beaten down, and the young Prince of Wales was severely wounded in the face. But he was one of the bravest and best soldiers that ever lived, and he fought so well, and the King's troops were so encouraged by his bold example, that they rallied immediately, and cut the enemy's forces all to pieces. Hotspur was killed by an arrow in the brain, and the rout was so complete, that the whole rebellion was struck down by this one blow. The Earl of Northumberland surrendered himself soon after hearing of the death of his son, and received a pardon for all his offences. There were some lingerings of rebellion yet, Owen Glendauer being retired to Wales, and the preposterous story being spread among the ignorant people that King Richard was still alive. How they could have believed such nonsense it is difficult to imagine, but they certainly did suppose that the court fool of the late King, who was something like him, was he himself. So that it seemed as if, after giving so much trouble to the country in his life, he was still troubled after his death. This was not the worst. The young Earl of March and his brother were stolen out of Windsor Castle. Being retaken and being found to have been spirited away by one Lady Spencer, she accused her own brother, that Earl of Rutland who was in the former conspiracy, and was now Duke of York, of being in the plot. For this he was ruined in fortune, though not put to death. And then another plot rose among the old Earl of Northumberland, some other lords, and that same scroop archbishop of York, who was with the rebels before. These conspirators caused a writing to be posted on the church doors, accusing the King of a variety of crimes. But the King being eager and vigilant to oppose them, they were all taken, and the archbishop was executed. This was the first time that a great churchman had been slain by the law in England, but the King was resolved that it should be done, and done it was. The next most remarkable event of this time was the seizure by Henry of the heir to the Scottish throne, James, a boy of nine years old. He had been put aboard ship by his father, the Scottish King Robert, to save him from the designs of his uncle, when, on his way to France, he was accidentally taken by some English cruisers. He remained a prisoner in England for nineteen years, and became in his prison a student and a famous poet. With the exception of occasional troubles with the Welsh and with the French, the rest of King Henry's reign was quiet enough. But the King was far from happy, and probably was troubled in his conscience by knowing that he had usurped the crown, and had occasioned the death of his miserable cousin. The Prince of Wales, though brave and generous, is said to have been wild and dissipated, and even to have drawn his sword on Gascoigne, the Chief Justice of the King's bench, because he was firm in dealing impartially with one of his disillute companions. Upon this the Chief Justice is said to have ordered him immediately to prison. The Prince of Wales is said to have submitted with a good grace, and the King is said to have exclaimed, Happy is the monarch who has so just a judge, and a son so willing to obey the laws. This is all very doubtful, and so is another story, of which Shakespeare has made beautiful use, that the Prince once took the crown out of his father's chamber as he was sleeping, and tried it on his own head. The King's health sank more and more, and he became subject to violent eruptions on the face, and to bad epileptic fits, and his spirits sank every day. At last, as he was praying before the Shrine of St Edward at Westminster Abbey, he was seized with a terrible fit, and was carried into the Abbot's chamber, where he presently died. It had been foretold that he would die at Jerusalem, which certainly is not, and never was Westminster. But, as the Abbot's room had long been called the Jerusalem Chamber, people said it was all the same thing, and were quite satisfied with the prediction. The King died on the 20th of March, 1413, in the 47th year of his age, and the 14th of his reign. He was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. He had been twice married, and had, by his first wife, a family of four sons and two daughters. Considering his duplicity before he came to the throne, his unjust seizure of it, and above all, his making that monstrous law for the burning of what the priests called heretics, he was a reasonably good King, as King's went. First part. The Prince of Wales began his reign like a generous and honest man. He set the young Earl of March free. He restored their estates and their honours to the Percy family, who had lost them by the rebellion against his father. He ordered the imbecile and unfortunate Richard to be honourably buried among the Kings of England, and he dismissed all his wild companions with assurances that they should not want, if they would resolve to be steady, faithful, and true. It is much easier to burn men than to burn their opinions, and those of the Lollards were spreading every day. The Lollards were represented by the priests, probably falsely, for the most part, to entertain treasonable designs against the new King, and Henry, suffering himself to be worked upon by these representations, sacrificed his friend Sir John Old Castle, the Lord Cobham, to them, after trying in vain to convert him by arguments. He was declared guilty, as the head of the sect, and sentenced to the flames. But he escaped from the tower before the day of execution, postponed for fifty days by the King himself, and summoned the Lollards to meet him near London on a certain day. So the priests told the King at least. I doubt whether there was any conspiracy beyond such as was got up by their agents. On the day appointed, instead of five and twenty thousand men, under the command of Sir John Old Castle, in the meadows of St. Giles, the King found only eighty men, and no Sir John at all. There was, in another place, an adult-headed brewer who had gold trappings to his horses, and a pair of gilt spurs in his breast, expecting to be made a night next day by Sir John, and so to gain the right to wear them. But there was no Sir John, nor did anybody give information respecting him, though the King offered great rewards for such intelligence. Thirty of these unfortunate Lollards were hanged and drawn immediately, and were then burnt gallows and all, and the various prisons in and around London were crammed full of others. Some of these unfortunate men made various confessions of treasonable designs, but such confessions were easily got, under torture and the fear of fire, and are very little to be trusted. To finish the sad story of Sir John Old Castle at once, I may mention that he escaped into Wales and remained there safely for four years. When discovered by Lord Powis, it is very doubtful if he would have been taken alive, so great was the old soldier's bravery, if a miserable old woman had not come behind him and broken his legs with a stool. He was carried to London in a horse-litter, was fastened by an iron chain to a gibbet, and so roasted to death. To make the State of France as plain as I can in a few words, I should tell you that the Duke of Orléans and the Duke of Burgundy, commonly called John without fear, had had a grand reconciliation of their quarrel in the last reign, and had appeared to be quite in a heavenly state of mind. Immediately after which, on a Sunday, in the public streets of Paris, the Duke of Orléans was murdered by a party of twenty men, set on by the Duke of Burgundy, according to his own deliberate confession. The widow of King Richard had been married in France to the eldest son of the Duke of Orléans. The poor mad king was quite powerless to help her, and the Duke of Burgundy became the real master of France. Isabella dying, her husband, a Duke of Orléans since the death of his father, married the daughter of the Count of Armagnac, who, being a much abler man than his young son-in-law, headed his party, thence called after him Armagnac's. Thus France was now in this terrible condition that it had in it the party of the King's son, the Dolphin Louis, the party of the Duke of Burgundy, who was the father of the Dolphin's ill-used wife and the party of the Armagnac's, all hating each other, all fighting together, all composed of the most depraved nobles that the earth has ever known, and all tearing unhappy France to pieces. The late King had watched these dissensions from England, sensible, like the French people, that no enemy of France could injure her more than her own nobility. The present King now advanced acclaim to the French throne. His demand being, of course, refused, he reduced his proposal to a certain large amount of French territory and to demanding the French princess Catherine in marriage with a fortune of two millions of golden crowns. He was offered less territory and fewer crowns and no princess, but he called his ambassadors home and prepared for war. Then he proposed to take the princess with one million of crowns. The French court replied that he should have the princess with two hundred thousand crowns less. He said this would not do. He had never seen the princess in his life and assembled his army at Southampton. There was a short plot at home just at that time for deposing him and making the Earl of March King, but the conspirators were all speedily condemned and executed and the King embarked for France. It is dreadful to observe how long a bad example will be followed, but it is encouraging to know that a good example is never thrown away. The King's first act on disembarking at the mouth of the River Seine, three miles from Harfleur, was to imitate his father and to proclaim his solemn orders that the lives and property of the peaceable inhabitants should be respected on pain of death. It is agreed by French writers to his lasting renown that even while his soldiers were suffering the greatest distress from want of food these commands were rigidly obeyed. With an army in all of thirty thousand men, he besieged the town of Harfleur both by sea and land for five weeks, at the end of which time the town surrendered and the inhabitants were allowed to depart with only five pence each and a part of their clothes. All the rest of their possessions was divided amongst the English army, but that army suffered so much in spite of its successes from disease and privation that it was already reduced one half. Still the King was determined not to retire until he had struck a greater blow. Therefore, against the advice of all his counsellors, he moved on with his little force toward Calais. When he came to the River Seine, he was unable to cross, in consequence of the fort being fortified, and as the English moved up the left bank of the river looking for a crossing, the French, who had broken all the bridges, moved up the right bank, watching them, and waiting to attack them when they should try to pass it. At last the English found a crossing and got safely over. The French held a council of war at Rouen, resolved to give the English battle, and sent Haralds to King Henry to know by which road he was going. By the road that will take me straight to Calais, said the King, and sent them away with a present of a hundred crowns. The English moved on until they beheld the French, and then the King gave orders to form in line of battle. The French, not coming on, the army broke up after remaining in battle array till night, and got good rest and refreshment at the neighbouring village. The French were now all lying in another village, through which they knew the English must pass. They were resolved that the English should begin the battle. The English had no means of retreat, if their King had any such intention, and so the two armies passed the night close together. To understand these armies well, you must bear in mind that the immense French army had, among its notable persons, almost the whole of that wicked nobility, whose debauchery had made France a desert, and so besotted were they by pride and by contempt for the common people, that they had scarcely any bowmen, if indeed they had any at all, in their whole enormous number, which, compared with the English army, was at least a six to one. For these proud fools had said that the bow was not a fit weapon for nightly hands, and that France must be defended by gentlemen only. We shall see, presently, what hand the gentlemen made of it. Now, on the English side, among the little force, there was a good proportion of men who were not gentlemen by any means, but who were good stout archers for all that. Among them, in the morning, having slept little at night, while the French were carousing and making sure of victory, the king rode on a grey horse, wearing on his head a helmet of shining steel, surmounted by a crown of gold sparkling with precious stones, and bearing over his armour embroidered together the arms of England and the arms of France. The archers looked at the shining helmet and the crown of gold and the sparkling jewels and admired them all. But what they admired most was the king's cheerful face and his bright blue eye, as he told them that, for himself, he had made up his mind to conquer there or to die there, and that England should never have a ransom to pay for him. There was one brave knight who chanced to say that he wished some of the many gallant gentlemen and good soldiers who were then idle at home in England were there to increase their numbers. But the king told him that, for his part, he did not wish for one more man. The fewer we have, said he, the greater will be the honour we shall win. His men, being now all in good heart, were refreshed with bread and wine, and heard prayers and waited quietly for the French. The king waited for the French because they were drawn up thirty deep. The little English force was only three deep, on very difficult and heavy ground, and he knew that when they moved there must be confusion among them. As they did not move, he sent off two parties, one till I concealed in a wood on the left of the French, the other to set fire to some houses behind the French after the battle should be begun. This was scarcely done when three of the proud French gentlemen who were to defend their country without any help from the base peasants came writing out calling upon the English to surrender. The king warned those gentlemen himself to retire with all speed if they cared for their lives and ordered the English banners to advance. Upon that Sir Thomas Epringham, a great English general, who commanded the archers through his truncheon into the air joyfully and all the Englishmen kneeling down upon the ground and biting it as if they took possession of the country, rose up with a great shout and fell upon the French. Every archer was furnished with a great stake tipped with iron and his orders were to thrust this stake into the ground to discharge his arrow and then to fall back when the French horsemen came on. As the haughty French gentlemen who were to break the English archers and utterly destroy them with their nightly lances came writing up, they were received with such a blinding storm of arrows that they broke and turned. Horses and men rolled over one another and the confusion was terrific. Those who rallied and charged the archers got among the stakes on slippery and boggy ground and were so bewildered that the English archers who wore no armor and even took off their leather coats to be more active cut them to pieces root and branch. Only three French horsemen got within the stakes and those were instantly dispatched. All this time the dense French army, being an armor, were sinking knee-deep into the mire while the light English archers, half naked, were as fresh and active as if they were fighting on a marble floor. But now the second division of the French, coming to the relief of the first, closed up in a firm mass. The English, headed by the King, attacked them and the deadliest part of the battle began. The King's brother, the Duke of Clarence, was struck down and numbers of the French surrounded him.  Presently came up a band of eighteen French knights bearing the banner of a certain French lord who had sworn to kill or take the English king.  But his faithful men, immediately closing around him, killed every one of those eighteen knights, and so that French lord never kept his oath. The French duke of Alonçon, seeing this, made a desperate charge and cut his way close up to the royal standard of England. He beat down the duke of York who was standing near it, and when the King came to his rescue, struck off a piece of the crown he wore. But he never struck another blow in this world, for even as he was in the act of saying who he was, and that he surrendered to the King, and even as the King stretched out his hand to give him a safe and honourable acceptance of the author, he fell dead, pierced by innumerable wounds. The death of this nobleman decided the battle. The third division of the French army, which had never struck a blow yet, and which was in itself more than double the whole English power, broke and fled. At this time of the flight, the English, who as yet had made no prisoners, began to take them in immense numbers, and were still occupied in doing so, or in killing those who would not surrender, when a great noise arose in the rear of the French. Their flying banners were seen to stop, and King Henry, supposing a great reinforcement to have arrived, gave orders that all the prisoners should be put to death. As soon, however, as it was found that the noise was only occasioned by a body of plundering peasants, the terrible massacre was stopped. Then King Henry called to him the French herald, and asked him to whom the victory belonged. The herald replied, to the king of England. We have not made this hava-conslaughter, said the king. It is the wrath of heaven on the sins of France. What is the name of that castle yonder? The herald answered him. My lord, it is the castle Azenkor. Said the king, from henceforth this battle shall be known to posterity by the name of the Battle of Azenkor. Now, our English historians have made it Azenkor, but under that name it will ever be famous in English annals. The loss upon the French side was enormous. Three dukes were killed, two more were taken prisoners, seven counts were killed, three more were taken prisoners, and ten thousand knights and gentlemen were slain upon the field. The English loss amounted to sixteen hundred men, among whom were the Duke of York and the Earl of Suffolk. War is a dreadful thing, and it is appalling to know how the English were obliged next morning to kill those prisoners mortally wounded, who yet writhed in agony upon the ground, how the dead upon the French side were stripped by their own countrymen and countrywomen, and afterwards buried in great pits, how the dead upon the English side were piled up in a great barn and how their bodies and the barn were all burned together. It is in such things and in many more much too horrible to relate that the real desolation and wickedness of war consist. Nothing can make war otherwise than horrible. But the dark side of it was little thought of and soon forgotten, and it cast no shade of trouble on the English people, except on those who had lost friends or relations in the fight. They welcomed their king home with shouts of rejoicing and plunged into the water to bear him ashore on their shoulders, and flocked out in crowds to welcome him, in every town through which he passed, and hung rich carpets and tapestries out of the windows, and strewed the streets with flowers, and made the fountains run with wine, as the great field of Agincourt had run with blood. Second part. That proud and wicked French nobility who dragged their country to destruction and who were every day and every year regarded with deeper hatred and detestation in the hearts of the French people learned nothing, even from the defeat of Agincourt. So far from uniting against the common enemy, they became among themselves more violent, more bloody, and more false, if that were possible, than they had been before. The Count of Arminyock persuaded the French king to plunder of her treasures Queen Isabella of Bavaria and to make her a prisoner. She, who had hitherto been the bitter enemy of the Duke of Burgundy, proposed to join him in revenge. He carried her off to Troy, where she proclaimed herself regent of France, and made him her lieutenant. The Arminyock party were at that time possessed of Paris, but one of the gates of the city being secretly opened on a certain night to a party of the Duke's men, they got into Paris, threw into the prisons all the Arminyocks upon whom they could lay their hands, and a few nights afterwards, with the aid of a furious mob of sixty thousand people, broke the prisons opened and killed them all. The former dolphin was now dead, and the king's third son bore the title. Him, in the height of this murderous scene, a French knight hurried out of bed, wrapped him in a sheet, and bore away to Poitiers. So when the revengeful Isabella and the Duke of Burgundy entered Paris in triumph after the slaughter of their enemies, the dolphin was proclaimed at Poitiers as the real regent. King Henry had not been idle since his victory of Agincourt, but had repulsed a brave attempt of the French to recover Harfleur, had gradually conquered a great part of Normandy, and at this crisis of affairs took the important town of Rouen after a siege of half a year. This great loss so alarmed the French that the Duke of Burgundy proposed that a meeting to treat of peace should be held between the French and the English kings in a plain by the River Seine. On the appointed day, King Henry appeared there, with his two brothers Clarence and Gloucester, and a thousand men. The unfortunate French king, being more mad than usual that day, could not come, but the queen came and with her the Princess Catherine, who was a very lovely creature, and who made a real impression on King Henry now that he saw her for the first time. This was the most important circumstance that arose out of the meeting. As if it were impossible for a French nobleman of that time to be true to his word of honor in anything, Henry discovered that the Duke of Burgundy was, at that very moment, in secret treaty with the Dolphin, and he therefore abandoned the negotiation. The Duke of Burgundy and the Dolphin, each of whom, with the best reason, distrusted the other as a noble Ruffian surrounded by a party of noble Ruffians, were rather at a loss how to proceed after this. But at length they agreed to meet on a bridge over the River Ion, where it was arranged that there should be two strong gates put up, with an empty space between them, and that the Duke of Burgundy should come into that space by one gate with ten men only, and that the Dolphin should come into that space by the other gate also with ten men and no more. So far the Dolphin kept his word but no farther. When the Duke of Burgundy was on his knee before him in the act of speaking, one of the Dolphin's noble Ruffians cut the said Duke down with a small axe, and the others speedily finished him. It was in vain for the Dolphin to pretend that this base murder was not done with his consent. It was too bad, even for France, and caused a general horror. The Duke's heir hastened to make a treaty with King Henry, and the French Queen engaged that her husband should consent to it whatever it was. Henry made peace, on condition of receiving the Princess Catherine in marriage, and being made Regent of France during the rest of the King's lifetime, and succeeding to the French crown at his death. He was soon married to the beautiful princess, and took her proudly home to England, where she was crowned with great honor and glory. This peace was called the perpetual peace. We shall soon see how long it lasted. It gave great satisfaction to the French people, although they were so poor and miserable that at the time of the celebration of the royal marriage, numbers of them were dying with starvation on the Dung Hills in the streets of Paris. There was some resistance on the part of the Dolphin in some parts of France, but King Henry beat it all down. And now, with his great possessions in France secured, and his beautiful wife to cheer him, and a son born to give him greater happiness, all appeared bright before him. But in the fullness of his triumph and the height of his power, death came upon him, and his day was done. When he fell ill at Vincennes, and found that he could not recover, he was very calm and quiet, and spoke serenely to those who wept around his bed. His wife and child, he said, he left to the loving care of his brother, the Duke of Bedford, and his other faithful nobles. He gave them his advice that England should establish a friendship with the new Duke of Burgundy, and offer him the regency of France, that it should not set free the royal princes who had been taken at Agincourt, and that, whatever quarrel might arise with France, England should never make peace without holding Normandy. Then he laid down his head, and asked the attendant priest to chant the penitential Psalms. Amid with solemn sounds, on the 31st of August 1422, in only the thirty-fourth year of his age and the tenth of his reign, King Henry V passed away. Slowly and mournfully they carried his embalmed body in a procession of great state to Paris, and thence to Rouen, where his queen was, from whom the sad intelligence of his death was concealed until he had been dead some days. Thence, lying on a bed of crimson and gold, with a golden crown upon the head, in a golden ball and scepter, lying in the nervous hands, they carried it to Calais, with such a great retinue as seemed to die the road black. The King of Scotland acted as chief mourner. All the royal household followed. The knights wore black armor and black plumes of feathers, crowds of men bore torches, making the night as light as day, and the widowed princess followed, last of all. At Calais there was a fleet of ships to bring the funeral host to Dover, and so, by way of London Bridge, where the service for the dead was chanted as it passed along, they brought the body to Westminster Abbey, and there buried it with great respect. End of Chapter 21 Recording by John Leader Bloomington, Illinois Chapter 22 of A Child's History of England Part I It had been the wish of the late King that while his infant son, King Henry VI, at this time only nine months old, was under age, the Duke of Gloucester should be appointed regent. The English Parliament, however, preferred to appoint a council of regency with the Duke of Bedford at its head, to be represented, in his absence only, by the Duke of Gloucester. The Parliament would seem to have been wise in this, for Gloucester soon showed himself to be ambitious and troublesome, and in the gratification of his own personal schemes gave dangerous offence to the Duke of Burgundy, which was with difficulty adjusted. As that Duke declined the regency of France, it was bestowed by the poor French king upon the Duke of Bedford. But the French king dying within two months, the Dauphin, instantly asserted his claim to the French throne and was actually crowned under the title of Charles VII. The Duke of Bedford, to be a match for him, entered into a friendly league with the dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, and gave them his two sisters in marriage. War with France was immediately renewed, and the perpetual peace came to an untimely end. In the first campaign the English, aided by this alliance, were speedily successful. As Scotland, however, had sent the French five thousand men and might send more, or attack the north of England while England was busy with France, it was considered that it would be a good thing to offer the Scottish king, James, who had been so long imprisoned his liberty on his paying forty thousand pounds for his board in lodging during nineteen years, and engaging to forbid his subjects from serving under the flag of France. It is pleasant to know, not only that the amiable captive at last regained his freedom upon these terms, but that he married a noble English lady with whom he had been long in love and became an excellent king. I am afraid we have met with some kings in this history and shall meet with some more who would have been very much the better, and would have left the world much happier if they had been imprisoned nineteen years too. In the second campaign the English gained a considerable victory at Van Wy in a battle which was chiefly remarkable otherwise for the resorting to the odd expedient of tying their baggage horses together by the heads and tails and jumbling them up with a baggage so as to convert them into a sort of live fortification, which was found useful to the troops but which I should think was not agreeable to the horses. For three years afterwards very little was done owing to both sides being too poor for war which is a very expensive entertainment, but a council was then held in Paris in which it was decided to lay siege to the town of Orleans, which was a place of great importance to the Dolphin's cause. An English army of ten thousand men was dispatched on this service under the command of the Earl of Salisbury, a general of fame. He, being unfortunately killed early in the siege, the Earl of Suffolk took his place under whom, reinforced by Sir John Falstaff, who brought up four hundred wagons laden with salt herrings and other provisions for the troops and beating off the French who tried to intercept him, came victorious out of a hot skirmish which was afterwards called in jest the battle of the herrings. The town of Orleans was so completely hemmed in that the besieged proposed to yield it up to their countryman the Duke of Burgundy. The English general, however, replied that his Englishmen had won it so far by their blood and valor and that his Englishmen must have it. There seemed to be no hope for the town or for the Dolphin who was so dismayed that he even thought of flying to Scotland or to Spain when a peasant girl rose up and changed the whole state of affairs. The story of this peasant girl I have now to tell. Part II The Story of Joan of Arc In a remote village among some wild hills in the province of Lorraine there lived a countryman whose name was Joach the Arc. He had a daughter, Joan of Arc, who was at this time in her 20th year. She had been a solitary girl from her childhood. She had often tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was seen or human voice heard, and she had often knelt for hours together in the gloomy, empty little village chapel, looking up at the altar and at the dim lamp burning before it, until she fancied that she saw shadowy figures standing there and even that she heard them speak to her. The people in that part of France were very ignorant and superstitious, and they had many ghostly tales to tell about what they had dreamed and what they saw among the lonely hills when the clouds and the mists were resting on them. So they easily believed that Joan saw strange sights and they whispered among themselves that angels and spirits talked to her. At last Joan told her father that she had one day been surprised by a great unearthly light and had afterwards heard a solemn voice, which said it was St. Michael's voice telling her that she was to go and help the Dauphin. Soon after this, she said, St. Catherine and St. Margaret had appeared to her with sparkling crowns upon their heads and had encouraged her to be virtuous and resolute. These visions had returned sometimes, but the voices very often and the voices always said, Joan, thou art appointed by heaven to go and help the Dauphin. She almost always heard them while the chapel bells were ringing. Now there is no doubt now that Joan believed she saw and heard these things. It is very well known that such delusions are a disease which is not by any means uncommon. It is probable enough that there were figures of St. Michael and St. Catherine and St. Margaret in the little chapel where they would be very likely to have shining crowns upon their heads, and that they first gave Joan the idea of these three personages. She had long been a moping, fanciful girl, and though she was a very good girl, I dare say she was a little vain and wishful for notoriety. Her father, something wiser than his neighbor, said, I tell thee, Joan, it is thy fancy, and thou hath better have a kind husband to take care of thee, girl, and work to employ thy mind. But Joan told him in reply that she had taken a vow never to have a husband, and that she must go as heaven directed her to help the Dauphin. It happened, unfortunately for her father's persuasions, and most unfortunately for the poor girl too, that a party of the Dauphin's enemies found their way into the village while Joan's disorder was at this point and burnt the chapel, and drove out the inhabitants. The cruelty she saw committed touched Joan's heart and made her worse. She said that the voices and the figures were now continually with her, that they told her she was the girl who, according to an old prophecy, was to deliver France, and she must go and help the Dauphin, and must remain with him until he should be crowned at Reims, and that she must travel a long way to a certain lord named Baudrecourt, who could and would bring her into the Dauphin's presence. As her father still said, I tell thee, Joan, it is thy fancy, she set off to find out this lord, accompanied by an uncle, a poor village wheelwright, and cart-maker who believed in the reality of her visions. They travelled a long way, and went on and on, over a rough country, full of the Duke of Burgundy's men, and of all kinds of robbers and marauders, until they came to where this lord was. When his servants told him that there was a poor peasant girl named Joan of Arc, accompanied by nobody but an old village wheelwright and cart-maker, who wished to see him because she was commanded to help the Dauphin and save France, Baudrecourt burst out a laughing, and bad them send the girl away. But he soon heard so much about her lingering in the town, and praying in the churches, and seeing visions, and doing harm to no one, that he sent for her and questioned her. As she said the same things after she had been well sprinkled with holy water, as she had said before the sprinkling, Baudrecourt began to think there might be something in it. At all events, he thought it worthwhile to send her on to the town of Chineau, where the Dauphin was. So he bought her a horse, and a sword, and gave her two squires to conduct her. As the voices had told Joan that she was to wear a man's dress, now she put one on, and girded her sword to her side, and bound spurs to her heels, and mounted her horse, and rode away with her two squires. As to her uncle the wheelwright, he stood staring at his niece in wonder until she was out of sight, as well he might, and then went home again. The best place, too. Joan and her two squires rode on and on, until they came to Chineau, where she was, after some doubt, admitted into the Dauphin's presence. Picking him out immediately from all his court, she told him that she came commanded by heaven to subdue his enemies, and conduct him to his coronation at Reims. She also told him, or he pretended so afterwards, to make the greater impression upon his soldiers, a number of his secrets known only to himself, and, furthermore, she said there was an old, old sword in the Cathedral of Saint Catherine at Fillebois marked with five old crosses on the blade which Saint Catherine had ordered her to wear. Now nobody knew anything about this old, old sword, but when the Cathedral came to be examined, which was immediately done, there, sure enough, the sword was found. The Dauphin then required a number of grave priests and bishops to give him their opinion whether the girl derived her power from good spirits or from evil spirits, which they held prodigiously long debates about, in the course of which several learned men fell fast asleep and snored loudly. At last, when one gruff old gentleman had said to Joan, What language do your voices speak? and when Joan had replied to the gruff old gentleman, a pleasanter language than yours, they agreed that it was all correct and that Joan of Arc was inspired from heaven. This wonderful circumstance put new heart into the Dauphin's soldiers when they heard of it and dispirited the English army who took Joan for a witch. So Joan mounted horse again and again rode on and on until she came to Orleans, but she rode now as never peasant girl had ridden yet.  In this splendid state, at the head of a great body of troops escorting provisions of all kinds for the starving inhabitants of Orleans, she appeared before that beleaguered city. When the people on the walls beheld her, they cried out, The maid is come, the maid of the prophecy is come to deliver us. And this, and the sight of the maid fighting at the head of their men, made the French so bold and made the English so fearful that the English line of forts was soon broken, the troops and provisions were got into the town and Orleans was saved. Joan, henceforth called the maid of Orleans, remained within the walls for a few days and caused letters to be thrown over, ordering Lord Suffolk and his Englishmen to depart from before the town according to the will of heaven. As the English general very positively declined to believe that Joan knew anything about the will of heaven, which did not mend the matter with his soldiers for they stupidly said if she were not inspired she was a witch and it was of no use to fight against a witch.  The besiegers held the bridge and some strong towers upon the bridge, and here the maid of Orleans attacked them. The fight was fourteen hours long. She planted a scaling ladder with her own hands and mounted a tower wall, but was struck by an English arrow in the neck and fell into the trench. She was carried away and the arrow was taken out during which operation she screamed and cried with the pain, as any other girl might have done, but presently she said that the voices were speaking to her and soothing her to rest. After a while she got up and was again foremost in the fight. When the English, who had seen her fall and supposed her dead, saw this they were troubled with the strangest fears and some of them cried out that they beheld Saint Michael on a white horse, who probably Joan herself, fighting for the French. They lost the bridge and lost the towers and next day set their chain of forts on fire and left the place. But as Lord Suffolk himself retired no farther than the town of Jargo, which was only a few miles off, the maid of Orleans besieged him there and he was taken prisoner. As the white banner scaled the wall she was struck upon the head with a stone and was again tumbled down into the ditch. But she only cried all the more as she lay there, on, on, my countrymen, and fear nothing, for the Lord hath delivered them into her hands. After this new success of the maids, several other fortresses and places, which had previously held out against the Dauphin, were delivered up without a battle, and at Pate she defeated the remainder of the English army and set up her victorious white banner on a field where twelve hundred Englishmen lay dead. She now urged the Dauphin, who always kept out of the way when there was any fighting, to proceed to Reims as the first part of her mission was accomplished, and to complete the whole by being crowned there. The Dauphin was in no particular hurry to do this, as Reims was a long way off, and the English and the Duke of Burgundy were still strong in the country through which the road lay. However, they set forth with ten thousand men and again the maid of Orleans rode on and on upon her white war horse and in her shining armor. Whenever they came to a town which yielded readily, the soldiers believed in her, but whenever they came to a town which gave them any trouble, they began to murmur that she was an imposter. The latter was particularly the case at Troy, which finally yielded, however, through the persuasion of one Richard, a friar of the place. Friar Richard was in the old doubt about the maid of Orleans until he had sprinkled her well with holy water, and had also well sprinkled the threshold of the gate by which she came into the city. Finding that it made no change in her or the gate, he said, as the other grave-old gentleman had said, that it was all right, and became her great ally. So, at last, by dint of riding on and on, the maid of Orleans and the Dolphin and the ten thousand sometimes believing and sometimes unbelieving men came to Reims, and in the great cathedral of Reims the Dolphin actually was crowned Charles the Seventh in a great assembly of the people. Then, the maid, who with her white banner stood beside the king in that hour of his triumph, kneeled down upon the pavement at his feet, and said, with tears, that what she had been inspired to do was done, and that the only recompense she asked for was, that she should now have leave to go back to her distant home, and her sturdily incredulous father and her first simple escort the village wheelwright and cartmaker. But the king said, no, and made her and her family as noble as a king could, and settled upon her the income of account. Ah, happy had it been for the maid of Orleans if she had resumed her rustic dress that day, and had gone home to the little chapel and the wild hills, and had forgotten all these things, and had been a good man's wife, and had heard no stranger voices than the voices of little children. It was not to be, and she continued helping the king, she did a world for him in alliance with Friar Richard, and trying to improve the lives of the core soldiers, and leading a religious, unselfish, and modest life herself beyond any doubt. Still, many times she prayed the king to let her go home, and once she even took off her bright armor, and hung it up in a church, meaning never to wear it more. But the king always won her back again, while she was of any use to him, and so she went on, and on, and on, to her doom. When the Duke of Bedford, who was a very able man, began to be active for England, and by bringing the war back into France, and by holding the Duke of Burgundy to his faith, to distress and disturb Charles very much, Charles sometimes asked the maid of Orleans what the voices said about it. But the voices had become, very like ordinary voices in perplexed times, contradictory and confused, so that now they said one thing, and now said another, and the maid lost credit every day. Charles marched on Paris, which was opposed to him, and attacked the suburb of Saint-Honoré. In this fight, being again struck down into the ditch, she was abandoned by the whole army. She lay unaided among a heap of dead, and crawled out how she could. Then some of her believers went over to an opposition maid, Catherine of La Rochelle, who said she was inspired to tell where there were treasures of buried money, though she never did, and then Joan accidentally broke the old, old sword, and others said that her power was broken with it. Finally, at the siege of Compeyenne, held by the Duke of Burgundy, where she did valiant service, she was basically left alone in a retreat, though facing about and fighting to the last, and an archer pulled her off her horse. Oh, the uproar that was made, and the thanksgivings that were sung about the capture of this one poor country girl! Oh, the way in which she was demanded to be tried for sorcery, and heresy, and anything else you like, by the inquisitor general of France, and by this great man, and by that great man, until it is weary some to think of. She was bought at last by the bishop of Bouvet, for ten thousand francs, and was shut up in her narrow prison, playing Joan of Arc again, and made of Orleans no more. I should never have done if I were to tell you how they had Joan out to examine her, and cross-examine her, and re-examine her, and worry her into saying anything and everything, and how all sorts of scholars and doctors bestowed their utmost tediousness upon her. Sixteen times she was brought out and shut up again, and worried, and entrapped, and argued with, until she was heart-sick of the dreary business. On the last occasion of this kind she was brought into a burial place at Rouen, dismally decorated with a scaffold, and a stake, and faggots, and the executioner, and a pulpit with a fryer therein, and an awful sermon ready. It is very affecting to know that even at that pass the poor girl honored the mean vermin of a king, who had so used her for his purposes, and so abandoned her, and that while she had been regardless of reproaches heaped upon herself, she spoke out courageously for him. It was natural in one so young to hold to life. To save her life she signed a declaration prepared for her, signed it with a cross for, she couldn't write, that all her visions and voices had come from the devil, upon her recanting the past, and protesting that she would never wear a man's dress in future, she was condemned to imprisonment for life, on the bread of sorrow and the water of affliction. But on the bread of sorrow and the water of affliction the visions and the voices soon returned. It was quite natural that they should do so, for that kind of disease is much aggravated by fasting loneliness and anxiety of mind. It was not only got out of Joan that she considered herself inspired again, but she was taken in a man's dress, which had been left to entrap her in her prison, and which she put on in her solitude, perhaps in remembrance of her past glories, perhaps because the imaginary voices told her. For this relapse into the sorcery and heresy and anything else you like she was sentenced to be burnt to death, and, in the marketplace of Rouen, in the hideous dress which the monks had invented for such spectacles, with priests and bishops sitting in a gallery looking on, though some had the Christian grace to go away, unable to endure the infamous scene.  They threw her ashes into the River Seine, but they will rise against her murderers on the last day. From the moment of her capture, neither the French king nor one single man in all his court raised a finger to save her. It is no defense of them that they may have never really believed in her, or that they may have won her victories by their skill and bravery. The more they pretended to believe in her, the more they had caused her to believe in herself, and she had ever been true to them, ever brave, ever nobly devoted. But it is no wonder that they, who were in all things false to themselves, false to one another, false to their country, false to heaven, false to earth, should be monsters of ingratitude and treachery to a helpless peasant girl. In the picturesque old town of Rouen, where weeds and grass grow high on the cathedral towers, and the venerable Norman streets are still warm in the blessed sunlight, though the monkish fires that once gleamed horribly upon them have long grown cold, there is a statue of Joan of Arc in the scene of her last agony, the square to which she has given its present name. I know some statues of modern times, even in the world's metropolis, I think, which commemorate less constancy, less earnestness, smaller claims upon the world's attention, and much greater imposters. Part III Bad deeds seldom prosper, happily for mankind, and the English cause gained no advantage from the cruel death of Joan of Arc. For a long time the war went heavily on, the Duke of Bedford died, the alliance with the Duke of Burgundy was broken, the Lord Talbot became a great general on the English side in France. But two of the consequences of war are famine, because the people cannot peacefully cultivate the ground, and pestilence, which comes of want, misery, and suffering. Both these horrors broke out in both countries, and lasted for two wretched years. Then the war went on again, and it came by slow degrees to be so badly conducted by the English government that, within twenty years from the execution of the maid of Orleans, of all the great French conquests, the town of Calais alone remained in English hands. While these victories and defeats were taking place in the course of time, many strange things happened at home. The young king, as he grew up, proved to be very unlike his great father, and showed himself a miserable puny creature. There was no harm in him, he had a greaterversion to shedding blood, which was something, but he was a weak, silly, helpless young man, and a mere shuttlecock to the great lordly battle doors about the court. Of these battle doors, Cardinal Beaufort, a relation of the king, and the Duke of Gloucester were at first the most powerful. The Duke of Gloucester had a wife, who was nonsensically accused of practicing witchcraft to cause the king's death, and lead to her husband's coming to the throne, he being the next heir.  It was supposed, in such cases, that the death of the person whom the doll was made to represent was sure to happen.  However, she was tried for it, and so was old Marjorie, and so was one of the Duke's chaplains who was charged with having assisted them. Both he and Marjorie were put to death, and the Duchess, after being taken on foot and bearing a lighted candle, three times around the city as a penance, was imprisoned for life. The Duke himself took all this pretty quietly and made his little stir about the matter as if he were rather glad to be rid of the Duchess. But he was not destined to keep himself out of trouble long. The royal shuttlecock being three and twenty, the battle-doors were very anxious to get him married. The Duke of Gloucester wanted him to marry a daughter of the Count of Amrignac, but the Cardinal and the Earl of Suffolk were all for Margaret, the daughter of the king of Sicily, who they knew was a resolute, ambitious woman and would govern the king as she chose. To make friends with this lady, the Earl of Suffolk, who went over to arrange the match, consented to accept her for the king's wife without any fortune, and even to give up the two most valuable possessions England then had in France. So the marriage was arranged on terms very advantageous to the lady, and Lord Suffolk brought her to England, and she was married at Westminster. On what pretense this queen and her party charged the Duke of Gloucester with high treason within a couple years it is impossible to make out. The matter is so confused, but they pretended that the king's life was in danger and they took the Duke prisoner. A fortnight afterwards he was found dead in bed, they said, and his body was shown to the people, and Lord Suffolk came in for the best part of his estates. You know by this time how strangely liable state prisoners were to sudden death. If Cardinal Beaufort had any hand in this matter it did him no good, for he died within six weeks, thinking it very hard and curious, at eighty years old, that he could not live to be pope. This was the time when England had completed her loss of all her great French conquests. The people charged the loss principally upon the Earl of Suffolk, now a Duke, who had made those easy terms about the royal marriage and who, they believed, had even been bought by France. So he was impeached as a traitor, on a great number of charges, but chiefly on accusations of having aided the French king and of designing to make his own son King of England. The commons and the people being violent against him, the king was made, by his friends, to interpose to save him, by banishing him for five years and proroguing the parliament. The Duke had much adieu to escape from a London mob, two thousand strong who lay in wait for him in St. Giles' fields, but he got down to his own estates in Suffolk and sailed away from Ipswich. Sailing across the Channel he sent into Calais to know if he might land there, but they kept his boat and men in the harbour until an English ship carrying a hundred and fifty men and called the Nicholas of the Tower, came alongside his little vessel and ordered him on board. Welcome traitor, as men say, was the captain's grim and not very respectful salutation. He was kept on board a prisoner for eight and forty hours, and then a small boat appeared rowing toward the ship. As this boat came nearer, it was seen to have in it a block, a rusty sword, and an executioner in a black mask. The Duke was handed down into it, and there his head was cut off with six strokes of the rusty sword. Then the little boat rode away to Dover Beach, where the body was cast out, and left until the Duchess claimed it, by whom, high in authority, this murder was committed, has never appeared. No one was ever punished for it. There now arose in Kent an Irishman, who gave himself the name of Mortimer, but whose real name was Jack Cade. Jack, in imitation of Watt Tyler, though he was a very different and inferior sort of man, addressed the Kentish men upon their wrongs, occasioned by the bad government of England, among so many battle-doors and such a poor shuttlecock, and the Kentish men rose up to the number of twenty thousand. Their place of assembly was Blackheath, where, headed by Jack, they put forth two papers, which they called, The Complaint of the Commons of Kent, and The Requests of the Captain of the Great Assembly in Kent. They then retired to Seven Oaks. The Royal Army, coming up with them here, they beat it and killed their general. Then Jack dressed himself in the dead general's armor and led his men to London. Jack passed into the city from Southwick, over the bridge, and entered it in triumph, giving the strictest order to his men not to plunder. Having made a show of his forces there, while the citizens looked on quietly, he went back into Southwick in good order, and passed the night. Next day he came back again, having got hold in the meantime of, Lord Say, an unpopular nobleman. Says Jack to the Lord Mayor and judges, would you be so good as to make a tribunal in Guildhall and try me this nobleman? The court being hastily made, he was found guilty, and Jack and his men cut his head off on Cornhill. The also cut off the head of his son-in-law, and then went back in good order to Southwick again. But, although the citizens could bear the beheading of an unpopular Lord, they could not bear to have their houses pillaged. And it did so happen that Jack, after dinner, perhaps he had drunk a little too much, began to plunder the house where he lodged, upon which, of course, his men began to imitate him. Wherefore, the Londoners took counsel with Lord Scales, who had a thousand soldiers in the tower, and defended London Bridge, and kept Jack and his people out. This advantage gained, it was resolved by divers great men to divide Jack's army in the old way, by making a great many promises on behalf of the state that were never intended to be performed. This did divide them, as some of Jack's men saying that they ought to take the conditions which were offered, and others saying that they ought not, for they were only a snare, some going home at once, others staying where they were and all doubting and quarreling among themselves. Jack, who was in two minds about fighting or accepting a pardon, and who indeed did both, saw at last that there was nothing to expect from his men, and that it was very likely some of them would deliver him up and get a reward for a thousand marks, which was offered for his apprehension. And so, after they had travelled and quarrelled all the way from Southwick to Blackheath, and from Blackheath to Rochester, he mounted a good horse and galloped away into Sussex. But there galloped after him, on a better horse, one Alexander Eiden, who came up with him, had a hard fight with him, and killed him. Jack's head was settled off on London Bridge, with a face looking toward Blackheath, where he had raised his flag, and Alexander Eiden got the thousand marks. It is supposed by some that the Duke of York, who had been removed from a high post abroad through the Queen's influence, and sent out of the way to govern Ireland, was at the bottom of this rising of Jack and his men, because he wanted to trouble the government. He claimed, though not yet publicly, to have a better right to the throne than Henry of Lancaster, as one of the family of the Earl of March, whom Henry IV had set aside. Touching this claim, which, being through female relationship, was not according to the usual dissent, it is enough to say that Henry IV was the free choice of the people and the parliament, and that his family had now reigned undisputed for sixty years. The memory of Henry V was so famous, and the English people loved it so much, that the Duke of York's claim would perhaps never have been thought of.  These two circumstances gave the Duke of York a power he could not otherwise have had. Whether the Duke knew anything of Jack, Cade, or not, he came over from Ireland while Jack's head was on London Bridge, being secretly advised that the Queen was setting up his enemy, the Duke of Somerset, against him. He went to Westminster at the head of four thousand men, and on his knees before the King represented to him the bad state of the country, and petitioned him to summon a parliament to consider it. This the King promised. When the parliament was summoned, the Duke of York accused the Duke of Somerset, and the Duke of Somerset accused the Duke of York, and both in and out of the parliament the followers of each party were full of violence and hatreds toward the other. At length the Duke of York put himself at the head of a large force of his tenants, and, in arms, demanded the reformation of the government. Being shut out of London, he encamped at Dartford, and the Royal Army encamped at Blackheath. According as either side triumphed, the Duke of York was arrested, or the Duke of Somerset was arrested. The trouble ended for the moment in the Duke of York renewing his oath of allegiance and going in peace to one of his own castles. Half a year afterwards the Queen gave birth to a son, who was very ill received by the people, and not believed to be the son of the King. It shows the Duke of York to have been a moderate man unwilling to involve England in new troubles, that he did not take advantage of the general discontent at this time, but really acted for the public good. He was made a member of the cabinet, and the King being now so much worse that he could not be carried about, and shown to the people with any decency, the Duke was made Lord Protector of the Kingdom until the King should recover or the Prince should come of age. At the same time the Duke of Somerset was committed to the tower, so now the Duke of Somerset was down, and the Duke of York was up. By the end of the year, however, the King recovered his memory and some spark of sense upon which the Queen used her power, which recovered with him, to get the Protector disgraced and her favorite released. So now the Duke of York was down, and the Duke of Somerset was up. These ducal ups and downs gradually separated the whole nation into the two parties of York and Lancaster, and led to those terrible civil wars long known as the Wars of the Red and White Roses, because the Red Rose was the badge of the House of Lancaster, and the White Rose was the badge of the House of York. The Duke of York, joined by some other powerful nobleman of the White Rose Party and leading a small army, met the King with another small army at St. Albans, and demanded that the Duke of Somerset should be given up. The poor King, being made to say an answer that he would sooner die, was instantly attacked. The Duke of Somerset was killed, and the King himself was wounded in the neck, and took refuge in the House of a poor tenor. Whereupon the Duke of York went to him, led him with great submission to the Abbey, and said he was very sorry for what had happened. Having now the King in his possession, he got a Parliament Summoned, and himself once more made Protector, but only for a few months, for, on the King getting a little better again, the Queen and her Party got him into their possession, and disgraced the Duke once more, so now the Duke of York was down again. Some of the best men in power, seeing the danger of these constant changes, tried even then to prevent the Red and the White Rose Wars. They brought about a great council in London between the two parties. The White Roses assembled in Black Friars, the Red Roses in White Friars, and some good priests communicated between them, and made the proceedings known at evening to the King and the Judges. They ended in a peaceful agreement that there should be no more quarreling, and there was a great royal procession to St. Paul's, in which the Queen walked arm in arm with her old enemy, the Duke of York, to show the people how comfortable they all were. This state of peace lasted half a year, when a dispute between the Earl of Warwick, one of the Duke's powerful friends, and some of the King's servants at court, led to an attack upon that Earl, who was a White Rose, and to a sudden breaking out of all old animosities. So here were greater ups and downs than ever. There were even greater ups and downs than these soon after. After various battles the Duke of York fled to Ireland, and his son the Earl of March to Calais, with their friends the Earl of Salisbury and Warwick, and a Parliament was held declaring them all traitors. Little the worse for this, the Earl of Warwick presently came back, landed in Kent, and was joined by the Archbishop of Canterbury and other powerful noblemen and gentlemen, engaged the King's forces at Northampton, signally defeated them, and took the King himself prisoner, who was found in his tent. Warwick would have been glad, I dare say, to have taken the Queen and Prince too, but they escaped into Wales and thence into Scotland. The King was carried by the victorious force straight to London, and made to call a new Parliament, which immediately declared that the Duke of York and those other noblemen were not traitors, but excellent subjects. Then back comes the Duke from Ireland, at the head of five hundred horsemen, rides from London to Westminster, and enters the House of Lords. There he laid his hand upon the cloth of gold which covered the empty throne, as if he had half a mind to sit down in it, but he did not. On the Archbishop of Canterbury asking him if he would visit the King, who was in his palace close by, he replied, I know no one in this country, my Lord, who ought not to visit me. None of the Lord's presence spoke a single word, so the Duke went out as he had come in, established himself royally in the King's palace, and, as six days afterwards, set in to the Lord's a formal statement of his claim to the throne. The Lord's went to the King on this momentous subject, and after a great deal of discussion, in which the judges and the other law officers were afraid to give an opinion on either side, the question was compromised. It was agreed that the present King should retain the crown for his life, and that it should then pass to the Duke of York and his heirs. But the Resolute Queen, determined on asserting her son's right, would hear of no such thing. She came from Scotland to the north of England, where several powerful Lords armed in her cause. The Duke of York, for his part, set off with some five thousand men, a little time before Christmas Day, one thousand four hundred and sixty, to give her battle. He lodged at Sandal Castle near Wakefield, and the red roses defied him to come out on Wakefield Green and fight them then and there. His generals said he had best wait until his gallant son, the Earl of March, came up with his power, but he was determined to accept the challenge. He did so in an evil hour. He was hotly pressed on all sides, two thousand of his men lay dead on Wakefield Green, and he himself was taken prisoner. They set him down in Mox State on an anthill, and twisted grass about his head, and pretended to pay court to him on their knees, saying, O King without a kingdom, and Prince without a people, we hope your gracious Majesty is very well and happy. They did worse than this. They cut his head off, and handed it on a pole to the Queen, who laughed with delight when she saw it. You recollect their walking so religiously and comfortably to St. Paul's, and had it fixed with a paper crown upon its head on the walls of York. The Earl of Salisbury lost his head too, and the Duke of York's second son, a handsome boy who was flying with his tutor over Wakefield Bridge, was stabbed in the heart by a murderous Lord, Lord Clifford by name, whose father had been killed by the white roses in the fight at St. Albans. There was awful sacrifice of life in this battle, for no quarter was given, and the Queen was wild for revenge. When men unnaturally fight against their own countrymen, they are always observed to be more unnaturally cruel and filled with rage than they are against any other enemy. But Lord Clifford had stabbed the second son of the Duke of York, not the first. The eldest son, Edward Earl of March, was at Gloucester, and, vowing vengeance for the death of his father, his brother, and their faithful friends, he began to march against the Queen. He had to turn and fight a great body of Welsh and Irish first who worried his advance. These he defeated in a great fight at Mortimer's Cross near Hurford, where he beheaded a number of the white roses taken in battle in retaliation for the beheading of the white roses at Wakefield. The Queen had the next turn of beheading, having moved toward London and falling in between St. Albans and Barnett with the Earl of Orwick and the Duke of Norfolk. White roses both, who were there with an army to oppose her and had got the King with them, she defeated them with great loss and struck off the heads of two prisoners of note who were in the King's tent with him and to whom the King had promised his protection. Her triumph, however, was very short. She had no treasure and her army persisted by plunder. This caused them to be hated and dreaded by the people and particularly by the London people who were wealthy. As soon as the Londoners heard that Edward Earl of March, united with the Earl of Orwick, was advancing toward the city, they refused to send the Queen's supplies and made a great rejoicing. The Queen and her men retreated with all speed, and Edward and Orwick came on, greeted with loud acclamations on every side. The courage, beauty, and virtues of young Edward could not be sufficiently praised by the whole people. He rode into London like a conqueror, and met with an enthusiastic welcome. A few days afterwards, Lord Falcom Bridge and the Bishop of Exeter assembled the citizens in St. John's Field, Clurkenwell, and asked them if they would have Henry of Lancaster for their King. To this they all roared, No, no, no, and King Edward, King Edward, then said those noblemen, Would they love and serve young Edward? To this they all cried, Yes, yes, and threw up their caps and clapped their hands and cheered tremendously. Therefore it was declared that by joining the Queen and not protecting those two prisoners of note Henry of Lancaster had forfeited the crown and Edward of York was proclaimed King. He made a great speech to the applauding people at Westminster and sat down as sovereign of England on that throne, on the golden covering of which his father, worthy of a better fate than the bloody axe which cut the thread of so many lives in England through so many years, had laid his hand.