The 1958 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology was awarded jointly to Dr. Statham, Beedle, and Letterberg for their work in genetics and heredity. Dr. Statham will lecture this afternoon on the possibility of manipulating genetic change. Dr. Statham. President Carlson, Professor Cush, ladies and gentlemen, after these most laudatory comments, since I am sure that I cannot live up to them, I shall do my best to disillusion you. Who ran away with my manuscript? Professor Cush is initiating the disillusionment. In discussing and evaluating the possibilities of manipulating man's genetic heritage or genetic constitution, the responsibility assigned to me in this symposium, it seems best to lay the foundations by defining what we mean by the terms and what we understand by genetic heritage and by manipulation. As often as true, we can focus on the definition of genetics best by asking further questions. What is a gene? How does a gene act? And how does a gene change or mutate? Before the advent of the new concepts and techniques of molecular biology and genetics, is that better? The answers to these questions were available only in a gross operational sense. For example, a gene is the chromosomal unit of heredity which replicates itself precisely in each cell division and which is characterized, which is inherited by Mendelian laws and which determines a visible distinguishable phenotypic character. And the gene, finally, is subject to random change or mutation, recognizable by a corresponding identifiable change in the resulting phenotype or appearance and behavior of the organism. This change, in turn, is hereditary. Today, we are able to enlarge upon these definitions and terms of molecules, as Professor Cush implied, with specific chemical structures and biological functions. May I have the first slide, please? For example, we can now speak of a gene as a molecule of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, of which you see the classical progenitor molecule as described first by Watson and Crick in their now famous formulation. This molecule is composed of a double helix. You can see the two helices intertwined, each of which is made up of two backbones of alternating sugar and phosphate units to which are attached four different pyrimidine and purine bases. The individuality of each gene depends on the exact sequential order of the bases along each single strand. The bases are arranged on the two intertwined strands of the double helix in a complementary order, such that adenine on one strand is held to thine on the other and guanine to cytosine by hydrogen bonds, thus maintaining the double helix. The rungs in the helical ladder are the hydrogen bonds attached to the bases on the opposing helical strands. May we have the next slide, please? If you can see this, this is an actual atomic model of the same molecule, showing in greater detail and greater accuracy the actual spatial arrangement of the atoms making up this complicated molecule. It should also be pointed out that this is only a small segment, maybe one hundredth or a thousandth of the total length of the DNA molecule. And finally, the third slide, please, to show you that this has some reality aside from models and diagrams. If you can see that you see the long thread extending throughout the background granular material, this is a thread of DNA, in this case isolated from mitochondria of Norospera in our laboratory. This is a typical appearance of a DNA thread as isolated from most antimaterial bacteria, bacteriophage, or other DNA containing genetic entities. We can visualize the essential genetic function of replication of each gene. May I have the next slide, please? As an enzymatic process of assembly of two new daughter strands on the parental strands, each of which, through the same specific pairing of bases, serves as a template or pattern in the assembly process. This is the upper portion of the diagram. The G is the gene. This is replicating to form a duplicate of itself, upwards. We also have a clearer picture of gene action with one strand of the same DNA model, the gene, serving as a template for the enzymatic assembly of a complementary single-stranded molecule of another type of nucleic acid, RNA, ribonucleic acid, which serves as a messenger, M, to carry the information coded in the base sequence of the DNA from the nucleus of the cell to the cytoplasm. This is the lower portion, the transcription process. Here in the cytoplasm, this information is read by the protein factories of the cells, the ribosomes, and transcribed by the assembly of activated amino acids into enzymes and other proteins. These enzymes are protein catalysts which have very specific jobs to do in the cell, and the total complex of enzymes of each cell determines all the potential complex properties and characteristics of that cell, that is, its metabolism, its function, and ultimately, in a more complex relationship, its appearance and behavior. Thus, the entire sequence of events involved in the translation of the genotype into phenotype is interpretable as a translation of DNA into protein by steps which we are coming to understand in greater and greater detail. One of these is illustrated in the next slide, please. At the top of this slide, you see the messenger RNA molecule, which is a direct replica, if you like, or complement of one of the DNA strands. You see each triplet code of bases represented by the GCA, for example, on the messenger RNA, attracts by complementation to it a molecule of another type, small molecular type of RNA called adapter RNA or transfer RNA, as shown on the right, that CGU is specifically bound to, attracted to the three coding bases on the messenger RNA. Each adapter RNA molecule is specific for a particular amino acid, which you see down at the other tail end. If these are each then bound in correct sequence, as determined by the particular type of triplet in the messenger RNA, this brings the amino acids in correct sequence and configuration to form by loss of water, to form a polypeptide chain, which is a protein and because of its sequential array of amino acids, it has the specific functions in the cell, which are gene determined. You can see from this figure also that at the molecular basis, mutation can be thought of and at the simplest level is indeed thought of as an exchange of one base for another, such that, for example, GCA might become GUA in the messenger RNA. And you can see how this would determine the, eventually, the synthesis of or the incorporation into the protein molecule of a new amino acid replacing the one originally called for by the original code. May I have the lights, please, or slide off. Depending on the particular amino acid involved in the replacement and the importance of its position in the enzyme molecule, the enzyme activity of the product may be qualitatively altered or may vary quantitatively from complete in activity, even if it is indeed synthesized, to normal activity or even to enhanced activity of the, quote, mutant enzyme. The development of these general concepts of molecular genetics has been due to several factors. One has been the extensive use of microorganisms referred to by Professor Cush, such as fungi, bacteria, and even viruses in attacking and clarifying the problems of the nature of the gene, of mechanism of gene replication, mechanisms of gene function, and the mechanism of mutation. Another factor has been the rapid increase in knowledge of the intimate structure of the complex macromolecules, such as the nucleic acids and the proteins, which make up the enzymes and structural constituents of the cells. One of the important recent advances conceptually has been the consequence of what we have just been going through, and that is that there is indeed a one-to-one relationship between the detailed molecular structure of the gene and the detailed molecular structure of the enzyme. The third important factor has been the development of techniques for isolating these molecules and for studying their interrelationships and their activities, as in in vitro systems prepared free of cells, operated and studied in a test tube in the laboratory. As examples of this, we may mention the x-ray diffraction analysis of DNA, which led to the recognition of its helical structure. The chromatographic techniques, which have been developed for the separation of minute quantities of materials, such as amino acids or peptides, and these are making possible the determination of the precise amino acid sequence, which make up an enzyme, as shown in the next slide, which we give an example of the first end, the detailed amino acid sequence in the first enzyme, which was so completely analyzed, ribonuclease. Slide off, please. Finally, techniques for the separating and reforming nucleic acid double helices, which are now available, are making it possible to detect base sequence similarities or homologies between two samples of DNA in a single-stranded form, or between DNA and RNA and study these, and use these as methods for isolating and studying messenger RNA and comparing its structure with DNA, for example. Finally, the development of cell-free systems capable of protein synthesis in a test tube is making possible detailed study of the role of RNA in this process, that is, the messenger RNA, with a consequence of approaching solution of the amino acid code, as it was called. For the purposes of this symposium, however, more pertinent than the details of these accomplishments is the emerging view that the principles of gene, nature, and action we have been outlining are, in essence, the same for all forms of life, from viruses to man, apparently including this triplet amino acid code. Hence, we may fairly confidently predict that to the extent to which we learn how to manipulate genetic change in microorganisms, we may in time and should in time be able to do so with higher multicellular organisms, including man. Let us therefore examine what might be meant by manipulation of genetic change. I would like to define manipulation in a broad practical or operational sense in terms of the experimental control or modification of the phenotypic expression of the genetic makeup of a cell or organism. As Dr. Glass pointed out so eloquently this morning, and the previous talk this afternoon, survival, selection, and evolution of a species must operate primarily at the level of interaction of its phenotype with its environment. However, in exceptional circumstances, the participation of an individual in the survival and evolution of his species may be decreased or prevented solely at the genetic level, as in cases of genetic sterility. Since, as we have seen, the long chain of reactions from genotype to phenotype runs from DNA to RNA to enzyme. And from the complex of enzymatic activities to ultimate phenotype, there are obviously many points of attack for control of operation of the overall sequence. This is illustrated in a crude sort of way by the next slide. The next one, please, which shows the action of a gene at the bottom of the slide determining the abilities, potentials of a cell, on up through tissues, organs to the ultimate organism, and finally these in turn interacting in a complex, as yet ill-defined way to determine the higher, some of the higher qualities of living organisms. And I slide off, please, to the extent to which we can indeed control gene expression, either by changing the genome or the gene itself, the genetic complex of an organism, or by regulating its functioning, we will be manipulating genetic heritage and change. Let us clarify these possibilities by categorizing them as different classes of biological engineering. We might call them eugenic engineering, or eugenics, genetic engineering, and eugenic engineering. Eugenic engineering or simply eugenics would involve the selection and recombination of genes already existing in the gene pool of a population. The effective application of eugenic engineering would require the identification of desirable and undesirable forms or alleles of genes, and the bringing of them together in combinations advantageous or desirable, both for the individual and for his species. Genetic engineering I would define as the change of undesirable to desirable genes by a process of directed or controlled mutation. And lastly, eugenic engineering, as the name implies, would be a designed modification or control of the expression of existing genes in an organism so as to lead to a correct more desirable phenotype. It should be noted in regard to all three categories that their effective application would require not only the technical know-how of a very high degree, but also that the manipulator be able to recognize or design a desirable gene or combination of genes in terms of their effects on an organism in relation to its environment. And as Dr. Glass pointed out, we cannot even predict what the environment of man will be in another century. Say nothing of ten years from now. As of now, we have only a limited technical know-how, and we are perhaps even further from the state of wisdom and insight needed to apply it advantageously, even if it were available. Let us now examine each of these three classes of biological engineering a little more closely with respect to the state of the art in microorganisms and the possibilities of their application to man. Eugenics, as you know, is to be discussed by Dr. Shockley, so I will not infringe too much, I hope, on his discussion this evening. But I want to make a few points. One of these is to emphasize that recombination of desirable existing genes and the elimination of harmful ones by selective breeding in any organism requires the ability to identify the presence of an undesired gene even when it is not obvious from the phenotype as for a recessive gene in a diploid organism. In haploid microorganisms, in contrast, all genes show their effects in each individual. In certain of the heritable, heritable metabolic disorders in man, however, as Dr. Reed pointed out one instance this morning, quantitative chemical tests are now available sensitive enough to distinguish an individual with two normal genes, so-called homozygous normal, from an individual with one normal and one mutant gene, the heterozygous individual. In such a case, eugenic counseling can be applied wisely and effectively. Examples of this type are PKU, phenylketonuria, and galactosemia. These are both hereditary metabolic diseases in man which have untreated result in mental retardation. They are characterized by the inability of the individual to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine and the sugar galactose respectively. Sensitive tests for detection of other hidden mutant genes will undoubtedly be developed as biochemical knowledge of the basic effects of these genes in the organism becomes available. Microorganisms, in contrast to man, have another important attribute, which applies not only to selective breeding and other techniques of gene recombination, but equally to the applicability of induced mutation or gene change. This attribute is a function of their size and simplicity so that an astronomically large population of individual cells can be grown and examined easily and rapidly. Hence, the microbial geneticist can afford to be satisfied if one bacterium out of a million is recovered with the sought-for genetic attributes, whether these result from a rare recombination of existing genes or from an equally rare mutation. Obviously, the situation is different with man. In microorganisms, because of their unique attributes already mentioned, several exceptional mechanisms of gene recombination have been discovered. Now I have the next slide, please. One takes place, as shown at the bottom, through cell-to-cell contact and passage of the, in this case, red bacterial chromosome from one cell, the F-plus or male cell, to the F-minus or female cell. Subsequently, gene reassortment takes place with daughter cell progeny receiving different combinations of the parental genes. This phenomenon was first observed at a recombination frequency of one in 10 to the eighth cells in the mixture. But now, with improved techniques and more fertile strains, the frequency can be as high as one in 10. Another type of gene transfer and recombination, also shown in this slide at the top, is the phenomenon of transformation. This involves the transfer of genes, the red material, in the form of DNA molecules in solution from one bacterial cell to another. It is then incorporated and recombined into the genome of the receptor cell. Thirdly, genic DNA, as shown in the middle, in the central line, genic DNA can be transferred from one bacterial cell to another via its incorporation into a bacterial virus, the little tail-like materials around the hexagonal head and the tail showing coming out of a burst bacterium looks like an Easter egg breaking. This process of transfer is called transduction and may be crudely compared to the transfer of the malaria parasite from one animal to another by a mosquito. Slide off, please. It seems rather unlikely that any of these processes can be applied directly to higher organisms and to man. Several considerations are involved in this conclusion. First is the relative infrequency of gene transfer by these methods, even in bacteria. Even if the efficiency could be raised to 100%, which is questionable in view of the multicellular structure of an organism such as man, unless it could be applied to germ cells, there would still remain the problem that human somatic cells are diploid, having two representatives of each gene instead of one as do the haploid cells of most microorganisms or the germ cells of man. Gene transfer applied to somatic cell, therefore, would have to be, in order to be completely effective, would have to involve the two genes in each cell. A saving consideration here, however, is that most gene mutations, as was pointed out by Professor Glass, most gene mutations are recessive and harmful. And one normal or active cell per gene is enough to correct most mutant phenotypes. So one might have to transfer only one gene and get it incorporated into a cell in order to counterbalance or repair a genetically determined malfunction of metabolism. This is true for the simple mutant metabolic disorders of man of which we've already mentioned, such as PKU and galactosemia. In spite of these limitations to the applicability of microbial type gene transfer to man, they conceivably could be used indirectly, even with man. It is now possible, and this is pure speculation, it is now possible to grow some types of human cells and animal cells and culture in the laboratory and even to clone them. By this term is meant the isolation of a single cell and the growth of its progeny daughter cells to extremely large numbers. Thus, in essence, human cells can now be grown and experimented with just as can bacterial cells. Studies of such human cell strains have indeed shown that in some cases the cells retain the phenotypic, this enzymatic, characteristics shown by the individual from whom they were derived. Thus, it seems feasible to attempt recombination and mutation studies with suitably marked or identifiable strains, just as was done successfully with bacteria. Already encouraging results have been obtained. The formation of hybrid mammalian cells, I use hybrid in a certain limited sense, of hybrid mammalian cells has been reported in mixed cultures, as detected by morphologically distinctive chromosomes used as identifying markers. May I have the next slide, please? Probably most of you are familiar with the appearance of human chromosomes. Just to refresh your memory, by using this slide, you can see that there are various sizes and shapes, and some of these, in the case of particular aberrations or changes in the chromosomes, can be even more distinctive and characteristic than these that you see here, which are relatively or completely normal. Also, the second encouraging type of result, which is only a beginning to date, is the transfer of drug resistance characters of one mouse cell line to another cell line by DNA, as in bacterial transformation. And this has been reported by two laboratories. Transduction, the third method of bacterial recombination or transfer via a virus vector, is currently receiving considerable attention as of possible significance in the production of tumors in animals by tumor viruses. And just to bring this to you with a little concrete illustration, the next slide will show the transformation of human, normal human cells on the left in culture. Transformation to a changed morphology and an increased malignancy as determined in animals. Similarity to tumor cells by exposure to a tumor virus. This is taken from the work of Anders. Slide off, please. It thus seems not too fanciful to foresee the possibility of applying some or several of these bacterial techniques of gene transfer and recombination to human cells in culture. Even a rare recombinant cell in tissue culture could, in theory, be selected and grown to very large numbers. Similar considerations as to selectivity and culture apply to the second class of biological engineering. Genetic engineering or directed mutation. In microorganisms we are already learning techniques of producing mutations in a somewhat nonrandom manner by the use of chemical mutagens such as nitrous acid or formaldehyde which attack certain groupings on the nucleic acid molecule specifically and by the use of synthetic molecules related to the nucleic acid bases, the analogues of these bases. These latter molecules or analogues are incorporated into DNA during its replication and in the next phase of replication apparently upset the pairing process such that the wrong natural base gets in place of the right natural base when it is matched up with the strand containing the analog or slightly altered base. This produces a mutation. With these beginnings I think there is indeed ground for hope that with further knowledge and with better and more specifically tailored mutagens perhaps we can reasonably hope to increase the selectivity of mutation considerably. Another potential future approach to directed mutation is via the synthesis in the laboratory of a desired molecule of DNA with all of the correct configuration and base sequence down the strands. This tailored molecule or any desired DNA molecule if it can be isolated in pure state from an organism or a cell can probably be amplified by already known enzymatic replication processes to any needed quantity. They cannot today but I think we can anticipate this. This new or isolated gene can then hopefully be introduced into mammalian cells and culture as in bacterial transformation. Then as the final step in this procedure if the rare desired transformed cell can be selected and cultured the new cells so derived could conceivably be transplanted back into a living organism there to correct a defective function of the original host cells. The problem of transplant rejection and immunological process as you know which would be involved in such a scheme may be obviated by future progress and understanding and controlling the host immunological processes responsible for the rejection or conceivably by using the prospective host's own cells and culture for as receptors for the transformation process. I think that the applicability of this general approach to human cells derived through any technique of gene transfer or recombination is obvious and need not here be elaborated further. Thus in an indirect but theoretically feasible way we may foresee the future possibility of a purposeful manipulation of genetic change even in man. Finally I want briefly to consider the third class of biological engineering as I have defined it euthanic engineering. You may remember that I have defined this as the control or regulation of gene expression so as to alter the phenotype without necessarily altering the genes themselves. It should perhaps be pointed out that genetic change in somatic or non-germinal cells of an organism may be considered as a type of euthanic engineering in contrast to genetic change in germ cells since it would not be such a change would not be perpetuated in the germ line therefore not perpetuated in the species but would be of value to the individual. It should further be pointed out that development and differentiation from one cell to a complex organism most reasonably is now viewed as involving the regulation and control of gene expression by selective processes of gene activation and repression. Hence normal development may itself be considered as the prototype of euthanic engineering with the developing organism itself as the engineer at the throttle. From this point of view and considering that a great deal is already known about the regulation of gene activity and expression in microorganisms the prospects of euthanic engineering in man seem perhaps the most immediate and promising of the three classes we have mentioned. We now speak learnedly and impressively about end product feedback metabolic control mechanisms shown in the next slide please. With an end product feeding back and interrupting a sequence of biochemical changes either at the conversion of gene to enzyme is in the lower arc repression or as actual interference in the action of a gene once it has been synthesized has been converted to an enzyme and we speak equally learnedly about operons and operator genes. Next slide please. Structures deduced from a bacteria studies and bacterial genetics in which various portions of the bacterial chromosome the DNA molecule the double helix which you see up there the O at the far left is an operator locus which can be turned on or off by a complex repression or induction stimulation mechanism and if it is turned on it turns all on all the genes down the line or if it's turned off it turns off all the genes down the line and this may indeed also be a process of regulation which is involved in as we mentioned in differentiation and development. Slide off please. All of these processes and structures are concerned in turning these microbial genes on and off. We are indeed beginning to recognize and study analogous processes of control in mammalian organisms and cells. Obviously the more we know about these the more able we will be to superimpose from outside a control on these same processes which are controlled inside the cell. In a practical sense even it is gratifying and striking to realize that the simplest form of euthanic engineering is already standard human therapy. This is the limitation of the production of an undesirable or harmful metabolite or in-product metabolism, intermediate metabolism, by dietary limitation of its source, its precursor as of the amino acid limitation of the amino acid phenylalanine in PKU or phenylketonuria or of galactose in galactosemia and such limitation of the source of these harmful materials is actually proving quite effective in these two instances at least in preventing the mental problems and mental retardation. Thank you. Which is consequent to untreated cases of these genes. It should also be pointed out that replacement of a missing or defective gene product also constitutes euthanic engineering and we already know about these although we don't recognize them immediately without consideration as such. Effectively used examples include substances readily carried in the blood or missing normal blood constituents such as gamma globulin which is absent in the presence of certain mutant genes in agamoglobulinemia or hormones such as insulin in diabetes or perhaps in the future needed enzymes. I have tried to present at least a bird's-eye view of some of the possibilities for the experimental control and manipulation of genetic materials which I have termed biological engineering. I think it is obvious that this sequence of development of this in the future can be expected to take a course in early occurrence or fruition. One would first would be the one we are already in as I mentioned the correction of genetic metabolic defects by some kind of therapy which I have indicated some possibilities. Secondly would be the extension of this to the of these procedures to the germline with the elimination of a defective or mutant gene by its replacement by a better gene. And thirdly and even further away would be the engineering related to multiple gene characters involved in intelligence, lower learning, and other higher orders of complex interaction in an organism. But I think we can be optimistic perhaps in expecting some time and I would hesitate to put a date on this that with increased understanding of the molecular basis of learning and of intelligence we can at least hope to do something in this area as well. I would hesitate to predict precisely when and to what degree these various principles and techniques of the newer molecular biology and genetics will be successfully applied to man. However you will perhaps have gathered that I'm optimistic that this will come in time perhaps sooner than we anticipate with the breaking of a few major technical barriers. It behooves us then as we are doing in this symposium while biological engineering and the controlled manipulation of genetic change are still possibilities in the future to devote some time and deliberate thought to the even more difficult question of how this knowledge is to be used wisely for the welfare mankind. Thank you. May I again ask that any questions you have with reference to this lecture be sent to the front? Because Professor Reid didn't get around to answering your questions this morning. There were too many. Don't give Professor Reid's questions to Dr. Tatum. This happened with Professor Glass. A whole lot of Dr. Reid's questions turned up for you. If I bring a few up we can start in. The question has come before me is does it make any difference which DNA strand is duplicated in the messenger RNA. I think if you consider the coding as we understand it you realize that it does and that one is the complement of the other so that if one strand is duplicated it might well make nonsense and if the other strand is replicated or transformed into messenger RNA it would make sense and apparently this is what happens and this is our picture at the moment. That's a very good question. I've been asked to rename the three classes of biological engineering with a brief definition of each. I would just request that whoever would like to find out about this come up and look at the manuscript. Have specific human traits been traced to specific genes and chromosomes? If so how has this been done? Many one has a question here of definition what is a specific human trait if one is concerned with metabolic defects which are unitary characters or with eye color or something of this kind yes these have been traced certainly to specific genes because of the pattern of inheritance. In some cases they in rather rare cases as yet in man and Dr. Reed and Dr. Glass can correct me if I pull a boner on this they have been traced to identifiable chromosomes particularly when a characteristic or trait is sex-linked behaving in a certain way in heredity such that it is inherited from mother to mother to son and so on as and when it this trait is distinguished by a gene on the X chromosome which can be identified just because it does it has a certain pattern of inheritance. There is a beginning now which is proceeding very rapidly and effectively to identifying various other genes on particular chromosomes by virtue of linkage whether the two characters go along together in more than a random predictable proportion of the time these are then located together on the same chromosome and we are slowly starting to build up a gene map of man as has been done previously with Drosophila with corn with Neurospora with bacteria and so on so forth. We'd only point out that the more genes are so located the faster the process goes as it rolls it gets more effective more efficient all the time so we can anticipate this precise identification. Question can DNA be synthetically created? DNA can indeed be synthesized enzomatically but not as yet in a test tube. This means you have to have a template or something. You have to have a template before you can do it yes but once you have the template once you inject a piece of DNA presumably you can do it odd-lib. Is that correct? Yes. Quite a nice trick as a matter of fact if you don't do it from scratch. It is indeed. How does ionizing radiation actually affect the DNA molecule on its bases? I'm sure Dr. Glass could answer this much better than I can and I think as a matter of fact he did answer this to some extent. Depending on the strength of radiation of the ionization and the number of active ionizing particles involved over what an area in the chromosome they extend one may expect smaller rearrangements even point mutations replacement of one base by another or grosser aberrations or distorted breaks and recombinations of chromosomes or even deletions pieces taken out of the chromosomes and the broken ends reforming. Ionizing radiation then can operate in a great quantitatively different sense and by several different types of mechanisms all of which presumably involve the breaking of the bonds holding the backbone together. Will popular moral attitudes prevent or permit the conception of a human organism in the laboratory assuming the limitations of perception? I think this is moral attitudes is not my concern at this lecture. We'll pass this to one of the next speakers. Is it definitely decided now that DNA cannot produce proteins but only produces RNA which then produces proteins? I would say one can never definitely decide in absolute hundred percent assurance that something does not take place. All we can say is that according to present experimental evidence the best that is currently available the only model we know for gene expression is via transfer of the specificity to transcription to RNA and then to protein. What is your opinion on the idea that a certain amount of memory or instinct is contained in the RNA molecules as shown by experiments on the planarian worm? I don't know what my opinion has to do with the facts of science. This is sort of a hunch. I would only comment that first place that memory or instinct are two different aspects of biology. We have good reason to believe from the study of other organisms, the homing instincts and the vocabulary of birds and the vocabulary of the bees and ants and translating information from one individual to another. The breeding habits and the nesting habits in the care of young animals that these are instinctive reactions they cannot be learned and that these must in some way be determined by the genetic RNA perhaps mediated by genetic DNA perhaps mediated by RNA but certainly it would be difficult to see how they could be passed from one generation to another and stored in RNA in these organisms. I think there is currently some skepticism and some disagreement as to the planarian experiments but I would finally point out that there is increased interest in the molecular basis of learning and memory in a number of different laboratories and again there is some evidence that proteins might be involved and there is equally good evidence that RNA might indeed be involved. All I can say is that the problem is being attacked and there seem to be some methods of approaching the problem at an experimental level. We don't know as yet. Might manipulation be affected? Manipulation of genetic material or the genome presumably might it be affected through deletion of deleterious genes without their replacement? This assumes the deleterious gene can be identified a big if. A gene even though deleterious presumably in many cases is still doing something and it would if this something is indeed essential for the viability or the life of the organism it could not obviously be deleted without lethality. If the gene is doing absolutely nothing then I see no reason why it could not be so deleted but if it's doing absolutely nothing it's equally apparent I think that it doesn't do any harm while it's there. No, those are the ones I've answered. I've got some lulus for instance. Will the healthier Chinese gene pool finally overwhelm the world? How would you like to try that? I'll leave that for you sir. Thank you. That would be within the prerogative of the moderator I believe between the DNA of the body cells and that of the reproductive or germ cells. So far as I am aware there is no difference known between these two DNAs with the exception of the fact that the DNA that in the body somatic cells the DNA is double in a diploid organism. Yeah, worth extension of that. As a matter of fact what about the DNA in plants that's compared to animals? It's remarkably similar as it is in bacterial viruses or in bacteria. Presumably at the present time you couldn't tell the difference just by the analysis of the DNA between a salmon and a number of these components. How about how about the difference between the DNA of a tree and a member of the symposium? I think equally a little bit. Now between a bacterial virus with some bacterial viruses members of this symposium or of this panel one could tell one could indeed distinguish because certain bacterial viruses have odd bases which are not characteristic, not characteristically present in these other organisms. Would not euthanics add to the genetic load that had brought to childbearing age more individuals without ordering the phenotype that would indeed be passed on. I think that this would indeed be true. I would only point out that as we improve the euthanic treatment or correction of defects if we complete the job of proving it we alter the environment such that there would point it out there would be no selective advantages for having one versus the other really as long as we're in an environment where the euthanic treatment were available under this type of environment to be a detrimental gene. All the folks who said the answer I'll tell you it's a fine collection of questions. I want to make a highly personal remark. There was a question how did Dr. Kush get his first name? I have already answered that question and I need to wear a clothes season on that. Thank you.


The question is from Jessa 007, why do lifters arch their back during a bench press? Is it actually safer? Yeah, it is. You know what's funny? So if you're listening to the podcast right now, try this out, right? Lay down on the floor. And what you're gonna note, just lay down flat on your back and relax. What you'll notice is that there's gonna be a natural arch in your low back. There may even be a little bit of a space to where you can slide some fingers on your low back and your butt is on the floor and your back or maybe your upper back so you have that natural arch. It's more of a natural position, number one. Number two, the arch in the back.  That's cheating. That's not the same. And I'm not talking about the extreme forms of this. There are people that can do this to such a ridiculous extent that they limit their range of motion, maximize how much weight they can lift and it's a technique. Yeah, they lift maybe an inch. Yeah, no, I'm talking about just a normal, normal, tight, natural curvature in the lower back where your shoulders are pinned back. That puts your shoulder joint in a much more favorable position for you to press. It reduces the risk of shoulder impingement and issues with the bicep tendon, gives you, allows you to have more of a full range of motion with your press.  That's right, that's right. It's a must. If you're, it was a mistake as a trainer that I used to teach, I remember the first time I'd seen this again, young trainer seeing a power lifter lift for the first time, not understanding the physics behind it, why they're doing it, not even being great at the mechanics, but here I have all these national certifications and they don't condone it and so it's all about safety and teaching a client to arch their low back could be dangerous. So I went the complete opposite and would teach clients to flatten their back and put their feet up on the bench which is just an awful idea. So unstable. The point that you made, if you lay down flat, if you lay on the ground flat, your head flat, your backs flat, and your butts on the ground, everybody will have, you'll be able to at least fit fingers, some people will even be able to fit their hand or arm underneath there, you'll have that much of a natural arch and that is you just laying there. If you then take your shoulders and retract and depress, which is where they're supposed to be when you start a bench press, it's very important that you're in that position, you'll excessively arch it. You'll definitely be able to fit your arm on it. So it's necessary that you have an arch in there. It's what you don't want is, it doesn't need to be excessive unless you're a power lifter and looking for every bit of leverage, then you don't want it. And we're also looking at vertical and horizontal force vectors. Like where's most of the force coming from? It's directed, vertically is where you gotta be worried. Like if I was standing up and I had like an excessive back arch, like that's a problem. I'm susceptible to that force being directed to its weakest point. And so for here, the weakest point is right behind the shoulders. And so if I'm like bringing my shoulder blades together, now I'm more supportive. What a great, what an excellent point, Justin. So essentially to put it in even more of layman's terms, right? If you're standing up and you'll have a weight on your shoulders or above your head, the weight is pushing down on your body and you're supporting yourself from the standing position. Arching your back really strongly. Very dangerous. You might hurt yourself. Now when you're on a bench, the weight is pressing down on your arms and your arms are connected to your shoulders and your shoulders are resting on the bench.  Arching your back, all it does is connect the bar to the bench. It actually makes it far safer.


What the narcissist doesn't want you to find out. The narcissist is attracted to you because of your qualities and virtues. For your quality of doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. It's impressive and attractive to them. They want to be around that, but they want you to hand your qualities and virtues over to them so that they can have your power and strength. Because it makes them feel good to get that from a powerful person. It fuels them. It gives them life. So they have to find a way to get you to give it to them. But they can't do that the right way because they already know they're not deserving of your power. They know that they haven't done the work to earn it. So they have to trick you by preparing you and training you for the purpose of being abused. Because the abuse strips away your power until they can capture and confine you. When you run into a narcissist, they will immediately become oppositional to you. They will become resisting and combating. They will refuse to obey instructions and do what you want them to do. They will oppose and confront rather than discuss. They will refuse to accept or be changed by you. Because they will experience a frequent and ongoing pattern of anger, irritability, arguing and defying towards you. They will engage in proud and determined opposition against your talents and skills. Against everything that makes you a wonderful person. They will become oppositional to all of that. Because they have to do that to break you down. When the narcissist becomes oppositional to your confidence in yourself. It makes you doubt yourself. It makes you uncertain about your qualities and abilities. It makes you insecure and they do this consciously and intentionally so that they can lock you under their control. Because when you doubt yourself it makes you lose confidence in your worth and abilities. It changes your opinions and beliefs about yourself. Narcissists are predators. They know how to affect you. They know how to get under your skin. Because they've learned you. They've studied you. They know what makes you tick. And no human being is impossible to understand. Everyone has their limits. Everyone has their own threshold for pain or discomfort. But the narcissist will attack your good qualities. They will attack the things that you are confident in. That is where they have to attack first.   They can't break down someone like that so easily. It's more difficult for them to capture that type of person. So they have to work extra hard to harm your good reputation. To show you to be undeserving of trust and belief. To dishonor you and cause people to stop respecting you and believing in your ideas. On things that should be completely obvious. Things that should be easily perceived and understood. They have to defame you. They have to make you think it's not true.  They have to go against whatever you believe in. Even if it's just a sport team. They have to like the opposite team. Because they always have to be in opposition to you. They can never agree with you on anything. But then they will support you with things that you're not interested in. Things that you have no desire for. They will treat these things in a way that is kind or helpful. They will support you with those type of things.  So that is slowly creates a character that is contrary to what is usual and expected of you. It reverses your success and achievements. Because you've been misguided. You've been led down the wrong path. To where you're now showing faulty judgment and reasoning. Because you've been given information and beliefs that are wrong. So now you don't even have the confidence in what you worked so hard to build on. Which made you who you are in the first place. And this is the main thing you need to understand. If there is only one section of my content you should watch. This is it. Because why did they pick you in the first place? If they don't like all of these things about you. Why did they choose you? That is evidence that they are trying to manipulate you into being their next victim. They are trying to pressurize you into adopting radically different beliefs. And they're using systematic and forceful means. They're making you believe things about yourself, other people and the world around you.  And preventing any other information from reaching you. Which is why you only ever hear their side of the story. You never speak to anyone that knows them about the situation. Because then you would get a different side of the story. You would receive a different version of events. And then things would start to make sense. But they don't want things to make sense to you. That's why they're lying to you. That's why they gas like you. Because they don't really care about you. They don't care if you're confused. They don't care about your health. As long as you can still supply them with what they need. But while doubting the value and importance of the very things you're given to them.  They don't like it when you display your qualities and virtues. And how positive an attitude and full of energy and new ideas you are. It has a powerful effect on them. But not in a good way. Because they're weak. They're lacking the power to perform. They're not able to accomplish or fulfill an action, task or function. They're lacking the power to make things happen for you. So the more powerful, intelligent and effective you are. It frightens them. It causes them to feel a lack of confidence in themselves. Because it makes them feel inferior to you. It makes them feel like they're lacking the quality and quantity required. It makes them feel insufficient for a purpose. And so they're unable to deal with the situation or with life. Because while they may want to receive this wonderful person that you are. They don't want to give you the confidence and praise that you deserve. Because otherwise you would start to see that they don't have anything to offer you. They're weak and ineffective. And you're giving your power away to them. Which is why when you run into a narcissist. They will immediately downplay everything you're doing. They will act like it's nothing special.  They will make it appear less important than it really is. And they will exaggerate the things that other people are doing.  And they're doing that because they're envious and jealous of you.   They admire and respect power. But they don't like the idea of that same power that you possess to be used on them.  They don't want you to treat them the way they treat you. They don't want you to do that. Because that would mean that you could blow them to pieces. You could completely annihilate them. So they have to break you down. They have to tame you. They have to keep you under their control. Without allowing you to think for yourself and make your own choices and decisions. Without allowing you to do what you want to do.  Of everything you worked so hard to build and establish. They don't want you to do that. Because you would naturally be in a position of power and authority over them. But they want to be superior to you. Because that's how they receive a constant supply of attention and admiration.  They don't want you to display your intelligence. They don't want you to think about things in a logical and sensible way. They hate that. Because it gives you power over them.  And this is what they don't want you to find out. Because the reason why they end up ghosting you. The reason why they suddenly disappear. And they cut contact with you. It's because they realize that you've realized your power over them. The very thing that they try to deprive you of and use you for. To help them to accomplish something. They've started to see that you're waking up. You're no longer under my spell. You're realizing that I'm not worth anything. I'm just talking nonsense.  And I don't have any power to do anything. I just tricked you. I manipulated you and used tactics.  And this is what they do. They use manipulative tactics and brainwashing techniques. To make you feel small. To make you feel like you're not as great as you actually are. You just need to remember the words that you put in. You need to remember everything you did for them. You need to remember everything you did that made you who you are.  And you know what you had to do. What you had to go through to get to that point. And they know it too. But they cannot acknowledge it. They cannot accept or admit the truth and existence of it. They cannot accept the importance and quality of it. They cannot give you recognition. They cannot give you your props. They cannot give you what you deserve. Because if they were to do that. They would be allowing you to have your power and authority over them. Which wouldn't be any good to them. It wouldn't be of any use. Because they're weak and ineffective. They don't have anything. Which is why they have to break you down mentally. They have to pull you down to their level. To make you think that you are equal to them. But you are not equal to them. You're greater than them. And they know it. They're fully aware of it. And this is what they don't want you to find out.  It's why they always have to argue with you. It's why they're so oppositional. It's why they can't agree with you on anything. It's why they can't give you recognition. It's why they can't acknowledge your worth and importance. This is the game. They don't want you to wake up and recognize your power and greatness over them. Which is why they always have to tear you down. It's why they're so oppositional to you. They know exactly what they're doing. It's intentional behavior. They're deliberately resisting you. They're deliberately refusing to be affected by you. They're deliberately not giving you the credit that you deserve for everything that you worked so hard to become. And instead, they're going out of their way to make it appear less important than it really is. They're trying to make you doubt it. They're trying to make you think that it isn't special. It's not a big deal. They're comparing you to other people. They're comparing you to other situations. Instead of just giving you the credit that you deserve because they're toxic people, they're narcissists or at the very least they feel inferior to you because there's no need to tear anyone down.  If they worked hard to accomplish something, you should show approval and praise. You should congratulate them. There's no need to tear them down because you feel inferior to them. But this is what narcissists do. They have to do that to keep you under their control. But you need to wake up and realize that you are special. You deserve to be where you are in life after everything you went through, after all of the suffering and the trials and tribulations that you had to endure, after everything that you have accomplished. You are productive, efficient and effective. You make things happen. You made things happen for them. And you need to realize that. You need to remember everything you had to go through that made you who you are. Don't let them tear you down. Don't let them make you forget what it took for you to get what you are. They're only doing that because they're envious and jealous. That's why they're so oppositional to you, which is why whenever you see someone who is always against you, rather than being in your corner, rather than being on your side and supporting your growth and development, you need to cut them off because they're not going to be any good for you. They're going to ruin everything that you've worked so hard to become because they're going to go against it. They're not going to encourage or support your development. So anything that you've established before being with them is going to fall apart.  You're going to lose your judgment. So if you see someone who is always trying to prove you wrong and they're causing people to stop respecting you or believing in your ideas, they have a hidden agenda and it's not going to be good for you. Thank you for watching. If you found this video helpful, please give it a thumbs up. Share your thoughts in the comment section. Hit the subscribe button to receive the notifications. If you would like to support the channel, you can donate at paypal.me-naq-survivor. You can book a one-on-one with me on my website. It's Naq-Survivor, the Cuddy UK. Thank you for watching and I'll talk to you soon.


And we're alive. All right, guys, we've got a special show for you today. We are going to be discussing what is proof of stake for Ethereum. Hopefully, our special guest, Rick Dudley, will be explaining that understanding. But above first, his bio. Rick Dudley is an opinionated and passionate developer. He works very closely with Vlad Zamir, Zemmifer, on implementing CASPER in Ethereum, and is the leading member of Koala Organization as a founder and CEO of the startup of Alcanize. Rick, welcome to the show. Hi, thanks for having me. Hey, thank you for joining us. So as the title states, we're going to be talking about proof of stake. So why don't we kind of dive in, and maybe you can give us the bird's eye explanation of how Ethereum wants to implement its version of proof of stake. Yeah, so CASPER is the working title. I'm pretty sure it'll be the production title for the Ethereum proof of stake protocol. What it does is it provides a set of, basically, the validators create a set of justifications or a set of bets on which block they think is going to be the next block, and then they provide a bunch of justifications for why they think that block is going to be the next block. And then in that process, the justifications are basically irreversible. So when a validator says that this block is going to be the next block, they provide a set of justifications that should never be reversed, basically. So the main property is that it's a monotonically increasing set of confirmations. And if the confirmations ever go down, that's because a validator equivocated, and they can be detected. So those are sort of the main differences, I think, between. And then the other thing is sort of that you can get, there's an interest in the CASPER community for, in most Byzantine fault tolerant algorithms, we kind of group all the Byzantine faults together. And with CASPER, the exercise is in separating out those Byzantine faults and then taking different actions based on the different types of faults that there are. So from that, you can also sort of get better guarantees about performance, even if you're under like a 51% attack or some of these other states that normally a proof of stake algorithm wouldn't operate under. Can we dive a little bit, because I'm kind of confused myself, but can you explain a little bit more on the whole concept around sharding? Yeah, I mean, I think there's a couple of different sharding proposals, and there's a lot of work going on sharding. But conceptually, it's just you have one blockchain that sort of has the primary chain. And then as in the CASPER model or in the proposed and future Ethereum sharding model, which doesn't really have a name, as the network will dynamically create sub-networks, they'll create, if you have five validators, two of them will split off and they'll maintain consensus amongst each other and then periodically publish that consensus to the larger network. So it's very similar to sort of more traditional scaling solutions that you see just in databases. And so in traditional databases, you have a concept of a database shard concept, where each individual shard is smaller than the total parent network. They have information that's local to them. Some of the challenges are availability. So I mean, that's kind of the big challenge. I mean, since we're being brief, I'll just mention this one, which is I'm on a shard. I tell the parent node available via by committing a hash to the blockchain when that data is unavailable and why is it unavailable? And how do we punish people for data not being available? How do we make the data available across shards? There's a lot of questions around, in particular, data availability across shards. Interesting. So does that new product affect how EVM is currently structured? Absolutely, yeah. So it depends exactly on what we're talking about. But so you can imagine that you can change the consensus algorithm and not change the EVM. But if you're talking about sharding, then you probably need some sort of model for namespaces. You need a way for an application or a transaction to know which validators. Like a user has to know which set of validators to send a transaction to. And usually, that means you need some sort of way of routing and naming, routing messages between the shards and then naming and identifying the shards and then also figuring out which application is running on which shard. So how far are you guys on deciding what type of protocol you guys will pick for the sharding system? Well, I know that Vitalik's been making a lot of progress on that lately. This progress is right now. It's definitely a top-down approach where, since everyone sort of figures out which applications go on which shards, validators don't really know which shard they're on until they're on it. There's some other desirable properties. But I think, again, that's just for the sake of brevity. Can you talk a little bit more about the staking itself? So I assume there's a minimum of ether you have to stake to become a node? Yeah, again, Vitalik has numbers in mind. They're pretty big numbers. OK. And obviously, you have to tune it and figure it out. So yeah, so to become a bonded validator, what you have to do is you have to register. So there's going to be a new genesis block for the proof of stake system that's going to be published to the proof of work system in parallel for some period of time. And then as validators bombed with that new contract, obviously get locked up in that contract. And then they can start participating in consensus. And then when they fail to participate in consensus, part of that bomb gets slashed. And if they equivocate them. So again, for a little bit of time, it's going to be a hybrid version of POS with proof of work. Yeah, but it's not going to be. It's more like two parallel chains where one is reading the state from the other. So basically, the proof of stake network will be reading state from the proof of work network. But the proof of work network probably won't be reading state from the proof of stake network. OK. So that eventually you can turn off the proof of work network and have all the state from that network into the proof of stake network that's already running. And then you guys are first launching this on Testnet before Mainnet? Oh, yeah. Of course, there's going to be several Testnets. There's going to be more than one. So like during your research and during your discovery mode over here, what would you say is the biggest hurdles for, let's say, making this proof of stake system actually work? Oh, so there's two major problems. One is how do you have a consensus algorithm of this type resistant to griefing attacks? I think that's a major issue. And how do you make it? And then related to that is censorship resistance. How do you make it censorship resistant and have the strong censorship resistance guarantees that the Ethereum community, Vlad and Vitalik, kind of spearheading desire? So that's a big challenge. And then the parallelism, composability, multi-threading stuff is a really big issue. So the existing EVM, the existing Ethereum network is effectively single-threaded. It does everything sequentially in order and everything is in it. You need to do that in order to have a single ordering of the transactions in the blocks, but that doesn't scale. So what you want to do is you want to have multiple threads of processing happening in parallel. And you want to be able to know at compile time, actually, how to separate out those processes. So you want to be able to say, oh, these two dApps never talk to each other. So they can be on two shards that are very far away. Whereas if you have two apps that talk a lot to each other, maybe they need to be on the same shard. And then if you have some apps that talk often, but not all the time, maybe they need to be on closer shards. And so figuring out how to do all that multi-threading, figuring out all of the logic behind that is another obviously pretty big challenge and a pretty big shift from what the EVM does today. How many people are currently working? Like you, Vlad, Vitalik, how many others are working on this? I'm very part-time. Vlad and Vitalik are very full-time. I mean, they're way more than full-time. Greg Meredith works, contributes. He has a team of people who contribute. Carl, whose last name is Escaping Me. He works on it full-time as well, implementing Casper in the PyEthereum code base. So you can go to the Ethereum GitHub. I'm pretty sure you can find his work there. And I think there's probably two or three other people that come in and contribute. A lot of the contributions are kind of part-time stuff because people, it's volunteer stuff. But I think those are kind of like the main, I don't think I'm leaving out any main contributors. Apologies to whomever I'm forgetting. I'm pretty sure it's fine. Let me ask you this. What would you say are, I'm gonna play a little bit Devil's Advocate over here, but what would you say are the main skeptics attack, I wanna say attack, but worry about this proof of stake. What's their main about going forward? Yeah, the main issue that people have is the problems that were solved years ago on proof of stake. So the term, I think, is sort of saddled with early implementations that simply didn't work. And so they were susceptible to nothing at stake attacks and long-range attacks. Both of those issues are resolved pretty easily with just, you know, bonds and, yeah, with bonds. And stake grinding is the third attack. But all these attacks are addressed and have been addressed within the community for a number of years. So Casper has its own solutions to those problems. When I read people's criticisms of proof of stake, oh, and I guess the other, so those are sort of the three illegitimate complaints. And then I think that there's another category of complaint that I did, but is much more legitimate, which is that it's a different security model than proof of work. And I'm like, yeah, it's a different security, ultimately a lot of arguments distilled down to that, where people are like, but this from proof of work or that from proof of work or this, and I'm like, yeah, that's all true, but this is a different security model, apply. And I think that you have the option of having higher security with proof of stake. I mean, again, it depends on, it's a pretty subjective thing, actually. I mean, there's the facts that you can sort of break down. And then, but then your risk profile is a very personal thing. So maybe you're more comfortable with the risk profile of proof of work than you are with proof of stake application or community or whatever, but that doesn't mean that proof of stake doesn't work. Okay, so let's talk about this. Let's say it's implemented. Let's say it goes live right now in a second. It went from test.net, main.net, everything works. The existing DAPs of a built on top of Ethereum right now, will they have to change how they had their initial set with Ethereum? I mean, that's a complicated question. I think the short answer is that existing apps will be supported on the new chain. And because it's kind of like a hard requirement, right? Like to try to modify that code would be extremely complicated. Just from an operational perspective, especially in a decentralized context. So I think that the existing code, the existing byte code will run. And I think that will take the existing high level languages and generate new byte code for new contracts. Cool. And I know you can't really, you couldn't really figure out the timeline, but still on track for at least starting to implement Casper at the end of the year. You mean deploy, there's a lot of code written. There's a lot of repos available that people can look at and see and progress is being made. Yeah, I mean, I think whatever the existing timetable is, I think we're probably hitting it or a little bit faster. That's really good to hear.  I mean, a very little bit faster, right? But yeah, as far as I'm concerned, it's moving along quite quickly. Well, because Vlad's correct by construction model, once you sort of get everything done, it's all done at once, right? There's not a lot of incremental steps. There's not a lot of milestones. It's like, oh, here's the algorithm and then everything kind of works. So, I mean, basically Vlad just started talking about that a couple of days ago that he basically got a lot of algorithm, like basically the whole algorithm nailed down at this point and then they need to implement it, but they've already have a partial implementation that'll probably cover, almost certainly will cover the majority of the full implementation. So then obviously an enormous amount of testing and an enormous amount of integration occurs after the algorithm is solidified. Cool, awesome. Well, I think we've got that. You know, I just want to thank you for answering all my questions on Proof of Stake and hopefully some people have learned something over here. If people want to get ahold of you, what is the best way to contact you? Twitter, probably, at AF Dudley Zero. And I'll just type that to you in this thing, so. Make sure that goes in the show notes. Yeah, that's probably the best way of getting in contact with me. Then the next best way would be email. Yeah, this isn't really secret. That's probably the next best way of getting in contact with me. Yeah. Awesome, well, Rick, thank you so much for coming on the show and talking with us and have a great day, brother. Thanks, Amir, bye. Cheers.


What's better than the new Stardust Dragon? How about the old one? What is up guys? We are back with another epic video. Today we're opening both new Stardust packs and old Stardust packs. So we have 12 Dawn of Majesty. So that's half a booster box, but then the really exciting part. For the Duelist Genesis special editions, this is gonna be an epic battle between the newest set in Yu-Gi-Oh! Which is Dawn of Majesty also known as Yawn of Majesty, Dawn of Tragedy, whatever you want to call it, with the Starlight Stardust versus the original set where Ghost Rare Stardust was released as well as Ultimate Rare Stardust and Ultra Rare Stardust, The Duelist Genesis. Before we start that, we have a quick giveaway. I'll be giving away the Odin Father of the Acer from Storm of Ragnarok and the Red Dragon Archfiend Assault mode from Crimson Crisis. We pulled these against Yu-Gi-Oh! So they are pack fresh. All you have to do is like this video, be subscribed and let me know what you want to win. Do you want the Starlight Stardust to show up or the Ghost Stardust to show up in the battle? Let me know and you'll be entered into the giveaway. Speaking of that, go check out the community tab and make sure you didn't miss where you want to give away because that's where I announce them and a lot of you guys do not realize that, so go check it out. Also, this Saturday we are opening a first edition Flaming Eternity Hobby Box. Yeah, we could get that Ultimate Rare Sacred Phoenix. There's a ton of epic Ultimate Rares in here, but obviously the one we are really going for is that Sacred Phoenix. So this could be really, really awesome opening. I'm expecting to pull something good. Okay, I'm not really, but I hope we pull something good. So if you guys are excited about that one, let me know in the comments. We're gonna be doing it this Saturday, so it'll be up then, it's gonna be pretty awesome. Okay, so this is how we're gonna do this. We're gonna do it as if these were special editions. So we're gonna open up three of these, then a special edition of the Duals Genesis and so on and so forth. Okay, let's start off with these three packs, Dawn of Majesty. Can you imagine if we actually pulled another Starlight Stardust after how many we... What a start. Oh my goodness. We got the Suzy Ship. We have a completely bank card on the back. And we got a Despian Q. I'm just gonna call him the Despian Q. This is actually one of the best Ultimate Rares in the set. Pretty good start from the new side in the battle. New versus old. It's 2000 and... What is it? 2008? 2008 versus 2021. So it sounds weird when you say 2021 instead of 2021. When you would never say 2008 before, but you said 2008. I don't know, it's interesting. Let me know what you guys think about that. You say 2021 or 2021. Let me know. Okay. Chronomaly. We've got another Chronomaly. All right, the Dimer. Beach Trooper Armor Horn. That's a super rare. We've got some links. So I can guarantee you this. There will be links in these packs and there will not be links in the other packs. So yeah, I know. That was... I don't even know. Was that even a joke? I don't know. I don't think that was really a joke. So that's about as bad as it gets. We've got the... This guy reminds me of that Pokemon dude with the thing on it. Yeah, nevermind. That's being tragic. Maybe you know what I have. You guys don't know what I'm talking about. I don't even know what I'm talking about. So at this point, I've lost all of you. I'm sorry, I'm sorry. All right, it's time for what we've all been waiting for. The Dualist Genesis Special Edition. Inside, three Dualist Genesis packs and one of two super rare variant cards. So we opened every special edition the other day. This was one of them. We had a crazy pull out of it. If you have not seen that video, it's up there in the eye. Long video, but totally worth it. It was really awesome. I put in a ton of work for it. It seems like everyone who watched it really liked it. So that is what I like to hear at least. So whenever you guys like it, let me know. I appreciate that. All right, so every special edition worked out pretty well. Let's see if it can work out even better here. Because I have never personally pulled, for myself, a Stardust Dragon Ultimate Rare or Ghost Rare. Didn't we pull, we pulled someone in Ultimate Rare recently. So the promos will not count because there was no promos for Dawn of Majesty, but there is a Gladiator Beast Heraklino. So which is a pretty cool card. All right, three packs. We're looking at a one and two 88 chance per pack to pull the Ghost Rare, which is pretty low, but it's not as low as the Starlight Stardust. So it's actually a little better chance there. The Ultimate Rare, I don't really have a ratio for it. Probably easier, but you know, you never know. They are pretty hard to pull. I've only pulled one. Ghost Shurs, we've never pulled the Stardust. So let's go. We got the Beast of the Pharaoh, Junk Barrage. Bish step charge. Small Beast, Small Peace, call them. So inside we want to pull the, obviously all the versions of Stardust. There is the, what is that guy called? The Charger of the Light Brigade. The Red Dragon Archfiend Ultimate Rare. There's the Glyoguardian Ultimate Rare. I've never pulled that. That would be really cool. Mineover Matters, so the first one. Oh, there's a Super Rare right after it. We got the Broken Blocker with the Big Shield Gardener. I almost gave away another Big Shield Gardener from DV1 in this video. That would have been perfect. Broken Blocker, a Super Rare right off the bat. That's good for the battle. We've got a battle tuned. Oh, wait, that's wrong, wrong set. Two more packs of this special edition. Let me know if you guys like these new versus old videos.  Beast of the Faro. We've got a Genus Lightsworn Mender. Orbe of Ysaka. Dikey Commander. Okay, Mineover Matter. Okay, last time we got this Rare and then after it was a foil, so. Sorg, sword of Kusanagi. I am struggling right now. The Sorg of Kusanagi. That sounds like Zork, but like a sword. Third pack of the first special edition battle out of four. We've got a Turbo Booster. Like a booster pack. Oh, there's a Ruxen special. We got a tricky spell for. Psychic Commander. Wait, I thought that was a foil. Dr. Cranium. I was like, what? Okay. Telekinetic charging cell. I'm pretty sure it's always gonna be after the rare, not totally sure. Let's find out. Silent Strider. Okay, we don't really know because we only pulled one foil there. So one foil for both to start. Well, they're all foils, but one ultra versus one foil. Next three packs. You know what would be crazy? Both Stardust. Or all Stardust. Ultra rare, ultimate rare, ghost rare, Starlight. All of them in one 24 pack opening. Yeah, that would not be crazy. That would be insane. Okay, we've got a Shari. A Kambaru, Alien Stealth Buster. He looks like Wolverine. Got them Wolverine claws. Flying Red Carp, okay. Live Twin Sunny Snitch. All right, we got a super rare. Just a super rare. Two more packs. Two more packs. Two more packs. Here we go. Springens Interluder. Guken Sushi Ship. Despia Theater of the Branded. Glacier Aquamidor, the Aquamidor Retrain. Very weird. Ooh, what a synchro overtake. We've got a secret rare. That's a good pull. That's a good pull. This one's one of the ones that's over $10. So it's a very solid pull. Definitely putting the Donna Majesty in the lead. Okay. Baby Mud Dragon, Master's Diploma, and Sambo. All right, one more. Honestly, if Starlight was pulled over like end ghost, Starlight's harder to pull. It's worth more, but I would have to call it like a tie because we've never pulled the Gosher. I don't know. Let me know what would you think would win. Even though Starlight's more, it's actually harder to pull, but the ghost is older. So I don't know. Aquamidor, we got the Jar of Generosity. Two Toads with one Sting. Lower Swallow, Ann. The Bee Trooper Formation. Okay, just a Bee Trooper Formation. On to the next special edition. Episode two, Attack of the Clones. Oh wait, wrong thing, wrong thing. Let's get ourselves an Ultimate Rare, a Ghost Rare, a Secret Rare. It is so tussable, Secret Rare's out of the set. Every time I open the set, I don't get a Secret Rare, except Charge of the Libogate. I think that might be the only one we've ever pulled. I can't remember pulling another one. Maybe like one other one. We've pulled a few Ultimate Rear's. It's a lot harder to pull secrets for some reason. I don't know if it actually is, but it feels like it is. Three More Packs. Here we go. Let's do this. Ghost Rare, Stardust Dragon. The Ultimate Goal. One of the coolest Ghost Rear's, if not the coolest Ghost Rear's. And you guys know I'm a huge Ghost Rare fan. We got the Orb of Ysaka. Genesis yet again. Psychic Rejuven. Yamato No-Kami. You remember when we pulled this like seven times? And Junk Barrage. All right, we got the Recycling Batteries. I've opened a lot of the Duals Genesis at this point. I wonder if we've opened enough for ratio. I bet we have at this point, because we have done a lot of openings. I've opened a couple booster boxes. We've opened some special edition, I think one or two of those full special edition boxes, some loose ones. We've got the Dark the Dark Charmers, actually a good card, we'll pull that out. Oyster Meister, we've got the Needlebug Nest. Medium Piece Golem. Mine Master, and will this be it? Gear Town, I think that's a decent card too, but it's just a Gear Town. We've got the Domino Effect. The Halfway Point of the Duals Genesis. This is the sixth pack out of 12. Junk Barrage. We've got a Beast of the Pharaoh. Light Wave Toonie. Dark the Dark Charmers, that's a good one. Telekinetic Charging Cell. And a Psychic Rejuvenation, okay? Nothing in those. So the new is definitely taking the lead right now. Next three, we're on to the second half. Not gonna lie, they had us in the first half. That's what the Duals Genesis is saying, but they're about to pull the Stardust Dragon, so it's all good. We have Despia Theater. Dimmer Synthesis, that was not the mic this time, that was just me getting stuck. Converging Will's Dragon. Dino Wrestler, Iguodraka, Iguanodraka. All right, two more packs. Stardust Dragon, the first ever 5Ds Ghost Rare. There were a couple in GX before that, but the first 5Ds Ghost Rare, iconic card for you say, let's pull one. It's a very cool looking card too, you gotta give it that. Dai Gusto Lampilka, okay, all right. Final pack here, until we go to the last three, the final of these three. Glacier Aquamador, different dimension Derby, we got the Jar of Generosity, Dispat, Dispatch Parasi. Ooh, and another Ultra Rare, Dramaturge of Despia. That is another, I think this is actually the best ultra. So we pulled the two best ultras and a good secret, so that is a pretty good start for those. Third special edition. We're gonna need some luck with this one, because right now, I think that the new side has like $20 in value, while the special edition only has the broken blocker and two, that's loud, and they have two dark and dark charmers, which are maybe like a couple of dollars. So we're looking at like four or five bucks total for this side. We have the Eradicator Epidemic Virus, three packs. So we are down quite a bit on the old school side, or at least the 5D side, which is old school at this point, I mean, 13 years ago as when this came out, which is insane. We have Beast of the Fedo, Genesis yet again, Orbega Saka, we've seen this movie before, Psychic Commander, Grapple Blocker, will this be it? So far just one foil, let's go. Space Gate, all right, okay. Two more packs on this third special edition, come on. Come on, let's break the streak. We got a remote revenge, Psychic Snail, medium piece gold, at least it's not all the same commas, Junk of Badage. Herald of the Orange Light, that's like a $5 card. So that's gonna help in the battle. I thought that was two cards for a second. Herald of the Orange Light, that's a good one. Gano-Go, that, are these like little dots in here? There's like junk in here somehow. All right, that's weird. There's all these little like dots, that's strange. You can feel them, it's like rolling around on the card. That is strange, okay, that's weird. I've never seen that before. Final pack of the third special edition. Looks like it's about 20 to 10, I would guess, in terms of value, so we're gonna need something here. Come on, Ultimate Rare, Ghost Rare, Secret Rare, that we're looking for. Oh look, Janus the Light Sworn Mender. What was that for this? Orbega Saka, oh, Psychic Rejuvenation, okay. Do they not go on the same order? Junk Badage, we've seen a lot of Janus though, I know that, Beast of the Pharaoh. Mind over matter, we've definitely seen this guy before. Mecha Bunny, okay, onto the fourth round. Fourth quarter, that's where it matters, we gotta clutch up. Three more packs of Dawn of Majesty, they're already in the lead.  We have a Despia, Dimmerth Synthesis, PDD Different Dimension Derby, Converging Will's Dragon. Anti-Human Intelligence, another Secret Rare, but this may be the worst Secret Rare in the set. Actually, no, there's one worse. One of the worst Secret Rears, but it is a Secret Rare, I think it's like around $4, so that just adds on to the cause, adds on to the cause. Two more packs, ooh, this is not looking good for the Ghost Rare side, or AK, the Duelist Janus, we've got Springens. Two ship, Despia Theater, Despian Pruskinian, okay. And the final pack for Dawn of Majesty, Dawn of Tragedy, Dawn of Majesty, whatever you wanna call it, let's go. Despian Tragedy, Magic Key Unlocking, Glacier, Two Toads, Tindangle, that, whatever that says, I don't know, Final Special Edition. Let's see what is inside. I think the score, by my ballpark guess, 24 to 10 right now, something like that. So in here, we're gonna need like three Herald of the Orange, Light Might tie it up, some sort of decent Ultimate Rare, Secret Rare, obviously the Ghost Rare would win it. Yeah, but we're gonna need something pretty good. Oh, and another card in here, Emergency Teleport, Ultra Rare would win it, I didn't even think about that, and then it comes in Ultimate Rare as well, I believe, so those would be huge pulls. Three more packs. Kinda like bent these are, it's crazy. All right, yeah, but I bought these as damage, so that kinda makes sense that they're a little bit beat up. Oh, let's be careful. Don't damage the cards myself. All right, Destruct O- Damage, Destruct, okay, all right, Dr. Craneham, Mirror of Yatta, Dark the Dark Charm, that's good. It's gonna add a couple bucks to our total. Grapple Blocker, and here we go. Gobalt Hedgehog, all right, just a regular, common. Two more packs. About 24-12 is my guess right now. 24-12, keep a track of the score on my own, see if we can come back, we got a medium piece goal. Fish Step Charge, Thyme Pulse, Structo Tronigan, DeSync Row, Twin Shield Defender. I couldn't tell if that was a hollow or not. One hollow so far, not looking too good. All right, the final pack. So far it's been rough on the Duals Genesis side, but this one pack can make up for everything. All it needs is a go-sure. Here we go. To win the battle, to win our hearts. Oh wait, maybe not, okay. Wait, this feels skinny for some reason. That's probably not a good sign. Sword of Kusanagi, Medium Piece Golem, Junk Barrage, we got a Remote Revenge, Grapple Blocker, and Gear Town, another common. Okay, that was pretty rough, guys. That was pretty rough. Let's go over what we did get. From the Duals Genesis, even though these promos didn't count, we did get three Heraklinos and one Epidemic Virus. We've got Three Dark the Dark Charm, we got a couple of Gear Town, we got a Herald, that was the best pull, and Broken Blocker, so not a lot out of those 12 packs. Then for our Dawn, we exited an incredible, like a nearly box ratio. We got the Two Desk V-In Ultra-Rares, which are the best two Ultra-Rares. We've got the Art and Human Intelligence, which is like something insane the first time I read it. But that's not a great secret, but it's still a secret. And then the Synchro Overtake, which is a pretty good one. So the Dawn of Majesty definitely won this battle, unfortunately. Maybe we will pull that Ghostry Shard us at some point. Gonna have to get more packs, because those are actually kinda hard to find, even unlimited. That's it for this one, guys. Hope you guys enjoyed it this Saturday. Don't forget to check out the Flaming Eternity Booster Box hobby. It's gonna be pretty awesome. And if you missed last Saturday's special edition opening, check it out on the I. And that's it for this one. I will see you guys later. Peace. The shining of this. Ooh, the Revival Jam. Oh, no!