Hello, everyone. So as they said, Joe, my wife and business partner who is a co-founder in our startup is here with me and Charlie, of course, just sitting on the floor there. Some of you may not be able to see him. So today I'm here to talk about my disability matters, which is an online community that we have built on top of WordPress using a couple of different solutions that I'll go into our experience with them and what we've decided to come back to. The disability sector, for those who are wondering and why we are targeting that, does make up about 20% of the world's population. Not all with visible disabilities, of course. Some we encompass mental health issues, mental illness, and all other sorts of invisible disabilities as well. So our focus is not just on technical accessibility in terms of being able to use the website, but very much unlike Facebook and Twitter actually enforcing community standards. So not to bully, troll, abuse, and to keep a civil... And not to say that we don't allow dissent and robust discussions and things, but just no personal attacks and to enforce those standards has very much got people to come and join the community. And also loneliness is a very big problem in the disability sector. So that's another reason that we have built the community to help people to get to meet others and to make friends all over the world. Unlike Facebook, which really seeks to expand your network through your current group of friends and out to their friends, we hope to introduce people to completely new friends and new contacts that aren't in their present circle of friends at the moment. So the main issue that led to us actually developing my disability matters is accessibility. And I mean accessibility in the broader sense. Obviously, there's what's known as the WCAG online standards for developing websites. And there's been a new version of them out in only the last month or so, version 2.1. But we are also looking at the usability and the user's experience on the website. Because even though Facebook does employ two or three accessibility people, which in an organisation their size is just really, in my opinion, a token effort, it is the layout of their site with so much content laid out in a confusing manner, ads and different things everywhere on the page. One of the other worst things for accessibility is constantly changing your layout. You may not notice when you look at Facebook if you go there all the time, but I know testing is very important to businesses, but they are constantly changing their layout every few days. And knowing where things are located on a website page is very important for accessibility and just efficient usage of the site so you know where to find things, how to actually navigate around the site. And a very important component of design too is to use techniques that are common across all websites so that people are familiar with your navigation system and layout. So if you're going to do something that is different from other sites, you better have a very good reason for doing so, explain it very carefully and you're going to have much more support on your hands. And as was in the introduction, when you're designing your community and contact forms and blog posting comments on your site in general, I know that you don't want to have too much spam on your site, but using those graphical captures is an absolutely terrible way to go. They're not only bad for people with limited vision, but I know Joe who has to help me fill them out sometimes has to take several goes. They are just not a good user experience for anyone. Google has recently and probably the last nine months or so tried to make them a lot better. Many of you would be familiar with what's called Google recapture, which is now their older method of producing those captures. They now have, and there is a free WordPress plugin to implement it, what's called the invisible recapture. So it operates in the background and it's only if your activity on the site is suspicious and Google thinks you are a robot that it then brings in the capture and actually challenges you. I mean, it still has problems because many false positives, but it is a lot better. And there is, which unfortunately I can't mention at work camp, but there is a brilliant non-GPL solution that we actually use on our sites. It doesn't use captures and for us, it has actually blocked 100% of spam with just no mistakes at all.  And obviously I won't go heavily into it, but Gutenberg is, when you're looking at your community, do be very mindful and look into accessibility if you're using that to design anything, because it is having quite a few accessibility issues at the moment. I know they will overcome, but they're not going to be overcome by launch in November, so you will need to look into those. And that was actually one of the reasons for us choosing WordPress as our underlying stack for our community was accessibility being open source project and WordPress does have an accessibility team. Then it is being developed very well and BuddyPress and PPSO, the other solution that we have used and still using at the moment, are very responsive to accessibility issues. So that is very good. Oh, and just getting back one thing Joe had mentioned to me earlier, just to explain how I, in particular, use the Internet and what I mean by a screen reader when I say that and accessibility, I actually started using the Internet way back in about 1996 when there was still Windows 95 was the operating system, so we've come a long way since then. Using the Internet back then, there was very basic speech technology that read out what was on the screen. The Internet back then due to speed of the Internet was very simple, mainly text based, so it was actually very easy to use. The software could easily read out websites, no issues at all. As the Internet progressed through Web 2.0, it got much worse for quite a while. The use of Flash in particular, and we're very grateful to Apple and Google for helping get rid of Flash and hopefully soon it will be something that developers never even contemplate using. It is used, unfortunately, a lot more we discovered on our last trip in Europe. Lots of the websites are made with Flash over there, and it is completely inaccessible to screen readers. The software simply cannot read what is on the screen. It's a lot like many PDF documents, if you're using them, then PDF by itself is not actually a text document, it's a graphical representation. So PDF documents do cause a lot of accessibility issues. I personally don't like them on websites. With all the page designers we've got now, lay out your information on a web page, that's what your website is meant for. And the PDFs just cause many issues across devices and for accessibility as well. But yeah, so my software has to know standard HTML make up of the page, it analyzes it, converts it into the format that it can then read out. So it's when you start using nonstandard elements, or perhaps maybe use buttons when you should be using a link on a page or vice versa, then the screen reader can get confused as to what's happening on the page and that in turn causes accessibility issues. And unfortunately, I haven't used Gutenberg too much these days, but the more JavaScript you use on your website, the more problems it normally is. Because it just causes so much processing in the person's browser and software sometimes can't cope with that and know about all the changes on the site. So there are software tools out there that can help you test your website, but I won't go any further into accessibility now, but suffice to say that that was one of the reasons we have used the WordPress solution because it is so adaptable and you can make those accessibility adjustments. So back to our journey and experience with our community, we started with BuddyPress. We have been using WordPress itself since about 2010. So we were familiar with that and when we wanted to create a community, we first of all started with just blog posting and comments on blog posts. But our network, our sector didn't really like that process for building a community. We also looked into and did try a forum. Software BBPress was used. And whilst it works well as a forum again, that is seen by our members and users as very restrictive and more designed to post a question and get answers rather than a social media network like Facebook where you can essentially post just general daily activities and upload photos and all of those sorts of things which really aren't designed well for a forum. Now there are integration plugins for both BuddyPress and PPSO to use forums within your community. We did try that and from our personal experience, I'd highly recommend against it. Our members just found it confusing because you'd have a group for a topic, perhaps for the NDIS and then there'd also be a forum. So people didn't know where to post their comments, where to post their questions. You get people posting in both areas and then the answers were spread out and people didn't see them both. So I think you just really need to choose whether you're going to go down the groups or the forum route. You can turn groups off in both BuddyPress and PPSO. So you could use personal profiles from the social media side and then forums. But we think groups are what people are used to with Facebook. And it's always more difficult to get people to swap and start using something they're not familiar with. So that's why we ended up turning off the forums just using groups and people are much more familiar with that and that has gone much better. Now, as I said, we started with BuddyPress and lasted until we were up to about a thousand members. At that point, we started having many technical issues with hosting and plug-in conflicts, bugs, certain plug-ins and for messaging and chat, simply timing out or not working when trying to use that many members. And in the scheme of things, perhaps if you're just having a community for your business, then I think the solution is going to work well for small numbers. But as we were growing, then we did get problems there because the core component with BuddyPress then needed a lot of extra plug-ins added to it to get the functionality we wanted to customize things, to get the chat and email and inbox messaging that we needed to give to our members. So it was then that we decided we were either going to have to spend a lot of money on customizations and development work, or we became aware of Heapso, a new community project, and they actually had, it has about 30 now, extra integration add-on plug-ins that do things within the community. And the best part is that as they bring out updates to the whole system, then they are testing to make sure it works with all those add-on plug-ins and integration. So you're much more assured that your whole community is not going to break down and you can do your upgrades with much more certainty. With BuddyPress, the plug-ins come from many different developers, and that was the particular problem that they weren't always testing with each other and when there was an update to one it might break another one. So I think with BuddyPress, our experience has been to stick to perhaps a couple of the major BuddyPress clubs that are out there that have plug-ins, some free, some paid, being BuddyDev and BuddyBoss, both have a lot of good work. And then there are some, of course, Boone, who's the lead developer with BuddyPress, has some excellent free plug-ins in the repository as well. So our advice is just to stick to as few different developers as possible. And now we have been going with Peepso up until about three months ago it was performing well, but now we've got up to about 4,800 members. It again, despite using very powerful hosting, it has started having severe performance issues. And that's actually been the one major complaint from our members that the site was too slow or timing out. And simply because we then had some performance testing done and discovered that the way some of the add-ons for Peepso were written, they were not going to be efficient as our community grew. They would require a lot of free coding to work in a better way. And that has led us back to the decision to swap back to BuddyPress, starting in a couple of weeks time when we've got the chance to do the swap over of our site, redesign the pages, etc. Because BuddyPress has come a long way since we stopped using it. One of the major missing factors for BuddyPress when we swapped to Peepso was the moderation capability. BuddyDev only in the last few weeks has brought out a very powerful moderation plug-in to let the community report content, queue it up, have auto content hiding with multiple reports, and all of these features that will make the community much easier to manage. And BuddyPress code itself has been optimised a lot in the last 12 months. So the core component of BuddyPress is working a lot better. We are going to need to still do some custom work and, yeah, that will take some time and money. And being a small starter for ourselves, it just depends on budget and finance. Yeah, so just to expand a little bit on the performance problems in case you're not aware, WordPress itself as a very basic process has to put together, compile each page, each output as it's displayed on the screen. Now with a static site, the way that that's compensated for is either your host or through a plug-in, a caching plug-in, helps store in memory or on disk lots of those components of the page or a whole page to display it much quicker, to not place as much strain on the server and generally then even shared hosting can cope very well. With a community it is essentially a membership site. People have to be able to log in to WordPress to use the community features so that the site knows who's doing what, who's posting what content. And when you're dealing with logged in users and members, most standard WordPress caching methods won't work, which means you need more and more powerful web hosting to cope with the extra processing that's being done to put each page together to display the community activity, to list people's friends, to dig out the comments and likes and everything else from the database. So really you do need to work well with your hosting company. A couple of things we are looking at, talking to one of the very big WordPress development companies called TenUp, who produces the elastic press plug-in that works with Elasticsearch, their looking into now and will be developing that to work with BuddyPress, which will take a fair bit of work, but that will dramatically enhance the performance. You also need to look into things like object caching, whether that's done through Memcached or Redis, I'm not quite sure how you say that one. Just as an example on Kinstra, our hosting, before we turned on the object caching, you know, a page might take 20 seconds to load, turn that on and it was down to three or four seconds, so just way faster just through adding that add-on. Many shared hosts of course can't or won't or aren't set up to let you add that object caching, so that's why you do have to progress to a VPS, some form of dedicated or managed WordPress hosting. And yeah, that's why we're personally at the moment with Google Cloud hosting through Kinstra, and we're looking at moving back to Amazon hosting through Pagely or another company using their technology, just because it's much easier to scale on those cloud platforms. Yes, this slide just covers moving back to BuddyPress, but it looks like I've gone through most of that already. The couple of features there that I hadn't mentioned before and one of the reasons for using WordPress is that we do have a members blog on the community, so we're still using the blogging components of WordPress. Us as site owners and site members can submit blog posts. We have their posts go into a moderation system and we publish them, but that has been working well and you can get some excellent plugins to let you have members submitted posts from front end on your site. One other factor that actually led to us coming back to BuddyPress is wanting to create an app for our community. The way the internet usage is these days, we have had a lot of requests for members for an app, and WordPress is a very good platform and it can actually integrate with some app development tools. One in the community is actually called App Pressure that we are going to be using with BuddyPress. The good part is that that company App Pressure has actually built the integration with BuddyPress so you don't have to do all that work yourself, whereas there is presently no integration with Poopso, which means lots of the community features don't work properly in the app. So these tools essentially run through another theme and some plug-ins on your site that the app calls through API or it's various back-end methods and then the content is all managed through your central WordPress site. So yeah, otherwise to create custom apps is going to cost a lot of money, whereas this way of course all your data stays in sync and people get to use the community. So that's definitely one advantage there of moving back to BuddyPress until Poopso does have it on its road map to create an integration with App Pressure or another system, but that hasn't happened yet. So that is, as I said, another factor. Now the other thing that's technically not part of our Australian law or American system, although it has actually been passed now in California, coming into effect in 15 months time, is the European GDPR General Data Protection Regulation System. It is something though that you need to consider as a community, particularly because Facebook's been going through so much bad publicity with users data, that the European system requires and technically it requires it of any business whether you're European based or not, if you're operating with European customers or members. You have to give access to the data, you have to let them edit it, delete it, download it, and Poopso has developed a full integration for that, so members can actually request all of that access and functions themselves, which is very good. Buddy Press, on the other hand at the moment, is just using WordPress's built-in data privacy tools, which do let you access all the data and export it and delete it, but it has to be initiated by the site admin. So you have to set up a contact form on your site, let a user make a submission, and then you have to go in and manually trigger that process. So that is a downside of Buddy Press at the moment, and there are some major privacy changes coming to WordPress, but unfortunately it now looks like they'll be 5.1 or 5.2. They were possibly happening in 5.0 at the same time, but Gutenberg has taken too much of the development time and I'd have liked to have seen it done the other way around myself. I personally think privacy is way more important than the page designer when there's alternatives out there, but that is coming and there is enough to manage at the moment with better management tools coming. And when dealing with members' data, don't forget that you do have many external systems. For example, we use ConvertKit, you might use Infusionsoft or Aweber, and then your help desk software, perhaps your transactional email system, Cingrid is the one that we use. All of those various third-party tools hold members' data, and you need to also have a way to let customers access, delete, edit, control, all of that. There is, at the end of the slide, and the slides will all be available afterwards, there is now a plugin called Privacy, WP, that actually integrates with many of those third-party services and adds them into the default WordPress GDPR system so that when a person does a download or a delete request, it actually takes care of it in all of those systems for you. So, yes, we have that on the community so that everything is integrated. Just to come back to hosting and to go through our personal experience, in the early days of our online presence, we certainly used a shared web host like many people start with, and that's a very easy solution. But once we started doing community, we've used the code or Kinster as a very well-managed WordPress host. The difference that a quality managed WordPress host makes is that when you're taken care of it yourself, you can get very stressed and have to worry about all those technical issues. Once you have a quality managed host, you really don't have to worry about hosting too much, apart from whether upgrades are required depending on the growth of your community and that sort of thing. So, yes, it does cost more, but you get a lot more power, a lot more features, a lot more safeguards. For example, Jetpack, who's one of the sponsors here, you need to look at backup systems. They have VaultPress, which can do real-time backups of your WordPress installation. Our host Kinster has an add-on for hourly backups, which we do on the community site. Your more static site just daily is fine. And of course, Amazon, you can push your backups onto their storage system and things. And when you're dealing with the community, because one of the features that people want to make use of so much is uploading pictures and files for their friends and sharing all these things that would quickly overload your WordPress hosting account and your database, for that matter, then you do need to look into a solution. We use a plugin called OffloadMedia. Used to be called OffloadS3 that takes all our media libraries, that means all the uploads off onto Amazon S3. They've now added on other storage providers as well if you want more choices, just so that you don't have to overload your hosting and obviously hosting disk space normally is much more expensive. And then you can offload it and use a CDN provider such as Cloudflare or the Amazon's or Google to serve it so that it's again not stressing your server. Yeah, just to mention a couple of plugins that we have found found extremely useful and then some general comments on plugins. There is one called WP Fusion and a brand new one in the last couple of weeks as well called Uncanny Automator that you really should look into with a community or any WordPress site where you do marketing. They can, they essentially act as a bridge between WordPress and your CRM system. So you can tag people for doing certain things on your site. You can enter tags into your CRM and then automatically add them to buddy press groups or do all sorts of things depending on what they do on your site. And yet they wonderful to explore with marketing. The one general comment in terms of plugins that we found with the community as I said before is to make sure you get them from quality providers as usual, make sure they're maintained and updated. And as a personal preference, I prefer paid plugins premium options to free ones. Similarly, because then I know the developer is going to be motivated to maintain and improve those plugins. So you're going to get a better experience to if there's any bugs that come up. But yes, you do have to carefully look at any interaction between your plugins. And now any questions I think we're up to. Oh, yeah, just there is at the end of the slides a list of some of the plugins that we found that were useful with the community.


Surgery is more than the next incision. It's about reviewing your performance to be better prepared. It's about refining your technique to deliver the best care. It's about enhancing your experience through data.


In today's class on advanced characterization techniques, we are going to deal with small angle x-ray scattering. In the last two classes, we tried to understand how does diffraction work and why we use x-rays. In today's class, we are going to go back and study scattering of x-rays which we had touched upon at the beginning of the first lecture and also see how we can use scattering to get information about the structure of various class of materials. So talking about scattering, we have looked and compared scattering and diffraction. We also agreed that scattering corresponds to bending of light from an object or spreading of rights light from an aperture. We know that scattering quantum mechanically as such can be defined as an interaction of the photons essentially the x-ray photons with electrons. At the same time, scattering can also occur for neutrons, however it has to interact with the nucleus of the atoms. We know that diffraction is nothing but directional scattering and it follows the Bragg's law. However, the small angle scattering that we are going to talk about in today's lecture essentially occurs from interfaces. A schematic giving depicting the difference between diffraction and that of scattering is shown in this slide. You can see here that when the x-rays interact with the periodic arrangement of atoms, we do get diffraction. However, when the x-rays interact with each an individual particles which do not form a periodic arrangement, we do get scattering. A few more words about the difference between diffraction and scattering is presented in the next slide. We know that for diffraction to occur, the wavelength or the choice of wavelength rather has to be of the same order of that of the size of the object. I hope you remember that for diffraction, the choice of wavelength has to be such that it is less than 2 times the interatomic spacing that is lambda has to be less than 2D. However, for scattering, the size of the object under consideration is much much larger than the wavelength that we are using. Therefore, we can imagine that there is bending of the light from that particular object, the size of which is much much larger than the wavelength of the object. This fundamental difference between scattering and diffraction essentially ensures that the small length scales associated with diffraction leads to a larger angle considering the Bragg's angle. So we have n lambda is equal to 2D sin theta and the angle that we are talking about is pretty large since lambda is of the same order of that of D, the interplanar spacing. However, since scattering involves essentially large particles and the wavelength which is much smaller than the size of the particles, we do get very very small angles and therefore the name small angle scattering. So the small angle X-ray scattering was discovered by Goeiner in 1937. It has been well agreed that the small angle X-ray scattering can provide information about the size, shape and number density of particles. We can obtain fractal dimensions in a range of 10 angstroms to up to 1000 angstroms that is equivalent to about 0.1 micron or 100 nanometers. We can also get information about internal structure of disordered and partially ordered systems. The biggest advantage of scattering which gives us information about the size, shape and orientation of the particles compared to that of conventional microscopy say transmission electron microscopy is that the sample preparation in case of small angle X-ray scattering is very very easy. At the same time it offers us a great flexibility in terms of studying powders, paste, dispersion, solids as well as liquids. I would also like to mention that we can also study thin film using small angle X-ray scattering. However, this involves a lot of intricacies and this will be dealt in greater details in the next lecture wherein we will talk about grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering. So if we were to compare say scattering and microscopy with respect to the kind of information that we are getting we tend to we end up getting the following points. We know that the finer details involved in the microstructure can be resolved in a much better way using microscopy like TM while scattering does not resolve the finer details of the microstructure. People who have done TM will have this experience that once we see some object with finer details all you got to do is just increase the magnification and get more details about that particular region or feature. At the same time the quality of results as obtained from microscopy is not representative from one micrograph it is very difficult to draw enough conclusion. However, what information we get from one scattering experiment is representative of the sample. At the same time the localized structure is available using microscopy. However, the localized structure is not available using scattering techniques. We will go through the details of the scattering technique later and I hope you will be able to appreciate this difference. But at the outset it is very important to realize what is the difference in scattering or small angle X-ray scattering in particular and microscopy at the outset. So another important point that microscopy offers that scattering offers us over microscopy is the average structure. So this average structure information is obtained in a much much better way by scattering compared to that of a conventional microscopy that is transmission electron microscopy. At the same time people who have used TEM will tell you that TEM is full of artifacts having said that a careful investigation or a careful eye is needed to get useful information from a TEM micrograph. However, for scattering no such artifacts are inherent to the system. However, I should mention that most of the studies that deal with scattering tend to use microscopy that is TEM for complimenting the observations. So I hope you appreciate that transmission electron microscopy which gives us information about the size, shape and distribution of phases as well as the small angle X-ray scattering which also gives us similar information can be used to as complementary tools to decipher the microstructure of the material under consideration. So dealt with this in the first lecture that how scattering occurs from an electron. We know that atoms which essentially consist of a nucleus and an ensemble of electrons will also scatter X-rays and this scattering is non-directional and this generally corresponds to the background. However, if we have particles, small particles, very small particles which comprise of atoms this leads to what is known as excess scattering. Now one can understand that this excess scattering is formed or is contributed due to the size shape and the density of the particle and that is true only when the size of the particle is not very large compared to that of the wavelength but is between say something like 100 nanometer for a wavelength of about 1 angstrom. We know that at very small angles X-rays are not only going to get scattered they are also going to get absorbed. So there is an interplay or there are two competing phenomena which are occurring at when the X-rays interact with matter. So one is the absorption and the other one is the scattering. Obviously, since we are interested more in scattering we want that the absorption should be minimum. Now how do we minimize the absorption? The absorption of X-rays by a material is dependent on the density and the mass absorption coefficient as well as it is characteristic of the wavelength. Depending on that we have just noted down here that for copper k alpha the optimum thickness for different materials has been noted over here. So we see for quartz glass it is 127 micron, for iron it is 4.22 micron, for tungsten it is 3.08 micron. So if the sample is thicker than this most of the X-rays are going to get absorbed while the scattering signal is going to be very weak. Therefore you can imagine that as the atomic number of the material increases we need thinner and thinner samples to obtain better signal from scattering. So let us talk more about scattering. We know that we had touched upon this in the last lecture but let us revise it again and we know that there is what is known as Compton scattering. So we have an X-ray photon which interacts with an electron and we do get another X-ray photon which has different frequency rather a lower frequency and therefore a lower energy than the incident X-ray photon. Therefore this entire process is incoherent that is the energy is not conserved and this corresponds to inelastic scattering. However there is also what is known as Rayleigh or Thomson scattering which essentially is elastic and coherent. In this case the wavelength or and frequency of the incident photon remains the same after interacting with the electron. If this phenomena of interaction of the photon with the electron maintaining its frequency occurs in visible spectrum it is known as the Rayleigh scattering. However for X-rays it is known as for X-rays and neutrons it is known as Thomson scattering. So as such if the electron is loosely bound the scattering is incoherent. However if the electrons are strongly bound whenever the photon collides with the electron there is no energy transfer. Instead the electron starts to oscillate with the same frequency as that of the incident X-ray photon. Now this synchronous oscillation of all waves from the neighboring electrons and atoms leads to interference of waves and this is essentially the signature of the particle structure. So just imagine how we start building up from an electron to an atom which is nothing but an ensemble of electrons to a particle which is nothing but an ensemble of atoms. So the coherent oscillation of the electrons within a particle leads to scattering of the X-rays and this scattering signal is signature of the structure of the particle. So we can imagine that the efficiency of scattering is proportional to the number of electrons illuminated per volume. This therefore helps us to define a parameter known as electron scattering cross section. Now this is given by a sigma and the value is quoted over here which is 7.93977 into 10 power minus 26 centimeter square popularly known as the Thomson factor. Now scattering cross section of atoms is well documented and this scattering signal essentially carries the fingerprint of element. So I hope you can you appreciate that not only do we get information about the size and shape of the particle but also the different phases or different elements which are present in that particular particle. So now going back and looking at the mathematical part of it we know that the length of the scattering vector or the momentum transfer that occurs between the photon and the electron can be given by a parameter Q which is defined as 4 pi by lambda sin theta by 2 where theta is the angle of scattering. I would like to draw your attention to the definition of Q as I hope you recollect that we have a length term namely lambda in the denominator. So Q is nothing but a parameter in the reciprocal space. Now when we do sags we obtain the intensity of scattering as a function of Q or the scattering angle. I hope you appreciate that at small angle we get small value of Q and therefore we do get we need a large value of distance to get this signal. This is because if we are very close the detector has to be very far away from the sample so that this small angle is at a significant distance so that it can be separated out. Like small conventional X-ray diffraction wherein we know that the lambda and D are of the same order of magnitude we get theta in the range somewhere around 20 to 100 degrees. However when we 22 say about 60, 22 theta in the range of 20 degrees and beyond. However when we talk about small angle X-ray scattering we only get angles ranging from 0.1 to 10 degrees. The conventional X-ray diffraction system or X-ray diffraction technique that we talked in the last two classes essentially is known as wide angle X-ray scattering. I hope you appreciate that now if we are able to simultaneously use small angle X-ray scattering which gives us information about the structure of the particles and can use wide angle X-ray scattering to get information about diffraction we can get a lot of information about the structure of the material. And off late there have been lot of efforts to combine these two techniques to carry out simultaneous small angle X-ray scattering and wide angle X-ray scattering to completely characterize the material under consideration. So as we were moving let us consider an particle and the X-ray is getting scattered from the particle we know that there is going to be scattering from all the electrons and therefore all the atoms. Now these waves the scattered waves are going to interfere with each other and this oscillation pattern is going to have a characteristic shape. Here again I have shown you the variation of intensity as a function of Q which is nothing but the reciprocal vector. So here we see we get such oscillations therefore we see that the X-ray signal also shows similar oscillation which are characteristic of so talking about form factor I hope you all appreciate that scattering occurs from a particle which comprises of atoms and the atoms comprising of various electrons. So scattering from all electrons atoms as well as the particle essentially leads to interference of the scattered waves which leads to the oscillatory pattern which is shown over here. And this oscillatory pattern which is obtained by plotting the intensity of the scattered wave versus the Q parameter is a characteristic of the shape of the particle under consideration. So if you look at scattering for dilute particles we get the scattering signal as shown in the earlier case if we are considering very dilute solutions. However there are cases where in the particles get agglomerated and there is a bit of or rather there is presence of long range ordering. In that case we get diffraction in the densely packed particles this is this leads to manifestation of orientation and order in the pattern that is obtained after scattering. So the ratio of peak positions in reciprocal space can give us an idea about the morphology of the particles. Therefore if we have cubic morphology we do get the following peak position the ratio of peak positions in the reciprocal space 1 square root 2 square root 3 2 and so on. If you have lamellar morphology we get peak position ratio 1 is to 2 is to 3 is to 4 while for hexagonal we have it in the ratio of 1 is to square root 3 is to 2 and so on. Therefore this essentially tells us about the shape of the particle. However when we look at the scattering signal that we get from such a morphology we do see that if there is random dispersion of particles we do get something very similar to what we would expect in a TM diffractogram or TM diffraction pattern. We do see that all the intensities are present we get a nice ring pattern. However when we go and see that there is partial orientation like in the case of fibres or sheared liquids we get discontinuous rings like we get for highly oriented all what are known as textured materials in a transmission electron microscope. Similarly when we go for a single crystal we do see that there is complete ordering or rather complete ordering of the diffraction or the scattering pattern and we do get a pattern which is very very similar to that of the diffraction pattern obtained from a single orientation in a transmission electron microscope. So I hope you appreciate the similarity between transmission electron microscopy and small angle x-ray scattering. The beauty is in case of small angle scattering we do get information indirectly though from the same diffraction pattern. So we have talked about all the things that can be done and we will go about the intricacies of small angle x-ray scattering in the couple of slides. But let us first understand whether where all small angle x-ray scattering is useful. So small angle x-ray scattering is very useful to study different mechanisms of phase separation namely spinoidal versus nucleation kind of mechanisms. At the same time we can study long range periodic order, voiding, random and spatial correlations, internal surface area, orientation, deformation and molecular configuration. We can also study the effect of fatigue on the nucleation and growth of defects. The effects of annealing in terms of long period spacing, dislocation density and line shape and bulk compressibility can also be studied. Now this appears a wide range of things that we can cover using small angle x-ray scattering and we would appreciate that why we can cover such a large range of experiments in small angle x-ray scattering when we go to the instrumentation part. However I have not mentioned the tremendous use of small angle x-ray scattering in the field of biology and for deciphering the structure of proteins which essentially works at the interface between materials and materials engineering and biology. I am not going to touch upon those facts and in fact we will focus only on material science related applications but it is to be kept in mind that small angle x-ray scattering has revolutionized the field of biology and the biological small angle x-ray scattering is gaining importance day by day. Another important thing that I would like to mention is that what are the lens scales that we are going to talk about right. So in order to know the lens scale it all depends on the kind of beam that we are getting. I hope you remember the kind of beam processing we talked about in the last class. So there I would like to just bring it to your notice that a beam with divergence of about 0.2 milli rad can give us a resolution of about 100 nanometer which is probably or rather is the limit of the small angle x-ray scattering technique. Therefore you can imagine that for all entities involving particle size up to few tenths of angstroms to about 1000 angstrom can be studied using small angle x-ray scattering. They find tremendous use in polymer chemistry as well as polymer behavior because the lens scale that is associated even with longer chains falls in this lens scale. So let us talk about the instrumentation part. So essentially all we need is a very strong beam of x-ray. Now the beam of x-ray has to be very small in size about 50 to 80 micron and therefore I hope you remember what all we had talked about we need either a rotating nanode or a micro focus x-ray tube which gives us very high brilliance and a very small beam size. Once this wave with a wave vector of 2 pi by lambda passes through the sample it gets scattered and we have to place a detector at a far distance. The far distance is at a very large distance. The large distance I hope you remember is required because the angle associated with it is very very small. So in order to see an appreciable difference and to distinguish between the incident and the diffracted beam we have to keep the detector at a much larger angle. I hope you also appreciate that a 2 dimensional detector gives us much better information. I would like to go back and show you this output which we had talked about. I hope you appreciate that this kind of an output comprising of rings or spot patterns can be easily obtained using a area detector. Now coming to the actual assembly of small angle x-ray scattering which is shown in this figure below we see that we have a source, a monochromator, a collimation system and then a detector over here. The point that is to be noted is that we have a sample holder right in between these two vacuum chambers. So the sample holder cell can comprise of not just a sample through which the x-rays pass but we can apply various external forces like deformation as well as heating on the sample and study the evolution of microstructure in C2. This is probably the biggest advantage that small angle x-ray scattering offers in terms of studying the microstructure evolution in C2 during deformation or annealing. So I hope you appreciate that we need a highly collimated beam which can be obtained using slits and mirrors and this high intensity source consists of rotating anode or synchrotron.  However a laboratory scale small angle x-ray scattering can provide us sufficient information so that we can take the important samples to a synchrotron facility. So as we had already mentioned that we need to use a two dimensional detector to get a quick reading as well as the large distance between sample and detector is required. The different geometry of the optics is shown over here. So now let us talk about some little bit of physics that is associated during scattering. So we know that a scattered wave the amplitude of the scattered wave is given by f of q is equal to the triple integral over the small volume and rho r is nothing but the electronic density distribution and e power minus i q r right where q is your scattering vector. So this defines your amplitude. You know that intensity is nothing but the square of the amplitude and this is defined by the equation given over here. So for a particle in a matrix or for that matter any two phase system the difference in the electronic density plays a very important role. Now at large value of q or scattering vector there is a large angle intensity proportional to the surface area per unit volume. So the most important entity which will define the shape of the particle is the surface area per unit volume. For infinitely sharp interfaces we know that the area is given by 1 over 2 pi del rho square v by into k. This k is given by the porous limit is proportional to q power 4 times i q. I will talk about the porous limit which occurs at higher value of q and what is known as the Goyner limit which occurs at the lower value of q in the next few slides. So the point that we have to remember is that the intensity distribution as a function of q is proportional to the Rg square which is nothing but the radius of gyration and i0 is this scattered intensity not related to the shape of the particle. So this phenomena or this equation is valid for all the values of q dot Rg much much less than 1. This is what is essentially known as the Goyner limit while in the earlier case what we had talked about is at higher value of q where the interfaces are sharp we are in the porous limit. So I hope you appreciate that you can always combine these two regimes the Goyner limit at the lower value of q and the porous limit at the higher value of q. So this Goyner and porous limit is essentially gives us the or defines the scattering occurring from a particular particle. So we can get the combined intensity the combined scattering intensity by superimposition of these two equations and therefore it can be defined as the combined intensity is nothing but G exponential q square Rg square by 3 which comes from the Goyner 1 and plus b error function q Rg square root 6 3 power p by q which essentially is the contribution from the porous limit. Let us not get into the complications involved in this equation and just look at the evolution of the spectrum that we get due to small angle x-ray scattering. So the small angle x-ray scattering gives rise to a scattered intensity versus q diagram which comprises of this kind of a behavior and shows characteristics oscillations. I hope you appreciate that these oscillations are occurring over a range of q as I had already mentioned that the Goyner regime essentially occurs at lower values of q while the which can be looked blocked up to here while the porous limit occurs at higher value of q. So the output of sacks obtained in terms of intensity variation as a function of q. Another question that may arise to us is that we had an area detector. In case of an area detector we do see different sectors. So how do we get this kind of a curve from an area detector? This is one point that I had not touched upon in the last class. So let us touch upon it in today's class. So we had seen this is applicable for any area detector we know that we do get diffraction rings or for that matter in this case scattering rings. In order to get information what we have to do is so I will talk this is a bit of digression but I am going to talk about diffraction which I missed out in the last class. So we have 2 theta versus say something like chi. So if you want the integrated 2 theta intensity all we do is we just integrate it over a range of chi or this will give us the integrated intensity. Now if I want the integrated intensity of the entire pattern all I need to do is just integrate the entire region and once I do this if I integrate all I end up getting is this is 2 theta versus I. Now each point here is at particular 2 theta is essentially the integration of all the points covered over here and you will end up getting this kind of a curve. Similarly I hope I will now go and show you the kind of pattern that we had seen in small angle x-ray scattering which comprised of concentric circles. If you remember those coloured graphs so we had these concentric circles so once you integrate them I hope you appreciate what we end up getting is this is q and this is I because q is also a function of theta, q is proportional to theta. So this is what we get by integrating. So this is the curve that we had talked about in the earlier class. So now coming back to this what I would like to say that there is if at all each oscillation that I have shown in this curve over here let us come back to the presentation we see that each oscillation that we are getting over here corresponds or the each oscillation in the stress strain sorry in the I versus q curve essentially corresponds to the size of the particle. So the first one which corresponds to the largest size is actually the scattering which is occurring because of the from the particle the large particle as we had covered earlier also the q that we are looking at is in the reciprocal space. So actually the particle size or the size is increasing as we move from right to left because q is in 1 over lambda. So the first oscillation actually corresponds to the size of the particle. Now if there is an increase in the size this will lead to higher oscillation right. So the number of oscillations will increase. So if the particle size is increasing there will be more oscillations because you just think that if the particle is increasing the probability of oscillation or scattering occurring is going to improve and therefore with the increase in size I hope you understand that this part with increase in size is going to move towards the left right because your length this is what you have plotted q is in reciprocal space. So this has to move the oscillation part the first oscillation minima has to move to the left at the same time the number of oscillations have to increase if the particle size is increasing. Similarly if there is a wide distribution in the size of particles we are going to get lesser and lesser oscillations for the same reason as we discussed earlier. So again going back and talking about Goyner regime we saw that Goyner regime is valid for q Rg is much much lesser than 1 and for the maximum limit is q max into Rg is less than equal to 1. So this can be well studied by plotting line of the intensity versus the q square and this fits a straight line and the slope that we get is essentially given by minus Rg square by 3 and we know that Rg which is nothing but the radius of gyration can be actually related to the radius of the particle by this particular equation where radius of the particle is square root of 5 by 3 times Rg. So this can essentially ensure that the size of the particle that what is the size of the particle. Similarly the poroid poroid regime essentially occurs for higher value of q generally we realize that it occurs for q greater than 1 and iq the intensity is proportional to 1 over q power 4 for smooth particles. So we know that you know the particle is smooth and we also know what is the size of the particle. If the slope is not 4 or not minus 4 we know that the particles are rough and they may have fractal characteristic. So having said that see how we essentially decipher the complete information about the size using this information the Goyner regime this particular formula the shape using the poroid regime and size shape and what about orientation well we just have to go back and if you recollect the ratio of these peaks which I have touched upon over here the ratio of the peak positions in the reciprocal space if they are in a particular ratio then we are going to get the shape also. So you get complete information the size the shape whether it is smooth or not whether it is fractal as well as the orientation whether it is oriented in a cubic way or a lamellar way or a hexagonal way. So all this information see remember this is not obtained in a direct way but in a indirect way all this information is embedded in the small angle x-ray scattering pattern that you obtain. So but having said that all this is much easier for me to say and you to nod your heads but doing this after once you get the raw data correcting it and you know drawing valuable information from it takes a lot of time and therefore the way we do it is using a lot of analysis. In the last lecture on x-ray diffraction also I just ended up giving you an idea about all the hardware part of it but the actual data analysis there can be an entire class on just how to do data analysis on x-ray diffraction itself. Having said that I will just give you a glimpse of x-ray of data analysis for small angle x-ray scattering where in we start with a small simple educated guess as in to what is the size or the structure of the material under consideration calculate the scattering function. So see this is like having a library so if I have spherical particles what is the kind of scattering function that I am expecting you can do that now compare your simulation with experiment I tell you not only that I have particles but what phases I am having you tell that you get the simulated part and compare it with your experiments and then again go back and refine it you do this time and again go back and forth till you get a good match between your experimental and simulated results. Now before I go ahead and present a particular case study what I would like to show you is the various application the various processes for which you can use small angle x-ray scattering I would like to mention that you know this course on advanced characterization techniques is not for you to go and do something on a day to day basis but provided you face a problem and see something interesting you should know which characterization technique you should use to solve your problem. Therefore I will give you the application where on you know kind of you can use small angle x-ray scattering to solve your problem. So if you are working on metals and alloys you can studying spinodal decomposition nucleation GP zones miscibility dislocations dilation voiding you can use small angle x-ray scattering for studying all these. If you are working on glass and ceramics you can use for studying phase separation heterogeneities long period as well as annealing in the crystalline polymers can be studied a lot of things regarding polymers can be done using small angle x-ray scattering which correspond to micro phase separation dilation voiding raising densification annealing as well as configuration. As I had earlier mentioned that in biology there is a lot of use of small angle x-ray scattering however you I hope you remember you can appreciate that the signal strength or the scattering from biological molecules is very very weak and therefore most of the times we need a very strong x-ray source and therefore most of the small angle x-ray scattering to be carried out on biological samples is mostly restricted to synchrotron. So but on a routine basis if you get access it is worth trying to find out how what kind of information we can get using small angle x-ray scattering. I have therefore chosen a particular case study I will not go in much details but just present one case study and I would request that you go back and go through the case study once again to appreciate the beauty of the small angle x-ray scattering technique. So this is one paper by D. Shams Etel published in Acta Materialia where they talk about in C2 small angle scattering study of precipitation kinetics in an aluminium zirconium scandium alloy. So this is very important precipitation hardening is something that has been studied over you know plenty of years but still the actual evolution of the precipitates during aging is not well understood. Particularly in something like aluminium zirconium scandium alloy where we get a core shape structure of precipitates. So in the first figure which is shown at the bottom we see on the left hand side we do see that the scattered intensity versus Q this is the old figure that we had seen last time around we see similar oscillations right. We can also plot the intensity into Q power 4 versus Q and we do see there is another oscillation. So here in we have shown plotted this from I have you know borrowed this from the paper and they show that your calculated one shows a good match for the core shell microstructure which is shown over here while the homogeneous one does not show. So here you see you make a guess you make a calculated guess and you see that your experimental and the guess comprising of core shell microstructure consisting of two phase right which we will talk about in the next slide gives you a much better match. So here you start with an assumption and see whether it matches your experimental findings or not. A few more information on this so you know that we get in the present case we do get a good match in the guiner as well as the poroid regime. We see that the first peak which corresponds to the largest distance which I have shown earlier corresponds to the size of the precipitate. So we can get information about the size of the precipitate. Similarly what calculation we are doing right to fit the peak gives us information the fitting the peak what I mean core shell microstructure what I was talking about is that the precipitate we get a core comprising of plenty of scandium. So it is a scandium rich core and a zirconium rich periphery. So how do you get information about this core shell microstructure well while calculating this particular calculated core shell. I hope you remember there was this delta rho term which you are putting. So this delta rho comprises of rho 1 and rho 2 which is nothing but the electronic density of the phases under consideration. In this case we can have scandium and zirconium. So what all information we are getting so in the first graph over here we see we have precipitate volume fraction as a function of time. So this was done for three different temperatures. We also get information about the precipitate radius. Again all this information is obtained from small angle x-ray scattering. We can also go back and get information about the zirconium to zirconium scandium in the shell. So zirconium plus can so the fraction of zirconium. Now again this information is obtained while we are doing the fitting of this scattered intensity. So we can know how does the microstructure is evolving in terms of the elemental content. At the same time you also get information about relative thickness of the shell which again can be determined during our fitting and we can get information as a function of time at various temperatures. Therefore I hope you appreciate that using small angle scattering we can study precipitation evolution in aluminum, scandium, zirconium alloy as a function of time in situ. Now this is one advantage which we get over any other characterization techniques or in situ which involve in situ deformation like in situ heating or precipitation like transmission electron microscopy. So I hope with this case study I have been able to give you just a brief glimpse of what all small angle x-ray scattering can do. I hope that you go back and search for application of small angle x-ray scattering in your area of interest. In the next class I will expose you to another technique which is sister technique of small angle x-ray scattering and is known as grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering. That's it.


Rwy'n fawr, gweithio, gyda'r gyfnod, i'm i gyd yn ddod i gyd yn ysgrifennu. Yn ystod, rwy'n credu i'r gweithio ar y ddau 3 o ffórthagol yn y Llyfrgell. Yn y ddweud fawr, gael ar gyfer y gweithio ar www.weforum.org. Mae'r ddweud yn gweithio ar y gweithio ar y gweithio ar y cerdd. Rwy'n gweithio ar y gwair i'r gerdd, ac yn y gweithio ar yr oedd ymateb ac yn y sgwmpwch. Fy enw i'w clywbeth yn ffutur, mae yw ystod benio'r 10 ynglynigur global ynglynig chi'n ei ffordd I Acronomig yma ar 2015. i'r llwyso i'r gyffredinogi o'i colleg sy'n dod Starshipol yn enedlaeth yn oed yn meddwl i'r ffwrdd i'r gafn ac efo digwydd unrhyw i'r llywodol. I helpu chweithio'r gelig o'r un o'r $1 trillion ynídol yn ddigonol y mfost cham Ditwch, oherwydd cyfarwydd. Yn hyn o'r eich cwestiynau o'r byw hwn yn y syniadol y mae ydych chi'n gallu ddod diogels yn digwydd. I'm very glad to be able to say that my two colonies have just come from an infrastructure investors summit to actually have some update on the events that unfolded during that session. So I'm going to invite them to make a couple of brief remarks on the issue of investor infrastructure financing and also what has been achieved so far today and then we'll move into Q&A. To my immediate right here, I'm very honoured to be joined by Gordon Brown, he's the chair of the World Economic Forum Global Strategic Infrastructure Initiative. He's also a member of Parliament and was Prime Minister in the United Kingdom from 2007 to 2010 and he sits on the Global Agenda Council on Infrastructure. Next we have Thomas Meyer, the managing director of foreign infrastructure at the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in London and again a member of our Global Agenda Council Network on Infrastructure. Gordon perhaps you could start. I think infrastructure has moved right to the centre of the economic agenda, indeed the economic and social agenda of the world. First because only with investment in infrastructure can we get people water, get people electricity, get people hospitals and schools, it's a real moral endeavour. And secondly because it is vital to the economic growth we want to see and in a decade when we're now talking about secular stagnation, the limits of quantitative easing, lower interest rates which make possible, greater investment of course because it's cheaper to do, then infrastructure is absolutely crucial to the recovery of the world economy but also to the provision of services that will make industry go better. And what we found this morning is that the public-private partnership, the partnership between international agencies and governments, it was attended by for example President Zuma of South Africa, the head of the International Finance Corporation and investors and it was brought together at this we had all the major investors in infrastructure. There's a general agreement that there are problems that have got to be solved, if they can be solved we could bridge that gap and we had a number of positive initiatives. One put forward by Thomas Meyer who'll explain it himself today but others put forward by people who've got an interest in seeing infrastructure investment expand. We need to do more about project preparation because it's a costly element where there are no returns and the public sector needs to play its part. There are probably 100 project preparation facilities around the world but we need to make them work better and more effectively so we can get projects from the initial feasibility to the construction start. And we also need to provide enhancement for credit and facilities for credit so that we can get these big projects underway. If you think of the Trojan gap, it's a thousand projects roughly with costing a billion dollars and if we can find the credit and the equity to finance these projects then we can start working on them very quickly. So a new credit facility, a new credit enhancement facility, lots of discussion about how people will take equity and infrastructure in the future and of course the World Economic Forum playing its unique role as a stakeholder organisation, not only bringing people together but offering that a new knowledge hub set up by the Australians, we will add from the World Economic Forum an annual or regular report on benchmarking which countries are doing well, which sectors are doing well, what the problems are, other regulatory blockages, how they can be solved and really we're adding to what is a bank of knowledge that can transform the prospects for building. Not just in America and Europe because there are huge infrastructure needs there but also in all of the emerging markets including some of the poorest countries in the world who need infrastructure most. Gordon, thank you. Thomas, and your role in the summit and perhaps also the role that the EBID is playing in helping address this yawning gap. Thank you. I think actually I wanted to touch upon project preparation a little bit because Gordon is quite correct in saying that this is the key issue that we are facing at the moment because we have a supply side issue in that there are too few investable infrastructure projects currently coming to the market. We want to change that and this is why over the last year in the context of the World Economic Forum and in the context of much stronger MDP co-operation we have been working and structuring quite a number of project preparation facilities both by the World Bank under the GIF but also the regional MDPs themselves. And the idea here is to increase the supply of investable infrastructure projects over the next 12 to 24 months significantly so that investors, banks, institutional investors can come in. The role of the Agenda Council for Infrastructure in this context is very important because we have all the MDPs in that council but importantly we also have the public sector and key private sector stakeholders. Thank you. Thomas, you mentioned there are too few investable infrastructure projects. Gordon, you mentioned there are the trillion dollars gap that we talk about probably consists of a thousand billion dollar projects. There's a big gap in the middle there. What's wrong? Why are these projects so badly need to be taken forward? Why are they not getting taken forward? Why do we need more infrastructure? Gordon said quite rightly we need this for growth, jobs, diversification, global competitiveness. In this interconnected world industry needs infrastructure to deliver goods, consumers and producers need to be connected and this is why it is so crucial to have modern ports, container facilities, supply chains that work efficiently and effectively and may I say energy efficiently. There is a gap but let us remain positive as well because we are talking about a gap but we also need to talk about the fact that in many countries in many emerging markets this gap is starting to be closed and there are many positive examples. The role for example the world economic forum can play here is to bring those countries together that have where it has worked with those where we still face significant challenges. Now the proposals that we discussed this morning were quite interesting insofar as currently you see a situation where those emerging market infrastructure projects that are investable are usually funded by banks but we have real difficulties bringing institutional investors into the game and the idea that we have developed in the context of the world economic forum and amongst the MDPs is to create a first loss vehicle that would be funded by the regional MDPs and the World Bank which would then provide a certain first loss cover that could be extended to institutional investors and probably would bring institutional investors into emerging markets that are already investment-grade rated have a good regulatory framework but where that rating upgrade is not yet achievable without MDP support. We think that with a vehicle of around about half a billion US dollars and additional regional MDP support for these projects we could perhaps raise funding in the market in the region of about three billion US dollars. Of course all this is an initial idea developed in the context of the world economic forum but we now have a blueprint and I think we have the green light by the investor community to start working on this. I think the important thing that people look at and say look there is all this savings around the world there is capital waiting to be encouraged to invest and there is all these great needs around the world that are unmet. What can you do about it and the key to this is that we need bankable projects, we need investable projects, we need projects that are not so risky and are not so difficult to get underway that don't have huge bureaucratic or regulatory delay. There are ways that they can actually deliver for the people of the individual country which needs whether it's the water or the power or the electricity or the roads or the rail. So what we need to do to make these projects investable, to make them attractive to the investors who might want to come into them is see what we can do to deal with some of the risk. And Thomas Meyer has put forward a very innovative proposal that if the first risk on credit is taken by the multilateral and the regional development banks in certain emerging markets then we can make the projects more attractive to investors for the future. And then today Raj Shah who is the head of USAID also announced that he had come together with the banks in a number of different countries and he was offering the potential for a credit facility of around $10 billion. So two big announcements today but it just emphasises that we've got to get the public and private sector working better together so that we can meet this unmet need by using if you like the unused savings of the world. Indeed in it it sounds like on the supply side the steps have been taken to free up that money to make it more attractive to different investment, investor classes. But Gordon you also talked about project preparation it sounds like on the demand side there's still a lot of work to be done in getting projects to the stage where they are as you say attractive and less risky. The most expensive cost that is an outlay before you've even got any returns is the design and the preparation of a road construction project or a railway or a power station. And sometimes these project preparation costs are in the order of 10% and you're getting no return while you're putting out hundreds of thousands of dollars and in some cases millions and tens of millions of dollars. And so we need to find a way where these projects are of public benefit to defray the initial cost and that is a public private facility. Now some people want the public sector to do it in its entirety but that's not going to be possible given the scale of the projects that we're talking about. So we need to find a way of bringing the private investors into the project preparation side as well. We think there are about 100 project preparation facilities now being created because there is a momentum to do things. Some are very small, some need coordinated properly and Thomas and the European Regional Development Bank and all the regional development banks who have their own project preparation facilities now, they're taking steps to bring these together so that we can actually maximise the benefit we can get from public sector and private sector investment. So vital to the ability to do a project, not the most lucrative for an investor because there's no returns yet, but without that you cannot have the project at all. If I may add, it's very important that we see project preparation not only in the context of preparing the individual project. What we need to do as MDBs and as other stakeholders is to increase the institutional capacity in emerging markets to do more projects in a standardised, investable way. And this is why our initiative certainly will not only focus on preparing physically individual projects to a bankable level, but to have policy dialogue, fix certain legal and regulatory issues and also facilitate capacity building. And we have seen this already in some emerging markets that this capacity is being built up and when it is being built up, the pipeline of projects dramatically increases. An example is Turkey where we now have a very credible pipeline of projects to be delivered based on an already interesting portfolio of PPP projects that benefit from a predictable and stable legal and regulatory environment. And that touches upon the comment you made earlier, I believe, Thomas, from the summit you just come from, some best practices are starting to emerge. You're seeing parts of the emerging world where successfully the gap is being closed. Can you share some best practices on how we can see, how we can take forward the better preparation in different countries? Yes, you know, one of the very successful players in the world market in terms of institutional finance for infrastructure is of course Canada. Canada can show us how it could work elsewhere if the government and the private sector and local governments take the right steps forward. And about a year ago we organised a seminar in London where we brought the Canadian pension funds, governments and players together with the Turkish government and construction companies and players. And as a concrete result of that event, for example, the first international and domestic bond issues for infrastructure projects have happened. Mersin Port was a very attractive, a very interesting case where a joint venture between the Singaporean PSA and the local sponsor attracted institutional investor money from Asia and from the US for modernisation of a port. And last year we started to actually attract domestic lira bond funding for quite a number of infrastructure players in Turkey. So what I like to say here is that we have examples of successful mature markets, Canada, Australia and the UK, where the knowledge and the standards that have been applied there can be replicated elsewhere. And the fascinating thing is this is now a global market. I mean 10 years ago, 20 years ago, 30 years ago, these were domestic issues and most governments had to deal with domestic finance, domestic players who were investors. And now people see this as a global issue. You have global investors, you have global infrastructure initiatives, you have obviously a global interest in projects in the emerging markets in particular. India, a huge amount of infrastructure investment needed. For example, they need to build a thousand universities they're committed to in the next few years. Africa, of course, big projects like Inga, the hydroelectricity project that could power 40% of Africa, but also roads, a new interest in railways there as well. Latin America, a country that is expanding, of course, and big infrastructure projects, road, rail, power around the world, a desire to get more energy efficient power stations and therefore renewable energy as a source of new investment. So there is a huge global interest and where you have an expert in one continent, their expertise can be applied to every continent. A question we received over social media now, and unsurprisingly bearing in mind this is an economic forum and economics has been the heart of the news agenda this week with the news from Europe and also the Chinese Premier talking earlier on this week, which is, to what extent is the economic climate going to affect the appetite and the ability to fund infrastructure projects? I'm thinking the end of the commodity super cycle. Is that going to dampen appetite for building infrastructure in emerging markets such as Africa? Europe growth is anemic. Are government balance sheets going to continue to pose a problem even though the private sector is prepared to play a part in funding the similar projects? We live in a very uncertain world and clearly there are significant challenges ahead everywhere. I would say though that in the infrastructure space we have such a backlog of investments that are required that many of these investments will make sense in any economic climate. I give you an example. In many ports in Eastern Europe the level of modernisation is not yet sufficient to allow full containerisation. So these investments will happen because there is an intrinsic return on investment and they benefit an economy whether it's growing fast or not so fast. I would also say that infrastructure space is a space which has much longer timelines and many of these projects will take a few years to be built. So there is an underlying supply of projects if they are investable that will be done. I would also like to say that there are some positive examples that are currently seen very clearly. For example, the Indonesian government has taken the oil price decline over the last few months as an opportunity to cut subsidies from the public budgets to energy users and is now redirecting those funds to health education and construction of infrastructure. So I think there are not only threats that are coming from the current end of the cycle but also opportunities. At its most basic of course as Thomas has hinted, I mean low interest rates are an opportunity. If you can build infrastructure in a more cost effective way using a long period of low interest rates then this is probably the best time to invest in infrastructure. And when we look at the theories about what's been going wrong with the world economy like secular stagnation, the idea that we can't reach full employment other than through credit booms, then one of the solutions to this problem is actually investment in infrastructure. And Larry Summers who formulated the theory of secular stagnation for this era at least, he's argued that infrastructure is a necessary element of securing long term sustainable growth because it doesn't only employ people and get the economy moving faster forward. Of course it is also investment that is beneficial to future productivity that can be gained as a result of making the right and cost effective investments in the future. So I would say that there is an issue about public debt obviously and therefore the public sector is not in a position to invest in the way that it did in the past. But that makes sense of private public cooperation because the savings are at a very high level. There's a glut of savings around the world. If we can have investable projects, bankable projects, sustainable projects that deal with the mitigation of risk, then savings that are available can be unlocked. So there's no shortage of capital. There's low interest rates. There is a desire to solve the growth problem by investment through infrastructure and that makes it all the more important that we have the good projects coming forward as quickly as possible. Gentleman, you've both come from what sounds like a successful meeting here this morning. How are you going to take that meeting forward and the results and achieve further outcomes in 2015? What are your priorities? Well the World Economic Forum has been given a mandate this morning by people who are there from the political leaders to the business leaders and the international institutional leaders to take this forward. Practical proposals, action-oriented, not a talking shop to come forward with more highly developed proposals over the next few months to test them out with people in the different communities over the next few months. There will be a major get-together at the World Bank and IMF meetings in April. I know the EBRD. Thomas is probably too modest to say it himself. I've convened a public-private partnership conference in June. We've got the World Economic Forum meeting in Africa in June and that will have a huge part of its agenda, looking at the infrastructure issues in Africa from the Inga project for hydroelectricity to roads and to railways and to other forms of power station. And then we are mandated to come back next year with more specific proposals and really it's the interaction between the public sector internationally and at a national level and the private investor community but also the construction, the engineering, the development community, so to speak, the developer community. It's this interaction that's bringing the best results. So I see the next few years has been a huge progress in bringing the public and private sector together, big increase in infrastructure investment if we can use this period of low interest rates to build upon. And the World Economic Forum is a partnership body with its stakeholders right at the centre of this and it's also going to be important in dealing with poverty around the world because the provision of water, electricity, the provision of hospitals and schools, the provision obviously of roads and railways allowing people to travel, these are essential elements in mitigating and reducing poverty in the poorest countries of the world. Thank you very much. Fascinating discussion. I'd like to thank you gentlemen for taking time out of your busy schedules. I'd like to thank our audience for joining us here today and our audience for also watching this online. This issue briefing is now closed. I look forward to welcoming you back later on today. Thank you very much.


Hi everybody, Sean with jaspyscasebreaks.com, doing a personal break from our personal site jaspys.com for Jake. He's going to do one single pack of mosaic hobby. We've got a box opened up fresh from tonight with one last pack in it. So this is going to be for Jake. Good luck Jake. Colin Sexton, George Hill, Trey Young, Enos Cantor, Pascal Siakam, Markel Fulps, Kemba Walker, Marcus Smart, Silver, Jake Lehmann, Red Mosaic, Damien Lillard, Joel Embiid, International Men of Mastery, Silver Mosaic, Jarrett Culver, NBA debut, Taylor Horton Tucker, Larry Bird, and DeAndre Hunter. That's your break Jake. Thank you guys. That was personal break for Jake of one pack mosaic hobby. I'm Sean with jaspyscasebreaks.com, jaspys.com for all personal breaks, jaspys case breaks for all group and case breaks. We'll see you next time.


Oh my god. Oh my god.  What is up ladies and gentlemen today? We're gonna be playing Five Nights at Thomas All right, so as we can see this might be like a meme horror game of some sort because I do see the Shrek ears on the Fawn over here. Oh, and it is Friday. So happy Friday to everybody. Yeah, and I hope you all have an amazing weekend By the way, all right, so let's begin with this Five Nights at Thomas the final chapter Oh Hey, that's the fact controller, right? What is he doing? He's taking a nap out in the desert.  It's kind of dark We're in the middle of the forest. Oh Man, I just I can just imagine Slenderman popping out here Okay, let's go in here. Oh Okay, so it looked like there's Thomas the train parts here. Oh My god, okay, so it seemed like they were about a sample Oh, we're looking for Walter found out mistaken Walter Middleton in his name That's the illustrator of Thomas the train series. Oh my god. Yo Why is there a what? Oh my god the voice Why is there a Thomas the train faces here?   What is wrong with his face? Oh my god. All right, that looks like jam like some strawberry jam Okay, just had to leave the workshop. Yeah, let's get out of this place. I don't know how to be here any longer I do not want to wait for something to come get it Yes, Walter dead Okay, recap Okay, so let's recap sir Topham had went to his private workshop late at night to work on a replica of Thomas the tank engine for his new business He was starting. Okay, however things turned south real fast as he found his best friend since first grade Walter had overdosed on the form of NT two passions. Oh my god He was also working on the train at the time struck with an intense amount of grief He found it very difficult to work on the train However, he managed to do it in a few months later He managed to open Thomas's pizza railway and it became a pretty big Thomas pizza. Really. That's what we were at right now for a while For a while. Okay, so why is there a Thomas a trade on the freaking wall hanging there chapter 2 the start of a highway to Insanity mom. Okay. It's only about to get crazy up in here Dude, what is that? Oh my god. Is that Shrek's face? It is Shrek's face. Why is Shrek's face right here press E? We just ate Shrek's head, bro. Oh man. All right, I'm so sorry Shrek. I love you, man Not mean to do that Okay, let's go check out the TV objective get to your toilet wait, let's check this out Is it a microwave? What is that? This blood all over here. Okay, I think there's a trail of blood Disappears right around here. Oh, that's Shrek's blood When is blood be green because he's an ogre I guess not all right. I said go to your toilet. We're going to the poop room Okay, better not get jump scares.  However, this was the most revolt and Controller had ever laid his eyes upon However, he didn't want to hurt his mom's feelings.  Okay chapter three a dream Just seem like there's four chapters. I mean, that's what I don't think right now because we've been to chapters one two three so far Okay, what is this?  Oh Look at this. Oh Wow, okay, that is creepy That kind of gave me the chills Just by Lincoln do that is so creepy. All right. Let's keep on moving. I guess we have to go up the spiral staircase.  All right, let's go up here What's up with that music though? Hey All right, let's keep on going.  Thanks a lot game. I do be looking fresh though Okay, we're almost at the top And by the bing-ba-da-bong here we are. Oh my god, we're closer to the Thomas train face Wait, what? Who the heck is that? Yo, is that slender man? I Told y'all slender man was gonna be out here That kind of hey, who who's your friend over here, man? Not gonna say a word. All right. All right. Oh man That is slender man, right? He's sitting down and looking over the edge. Oh, he's short. Yo, that is the shortest slender man I've ever seen in my life Short slender man. All right, let's go up to him. Oh, he vanished Hello there That was a giant Shrek. Oh Man, that was some type of horror game, right? All right, so that's since the gameplay was kind of short I did come across that's a Thomas the tank engine Horror remix. Let's check it out real quick because it looks kind of creepy. Oh My god, it's moving Okay Something better not pop out bro. I like how it's all distorted and creepy sounding. Oh Oh, who is that? And I'm sorry. I do not know all of the Thomas the train characters like the actual people Kind of buyer though not gonna lie Right, I think it just keeps going But it keeps zooming in to the driver Like my boy, why would you hop on this train? Do you not see Thomas's face? He has blood all over him.  He's like this is like the 1930s or something man All right, so it seems like that's it for Bro that was JJ the jet plane Don't ask how I know that cartoon okay, I used to watch it as a child when it I think it was PBS I don't think it was PBS, but I used to watch it as a child. Okay. Don't judge me. All right you guys Well, that is it for today's video. I don't know. I have no words for that Thomas horror game I mean it was kind of it wasn't too bad. It could have been worse. It could have been worse. Trust me There's there's horror games that are just terrible, but that one was it was it was I it was like whatever Right you guys what you guys enjoyed the video make sure to slap the like button If you're new to the channel make sure to subscribe and turn that notification bell on and hit on Notification so you won't miss when I upload a video when I live stream and all that good stuff And I will see you all in the next one