Welcome back to this course called Introduction to Paninian Grammar. So far we have studied the name of the text which is the core in the Paninian grammatical tradition. We have also studied the linguistic background of Paninian grammar. The names of 10 grammarians referred to by Panini in his own grammar. We also studied various scholars and their contributions in the Paninian grammatical tradition itself. We studied this tradition up to this modern day. We also took a look at the non-Paninian grammatical traditions that exist in India even today. So this is a brief survey of the grammatical activity related to Sanskrit pre as well as post Panini. Now in this lecture today, we shall look at certain other aspects related to the continuation of the tradition of Paninian grammar till today namely the oral tradition and the teaching and learning of Paninian grammar through the ages. We will take a few methods as samples for our study. I welcome you to this lecture in which first we shall go study the oral tradition. Oral tradition of Paninian grammar. The text of the Ashtadhyay was part of the Vedic lore that needs to be memorized and that was memorized and was handed down from one generation to the next for a period of more than 2500 years in continuum. Panini's grammar, the text of Ashtadhyay is considered as one of the six Vedangas, the limbs of Vedas, Vyakarana referring to the Paninian Vyakarana is stated to be the main of the six Vedangas, Mukham Vyakaranam Spritham. So Vyakarana is considered to be the Mukha, the main, the head amongst the six. That was the status given to Vyakarana and therefore it was obvious that as a part of the Vedanga, as a part of the Vedic lore, it was memorized by the Vedic scholars. And when the Vedic scholars, they impart their knowledge of a particular recension of a Veda, they also impart knowledge of the Vedangas and thereby the knowledge of Paninian grammar. This is how Paninian grammar became part of the oral tradition of the Veda which has survived even today. So Paninian grammar, Ashtadhyay became part of the popular concept of Dasagrantha. It was part of this wherein if not the entire text in a concession manner at least two Adhyayas or two chapters, they are required to be memorized and this is still a very basic kind of curriculum for memorization. The complete text needs to be memorized but at least two chapters, they are a must. This is what I have seen personally in Pune not so long ago. That is why I am reporting this to you. One important feature of this oral tradition of Ashtadhyay can be said to be the fact that the text of Ashtadhyay as we have received today through this oral tradition is a unique confluence of both Vedic as well as non-Vedic tradition. This is a very, very important feature. What do we mean by this? What we mean here is that some of the sutras that we see in the text of the Ashtadhyay today are or were inserted or modified into the text by a commentary text called the Kashikabruti which was composed around 7th century CE and the later Paninian grammatical tradition ascribes clearly these changes in the text of the Ashtadhyay to the authors of the Kashikabruti. Here is one example provided on the slide 1117 and 1118. They are received as one sutra as far as the Vyakarno Mahabhashya is concerned which actually treats them as one sutra. But the Vyakarno Mahabhashya while interpreting this one sutra proposes to make two parts of it and account for certain usage in this particular manner. Probably this suggestion of the Vyakarno Mahabhashya was taken too seriously by some later commentators and tradition and they actually split the one sutra that the Vyakarno Mahabhashya received into two and we find that they are separated as we find in the text of the Kashikabruti that is the next available text to us. So the text of Kashikabruti presents these two as separate sutras Vyakarno Mahabhashya received only one sutra. So this is a phenomenon that has happened over a period of time in this particular tradition of Paninian grammar which was part of the oral tradition and so this becomes a very important feature. The text of the Kashikabruti cannot be said to be a part of the oral tradition at all. In fact it can be said to be part of the written transmission but we are not talking about the text of the Kashikabruti, we are talking about the sutras that are found in the text of Ashtadhyayi but they are also commented upon by the text of the Kashikabruti and that is why the version of these sutras as found in the text of the Kashikabruti becomes extremely valuable and extremely important. And the point that I am making over here is that the version of the sutras as found in the text of the Kashikabruti has found its way in the text of the Ashtadhyayi that is part of the Vedic lore and which was committed to memory and which has come down to us through generations that is very, very important culturally and also grammatically. So when you commit Ashtadhyayi to memory there are certain techniques to remember the 4000 sutras. You cannot memorize all the 4000 sutras at one go. Even if you say that you have memorized all the 4000 sutras to remember them in the course of time is if not equal more difficult task. So to remember the sutras at particular intervals regularly you need to develop certain techniques which the Panamanian grammatical tradition readily developed and in this slide I have mentioned one such technique and let me describe that to you. The technique is Pushpika technique Pushpika is a statement uttered at the end of the recitation of each Pada. This is what is Pushpika. So at the end of each Pada you will find a statement of a particular kind which is called as Pushpika. What it assumes is a unit a unit consisting of 20 sutras that are being that is being referred to in this Pushpika statement. So for example take the beginning of a unit of 20 sutras the first unit of 20 sutras take the beginning of it then go to the next unit of 20 sutras and take the beginning of this second unit of 20 sutras and do it recursively until you come to the end of the sutras and place all these beginnings of each unit of 20 sutras side by side and make a sentence out of those beginning words or half words to put it simply in the form of an equation we can say that the first sutra the beginning of the first unit of 20 sutras is the first sutra and then take the beginning of that first sutra then go to the next unit second unit of 20 sutras so 21st sutra would be the beginning of that unit. So collect the beginning word of that 21st sutra place it aside the first sutra then go to the next unit and collect the beginning of the 41st sutra and place it aside the 21st sutra beginning word and keep doing this until you reach the end of the father such a statement which consists of the beginning words of the first sutra of each unit of 20 sutras occurs invariably at the end of each and every father this statement is what is called as Pushpika the purpose of this statement is that it helps the reciter to remember the entire number of sutras in a particular unit in a structural way. So I am referring to 19th sutra of the first unit of 20 I am referring to 7th sutra in the second unit of 20 and things of that kind it is easier for a reciter to remember a unit of 20 sutras and then number the sutras inside the unit accordingly and remember the sutras like this. So this was one device developed by the reciters and here is an example for you. So at the end of the first father of the first chapter we find this particular sentence which is part of the first bullet and I have also colored the relevant parts of this sentence in different manner. So for example the first word is in red color the second is in blue purple and look is in green. So there is a purpose behind this coloring scheme which will be clear in a moment. So if we look at the next few bullets on this slide you notice that the very first sutra in this father is Vraddhara Dayich. So the first sutra of the first unit of 20 consists of the word Vraddhir at the beginning. So you pick this word and place it here. The second unit of 20 begins with 21. So pick the first word of the sutra Adyantavad and place it next to the word Vraddhi here. Then you go to the next unit of 20 sutras which is 41 and then pick the first word in this 41st sutra which is Aveibhava and place it next to Adyantavad. Then you go to the next unit of 20 that is the sutra number 61 which is Pratyayasya Lukshlilupaha. So get the first word of this sutra and place it next to Aveibhava and now what remains after this 61 is only 15 sutras. There are 75 sutras in this father. So in this unit there are only 15 sutras remaining after the third unit of 20. So you mention 15 as a number because the unit of 20 is not complete. So you just mention that there are 15 more there is a unit of 15 sutras including this 61. So this unit of 20 is not complete. So you will get this situation in many fathers and that situation has to be tackled in this particular manner. In this way the sentence Vraddhi Adyantavad Aveibhava Pratyayasya Lukshlilupaha provides me an information about the number of sutras in this particular father. So there are 3 units of 6, 3 units of 20 sutras that means 60 plus Panchadasha that is 15. So there are 75 sutras in this particular father and here are the beginnings of each unit Vraddhi Adyantavad Aveibhava and Pratyayasya Lukshlilupaha. These are the beginnings of their respective units. The fourth unit is incomplete but still we mentioned the beginning of it. Now the point of mentioning all these words is to remember a unit of 20 through the beginning word of it. This sentence is called Pushpika and this helps enormously as far as the memorization of the sutras is concerned and also the transmission of those sutras is concerned. Here is another example. So this is taken from the smallest of the fathers which consists of only 38 sutras. That means there is only one unit in this second example which is complete with 20 sutras and the second unit of 20 sutras is not complete. There are only 18 sutras in this second unit. So this is how they are mentioned. The first sutra in 2.2.1 is Purvaparadharotaram Ekadeshi Naikadhi Karane. So you pick the first word over here Purvaparadharotaram and place it in the sentence over here. Then of course go to the next unit which is incomplete. There are no 20 sutras over here but pick up the first sutra in this second unit which is So pick the first word and place it next to the Purvaparadharotaram word over here in this sentence and that is all. And then also mention how many sutras exist in this particular unit. Now that number is 18. So Ashtadasha. So this Pushpika that is found at the end of 2.2 provides us with information about the number of sutras that exist in this particular father 2.2. Okay. There is a unit of 20 and then there is a unit of 18 that begins with Trutiyaprabhurtini. So the second unit of 20 is not complete. Only 18 are enumerated. So that number is mentioned and so we say plus 18. That is how we say. There is one more method which I would like to mention here. This method was invented by my teacher and he taught it to me. The name of my teacher who invented this and taught it to me is Pandit Shri La Atlegar, S. L. Atlegar. He lived in Pune and this method consists of confining the unit of sutras to a small number 5. So consider only 5 sutras as a unit.  Confine yourself to a smaller unit of 5 sutras and it is very easy for you to remember now the unit of 5 and let those units be memorized. Since it is a small number of sutras making one unit, one can easily also play with these units by going back and forth. Similarly, one can go straight or one can also come back in the reverse order and once you master doing this with one unit of 5 sutras, you can apply it to the other unit of 5 sutras and then you can keep doing this for the whole Pada then for the whole Adhyaya and then you can also do this for the whole text of Ashta Adhyaya. You can recite it one way and then you can also recite it in the reverse order. That is what makes this particular method very special. So to summarize, we have seen the oral aspect of transmission of Paninian grammar. Primarily, this grammar was handed down and is handed down orally as part of the Vedic lore and the Vedic reciters developed methods to remember the number of sutras so as not to lose any part of the text. We can also say that other scholars devised some other methods to memorize the sutras effectively. Having said that, now let us move ahead and take some information about the teaching and learning of Paninian grammar. We would like to focus on two particular methods which are prevalent even today very strongly. The first one is the Kaumudi method in which teaching of the sutras of Ashta Adhyaya is done through the teaching of the Kaumudi texts, namely the Vaya Karana Siddhanta Kaumudi and its redactions which we shall see little later. So in the Kaumudi method, the sutras are rearranged according to particular themes. So all sutras in the Ashta Adhyaya on a particular theme which are scattered through various Adhyayas are brought together in this method in one particular chapter named after that theme with a focus on derivation of words and sentences and intricate points of derivation are discussed threadbare. For example, compound or samasa is a phenomenon which exists very productively in Sanskrit. But if you look at the Ashta Adhyaya you will find that the treatment of samasas or compounds is scattered all over Ashta Adhyaya. So in 2.1 and 2 compounds are prescribed the conditions are stated and if they are fulfilled the compound is prescribed this is done in 2.1 and 2. The gender of the compound is mentioned in 2.4 number of the compound is mentioned again in 2.4. Then the suffixes in the compounds they are discussed in 3.2 then the compound final suffix is described in 5.4 the compound accent is described in 6.2 and the compound internal operations are described in 6.3. Now all these sections in the Kaumudi method are brought together under a big umbrella of compound as subsections and with their help the derivation of compound is taught. So compound prescriptions of each type of compound will become subsections and similarly other parts of the Ashta Adhyaya they will become parts of the subsections. This is how gathering together the information scattered all over Ashta Adhyaya makes the Kaumudi method very unique detailed nuanced as far as the derivation process of a particular phenomenon is concerned in this case the compound. So the features of this Kaumudi method are focus on derivation of words, focus on intricate points of meaning and word derivation correspondence consulting the authoritative texts of the 3 Munis. So this particular method was very popular and is very popular for more than 400 years now in the traditional curriculum as well as for more than 200 years in the university education system. The traditional exams test the skill on the basis of mastery of this text the Kaumudi text has become a hallmark of the study of Paninian grammar this day. So there are some redactions also available because it is a huge text. So there is Madhya Siddhanta Kaumudi which was an abridged version of the Siddhanta Kaumudi then there is one more called Sara Siddhanta Kaumudi then there is one more Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi little bit more abridged and this was further abridged to Paramalaghu Siddhanta Kaumudi. So these are different redactions available of Vaya Karuna Siddhanta Kaumudi following the same method number of sutras gets reduced however it suffers from certain drawbacks they are too much stress is laid on memorization of words and also their meanings and also the derivation when it is possible to do this using other means also one who memorizes the words and the meanings and the derivations most of the times has no idea of the words continuing from one sutra to the next. So which word is continued in a particular sutra probably one is lost about in this particular method. There is another method which takes care of these drawbacks and this is called Kashika method it follows the sequential ordering of sutras in the text of Dashtadhyay for the purpose of study. So it refers to different sections while studying different sections of the same topic like compound. So we will study the first Adhyaya first then the second in the sequence. So we will study the compound section not as one unit but as part of different sub chapters and chapters and when we go to those sub sections we will study them. Now the feature is that knowledge of words continuing from previous sutras is intact because you see the sutras in sequence and how the words get continued. So there is no need to memorize the meaning of the sutras suffice it to memorize only the sutra. So a student also can on their own make the meaning of the sutras that is possible in this particular method but this method also suggests also suffers from certain drawbacks and they are a student has to learn different sections related to a single theme at different times that much patience is required on the part of the student studying through this method. Therefore several students may find no cohesive treatment available at one go as we have it in the Kavmudi method. Similarly no current trains in the development of thought are available as are noted down in the Kavmudi method. Notably the Navya Nyaya technique they may not be available in this particular method. Therefore this particular method can be criticized by saying that this is caught up in the history and is not moving ahead. So what do we do in such a scenario? In such a scenario a solution is provided in which we combine both these methods. A method called Pumbai this method is developed over past more than 20 years of teaching wherein teaching of Paninian grammar combining the features of both Kavmudi method as well as Kashikar method is in progress. This particular method was practiced in two cities namely Mumbai and Pune and a combination of these two names of the two cities is also the name of this particular method highlighting the combination of both the methods Kavmudi and Kashikar. So combination of their name is the name given to this particular method. The features of this Pumbai method are focus on derivation which is extremely important together with the focus on the text of Dastadhyayi so that you do not need to remember the meanings of the sutras. You are able to know the continuation of the words and we also move along the time taking note of the new developments like the Navya Nyaya language. This particular method also has an important feature called Dhatuparayana in which verbal forms are created using the sutras and recited altogether. To summarize we can say that the tradition of Paninian grammar is evolving in the course of time and most importantly this tradition thinks so it is a live force. New methods are being developed to improve upon the historical methods and their shortcomings. It absorbs the best in current times and continues to flow. We should therefore learn the core and the basic part of Paninian grammar which we shall do in the next lecture. Now before closing let me recite for you the beginning of an important text called Kashi Kabratthi over here as is our practice. At the end of each even lecture we recite the beginning verse of a particular text within the Paninian grammatical tradition. So this verse is the following. I repeat. And lastly the five sutras of today these are from the third part of the first adhyaya and the five sutras are I repeat. Thank you for your attention.


Hello, everyone. Welcome to another capsule, International Capsule for Shankar IAS Academy. Today, we would like to discuss what is called the COP 27, which is Conference of Parties Number 27. Because I presume that all of you know what it means. This is a conference parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was adopted in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. And that was the pinnacle of achievement on the negotiations on climate change. Because before that, it was established that climate change is caused by greenhouse gas emissions. And these emissions have to be controlled so that global warming does not take place and the global situation changes to the disadvantage of humanity. And it's also established that the greenhouse gases are caused by human activities. There are several things that causes global warming. But human activity is one of the most important factors. This is disputed by some scientists. But now it is fairly established that bringing down greenhouse gas emissions is the only answer. So how to do it has been a matter of discussion since 1972 when the Stockholm Conference on Environment was held, where Mrs. Gandhi laid down some of the very basic principles about climate change. Because the idea suggested in 1972 was that developing countries should keep away from development and not make the same mistakes as the developed countries did in order to save environment. But Mrs. Gandhi put it very bluntly when she said poverty is the worst polluter. And the polluters must pay in the sense that developed countries have a special responsibility. And that debate has been going on till finally it was established that there is common but differentiated responsibility between developed countries and developing countries. This is the only issue which we have been discussing ever since. In several forms the same principle and the question arise. And it happened also in COP 27. Because each time the developed countries make a concession on this aspect. Another issue is raised and therefore it has been going in a direction which does not take us anywhere. The fundamental point is who will reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It was agreed in 1992 that the developed countries have a special responsibility and they took on compulsory mandatory reduction. And at the same time they authorised developing countries to increase their greenhouse gas emissions because without that they cannot function. So technology and money should be given to the developing countries so that they can also reduce their emissions without affecting their economic development. So this is the only issue really. But ever since the framework convention the situation has been decreasing going backwards moving away from agreements reached. Meanwhile the temperature rising to intolerable levels. This is the issue. And in 1992 we thought that a solution was found that the mandatory cuts of the developed countries will help and developing countries will be given money and technology so that they don't create emissions themselves beyond their needs. So this was the agreement there. But since the COP 1 in Berlin or which I was Vice Chairman, the situation started to dressing because developed countries moved away from the commitments that they made in Rio de Janeiro. And they started giving various excuses why they cannot reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Because it was a matter of maintaining their luxurious life. And no reduction could be made because they must have their 12 air conditioners and four cars and various other gadgets etc. And they were not willing to make any sacrifice on that account. And the developing countries would not have the projects they want, the electricity they want, the factories they want. Because if environmental standards are established they will not be able to do anything because the financing will not be available for them. The cost of financing an environment friendly industry is much more than a regular industry. And the incremental cost has to be met by somebody and that has to be developed. But this principle they have been moving away from and they have been asking developing countries to do various things. But the whole thing, whole structure of Rio de Janeiro was changed first in Copenhagen and later the Paris Agreement. So I call the Paris Agreement a hoax at that time because there was nothing in the Paris Agreement which would help the process established in Rio de Janeiro. Because developed countries had moved away from implementing their mandatory cuts and developing countries were not given any money. It was supposed to be $350 billion which was promised in Rio de Janeiro which was reduced to $5 billion for 10 years in the World Bank. So it was a ridiculous situation. So finally all the countries had agreed that this a formula of mandatory cuts will not work because they did not implement them and their argument was the developing countries must also have mandatory cuts which the developing countries could not afford. And finally among about five or six leading countries it was agreed that we changed the track. The track went up to what is called the Kyoto Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol was embodied all the elements of the Rio Declaration but the developed countries refused to sign it and so it died a natural death. So an alternative was thought of and that is how came the concept of voluntary cuts. That means everybody cuts voluntarily with a view to make sure that the global temperature does not go about 1.5 degrees Celsius. That was the heart of the Paris Agreement. So everybody gave their voluntary emission cuts and when it was all added up it was discovered that the temperature of the globe will go by 3.5 degrees Celsius not 1.5 which is the desirable level. So that means if you are above 1.5 degrees Celsius then the world will begin to end because the lower level countries will disappear, more floods and more drought and everything will come and maybe 200 years the earths will perhaps be unlivable. So what do you do about that? And so from Paris up to Glasgow last year these ideas were tried out so many safety valves were proposed, so many funding methodologies were proposed but nothing came to the solution which will limit the global climate change or global warming below 1.5 degrees Celsius. So we have already issued the death warrant for the earth by not fulfilling those promises. So the United States walked out of the Paris Agreement, all others tried to stay and then the US government came back but all that did not make any difference to the actual situation on the ground. And so the world body, the United Nations body is concerned again changed track in Glasgow. In Glasgow the change of track was that every country will declare a target year for carbon free emissions, net carbon emissions in the sense that you can emit carbon but you must do things in order to neutralize it through other methods by using other fuels and other technology. So many countries have declared their intention to be carbon free by 2030, 2050, 2060 and India 2070 but all these countries at that time all the developing countries said yes these are our targets but this is subject to financial support and also subject to technological support and that is where it stayed. So people were thinking of implementing the understanding in Glasgow and that is why the 27th COP is brief the history of the 27th COP to see how they can develop policies which would fulfill the voluntary years that countries have declared. India for example said we must have 1 trillion dollars a year if we were to reach that stage by 2070 so nobody believes that that kind of money will be available. So the usual things happen a lot of expectations people are promising very many things a lot of NGOs and others were on the streets in fact there are more NGOs and activists on the streets than in the conference hall the enthusiasm was also more outside than in the conference because the conference was dealing with the reality. So there was a concept of loss and damage for the most affected countries this has been in the air for some time but that is not what the developing countries were seeking the kind of technology and funding which would enable them to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and reach the zero carbon level but the developed countries some of them just started this debate on a fund in order to deal with the loss and damages caused by some other countries. So this is then is removed this moved away from the original understanding the idea was all developing countries must get assistance but now they are making another category within that within that the weaker countries countries with no hope of development unless they have assistance unless they are able to have factories and other facilities and therefore they needed to not only create new greenhouse gas emissions at the same time protect themselves there are various ways of doing it you can build bridges you can build dams in order to you know control the climatic conditions and also keep away from the dangers of land or drought etc but this is happening all the time we look at the period before COP 27 this happened in many many countries. So here again I think the developed countries played a trick on the world community so instead of promising funding for everyone they started talking about loss and damage of course there was nothing wrong in that idea that we should certainly compensate the poorer countries to gain sustain and sustenance but the bigger issue is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally and this loss and damage funding which is proposed is not going to deal with it so that is why I have said in my article in agridiff.com last week that COP has done nothing in order to improve the situation on climate change and more scientific experts are saying that this was totally a loss of time but there are always people who like to see the silver lining on any dark cloud and the only silver lining is that there is a promise of a new fund so this and the committee has been established to look into the formalities to find out where the money will come from how it will be distributed which are the countries which are affected most and all these have been initiated who will give them technology who will give them money all these have to be discussed. So what has happened is only so far that this idea has been accepted and that too was accepted at the very last minute and this is something that who a COP does all the time when the time for the conference to end comes normally there is no outcome and then they turn the clock back but they cannot come in they cannot postpone the conference so what they do is they don't change the dates they change on to the clock and even though two nights may be spent it should all be on the day the clock was stopped so that there is no the time lag does not affect the programs etc. So the same thing has been done like it happened in Glasgow there was this issue of coal how to face out coal and finally after several hours of discussion phase out became phase down and that was a compromise that India suggested and everybody declared victory and then nothing happened what has happened to coal nothing at all. So a similar situation has arisen here also the Secretary General said that this was the first step towards climate justice because those who are suffered the most are being compensated many people said this is a determined way forward it will go the same way but in my view it will go the same way the other funds there are so many funds proposed planet protection fund the green fund so many funds were proposed but no funds have come no technology have come there is more of hot air than anything else. So if those people who consider to your COP 27 a success will highlight the fact that there is a provision for a new funding it depends on us what to do with it how to raise it before COP 28 that's what they are saying but those who know the story from right from the beginning understands that this is another ploy another way to produce an atmosphere of progress but without any real progress because nobody has committed any money nobody has given any timetable just say there's a fund and for that fund they have established some kind of a committee which will decide all this and come back with suggestions before the COP 2028 next year so there is going to be a transitional committee so in my view this is a retrogressive step because now the funding for the developing countries will be further divided for those who have been damaged or lost sustained losses and others who may not have immediately sustained any loss but also in a way in a way looking towards the opportunity to resolve the problem so right from 92 till today there is no viable program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions nor do we have a credible program to give funding and technology to developing countries these are the issues but these issues have not been addressed and addressed in a peculiar way by saying that as far as reduction of greenhouse gases is concerned we go by the years established by different countries and we know very well that they are not going to implement it and therefore let us address the other issue loss and damage so a lot of you know questions were asked and developed countries kept promising and developing countries kept questioning and finally at the last minute to after the day of the end of the conference had passed this decision was taken and I think that this also will go the same way as the many other funds are concerned because the idea that developed countries should change their lifestyles and they enable developed countries to develop with the resources that they make available so that the poverty which is the worst polluter is remote and those who have polluted the earth that is the developed countries must pay for it a principle that is accepted in 1992 so in so many years of discussions and debates we still have not find a solution and unless there is a change of heart in the developed countries to change their lifestyles and to adapt new lifestyles and new technology so that they don't consume all the resources that the earth has in order to enrich themselves so it's a it's a major major issue and COP 27 has not sold the decision it has diverted attention from the main issue of climate change climate change reduction and also funding and technology by creating a new fund which does not even exist as of now so this is what has happened with COP 27 lots of speeches were made President Biden himself spoke about the need for climate change control everybody developed countries and developing countries spoke very emotionally effectively and the young people you know people who are committed to the cause of climate change they asked the present generation are you forgetting us are you going to forget us you will pass away and we are the people who will have to suffer the losses caused by climate change and so they keep saying this generation is making a very grave mistake not doing anything about it because they are passing on the responsibility to the next generation and generation after next which will be gravely affected by all these problems so the present conferences the present governments have to act and that is a demand and from our outside I have seen personally in the Berlin where the NGOs you know got into the conference here and they announced and their results were announced they invaded the conference hall and threatened delegates that they will do something in order to push them to take decisions and finally it was great difficulty that all of us appeal to them not to disrupt the conference so the the the anger is burning outside and that is being expressed by the young people so this kind of idea of a fund or some some kind of a ploy is not going to change the opinion of the people and as developed countries are concerned they are emitting greenhouse gases to maintain their luxury and they would like to stick to that they are not going to change that so you cannot expect any outcome there and the developing countries have to stop development in order to survive because they do not have funds to use it for environment friendly technology so no money is available there and that costs of even giving some support to the most affected countries the estimate of the united nations environment program is as much as 580 billion dollars by 2050 immediately 160 to 340 billion dollars every year in order to pay for the loss and damage of the poorer countries so where is it going to come it's not going to come at all so we have to look for another formula another solution for COP 29 because COP 28 will review this and discover that this has been not right here so particularly to the young people we did not know what to say because the present generation of deal makers decision makers have to take the pull by the horns and reduce emissions by changing lifestyles and reduce emissions in developing countries by adopting new technologies for which they need so it always comes down to the dollar finally and that has to be found and that can be done only by sacrifice by the development countries which they will not do because they need their luxury emissions and developing countries cannot stop all their development activities because what they have is survival emissions so this conflict cannot be a result and the only hope in my opinion the only hope is that we develop technologies sufficiently in order to capture the carbon from the atmosphere and do something with it such research is going on in many countries but it's not reached any conclusion if you have a technology by which something some bomb-like thing will go into the atmosphere get this collected in some way in a liquid form of solid form and bring back to the earth and maybe bury it somewhere or turn them into useful products and that's not very far maybe five years, ten years like in the case of nuclear energy the fusion energy is very much in the making but after many years we have not reached anywhere near the conclusion of that so similarly a scientific exercise will probably be the final solution but in the meantime the politicians have a job the diplomats have a job so we'll go on creating new institutions, new products, new kind of quality of life the same different kind of responsibilities all these will work out but I think eventually since luxury has to be maintained and survival has to be ensured I do not see an easy formula to develop unless there is a scientific solution thank you


In the last class we discussed about a concept called scaling in two dimensional NMR. The idea was to see that the parameters like the chemical shifts and the coupling constants appear modified in the spectra, this is two particular advantages. We can make the J's values appear larger in which case some advantages will be there with respect to the cancellation of the intensities of the positive and negative signals which will not happen. And we also talked about the downscaling of chemical shifts, it will decrease effective spectral width and therefore it will increase the dwell time between the two points and it will improve the resolution in the spectra. The resolution in the sense it will improve the resolution in the fine structures of the cross peaks and therefore the cross peaks appear better resolved. However, of course the separation between two cross peaks in the spectrum along the F1 dimension will get reduced because you are downscaling the chemical shifts and that of course if one can afford it then one can use downscaling of the chemical shifts and get better resolved multiplied structures in your cross peaks. So we will continue the discussion today but now we will discuss the upscaling of chemical shifts, how to increase the separation between the cross peaks in the two dimensional spectra. This will happen along the F1 dimension only as before because that is where we are going to do all kinds of manipulations of the delays and we will get a better results because there is no constraint of the acquisition of data and we can manipulate the delays of the pulses and things like that in the indirect dimension. So T1 evolution is played with and that will give you the desired results. So today we are going to discuss the upscaling of chemical shifts. The pulse sequence for this experiment is shown here and this is called as cos, this is correlation with shift scaling. So it is very similar to the previous pulse sequences except that we play around with the delays, the evolution periods of the different Hamiltonians. So here we start with the 90 expulse again and here we have the T1 evolution period. Now we have an extended T1 evolution period here we call it as XT1 and then from this point onwards there is the so-called spin echo sequence tau 180 tau sequence from here to here. Now we also keep this period from here to here constant and that period is delta. So therefore you can see as you increase this period here this tau values will decrease and therefore this 180 degree pulse keeps moving along with the T1 increments. So the net result should be that I should have the time period from here to here constant delta. Now what all things happen in this? So this we can see immediately that during this period during the tau 180 tau period the chemical shifts will get refocused because this is the spin echo sequence whatever evolution happens during this time period will get refocused during this time period. Therefore chemical shift will not evolve during this 2 tau period but it will evolve during this T1 and XT1. So from here to here chemical shifts will evolve. Now the coupling constants are not affected by the 180 degree pulse and they will evolve during the entire period T1 plus delta. So that is what is indicated here and then we will actually do explicit calculation using the product operator formalism. We will illustrate this we will not go through in as much detail as we did for the COSY and other experiments because the same way the calculations can be done and we will illustrate this with one someone particular evolution and we will give the end results. So product operator calculation for the two spin system K and L both are spin half systems. So at the beginning the row 1 is the Z magnetization. So it is ikz plus ilz and after the first 90 degree pulse I get iky plus ily with a minus sign here because the pulse is applied along the X axis. Now during the next time period T1 plus delta the following evolutions will occur. This is what I explained to you just now. The chemical shift evolution will occur for the period 1 plus X times T1 because these chemical shifts are refocused by the spin echo sequence during the period 2 tau. Coupling evolution will however occur for the entire period T1 plus delta and delta is a constant. So therefore the pulse is smooth 180 degree pulse especially it moves through the experiment and in order to maintain this delta constant the tau period has to be decreased and as T1 is incremented. Now we will not go through as full calculations as we did for the COSY because we have already indicated how this calculation has to be done and one can go through the same procedure and calculate the density operator, remove the non-observable parts and keep only the observable parts of the density operator. Now going through the all of this calculation you arrive at row 4. This is the density operator at the beginning of the detection period. Now here the calculation is done taking both K spin evolution as well as L spin evolution and only those parts of the density operator retain which are observable. These ones will evolve in the T2 period to produce observable magnetization and so that is what is retained here. So at the end of the T1 evolution or we will say at the beginning of the detection period because the last pulse has already been applied soon after this one they will evolve in T2. Now what does this row 4 contain? The row 4 contains these terms iky sin omega k alpha T1 plus ily sin omega l alpha T1 and multiplied by cosine pi jkl T1 plus delta. Two terms here and additional two terms here plus 2ikz ilx sin omega k alpha T1 plus 2ilzikx sin omega l alpha T1 sin pi jkl T1 plus delta. Now let us look at this carefully. Now this first two terms here they have the J modulation for the period T1 plus delta and delta is a constant. Therefore T1 dependence will happen with the coupling constants during the period T1. Now with regard to the chemical shifts here you see this come from the chemical shift evolution omega k alpha T1 and omega l alpha T1. These come from the chemical shift evolutions of the k spins and the l spins. Now you see this is omega k alpha T1 and what is alpha? Alpha is 1 plus x. So because the chemical shift evolution has occurred for the period 1 plus x times T1 call it as alpha T1. So therefore you can see in this full sequence this from here to here is 1 plus x times T1. The chemical shift evolution has happened for this entire period and that is why it is appearing there as alpha T1 omega k alpha T1. And what comes from ily it is giving you ily sin omega l alpha T1. And both these are in phase magnetizations. This is the in phase magnetization of the k spin and this is the in phase magnetization of the l spin. So this comes from the k spin evolution during the T1 period. Now I have omega k here and I have iky here and this will evolve in T2 period with the frequency of the k spin with omega k. Therefore this will be responsible for one diagonal peak because in the T2 period it will evolve with the k spin frequencies. Now this term ily sin omega l alpha T1 this came from the evolution of the l spin during the T1 period during the period T1 plus delta. And therefore this has the frequency here omega l and now this also is ily here ily evolves in T2 period with the frequency of the l spin. Therefore this also produces a diagonal peak. So these two terms produce diagonal peaks in the final 2D spectrum. But the chemical shifts are multiplied by the by the factor alpha. So and that alpha is 1 plus x, x is the number which you can choose. Whatever value you choose if x is equal to 1 then it will be multiplied by a factor 2. Chemical shifts will be scaled by a factor 2. If x is 0.5 then it will be scaled by the factor 1.5 and so on. This you can choose depending upon how much you want to increase the separation between the peaks. But notice if you want to do that your spectral width will be increased.  Now if you put x is equal to 1 alpha becomes equal to 2. Therefore your total spectral frequency width will be multiplied by a factor 2. Therefore 5000 hertz will go to 10000 hertz. So which means when you do incrementation the T1 incrementation this will have to account for 10000 hertz. So therefore your increment will be half of what it was earlier in this case. So this would mean that your T1 max will be half what it would be for the same number of T1 increments as compared to the previous case without the scaling effect. But the peaks will appear great more separated because of the increased chemical shift difference. Now what about the second term here? The second term consists of anti-phase magnetizations here. This is an anti-phase term and this is also an anti-phase term. So this will now is omega sin omega k alpha T1. This came from the evolution of the k spin during the T1 plus delta period. But now it has this operator term Lx which is L spin magnetization anti-phase to the k spin. And therefore this will evolve during the T2 period with the frequency of the L spin. And therefore this will produce me a cross peak along the f1 dimension it will have the frequency of k spin f2 dimension it will have the frequency of the L spin. But now because of this anti-phase operator here I will get plus minus terms in the fine structure in the cross peak along the f2 period. And this one is k spin magnetization and this came from the evolution of the L spin in the T1 plus delta period. So therefore this will also be modulated by this alpha T1. This will also be modulated by alpha T1 and this term will evolve during the f1 axis it will have the L spin chemical shifts and the f2 axis it will have the k spin chemical shifts and therefore this will also produce a cross peak. Therefore I separate this rho4 into two terms as rho4 is equal to rho4C plus rho4D. This is responsible for the diagonal peaks in the 2D spectrum. This is responsible for the cross peaks in the 2D spectrum. So the diagonal peak terms we explicitly write it here iky sin omega k alpha T1 plus ily sin omega l alpha T1 cosine pi jkl T1 plus delta. And likewise the cross peak terms will be these two 2ikz ilx sin omega k alpha T1 plus 2ilzikx sin omega l alpha T1 and multiplied by sin pi jkl T1 plus delta. Now let us look at the diagonal peaks first.  This expanded it further this term especially the other thing is the same this term is expanded. So we have here these two terms though the sin term will be multiplied by this cosine term. So which will produce some kind of the two peaks and there will also be modulated by the sin multiplied by the sin term. Now each one of these if you multiply this so you will have one product here it is the sin cosine and this will be sin sin. Now they will both produce two peaks so therefore there will be superposition of two terms from here and two terms from here. So the sin sin product will produce you cosine cosine terms which are absorptive line shapes with plus minus and this will produce me sin cosine this will produce dispersive line shape with plus plus in phase. Therefore there will be superposition of this kind of splitting plus plus splitting with the dispersive line shape and plus minus splitting with absorptive line shape. Therefore this introduces as indicated here in the F1 dimension some interface character will be introduced along the diagonal this is in the diagonal piece. Of course this is the kind of a modulation of the amplitude of these ones depending upon the value of delta you have this contributions of the two components different. So depending upon what value of cosine pi jkl delta you have and sin pi jkl delta you have the contribution of the dispersive line shapes and the absorptive line shapes from these two terms will be different and that although introduces the mixed phases it will have some advantages as you can see here. Similar arguments appear for ily as well ily also will have two terms here one product of this and other product of this. So this will produce you dispersive two components this will produce you absorptive two components this will be in phase this will be anti-phase and therefore there is a superposition of the peaks of dispersive and absorptive line shapes in the diagonal peak of the L spin as well. And the contributions of the two will depend upon this value delta what value of delta you can choose and how much one can choose that will depend upon of course your T2 how much you can afford because delta remember it is a fixed time period it will be the same for every T1 increment and therefore the signal will decay during that time period and that causes loss of signal. So depending upon your system how much loss you can afford how much decay of the signal afford you can choose a value of delta and in relation to jkl this jkl delta this product whatever the value that is that will determine the contributions of these two terms to the diagonal peak. And you can see here for a typical experiment in one of the samples which one has recorded and this you see as a significant improvement in the diagonal peak the diagonal many of this diagonal peaks have vanished and all the peaks which are close to the diagonal are now becoming much more clearer. These peaks are much more clearer compared to what they are present here. So this is the particular advantage of recording the shift scale spectrum. Another example is shown here because of the upscaling then you have cross peak separation is getting increased and you see here this is the particular region of the spectrum of the DNA molecule and therefore this is a so called 1 prime 2 prime to double prime region of the sugar rings in the DNA and you see here a significant improvement in the separation of the cross peaks in this area these cannot be resolved very well but these ones are got resolved very well. Similarly you can see here there is a better separation of the cross peaks overall the peaks appear more compressed here compared to this and that is because of the increased overall spectral width in this but the important point is that the cross peaks are looking more resolved in this spectrum. So therefore that is the advantage of doing upscaling of chemical shifts. Now so now we will take up another experiment which is called as total correlation spectroscopy it is called TOXI. So this is an experiment which is very commonly used in assigning spin systems and this is a very popular experiment which has very important sensitivity advantages and we will see as we discuss further. So the pulse sequence is very simple here so you have the 190 degree pulse that is the excitation pulse, magnetization is excited and it evolves for the period T1 and after that the magnetization is locked. Now you remember this magnetization is in the transverse plane and you apply 90x pulse you get magnetization in the transverse plane in the y axis because it will evolve during this period but now you apply a spin lock, spin lock is applied along the x or the y or whatever axis and then the entire magnetization is locked along that axis. So here this is a very complex spin sequence here spin lock it will consist of several pulses there are many many different schemes for spin locking and there are many different pulses inside here. So we will not go into the discussion of the details of the spin lock how it is achieved but suffice it to say that during this period the chemical shift evolution is completely removed the Zeeman Hamiltonian is completely removed and the only Hamiltonian that is present is the coupling Hamiltonian. So therefore the effective Hamiltonian during this period is the coupling Hamiltonian. Now since the chemical shifts are not there we will have to consider the full Hamiltonian not just a ikz ilz as was done in the previous cases where you have a weakly coupled spin systems. So when you have a weakly coupled spin systems coupling Hamiltonian will be ikz ilz here 2 pi j ikz ilz but when the chemical shifts are removed the j coupling becomes the only part of the Hamiltonian and then you will have the full Hamiltonian that has to be considered and that is the effective Hamiltonian represented here the effective Hamiltonian is 2 pi j ik dot il for the two-spin system you see and you expand it here so you get 2 pi j ikz ilz plus ikx ilx plus iky ily. So we have seen the effects of this early in course when we talked about the analysis of spectra this was discussed by Professor Ashutosh Kumar and you see when there is a strong coupling you have to include all these terms in the coupling Hamiltonian if there is a weak coupling then you will have only this term in the coupling Hamiltonian and the product operator calculations were done for the weakly coupled situation here. You can also do a detailed calculation of the evolution of the density operator for a strongly coupling Hamiltonian but certain tricks are to be used and this is more complex and we will not go into that detailed discussion here and we will simply accept the results that have been obtained. So once that is done evolution of the magnetization under the influence of this effective Hamiltonian is simply given by this expression here. So if you start with the ikx, ikx evolves during the spin log period how does it evolve for the period t and this is the period of the spin log. So during this it will produce me ikx into 1 plus cosine 2 pi j t divided by 2 plus ilx to 1 minus cosine 2 pi j d divided by 2 plus 2 interface terms here 2 iky ilz minus 2 ily ikz and this is multiplied by sine 2 pi j t by 2 and notice so during the we are starting here from the kx because this is what came from the evolution during that t1 period is started from the kx and gave me kx and it also gave me a lx that is the interesting part. So compared to the Kozy you had this kx here and the lx part that why what this was 2 ily ikz this was producing an anti-phase term in the case of the Kozy and here we have the in phase term for the ilx as well. So we have kx which is in phase k magnetization ilx which is in phase l magnetization and now these are multiplied by different coefficients and then you have an anti-phase term which is multiplied by another coefficient. Notice here if t is equal to 1 by 2j what happens if t is equal to 1 by 2j this becomes cosine pi this is minus 1 therefore this becomes 1 1 plus 1 by 2 this is 1 whereas this 1 goes to 0 this 1 1 minus 1 divided by 2 this goes to 0 which means there will be complete transfer of magnetization from ikx to ilx and this becomes 1 so and this anti-phase terms will be there but there is a complete transfer of in phase magnetization from kx to lx. So now another important point to be noticed here is that you have both are the same phase this is the diagonal peak which will has the x along the x axis and this is also ilx both are x therefore these have the same phase and therefore they will produce the same phase in the final spectrum therefore both the diagonal and cross peaks have the same phases. Now if you started with ilx suppose you start with ilx and do the same evolution here so which means after the even evolution you are having the ilx term and you are considering the evolution of that under the influence of the spin locked so you get ilx i plus cosine 2 pi jt by 2 plus ikx 1 minus cosine 2 pi jt by 2 and plus you have the same anti-phase terms here and sine 2 pi jt by 2. Now once again ilx in phase transfer to k that is the important part in the case of cosy and double quantum filtered cosy is we have anti-phase terms for both in the cosy you have the anti-phase terms from the cross peaks in phase for the diagonal peaks and the double quantum filtered cosy you have anti-phase terms in both the diagonal and cross peaks and here you have in phase components for both the diagonal and cross peaks and they have the same phases because you have both lx and kx for the two cases. Now if you added these two equations this is equation 2 and the earlier one was equation 1 which originated from k spin if we add this you notice here this term will completely vanish and you have ikx plus ilx going to ikx plus ilx that means the x magnetization is completely conserved so it is just distributed between the two spins kx plus lx and kx plus lx here that after the spin lock it is just the same. So therefore nothing has happened kx has gone to lx and lx has gone to kx. Suppose you started with ky same thing will happen ky will go to ly and ly we go to ky if you started with kz same thing will happen it will go from kz to lz and lz to kz. So therefore this mixing by the spin lock is called as isotropic mixing because it retains the phase and that is called isotropic mixing and the Hamiltonian is termed as isotropic Hamiltonian. After the mixing the magnetization components are detected in the T2 time period and two-dimensional Fourier transformation of the collected signal results in the 2D spectrum. So what is the consequence of this in phase isotropic mixing? There will be relay of magnetization. Suppose during the mixing period you had multiple spins which are connected so you had let us consider a 3-spin network here kl and m, k is coupled to l, l is coupled to m. There is no km coupling but now so during the mixing period we saw that if you start from kx it went to lx. When you had only two spins lx starting with lx it went to kx but suppose there is a third spin here the lx is coupled to the m therefore what stops it from going to m. Therefore during the spin lock period what originated from k came to l and then from l it can go to m. There is no chemical shift evolution here anyway it is only coupling evolution all the spins have essentially lost their identity therefore it is called as the only the coupling part the individual chemical shifts are not there therefore what came from here went to l and l can go to m so it can be transferred from l to m as well. So transfer can occur from k to l and l to m and if there are more it can go further m to p or p to q and things like that. So it can relay through the entire magnetization the coupling network and that is the strength of the Toxy experiment that is why it is called as total correlation spectroscopy. Look at the example here, here is an experimental example this is the Cauchy spectrum of a particular molecule whose one dimensional spectrum looks like this because it is put on both sides in the same manner and this is the corresponding Toxy spectrum of the same molecule. So you notice here that in the Cauchy spectrum you got a correlation from this diagonal peak to this produces a cross peak here that is to this diagonal peak and it produces a cross peak here to this diagonal peak here. So correlations are established between these three spins in the Cauchy spectrum. So this proton is therefore coupled to this proton and also to this proton. Now you see here in the Toxy spectrum you have those two same peaks present here these two are the two Cauchy peaks which were present here and here but you get additional peaks here this peak here and this peak here these have two additional peaks which are coming. So how did they come? They came because of the relay of the magnetization through the network of the coupled spins. So because these ones are further coupled to other spins and that is how you generated those two. See for example here this diagonal peak is here. So this diagonal peak is coupled to this you can see this cross peak here but this diagonal peak here is also showing a cross correlation here and therefore that is the same which is the relay here. So you have this relay coming here through the relay. So therefore you have this kind of correlations appearing in the Toxy spectrum through the relay mechanism. So therefore it is called two dimensional total correlation spectroscopy or the Toxy. Similarly here you start with this here you had only one cross peak showing one correlation one coupling from here to here. But this diagonal peak here this proton may be coupled to several others. This one is coupled to several others and that is shown by these three peaks which are additionally appearing here. This one is appearing additional and these ones are appearing additional which means this respective diagonal peaks are connected to more spins and the magnetization is relate to those spins in the spin lock period and they will evolve during the T2 time period with their respective frequencies and therefore they will appear here in the 2D spectrum as cross peaks and the respective chemical shifts of this spin which had evolved during the T1 period. So therefore this generally contains more number of peaks but it is extremely useful and it has more information. So complete spin networks can be identified from the Toxy spectrum. So with that we will stop here. So we will complete it the two dimensional correlation experiments homonuclear correlation experiments with this.


Signals are built out of sine waves, at least according to the Fourier transform. But what are the properties of a sine wave? Well, there are three – amplitude, frequency and phase. In sound signals, the amplitude of a sine wave tells us how loud it is, the frequency of a sine wave tells us its pitch and the phase of a sine wave tells us its position within the signal. Imagine I had two sine waves at different frequencies added together. If I change the phase of the second sine wave relative to the first, it changes the shape of the signal. The Fourier transform analyses a signal by breaking it apart into its individual sine waves and tells us the amplitude, frequency and phase of each sine wave making up the signal.


Hello friends, my name is Dr. Pupat Singh Bhatti. I'm a senior consultant, neurologist, practicing in Manipal Hospital, Karadi Pune. On the world kidney day, I advise few tips for the kidney health. One, keep yourself active and fit. Fitness is very important from the kidney point of view. More you are fitter, body weight is under control, lack of obesity, your kidneys will be working very good in the long run.  Blood pressure monitoring is very important. If you are hypertensive, if you have a family history of hypertension is here, get yourself checked for the blood pressures because in a long run, patient with the blood pressures, they have a kidney affections. So get yourself monitored on the regular basis from your healthcare providers. Regularly check your sugars. If you have a family history of diabetes or if you are having a diabetes, monitor your sugar regularly. Long-term diabetes patients do have affection with the kidneys. For a good kidney health, sugar should be under control. Then I strongly recommend my patients have a good balanced diet and diet should be low salt. For a good kidneys, it is very recommended salt should be low, one, and protein should be less. I recommend and urge it should be a low protein diet. Protein diet, I strongly recommend like a low on the animal proteins because that is more prone to get stones in the patients. Diet should be balanced. You should not be doing overeating because overweight, obesity, strong risk factors for the kidney patients. Then comes the hydration status of the body. Very commonly asked by the patients in a population also, how much water we should take for a good kidney health. I urge, I recommend, at least in a population, everybody should take 2.5 to 3 litres. This is a minimum water required. This is required to clear the toxins from the kidneys. The more you drink water, you are releasing the toxins, sodiums, and all other electrolytes they are losing from the bodies and risk of stone formations also reduces. People ask, I am an athlete. Do I also need to take 2 litres? Simple answer, if you are in the outdoor activities, if you are working very hard in the daylights, hydration status or how much water your kidney required, it depends upon the colour of the urine. The colour of urine should be the colour of water is my health indicator for my patients. If your hydration status is low, if urine colour is showing yellowish or dark in colour, hide it on that day more. That means water is coming less. So hydration status is directly connected with the, what colour of urine is coming. So drink more water to keep your kidneys healthy and fit. Smoking strongly suggests, if you have a history of, if you have a past history, present history, or you are a smoker, quit smoking or reduce the smoking. Smoking affects kidneys in a long run. It leads to the cancers also. Very habit is there in the patients of taking a painkillers from the pharmacy counters on a regular basis. We urge, as a urologist or an aphrologist, not to take a painkillers on a long run from the medical pharmacies because NSAID drugs, they affect the kidneys on the long run. Slowly, they cause the kidney damage and patients come into the chronic kidney disease to us. So habit of taking medicines from the counter is not recommended. Go to your healthcare providers and take the medicines from there. I urge all patients or a population, get yourself checked kidney function test on the yearly basis. If you are more than 60 plus one, if you have a family history of diabetes or hypertension or ischemic or diseases, or you yourself having a stones in the past, regularly gets yourself checked yearly once with the kidney functions.  Thank you.


or it is a little bit about those institutional affiliations. We won't spend too much time on this, but we do have institutional members, so partner institutions that work with us to build toward one another, their communities and what they need, and they include OSF and those essential tools that they wanna provide for their community. So you can read a little more about that here, but as an institutional member, what that enables is users can then sign in to their, to the OSF using their institutional email and password, and there's some data that the institutions then get to gather and makes your reporting of your progress and your work to your institution that much easier, that much faster. So it's a neat feature that all of your institutions that are here today may not have that, but if they're interested, your institutions are interested in being part of that, then you can reach out to us and we can talk about it.


Hello, it's Robbie here. I'm just running through a few things that we're looking to be doing next. As with the release that's just come, we worked on the multi-factor authentication and the matrix and the MoodleNet stuff, and so there'll be further work going into the multi-factor where we're doing configuration and setup and making that a lot easier and a lot smoother. And then working on further development of the insert media. We've already done some work on inserting pictures into, with TinyMCE, and we're just going to take that further into audio and moving image, and then we're also going to be tidying up the theme selection. But overall, this is the beginnings of sort of a bigger project of working on how the settings and the setup and configurations are organized, especially the admin settings. So it's the beginnings of bigger and bigger things, but yeah, that's what we're going to be working on from now on. And that's all from me.


And in the book you make it very clear that we don't understand some fundamental things about ketosis and ketones. And so let's start with what don't we understand? Well, I guess the best place to start is what we thought we understood about ketones. And ketones and ketosis have been known about since the late 1800s. And I hope that a lot of people in the keto community know that the ketogenic diet, the actual word, ketogenic diet, was founded in 1930 at the Mayo Clinic as a treatment method for children with seizure disorders, epilepsy. How did they figure that out? Because that does not seem like a super obvious, at least for me as a lay person, not a super obvious conclusion to draw that that's sugar-based. Well, what they found was that children who had severe epilepsy spent so long post-seizure and it's got a medical term called post-ictal state where they're okay, they're not seizing, but they're not really waking up. And they spent so many hours in this post-seizure state, repeated seizures and then just kind of in a coma that they didn't eat very much. And they were literally starving. And they made the observation that kids who were starving because they had so many seizures paradoxically had less seizures the more they were starving. And so research just first at Boston and then at the Mayo Clinic said, wait a minute. We know that ketones happen when you're starving, that's when it happens. So it must be that ketones are doing something to these kids' brains. And are there other ways other than starvation to produce ketones? And one of the ways they found was, well, look, if you deny carbohydrates and really cut back on proteins and give kids mostly fatty, then they will make ketones even though they're not starving to death. These kids did very well on a ketogenic diet. 50% of them had complete seizure control. Recently, I got a young man who's a high school student who, despite two meds, was still having seizures so bad he was in special ed and falling way behind. His mother brought him to me in my clinic in Santa Barbara. And we put him on my ketogenic diet which is kinder and friendlier. When the kid woke up, he's off of his medications. He's now... Was he doing any kind of keto before that? No. Okay. Not at all. So went from meds to meds and keto or keto only? Keto only. We took him off his meds. He woke up, wasn't drugged, and now he's taking advanced classes and he's actually playing soccer for his soccer team in high school. And he could not do any of this.  When did this come back into vogue? So I had somebody on the show when this was still inside Quest. His son had seizures, epilepsy, and he said they didn't even tell him about ketogenics because they said compliance was so low that they didn't even mention it to parents anymore. And he had to go to his own research and he found some obscure article in a journal from the 1950s. And he was like, hold on a second, did the same thing, put his son on, boom, total remission has not had a seizure in like 20 plus years. Yeah. Well, that's a great point. So the ketogenic diet, the high-fat ketogenic diet for seizures, once Fina Barber to all in Dying Latin came and the new seizure drugs came, it died because kids couldn't do an 80% fat diet. They actually had growth retardation and they just wouldn't follow it. So what happened actually in the 80s was people discovered medium chain triglycerides, MCT oil. And this oil was the miracle oil that some of these TV shows were done. And what they found was that MCT oil could convert into ketones in the liver and we'll get into why that happens. And they found that if you put kids on a MCT oil-based diet, you could give them far less MCT oil, far less fats and you can give them tons of carbohydrates, which I'm a parent and grandparent now and you cannot deny children carbohydrates as much as we think we should. So these kids could have more carbohydrates, more protein. They could grow and develop normally, but they'd still stop their seizures. How much do you have to reduce the carbohydrate intake if you're using MCT oil? You can't just, you can't just add MCT oil, right, you stop and modify. Really? So no matter how much carbohydrate I'm intaking. What's amazing is, and this is human studies, you can take a tablespoon of MCT oil, which is not much, and you can actually within a half an hour generate a generous amount of ketone body production from the liver. At least .5.81 from one tablespoon of MCT oil. I've never tried it, so I can't deny it, but man, knowing how hard it is to produce ketones without it, that's scandalous. Yeah, and that was the beauty of this. So when I, you know, I actually started writing this after I wrote the energy paradox, which we've talked about, and I was trying to explain, you know, where ketones fit into all this in terms of energy production. And as you know, I like to back up what I say with research, either my own or somebody else's, and as I was trying to explain how beneficial ketones were for energy production, for protecting mitochondria, for turning mitochondria into fat-burning efficient machines, when I started looking at, you know, the research to back up what I was saying, I went, holy cow, I'm wrong about this, and so is everybody else. Ketones aren't some fantastic- How did you deal with that? Most people cannot, especially if they've talked about it publicly. They can't change their position. Hopefully that makes me one of the more believable nutritionists around, because I'm always willing to say I was wrong. So what was the first thing that made you go, wait a second, I don't think we were on the right path? Well, one of the most amazing things, and I've had a ketogenic diet in all my books. In the last 20 years, I've had a ketogenic program for my patients, and looking back, when you actually look at the list of things I allow on my ketogenic diet, there's tons of carbohydrates, and yet it works extremely well. And I've been using MCTO for my program from kind of day one.  And I approve how ketones actually make your mitochondria incredibly efficient at making energy. Right. And probably the best way to explain this is we know that ketones were discovered during starvation, and nobody quite figured out why they were produced until the 1930s. But then how ketones came about to be known, what they did, really started in the late 70s, 80s, up to the year 2004, at both Harvard with George Kale and Dr. Owens and Dr. Veach at the NIH. And they wanted to know, okay, what were ketones doing? We don't do things by accident, and so they started to look at, okay, human beings clearly have starved for multiple times. We didn't have... As a species. As a species. We didn't have 7-Elevens next to us, we didn't have fast food, we didn't have refrigeration, we didn't have storage systems, and we had to find or kill food, and there were famines and there were times and not much food. So we were designed, when we found food, to store a lot of it as fat. And I've written about this in previous books, great apes, interestingly enough, only gain weight during fruit season. And fruit season doesn't happen year round in a jungle. It really only happens in the summer and early fall. We gained weight because the winter and spring was actually times of less food. So it became beneficial to take fruit and convert it into fat so we can make it through the winter.  We inherited it as well. So we're really good at storing fat. Yes we are. Yes we are. In fact, we're... I'm better than most. We're called the fat ape for a reason. We best all apes at storing fat. So when we don't have any food, normally, and I talk a lot about it in this book and you and I have talked about this, most of us should have metabolic flexibility in our mitochondria. And mitochondria are the little energy producing organelles that take the food we eat and produce ATP, our energy currency. And mitochondria, for anybody that doesn't know, are like aliens inside of our cell. They have their own DNA, which is crazy, and I still don't understand how that's possible. But nonetheless, it is true. And at some point, two cells combined and they were able to handle oxygen by the mitochondria wrapping inside of the cell, which is bananas, and there's actually a gaggle of them inside of every cell. Yes. There's a bunch of them. Unlike our high school biology textbook that might have shown one or two mitochondria per cell, there can be thousands of mitochondria. And they're actually in golf, they're in golf bacteria from two billion years ago. And they actually carry, you're right, their own DNA. And the cool thing about that, an important part of the book, is that mitochondria can divide and make more mitochondria without the cell they're living in dividing. So if a mitochondria gets the right stimulation, and that's part of the book, they'll make lots more of themselves and to share the energy level. Well, getting back to starvation, normally, you and I, hopefully, when we run out of sugar, we can immediately start burning free fatty acids fast. And that's the flexibility you're talking about, burn sugar, can burn fat. We should be a hybrid car. If we burn gasoline, we'll call that sugar. When the gasoline runs out, we've been storing energy in our battery. And when the gasoline runs out, we switch over to battery power until we go fill up at the filling station. Unfortunately, here's the weird thing. 50% of normal-weight individuals have no metabolic flexibility. 50% of us. Just because of modern diets. Modern diets. We're eating all the time. We're never in a quote-unquote starvation phase. Correct. If you're overweight, 88% cannot shift between burning sugar and fat. If you're overweight, if you're obese, 99.5% of people cannot shift to burning fat. What does that mean? Why does that matter? Well, you normally, if you and I stop eating tonight, whenever, about eight hours after we stop eating, we should actually run out of glucose as a fuel. And we should shift over to burning free fatty acids and ketones as a fuel until we get our next meal. That's normal. And by 12 hours of not eating, we actually ramp up ketone production to pretty much take over our brain's need for fuel temporarily. And your brain actually, if it runs out of sugar, starts dying. So the implication for that... So the brain is never without sugar? Believe it or not, the brain normally would run out of sugar in about eight hours after we stop eating. Normally runs out of sugar. And it shifts over to using ketones as a temporary fuel. The reason it can shift over is once we stop eating, we start liberating free fatty acids fat from our fat cells. So you're saying it would die if we didn't have ketones? Correct. Got it. Okay. So normally those free fatty acids come out of fat cells. Every one of our cells except the brain can use free fatty acids as a fuel and use them very well. And this has been, again, proven at Harvard and the NIH. Our muscles love free fatty acids. My research on the heart years ago showed that the heart prefers burning free fatty acids instead of sugar. It's favorite fuel. In fact, we protect the heart during heart surgery by putting fats into the heart. How? Through the veins and the arteries, I invented... You inject fat? Yeah. Well, we dissolve it in our cardioplegia. Whoa. So without that metabolic flexibility, then what happens? What happens is what we're discovering right now is that your brain cannot get life-saving ketones to burn as an alternative fuel. And your brain runs out of glucose as a fuel because you don't have any available.  And there's no doubt that our epidemic of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's and memory loss is laid at the feet of our metabolic inflexibility. Okay, so that is certainly terrifying, but means that we can do something about it. So going back to where we left off. So we go into starvation mode, we start kicking off these ketones. That feels like the sort of story up to before this book. People understood that. So where do you begin to go, wait a second, we have a problem here? Okay. So we can make ketones. When we make ketones from free fatty acids, they go to the liver and the liver generates ketones. Now the liver, interestingly enough, can't use ketones as a fuel. They're incapable. They don't have the enzyme to do it. Can it use free fatty acid? Yes. Okay. A liver loves free fatty acids. Which it gets as fat is oxidized, we get free fatty acids and we can snatch them out of the bloodstream and use them. Right. And they're a great fuel, fabulous fuel. So what everybody thought. But they can't cross the blood-brain barrier. That's the problem, right? Because they're too big and fat, if you will. So as luck would have it, ketone bodies, ketones are water-soluble, small fats. And they can get through the blood-brain barrier. So the brain can use ketones until glucose arrives the next morning or for several days. Now that piece of the puzzle wasn't known. So people like Cahill, people like George Beach said, wow, ketones are clearly what made humans survive for a long time because we could use them as a fuel without burning up our muscle to make glucose. We can convert muscle protein into sugar. It's called gluconeogenesis. And they actually showed that if you literally had to live on glucose as a fuel, your muscles would be gone after about a week of starvation. So the only way for gluconeogenesis to happen is from muscle tissue. Yeah, but you can also make gluconeogenesis from breaking glycerol molecules off of triglycerides and convert that into glucose. So there is a way to get sugar from fat. Got it. We're really good at turning sugar into fat. We're really bad at turning fat back into sugar. We just don't have the enzyme system to do it. If you found this video helpful, I think you're going to love this one. So bluzone is a term that describes areas in the world that had some of the longest lived people per percentage of population and the healthiest longest lived people in population.