Welcome back. So, in the previous lecture we asked ourselves this question that what is the sufficient statistic which can be used for every partially observed Markov decision process or partially observed stochastic control problem. Now, this is something that we will dwell on in this lecture. So, the question for us for this lecture is what is the universal sufficient statistic for any partially observed problem. The thing to for us for one to realize here is that the when we are looking for a universal sufficient statistic that really is not such a thing as something that is universal regardless of the goal that we are trying to accomplish. Sufficient statistics are tied to a specific goal every problem that we are looking to solve or every particular task that we are looking to accomplish would have associated with it the appropriate sufficient statistic. One cannot really talk of the you know a sufficient statistic outside without giving a context of a task at hand. However, for the given the task or given a class of problems more specifically we can talk of what is the sufficient statistic that works for all the all problems in that particular class. So, that is something that is a well posed question, but without having specified a context or without having specified a problem class to talk of sufficient statistic does not really make sense because every problem every kind of goal may require us to have a different piece of information about for that to accomplish that particular task. Now, since here we are talking of problems of partially observed Markov distribution processes or partial or stochastic control problems with imperfect state information this sufficient statistic that we are that we have to that we are looking for is one that lets us compute the optimal control. So, when we are asking for the universal sufficient statistic here we are asking what can be so the optimal control optimal control which is which is UK star which is presently just only thing only written as a function of k I k mu k star of I k can this be written as a function of something simpler say for example, function of H k of I k where H k of I k then this inner thing is the R sufficient statistic. So, this is your this is what we mean by the this is what we mean when we are looking for a universal sufficient statistic that works for every problem. So, we should be able to define such a H k like this which would work for which would work for every problem. Now, what is common across all of these problems? Well, these are stochastic control problems. So, there which means that there is a they have a certain structure to the cost and there is a certain structure to the dynamics. And there is a certain and there is a certain assumption that we have about the information. So, you might say well you one kind of approach one could take in this problem who is in this question is that by inspiring what we have seen from the LQG setting or from the LQ setting is to start guessing what might be the sufficient statistic. You might say well since the LQ problem it turned out the mean was the mean of the conditional mean of the state given the information was what we needed maybe that is the sufficient statistic which will work for all problems. So, we may guess we may guess that this is the sufficient statistic is the universal sufficient statistic or we may guess that well if but it turns out this is not the case this is insufficient to for many problems. So, it turns out that this is not the right sufficient statistic. But then we may say why not generalize this when why not look at this and the second moment maybe this to the mean and the second moment as well suppose maybe we write these two moments maybe then but it turns out that this also is not sufficient in general we need something more then maybe we ask ourselves what I will let me not write it. So, let me write the second moment as Xk transpose here yeah so the covariance conditional covariance of Xk this again is enough for the Gaussian problem but it is not enough in general. But then we may say well let us look at the third moment fourth moment and so on and this starts giving us a picture that what we really need is something we really need as we had mentioned at the start of the course the we really we should not preempt this the mistake we had made in at the start of the course and when we looked at problems that involved risk is that we tried to preempt what is it that what is the information that we would need in order to predict in order to decide on a particular lottery and we preempted and looked at only the say some statistic that we thought was most appealing and which was at that time just the mean and it turned out that there was a fallacy in doing so. So, eventually what is it that we need in order to make make decisions in in the stochastic control problems. So, the structure of the stochastic control problem is that there is a cost that depends on the state right structure of stochastic control problem in a stochastic control problem problem we have the structure is this that there is a cost that depends on the state cost depends on the state there is a the state itself transitions in a Markov fashion Markov manner and the observations that we get are also functions of the state thus what we see is that it is our ignorance of the state which is the issue right and in all of these in in a stochastic control problem. So, the challenge in a stochastic control problem is that we do not know what the what the state itself is if we knew the state all of these all of these things that are that are there are derived from the state would also become known to us and then the problem would become a perfectly observed problem. So, consequently what we need in order to describe the optimal cost in a stochastic control problem is is the is not just the first moment second moment and third moment of of the state given the information but all the moments of the state given the information in other words what we need is the the probability distribution of the state given the information this if known can using this one can describe but everything that we needed to know to compute so everything that we are attempting to compute about the optimal about the optimal which means the optimal control and the optimal cost can be computed when we when we when we know the the this probability distribution of the state given the information right. So, this here the so the probability distribution of the state given the information is the universal sufficient statistic. So, the universal sufficient statistic is the probability distribution of the state given the information remember it is not just the information but the probability distribution of the state given the information that is the universal sufficient statistic. So, earlier we were trying to estimate certain moments we were trying to look at certain moments which were derived from this distribution but but essentially what we are saying is if we know the distribution then all of every for every problem regardless of what the nature of the problem is we should be able to describe the we should be able to describe the optimal control and the optimal cost. So, the so the universal sufficient statistic for partially observed problems this quantity here has a name this is called this quantity which is the conditional distribution of this conditional distribution not the conditional mean the conditional distribution of the state given the information this here is has a name it is called the belief state. So, what I will show you now is that there is a way we will actually I will convince you that this is this is in fact the correct sufficient universal sufficient statistic. So, we will take any partial we will take an arbitrary partially observed problem and we will we will write out the belief state for that particular problem and show that the optimal action and the optimal cost can be computed as a function of this of of this belief state and as a result of that the belief state becomes therefore the sufficient statistic for this problem. So, this is so what we will so that is what we will move to now which is the belief state formulation of a partially observed Markov decision process. So, the the so in order to describe the belief state formulation of a partially observed Markov decision process let us first look write out a a a general Markov decision process problem with partial observations. So, so for that we what we have is you have a first let us write out the state space. So, we have a state space x which is let us say denotes 1 1 to n these are the these are your state this is your state space now we have an action space u and this has let us say some actions 1 1 to u this is the action space we have an observation space which is denoted by y observation space the the state evolves according to a controlled Markov chain. So, these there is a there is a transition there is a transition probability here. So, let us let us denote this in the following way. So, we have p i j of u is the probability that the state at time k plus 1 equals j given that the state at time k equals i and the action at time k equals u this is p i j of u we also have an observation observation kernel or observation distribution which is written as b i which is denoted b. So, b i y of u so this is the probability that the observation at time k plus 1 is equal to y given that the state at time k plus 1 is i and the action at time k is equal to u. So, this is the probability that you get that the next observation is y given that the previous given that this the state at that time is i and the action you take is the action you take is u. So, and of course, as before we incur a cost here the cost you have a stage wise cost but a stage wise cost plus a terminal cost. So, the stage wise cost is we have c k c k x k u k this is your stage wise cost plus a terminal cost let us write this as c n of x n. What is the information that we have at time at any time we have the information at time 0 is we only have that the information about the distribution of the initial state we just know that at time 0 the information is pi 0 which is the distribution of the initial of the initial state probability distribution of the initial state and this distribution at any and the information at any further times is pi 0 u 0 y 1 u k minus 1 and y k this is the information. So, the problem then is to is to choose the problem is choose u k equal to mu k of i k to minimize the expected total cost c of x k u k plus c n of x n given that given all this this this transition that we have. So, remember we have this we again have this structure that i k plus 1 is equal to is equal to i k union u k and y k plus 1. So, the problem is to is to minimize this particular cost. In fact, let me make this explicit and this is conditioned on your on pi 0 which is which is the initial distribution. So, this is want to minimize this subject to by choosing the by choosing the appropriate mu's. Now, what is the so now with this with this particular formulation notice that this is actually just in in in spirit the same as what we have written so far. So, the in this particular formulation now the belief state so what is the belief state now in this formulation the belief state is can be written as the probability that x k is equal to i given given i k and this we denote by notice that this is something that we had written out during the filtering equation as well this is pi k of i. So, pi k of i is a probability distribution or pi k rather is a probability distribution distribution on x. So, this this pi k is now going to be taken as our new state. So, this is this this belief state is going to be taken as our new state. So, what we will we will be doing is now writing a a dynamic programming equation in which pi k is becomes the new state. So, that is what we will do next. In order to formulate the the MDP in terms the POMDP the partially observed MDP in terms of the belief state let us let us write out the objective of the or the cost of the partially observed MDP. So, that cost can be written in this form j. So, I have changed the notation a little bit I will instead of writing if pi earlier was our notation for the policy now pi is the is the notation for for the belief state. So, I will use I will use mu to denote the policy. So, mu is going to be equal to mu 1 is going to be mu 1 to or mu 0 to mu n minus 1 that is going to be my policy. So, mu without the index will denote the policy. So, this is the policy. So, j mu of of pi 0 then is just the the conditional expectation with no fixing mu of the of the cost from time 0 to time n minus 1 of x k u k plus c n of x n given pi 0 alright. So, this is the conditional expectation given given the initial given the distribution of the initial state which is pi 0. This in turn can be written in the following way. So, this here is equal to the conditional expectation this conditional this this expectation with this can be written. So, so j mu of pi 0 is the conditional expectation of the total cost given pi 0 and the expectation is taken fixing a mu which means that u the the action u is going to be chosen according to the function mu k of which will which in turn will be a function of i k. Now, what we need to show is that this cost actually can be written in terms of in terms of the belief state. So, presently the cost is written in terms of the actual state. So, this is the state of the problem. So, what we will need to do is express this express this in terms of in terms of pi k of i alright. So, we that is what we will be doing now. So, in order to do so what I will do is first you have the expectation fixing mu and now that in turn let us write it in as follows you have k equal to 0 to n minus 1 let us write out this each of these terms. So, to notice that we will be taking actions u k as a function of i k right. So, consequently what we will be doing is is we can one thing we will be doing we I am going to do this particular trick. This expectation I am going to write as so this is this expectation I am going to just take instead of putting the cost as is let me write it by putting the taking a conditional expectation with respect to i k ok. So, this here we have a conditional expectation with respect to i k and we have a the fine the terminal one also written in this form. Now remember we had discussed that the conditional expectation is an unbiased is always an unbiased estimate. So, or what is also called the smoothing property of expectation. So, when I so expectation of this particular expectation here is in fact the same as the above the expectation above here ok. So, these are in fact the same. So, taking this expectation inside the conditional expectation inside does not change anything for the problem. So, I can always write it in this particular in this form. What I will do now is write out this expectation here as in explicitly we will write it out as a sum ok. So, we can write this as expectation outside and you have a summation over k going from 0 to n minus 1 and then inside you have a summation i going from 1 to small n which is the number of states that we had right and that you have C i u k times pi k of i and plus here is something similar here you have summation i equal to 1 1 to n c of c n of i c n of i times pi n of i and then outside we still condition on i 0 right. So, now this here is actually this entire thing this here is in fact just a linear just an inner product between 2 vectors the vector there is one vector here which I can write as c u k c u k and then there is another vector which is pi k of i remember pi since I have finitely many states pi k of i is can be thought of as a vector. So, this it is just a inner product between that and pi k of i and pi k right and the last term also is another inner product here between a vector c n and pi n in other words what has happened here is that the entire expression has become in terms of pi k's. So, I have k equal to 0 to n minus 1 c u k transpose pi k plus c n transpose pi n where the expectation is fixing you and what are what are the what is c u k well c u is simply this vector it is c 1 u all the way till c n u the or let me write it as a column vector actually it is a column vector of c 1 u till and c n is itself the vector c n of 1 till c n of n right. So, what is happened as a result of this is that we have been able to write the probability the cost of this problem in terms of just pi k. So, the original cost which in which the state was x k was which was in which the state was x k and it was expressed in terms of x k has now been expressed in terms of pi k. So, this is expressed in terms of pi k in terms of these belief state. So, therefore, the cost can be we realize it can be expressed completely in terms of the belief state. Now, only thing that remains then is to express the dynamics of the system in terms of the belief state and once that is done the entire problem can be expressed in terms of the belief state. So, that is what we will do next.


Thank you. Well, thank you to the organizers for the invitation and Exciting meeting and something that definitely Needs to go forward because of the practicalities and you know It's it's it's wonderful to be in a situation where we need to solve this problem as a point as opposed to Maybe what we should have done a few years ago, and that was try to solve the problem But you know sometimes we need that we need that pressure to to really go forward In the in the area of pharmacogenetics that the same issue was there and there's a number of us who were in a situation where We were going forward at our own institution with with genetic tests to predict drug effect But there weren't national guidelines or international guidelines or even discipline-based guidelines to go forward and so Three people in particular Mary Rowling at St. Jude's Dan Roden at Vanderbilt and myself Bemoan that fact and then we each set up our own separate way of doing it We had one called smart drug that we thought was well-named at least and then the the others I had their own versions and then the pharmacogenetic research network and we're sure long as here where it was able to really coalesce into a a much more formal and and a Concise a way of trying to really tackle this issue of something called the clinical pharmacogenetics implementation consortium and and so it really the the the issue that each of us in the room look at Pharmacogenetics is quite different There's a lot of the early discussion was really in the how do we take a genetic variance as they've been discovered Can we're under where the pointer is along here somewhere? How do we take genetic variance as they're discovered to use that one or is there a lightsaber version? All right. All right. The one that says eject Okay So, you know a lot of the discussions was a how do we take new variants that have been discovered and try to make sense of them That certainly is important There's work in terms of try to find those rare individuals that have some kind of either genetic predisposition or some sort of phenotype And do something about them. There's a lot of other phenotype base work But really on the on the clinical practice side There has been very little in terms of guidelines and recommendations in the pharmacogenetics area We're at least one from from eGap, but in terms of the volume of work. There's there's been very little and So we put together some effort to try to try to tackle this Part of the problem is been the way that we in academia have have tried to solve this issue And that is that we've been great at discovering things We've been okay at validating and we've been completely crap at anything after that and I know a hrq has tried to help us be better But we we have resisted their help and you'll tell us what we should be doing next in the next talk but really the idea of Stopping at New England Journal and rather going forward is is something that you know We we have to take some responsibility for And and has left us in a position like we are now trying to figure out a pathway and so in the in the Ways that these have been evaluated A number of different questions have been asked in a lot of times the question is is You know is pharmacogenetics useful or when should a test be ordered or what does enough data look like and then there's my personal Favorite is anything ever ready for primetime and you know those of us the right grants to the least in the US side I know there's a UK equivalent of this But if you ever don't like a grant, but you don't know why just say it's over ambitious And and it's the same. It's this is the over ambitious equivalent It's you know, well, it's not ready for primetime, which means I don't know how to do it and therefore It's not ready for primetime and so we we've really approached it in in that sort of way And so we try to change it around take you know those of you that speak French Please pardon me, but the Voltaire English translation version of a perfect being the enemy of good You know can we do something with these tests? And so yes, I stuck the word in there for you David You're welcome. If a patient arrives with pharmacogenetic, is it Action of all and yes, we have t-shirts and and screen savers, etc for you But the idea that not should we order the test or that's but if they come in Can we act on it or or should we act on it? It's been that the basis for for the the approach now the pharmacogenetic research network and the pharmacogenetics knowledge base, which is they the online affiliate of that have a detail a number of different consortium One of them being this consortium that I'm briefly talking to you about today This consortium has individuals from 60 different sites 33 different institutions Sorry six different members from 33 institutions Including some international representation those of you from the UK. It's Manchester and Liverpool I know the dots are so big it covers the entire UK, but there you are It would be great to have more representation from there, but that's a it's a start. Also. There's a funny color there in Leiden It's supposed to be Leiden because the the Dutch group brings a whole network of Dutch investigators in there Then we have Spain and Italy also a Taiwanese group and a Brazilian group Just to bring some extra flair Observers from the NIH institutes from the FDA are our participants in this list And it's really the approach for those of you that are under 30. This is crowd sourcing We have to have some translation because for those of us who are over 30 But we've just basically took a bunch of people and said all right Let's build some consensus around these in a expedited fashion now. We've we've Really prioritized based on community input. I'll come back to this in a in the next slide In terms of how we've we've developed this the list we've No, I'll prove that the the other part is we've really looked at recommendations around the the action that can be taken And so I put this on here that if you know, if you've ever had a paper that said more research is needed at the end of it What that means is we didn't do the right experiment and and it's the same thing You know, there's so many guidelines where more data is needed Well, duh, I mean of course more data more data is always needed But the the when the patient comes in they're not saying I'm sure I come in now or is more data needed You know, they're they're coming in for some help now And so you give them the best help you can give them now realizing if they'd come in a month later You might have been smarter and and that's just reality And so we've tried to take that approach where yes more data is needed, but what can we say today? Now let's see the other things I want to as a disclosure down here This is a group of people who think pharmacogenetics matters Many of the people on this group it doesn't matter what the question is the answer is pharmacogenetics So as you realize that you know, we're looking at it saying we believe but how should we apply it? So it's trying to figure out which version of religion not should we not is there a God? And so there is a bias there in terms of how do we implement this stuff? Not should we or even consider it There's an assumption that the data that we're talking about will go into electronic medical record And you'll see that as we get into some of the ways we evaluate this data that that is an important part of this We think that it'll be clear and the US Whatever the European or the UK version of that is for in terms of the quality of analysis We have also started with with what I consider baby steps. So we've gone and taken lists from professional organizations lists from FDA labeling Taken sources from center Medicare Medicaid services or other third-party payers Any place where there's lawsuits that have penalized the clinicians we haven't left that out So that's mainly been the Steve's Johnson syndrome type of areas where there's available standalone clinical tests where there's clinical trials just Suggesting the sort of functional variation Functional impact narrow therapeutic index, you know, I jumped the very last one Examples where there's clear evidence for for one drug and There's other drugs use the exact same pathway and have similar in vitro or in vivo Data suggesting that if it's true for a it will also be true for B And I couldn't think of a better way of saying that but hopefully you get what I mean In terms of trying to look at if we make a clear statement one way what other data what other examples should also then be be be true So this is an example of a survey that we did Mary Rowling leading this effort Looked at a number of members of the American Society of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics They came up with a list of different drug gene examples they the most The the one that was quoted the most often was Ciptoce 9 and Warfarin and list goes down Three of the top 11 were for a thorough pure and methyl transphase And and because Mary Rowling was one of the pioneers in that area and she was the head of CPIC That's where we started. So this was a good excuse to do it But it was a key key one And so we've taken those kind of survey type data as a place to start We have a large number of examples that are either already published and I'll show you a little bit of those or are either impressed or have been initiated Again coming from either surveys or requests that have been made From a variety of different people from regulators from third-party payers from from clinicians from members of the CPIC alliance We developed the guidelines in a don't worry. I'm not going to go through each of these But we have a structured format in terms of the evaluation We've tried to take best practices from from eGap from a number of the other guideline building organizations and and put them into place with with the practical endpoints being around Interpretation and action ability It's information on the gene information on the drug Information that it includes available test options including non-genetic test options So for example, there are some tests where there's a genetic test. There's a red blood cell phenotype test There's a blood level test There's even a breath test in some cases that they give you the the exact same type of data And so we try to put all that in the same document. So one doesn't just think that the world is a double helix So this is an example of one for thought a period multiple transfer race that came out earlier this year was one of the first examples that that came out and From that really looking at what genotypes have severe functional effect that would change clinical action And then what drugs are so clearly affected that clinicians would be wrong not to act on the data So really looking at whatever David wants to call action ability in terms of our approach And we get these tables and this would be the kind of table that we would put on a t-shirt and give to every clinician No, not really this is sort of data that if you wanted to dig into it would tell you More information if we blow it up a little bit. We're actually giving Drug dosing recommendations and our version of the level of strength of the data So the it's not one should consider testing for it's you should test and here's what you should do Based on that Realizing that's an iterative process But the biggest complaint from for example the FDA label change has been they recommended that the test be used They identified risk, but didn't make any recommendations on what to do with it And so we went that final step now There are some examples where the answer is this test should not be used or that there is risk But we don't know what to do other than not give the drug and and so it's not exact It's not as if this select group has all the answers. We haven't been telling you It's it's as we look through the data can we act should we act what should we do has been how we've been driven In some cases, it's it's a an algorithm-based output that comes that comes forward But in skip through the interest of time As they they've come out We've been iterating in terms of the way we've done these in terms of the quality and also getting a lot more participants So the initially it was an insiders club in terms of people who were early adopters to the consortium Now there's people who have read these and say hey, I'm really interested in this topic I want to be involved with it and in some cases. I want to make sure you guys don't recommend something crazy Is has been the the motivation to be part of this Farm GKB itself has not only the papers and the recommendations, but it's also brought in other types of guidelines So for example, if you were to go to the site, I did this screen capture to show that it has for example The CPIC recommendations, but also what should an orange here are from the Dutch farm good genetics working group and and so any National or international recommendations that come out will be pulled into this site and so even within CPIC We don't think we're the answer to all questions But rather trying to pull things forward and in the case of the Dutch group They are now part of CPIC and so their their input is part of the recommendations that are that are coming forward this is the last slide and First of all was that there's a lot to do and so anybody that that wants to be actively involved with this or know someone who does Please go to the farm GKB website. You can see the rules. There's a memorandum of understanding. There's publication Recommendations except or not recommendations, but rules you can go on there and you can sign up and be be part of this Secondly, we we really want to do this, right? We're not doing this for for academic career development We're doing this to try to help the field go forward And so any comments that people have either now or or via the website Would be very well received even if they're hurtful and malicious because they they we do want this to be a better process As we go forward and then lastly in the clinic a no guideline isn't helpful We need to be trying to look at a lot of the drip What's been driven here is is not should we do it or not? But if the data is there whether it's from 23 and me from a whole genome scan from some quack that they saw before us If the data is already there, what should we do with it? And so rather than saying no, we need to say why it's no or how and when it's no In terms of those and so I'll stop at that point and do whatever we do next Questions or comments net I'm glad you clarified because I didn't know guidelines very helpful if you know why you're saying no right Yes, it's totally unhelpful, and I will own this is I don't know right and that's I think we're a lot of where we're at So you're right. We need to do a better job when we don't know So I'll pick on the TPMT just because it's it's one of my favorites and In the recommendations it it sort of separates out Or it doesn't address to my knowledge the clinical context in other words. Are you using is a fire print for treatment of? Inflammatory bowel disease as opposed to cute little phoblastic leukemia The you know the risks related to the efficacy effects, which you know some people are dismissive of I happen not to be Are different in those scenarios and so can you tell me a little bit about? how you're trying to balance the Efficacy versus adverse events because I'm cognizant of the fact that we're three times more willing to kill somebody by not doing something Then we are by doing something and that's well documented that we're much more Sensitive to adverse events then by killing somebody from not giving a proper dose So you've identified an important element in some cases the test and the drug are associated with one area And that's it, but in that period with the transferase the uses are dramatically different Not so much dramatically different terms of the the effect of the drug But in the terms of the type of monitoring that a patient receives with In this case we developed this initial one and it's mainly focused around childhood leukemia Partly because we wanted to get a first one through the process and out and then we can iterate on that Partly because we didn't have at the time a lot of rheumatology gastroenterology dermatology folks involved and that has changed And and and partly because of the focus of those who were involved It's very true that most of the time TPMT testing is not done in childhood leukemia even though that's where the package insert recommendation is mainly because most hematologists are very comfortable with neutropenia and the idea that that What in fact neutropenia is an endpoint in in some cases they they treat to in to neutropenia in rheumatic disease in gastroenterology And certainly in dermatology Often they don't see patients more frequently than once every month or every three months in in a case where where Someone might have toxicity on day 10. You don't want to wait a month And so there've been that's where the big uptake has been in the in the US and at least based on the literature surveys Also in the UK although I think that's changing but That's that's why we did it that way We're trying to get better at that and now that this is out there. There's some publications It's easier to go and get people involved. So we had an HIV example. It's coming through the pipeline It was very easy to go get HIV Physicians and and clinicians from different parts of the world involved with this because they could see what's been done in the past I didn't have to imagine it and they they knew it was an issue and then they they got in Does anybody doing health economics analysis over each of these variants to work out, you know prevalence in the population what the sort of dally affects So we have not included it yet in this for some of the same reasons and lack of expertise is an important part of that The the health the health economists so in for the TPMT example There have been a few health economic analyses that have been done both in the UK and the US the The good news is whatever you want the answer to be. There's a paper for you And and so I think what that's focusing on is that the right study hasn't been done or or or such And and but I do agree that this is a really important part of it I mean even in the US we're waking up to the fact that drugs cost money and we need to be aware of that They may have they're not the public domain that I'm aware of Actually that's being done again for reasons that within integrated systems. There are very few people that are actually have the expertise to do it We've we've done it In a couple of these examples Lynch syndrome Which we published in the American Journal Managed Care in August of this year The problem in the US is what perspective do you take? Because we don't have a national health care perspective as much We'd like to pretend that we do and so the issue that really comes down to is is that There may be a something that's cost-effective from a societal perspective But as a hospital it's going to cost me a ton of money And it may in fact make it'll the effect my margin to the point that I can't be viable and there's no way for me to recoup So we're in a very Challenged position to be able to do this from a US perspective since we really don't have one since we're disintegrated Yeah, I would afford the HMOs, you know From that point of view prevention is good at that too because well But but it isn't it isn't because how long are you going to keep that member? So if your member turns over in two years and you prevented something that's five years So it's not a it's not a simple question And that's one of the reasons why I think nationally there's talked about accountable care organizations So the idea is is that wait a second. We're all providing health care We all have a stake in the health of the nation Therefore, we all have to chip in to the pot now how that's actually going to play out in terms of implementation is not clear There's another dimension of that that should get inserted here And that is that any one person really doesn't give a crap about the effect on the national economy One health organization if I if I've got a condition or I'm being suggested to take or not take a drug All I really care about is is it going to work for me? I'm sorry, okay. Thank you


For more videos on People's Juggles, please subscribe to our YouTube channel. My name is Johanna. I am a PhD student in the English and Comparative Literature Department at Columbia University and I'm out here today on strike. We are striking for a living wage for neutral third-party arbitration in cases of sexual harassment, racial discrimination, and power-based bullying, and also for comprehensive healthcare that includes dental and vision. I think a lot of us see what we're doing as part of a broader labor movement. We're the second biggest strike in the country right now, right behind John Deere, which is also part of our parent union UAW, and I at least see us as part of the same fight. I think a lot of workers right now going through strike tober, strikes giving, see each other as comrades in the labor movement. As far as I'm concerned, a win in one workplace is a win in others, and obviously there are different particulars in different workplaces. I never want to pretend that we're all going through the exact same thing, but I think that there are a couple things that make this kind of fight an appointed part of the labor movement, even if it's a one that a lot of people wouldn't consider a traditional part of the labor movement. One of those is this is an elite institution, and I think workers everywhere are just tired of elites thinking that they can boss everyone else around. If President of the University, Lee Bollinger, thinks that just because we're grad students, we're going to let him do whatever he wants to us, he has another thing coming. That's the kind of attitude adjustment that people who make millions or even billions of dollars a year across the country need to be going through. This is one of the places where we can really kind of show them that they're wrong, and it's time for that attitude adjustment. But the other thing is, I really think that graduate education needs to be accessible to everybody, so it's really important to me that if somebody at John Deere wants to go to graduate school or wants to send their kid to graduate school or very likely they're somebody's kid from a manufacturing plant like John Deere is a college student at Columbia right now, I want them to have access to that kind of education without feeling like their own livelihood is it jeopardy just because they don't come from generational wealth. And so that's one of the things I'm out here fighting for that I think a lot of us are out here fighting for. As an international student with an F1 visa, I am not allowed to work at least this year more than 20 hours beyond the scope of Columbia, if that makes sense. So the only way that I can really get money here is through the stipend as well as through the TA position. And I do want to make it clear that this year Columbia did change the pay structure of the way that we receive our stipend. So it used to be that at the beginning of the semester, we would receive a lump sum of around I believe nine or ten thousand and this year we received only two thousand from the get-go and it would be kind of interspersed throughout the semester but actually they're holding withholding not only TA pay but also stipend pay for people that are striking. We have been on strike, this is our second strike in two academic calendar years. We were on strike last spring as well and we just didn't make enough progress in bargaining. We got a tentative agreement out of that but the unit voted it down for being insufficiently strong on issues like compensation and you know the unit knows what it wants and so that's why we're not stopping until we get it. So we're out here again, we're going to keep coming out here until we get what we need. Um well personally being an undergrad I have classes with TAs and I see how hard they work and um being out here on the picket line talking to people on strike like hearing their stories and how much work they put into their jobs and how little the university values their work just really inspires me to stand in solidarity with them.


You know what, data governance, it just came from the DGIQ conference and it was wonderful.  But you have to understand what it really does for your company, your firm, your enterprise. It's a good medium to where if you go to that, obviously you have legal that's totally separate from this, but data governance is what a company needs, right, to really move forward.


The Appalachian Advantage plan is the simpler, better way to get the phone you actually want instead of paying hundreds of dollars up front.  It's called the Appalachian Advantage, available at Appalachian Wireless. Today during the Into the Future SORA Summit, Governor Andy Beshear and U.S. Congressman Hal Rogers announced $24.4 million in abandoned mine land economic revitalization program funds. These funds will help increase industry, jobs, and tourism throughout eastern Kentucky. Floyd County received two grants totaling $4 million. The Country Music Highway received $1 million to modify and equip the broadcasting studio at the Mountain Arts Studio, and Thunder Ridge Property was awarded $3 million to purchase 58 acres to develop the Thunder Ridge Industrial Park. Amler Funding was also awarded to Martin and Letcher Counties. $6.6 million was awarded to Martin for the installation of an apple packing and sorting facility, and $1.7 million was awarded to Begin Development on the Raven Rock Resort in Letcher County. An additional $3 million in funding was announced for MacGuffin County, $2 million was announced to construct visitor center, restaurant, entertainment space, and parking, and $1 million was awarded to construct a build ready certified site for a 50,000 square foot facility. More information about the Amler program can be found at ky.gov. For Mountain Top News, I'm Brianna Robinson.


Okay, we test the first approach, the UART with the pulling mode, then we test the UART with the interrupt and now we also test the UART with the TMA, then we look on the UART. We again set the F4 for one LQFP64 PIM package, STM32F for one RET, which is on my NUCLO kit. And for the DMA I will use again the UARTU SART1 in the Asynchronous mode on the PIN PA9 and PA10. And I have these pins connected together with my cable, yes I have my PIN PA10, PA9 and PA10 connected together with the cable. Okay, from the pin out, this is everything what I need, only two pins for my UART. On the clock configuration, I am also okay with the 16 MHz, then we move to the main configuration. And we have the UART, we check the parameters, again I am okay with the 115200 POUTS, it's everything perfect. But now I will not change the NVIC, this will be the same, but here I will use the DMA. Then I add the DMA stream, I select what will be the direction, then I will create one for the transmit. I can select the stream, sometimes more streams, and the direction is from memory to PFR, which is okay because this is for the transmit. And during the transmit, I billeted the data from my memory and I put it into the UART, which is the PFR, then the direction is okay. Also the priority now doesn't matter because I have only one, I will have two DMA streams but they will not run in the concurrent way, then it's okay. In here I will select the receive, the stream 2, I can use also stream 5, but I don't want. And the direction is from the PFR to memory, which is okay for the reception. What I need to check, I need to check here if it's here checked the memory increment for both use-hards and the rest can be left unchanged, normal mode, non-cycler mode. It's okay, then I can save here this one, I can change my settings into my examples, I will name it UART3 and I will use the IR. I think it's okay, then I can generate my project, let him to open my project, okay my project is opened, then we can cross check our user section, the main scene. You can see there is something new, when initializing also there is the DMA in it, we first check the UART in it, or UART in it, it's completely the same like before with the interrupts, but we have here the DMA in it, what we have here, we enabling the DMA interrupts, this is necessary to notify us when the DMA ends, but here is missing the DMA initialization because how we configured the DMA, but because the DMA is here the related periphery to the UART, then we have here in the MSP initialization we have the configuration of the pins, but here we have also the DMA initialization, it's again the same structure, we have the DMA handle, we set the instance from this handle and then we fill the initial structure like on the UART, there we set the the direction that we want to increment the memory, that the DASLA size and memory size it's in the bytes and the mode is normal and then we call the DMA HL DMA in it, but something new and here important we need to link together the UART and the DMA, then for this we use the the macro hl underscore underscore hl underscore link DMA, which links together the handle from UART and also the handle from the DMA, then the DMA knows which pathway using this DMA and UART knows which DMA to use, this is this is all from this part, we can also look into the interrupts because we're using the interrupts now also to notify the DMA that DMA ends, again we have here the DMA handler and we're using the HL HL handle, but now where to find the callbacks, because we're using here now the DMA interrupts, we need to search for the DMA callbacks, the answer is no, because the DMA don't have their own callbacks, the DMA is using the callbacks from UART, then in our case when we're searching for callbacks we will not search into the DMA, we will still use the UART callbacks, then here we search for the underscore underscore weak, not MSP in it, not this one, but for example to transmit complete callback I can put it into into my main and also here will be a reception complete callback, then I will use also the reception complete callback, here I put again my while to notify me about the end of this of the reception and you can see because we linked together the DMA and UART, then this is the reason why the DMA can use the UART or UART callbacks, then we don't need to search for the DMA callbacks, we only using the one type of the callbacks and I will also create two buffers, one for the transmission and second for the for the reception, okay the buffers are prepared then I can do the same thing like in the interrupt interupt I start with the hl underscore UART and first I will call the reception but now with the DMA don't forget on the DMA word, I again put the handle name it will be H I think UART UART 1, the second parameter if I'm not sure I will go to the definition into the C, second parameter is the how many how many the pointer on the data and last parameter the third parameter is the size, how many bytes I want to receive then it will be here the buffer buffer for receiving and 10 bytes why not and then I will put the hl UART the transmit with DMA again the DMA must be there the h UART 1 the buffer for transmit and the 10 bytes okay now I can compile my code maybe I forget to change also the optimization why not here in the compiler optimization I set none I will compile it again and I can run my debug okay this is okay I can put here the breakpoint and I can put here these two variables into into the watch here I can show it out to watch they are now here on the right side you can see the reception buffer is empty now the transmission buffer is is full then when I run the code you can see that we receive what we are sending I can make also test when I start again I reset the microcontroller I disconnect my cable and run it again and you see I never received the the bytes I'm still waiting on the interrupt and to receive 10 10 bytes if I connect it again back I get this and I have here the correct correct by number of bytes then this was the the DMA example with the UART it's not so not so more difficult than the interrupt okay we can look on the DMA with the UART with the theoretical point of view we can summarize what we know what is new here is the DMA initialization the UART initialization is the same in the DMA initialization we only enable the DMA and we enable the interrupts from the DMA because the DMA must notify us that the DMA ends okay it's not necessary but otherwise you need to always check the status of the of the periphery then definitely the DMA initialization is in the msp msp in it which is which is now new it was not in the in the previous previous initialization it's below usually the pin initialization but the important is the link between the DMA and the and the UART when if we remember the the UART handle we have there the pointers to the DMA which can point which DMA is used together with this with this periphery and in the DMA handle it's also the parent pointer which will point back to our our UART this is only showing how it looks like the the DMA link DMA function which connects together the UART UART handle or the different handle and also the handlers from the from the from the DMA but this all is done automatically in inside the cube Mx here only showing showing how this looks like then the UART handle have pointer to the DMA handlers and the DMA handlers have also pointers on the UART then the DMA knows which payfair it's using the DMA and the UART know which DMA he needs to use yes then this is this is the still the same in the interrupt we have the interrupt handler we're using the the HL DMA DMA interrupt handler which for us clear the flags check how many bytes we receive but the callbacks will be always the same then we're using the the UART callbacks we can also use now the half transfer callback that mean we are in the in the half of our buffer in our case when we receive or transmit 10 bytes then the half transfer is the five and how it looks like like the interrupt the DMA is not blocking function this mean that we call the reception if everything is okay we end with the with the okay or we end with the error and then when we receive the byte then we go into the interrupt I think the automatically many of bytes we give in the interrupt handler in the HL interrupt handle we check if we have the DMA error if yes we error we end up in the UART error callback if not we go we check if we have in the half transfer interrupt if yes we call the half transfer interrupt if not we check the transfer complete interrupt if yes we go into the half transfer in the transfer complete callback and we end the interrupt then the again the UART with the DMA is completely not blocking what is the difference between the interrupt interrupt in the interrupt version we get the interrupt each byte which we received in the DMA we get the interrupt only in the half transfer or in the half transfer complete this mean that this more offloads the CPU this is reason why to use the DMA


Hi, and welcome to the Prince II Practitioner course. In this particular course, we're going to build on your foundation skills to help you adapt and apply Prince II principles within a particular project setting. We're going to go through and talk about how the different phases of the project, the different themes, and the different processes work together to support a successful project execution from startup through the overarching direction of the project, through initiation, being able to manage and control the individual stages, being able to produce the products associated with the project, and then ultimately being able to finish the project and close it out successfully. I'm glad that you've chosen this course to learn how to practice these skills and how to effectively take what Prince II offers you a very specific methodology and how to in being able to effectively execute projects consistently and successfully. I'm glad that you chose the course. We look forward to working with you to help you learn how to run your projects more effectively and especially to prepare you for your Prince II certification exam. Hi, and my name is Patrick Funschlag, and I'm going to be the instructor for your Prince II Practitioner course. I've been working in IT and business management for more than 25 years. I have a lot of experience working with disciplines like IT service management, project management, governance, and service and software development life cycles. One of the reasons I got interested in Prince II is because Prince II answers a very important question. How exactly is it that we should effectively run a project? There's obviously been tremendous guidance for many years through things like the Pembok around what needs to get done. But one of the things that Prince II specifically does so well is describe the key how-to activities that have to take place, what core kinds of documentation needs to get done, and what needs to be in that. What kinds of communications need to be put in place? What kinds of risk management methodologies need to be put in place? What kinds of change controls need to be put in place? And how do we coordinate the management levels between corporate and program management, project board oversight and direction, the effective day-to-day management of the project, and the execution of the project work products? So one of the things I hope you'll see is how specifically Prince II provides you specific guidance on the methods to carry out to make your projects more successful. I'm glad that you've chosen this course, and I hope that you enjoy it. In this chapter, we're going to take a look at how the course is structured, talk a little bit about frameworks, different standards, and methodologies, and specifically how Prince II is used in practice to help execute projects successfully. We'll then look at applying Prince II in specific contexts and how you need to tailor it to fit the appropriate structure of the projects that you're trying to work. Let's take a look at each of these. In this lesson, we're going to look at the structure of the course itself. Talk a little bit about the planning that you're going to want to make to doing studying and preparation for the Prince II practitioner exam. Talk a little bit about how to use the course materials to your optimal success, and then help you get started in studying and learning about Prince II. This particular course is for the practitioner exam for Prince II. In order to sit that exam, you should have already completed and passed the Prince II Foundation exam. But you may have done that some time ago as well. So when we go and review the materials in this course, we're certainly going to review things that you would have seen in your foundation's program. Having a good core structure of the key principles, themes, and practices within Prince II is very fundamental to your success, as is your familiarity with the managing projects with Prince II materials, which you can use on the open book exam. As part of participating in this course, one of the benefits is that you get access to an integrated mentoring community for IT service management, project management, and software development lifecycle methodologies called MyITSM Mentoring Community. If you have access to the LinkedIn community, go to My Groups and enter the name MyITSM Mentoring Community. And please feel free to join, share your information, and take advantage of a lot of frequently asked questions and other key benefits of the community.  Each of you have different learning experiences and different learning preferences. So take advantage of the course. Take advantage of the actual materials and of your Prince II book in looking at how you bring those together to make this an optimal learning experience for you. In particular, look at specific opportunities to take concepts within the course and utilize them as appropriate in your organization and learning environments. And be clear with yourself about what your goals and objectives are in being able not only to pass the examination successfully, but to be able to effectively utilize Prince II in an appropriate way in your environment to improve your project's performance. One of the key learning methodologies that are utilized in this program and many, many other learning courses is called Bloom's Taxonomy. The idea of Bloom's Taxonomy, of course, is that different courses prepare people to engage with material in different levels. In your foundation's training, these engage in what we call Bloom's level one and two, knowledge and comprehension, essentially what are a bunch of terms and capabilities and how and more or less are they used in a broad context like Prince II. As we work our way into the practitioner level courses, however, we work to more complicated levels and levels three and four, they're very specifically interested in our ability to use these capabilities in a particular scenario or context. So you'll see both in the examination and in the real world, the skills that you'll learn here in Prince II Practitioner are going to help you specifically analyze particular situations and apply these techniques in a way that makes sense. As you begin your practice in preparing for the Prince II Practitioner exam, it's important for you to think about your expectations, to be able to work and collaborate with people in the mentoring community, any of your peers who may also be working on these same programs, and then the materials themselves. Again, there are many, many resources available to you from your course materials to the course itself to the mentoring community and peers and other people around the world who are either preparing for or have successfully taken this examination in the past. There is a wealth of information on the public internet as well that you can leverage and use as part of your preparation. A few reminders and suggestions as you're preparing for your lesson plan. Like a regular classroom experience, most people benefit when they're doing self-paced e-learning programs when they establish specific hours of the day or week to do their learning and training, to be able to plan where appropriate breaks and times for you to get away, just like you would in a regular classroom situation, and where possible to try to keep various types of interruptions and other electronic devices away so that you can focus your energy on the things that we're talking about together. One of the other things I'm gonna encourage you to do is to establish and then execute a specific plan for your study, just like you would any other project. Establish milestones for your knowledge and skills. Establish different activities where you can review your skills and capabilities, perhaps including the review checkpoints at the end of each of our sections and the full practice examinations as well. And then where necessary, revise your plan so that you can effectively prepare for the exam. Throughout this course in the course where we make fairly extensive use of different structures and iconography to help you put a lot of these ideas in context. Each of the main chapters identify a series of learning objectives, key terms that you need to be deeply familiar with when it comes time for the examination, as well as icons that call out various definitions, notes, examples of how these are practically used in the real world and so on. At the end of each chapter, we'll provide you a set of checkpoint quizzes that you can use to test your knowledge and skills, and identify any key areas that you want to be able to review. Likewise, we encourage you to take full advantage of the two practice examinations provided by the accreditor, and to be able to use those not only to get familiar with the exam structure and content, but also to get comfortable using your managing successful projects with Prince II book as part of preparation for the open book exam. There are three levels of Prince II qualification. Most of you by now will have earned your Prince II Foundation certificate, and that is a required prerequisite before you can sit the Prince II practitioner examination. Prince II practitioner is used to help confirm that you can effectively adapt and apply the skills in Prince II to a particular project situation, and then the highest level credential called Prince II Professional allows you to demonstrate your expertise to be able to manage an entire Prince II project across the entire life cycle. This course is a preparation for the Prince II practitioner exam. Prince II practitioner provides eight questions, just eight questions, over two and a half hours. Each of the eight main questions provides 10 specific items within those, and each of those items is worth one mark, and they test different aspects of using Prince II in that particular situation. In order to pass the examination, you're required to gain 44 marks across the exam or a 55% result. Unlike many other exams that you may have taken, this particular exam is an open book exam. You can actually bring your copy of Managing Successful Projects with Prince II 2009 edition with you and utilize it during the examination period of time. One of the things we're going to do throughout this course is to make reference to where certain key information lives in that book so that you can make effective notes of that and have that available to you when it comes time to sit the open book exam. As you get ready to commence your studying for Prince II practitioner, again, it's very important to establish your study plan based on your preferences and needs, whether you're working an hour a day or trying to do several longer term sits to go through the material. Take the time to make sure you're clear on what you need to know relative to each chapter. Be comfortable with the terms and concepts. Understand that these may be very familiar terms and concepts, even if Prince II uses slightly different language to describe them that you may use in your regular project environment and within your office. Keep in mind, of course, that Prince II is a particular methodology. You may or may not particularly like certain approaches that Prince II takes. You may not agree with them, but when it comes time to taking the certification exam, it's their exam. And so it's very important to answer the questions consistent with their expectations and goals. So remember always, the certification exam is about how Prince II would tell you to handle a particular situation, not necessarily what you specifically would do, period.


Every day in BC, three to four people die from an overdose. No one should be left to suffer in silence.  We can all be a part of the solution.


All right, everyone. Welcome back. It's Veronica Howard. So we're going to finish up this time talking about generalization This time we're specifically going to be talking about the research around Generalization and some of the clinical applications we've seen in the literature Now when we're talking about generalization, you can take generalization all the way back to some of the earliest studies in Behavior analysis. In fact, you'll remember John Watson who was Methodological behaviorists his study with baby Albert was a perfect demonstration of generalization Remember the basic methodology of the study as we train baby Albert that in the presence of one particularly white fuzzy object, there's going to be a loud noise and if he reaches for that That object in the presence of that white fuzzy object. There's going to be a loud horrible scary noise And then we present him with other white fuzzy objects And we see does he reach for those and we see that that avoidance from the original trained stimulus Generalized to lots of new items. This was an early example of generalization And this is a demonstration of what can happen. We can have avoidance become a generalized repertoire. It can be part of a person's responses We also see that there are times when we hope That generalization will occur. In fact, we can train and hope that generalization will occur, but it doesn't So this will date me But when I was younger I participated in something called the dare program and the dare program was a situation where a Officer would come into your school and teach you about drugs They'd be like this is what drugs are and these are the ways which people use drugs and don't do drugs And then there'd be a little test and then you get like a t-shirt and you could get little prizes if you agree that you weren't going to use drugs and then we started evaluating the literature related to how effective it was and We discovered that despite Millions of dollars being spent on this drug abuse resistance education that Dare was ineffective What they discovered was that not only was it not Effective that there may have been some instances in which Exposing and explaining to children what drugs are may have increased the likelihood that they consume those substances in this case what we see that dare was in principle was an example of Train and hope it was someone coming into an instructional environment Teaching you a lot of behaviors and saying okay when you get to the real environment do this But we also know that train and hope generally speaking is really really ineffective Instead what you need to do if you want to have something like the dare program where you go into children in one environment And you want to see generalization to another is you want to try something like the Eddie Eagle program So the Eddie Eagle program is almost like the dare program It's got a lot of common features, but the difference with this program is that it's Empirically supported its research conducted by a behavior analyst in Florida the program it works like this very much like dare You would have a trained officer and an assistant come into classrooms They would work with very young children and Eddie Eagle would teach kids what to do if when they were at home They found a firearm so we know that Unprotected or unlocked firearms can be a real danger for kids kids Well, you know, they see them being used in shows or they see other people using them Emulate the behavior that they observe and they can hurt themselves or others in the Eddie Eagle program The officer and their assistant comes in and they roll play through what what do you do when you find a gun? And so they bring in the toy gun to the classroom They're like, okay We're gonna hide it somewhere around the room and we're gonna do a couple of trials Can you find the gun and when you find a gun bring it to me an officer or bring it to your teacher Who's a caring person who's gonna protect you bring it to an adult so you can be safe? And again, remember this is research if you want to learn more about it. You can check out Milton burgers 2003 study What they did in this case was they evaluated what do kids learn here? And they found that the kids in the Eddie Eagle program Mastered those skills when they were in the classroom environment But when they did some probes when they did some trials at home when they would kind of plant a gun in the kids Homes later to see if they would then take the gun to the adult. They wouldn't do it So you see there was a lack of generalization training in this particular case what the researchers had to do Was they had to do some trials at home They had to actually go through some of the training experiences to get the child to bring the gun to their parent and then when they Planted other guns around the home. They found there was an increased likelihood that the the children actually followed through And admit the response but only if they reinforced and did some some training some trial in the new environment So you have to make sure that when you're training in one environment That you do a few trials you do an opportunity to Re-teach and do a little booster training in each of the environments where you're gonna go to make sure that that behavior occurs Now this builds on a larger body of literature about our potential to comply With instruction so when we talk about compliance compliance is a kind of behavior And it's a kind of instruction following a rule following behavior. Why do people follow instructions? Well, it could be that the person who gives you the instruction Is likely to reinforce that that behavior that they're telling you to do and it's also likely that the person Who gives you the instruction will punish non-compliance. So it could either be positive reinforcement They'll do something for you or it's negative reinforcement You're trying to escape or avoid some unpleasant consequence that could be associated with not following the instruction We see that compliance or following rules Uh seems to generalize to lots of different people and in lots of different settings And one of our classic psychological studies the mill room experiment Is a perfect example of rule governed behavior that generalizes to different places So you'll remember the mill room study Was one where researchers would bring in a research participant displayed here on screen as the person in the seat s and the participant would have to Kind of teach an actor in another room shown with a They would have to teach them a series of word associations Well, the actor was just that they were an actor And the whole point of having the actor there was so that the actor would make a lot of mistakes and the subject in the experiment would be asked to Shock the learner, right? They would be asked to deliver a punitive Uh consequence for not following along with Or not learning the association In this case the experimenter was also present the experimenter indicated on screen with an e Would be there and in the event that uh, the participant started Not delivering the shock or asking questions about whether they really should follow through or Being concerned or not not following instructions the experimenter would say the experiment requires that you continue And what was very interesting is in some of the replications We saw that compliance was likely to occur under certain circumstances and less likely to occur under different circumstances We see that compliance or rule following Was likely to occur when the person was affiliated with an incredibly prestigious university If they thought the the researcher was from Yale university They would go all the way through with this experiment Even if it seemed as if they were hurting or even killing the actor in the other room If the researcher had a very soft affect if they said things like the experiment requires that you continue People would follow through with with killing the participant in the other room The the person the actor would sort of feign a heart attack and fall over But we found that under other circumstances in different antecedent Arrangements there was much less compliance So if the experimenter was not in the same room but was given the instructions over the phone people would not follow through as well Or if the experimenter was kind of goofing around or being very funny and very gregarious and telling a lot of jokes People would not follow through with their instructions to continue with the experiment The mill room study is a perfect example of compliance and the generalization Of our rule following behavior and we see that generalization In this experiment was more likely to occur under certain stimulus circumstances When we talk about rule governance and rule following behavior We know that it's also kind of difficult to follow your own rules and it's especially difficult to try to reinforce Your own behavior. So a haze study for instance in 1985 they were looking at whether or not Setting a goal making a rule for yourself Would be an effective way to change behavior and what was interesting here is they divided participants into four different groups In one group participants were asked to make a private goal They would write down what their goal was they would fold it up and put it in a jar and you save it The second group was asked to make the same goal But they were asked when they met that goal to give themselves a reinforcer The third group was asked to set a goal and share it with everyone so that they would be Accountable publicly and the fourth group was asked to also set a public goal and then they could deliver reinforcement to themselves When they met that goal and the results of that study were pretty interesting So the group who made a private goal for themselves saw some improvement But the group who made a private goal and then had to reinforce themselves Saw less reinforcement. It was interesting because you would think that with reinforcement being present That you would get more meeting of the goal However folks who made a public Declaration of what their goal was Saw 50 more achievement than folks who made a private goal And folks who made a public goal and delivered reinforcement for themselves saw the best improvement in their performance So we see here in this case that kind of rule following rule governance accountability This is a kind of advanced Compliance you're following the rules and not only have you made a rule But you've announced the rule to the whole world And now the whole world in some way is holding you responsible the presence of others knowing your goal Makes you more accountable. You're more likely to comply with your goal Now you can use compliance to your advantage. So if you know That self-reinforcement doesn't work What does work is telling others what your goals are having a public goal sharing it with someone Or sharing it with someone and asking that other people to be Accountable helping you keep yourself accountable to meet your goal And I can imagine those of you sitting there saying well, what does this have to do with generalization? Meeting a goal all of this involves a kind of high probability behavior Following a rule meeting your own goal communicating your goals to others creates a situation Where you're more likely to follow through with your goals because you have a history of social reinforcement for meeting other people's goals So it's an advanced kind of conceptual Application of how do we take this generalized rule governing behavior? How do we use it for our own benefit? Well, we make ourselves accountable to others because we know that we will follow through when we are accountable to others And we follow through Because we have a history many of us of being reinforced for following through Okay, so just in summary remember that many school many new skills do not Generalize outside of the instructional setting just like eddy eagle remember just because you train it in one setting Does not mean it's necessarily going to generalize to another so you have to make sure that if you're already investing in teaching the skill You have to have a plan To make sure that that skill generalizes where you need it to go If you're going to invest in teaching the skill make sure that you're planning the investment of teaching the generalization I'll see you guys next time


Underwater Construction Team 1 is here in Norway for exercise cold response, exercising our capabilities with the Norwegians and Dutch divers. So the exercise has been very smooth working with the Norwegian and Dutch divers. From the beginning we started off in the classroom together the first couple of days just really going over operating procedures and their operating procedures and comparing and seeing what we have in common and how we operate so that when we get on the ice everything's just been flawless. Since we arrived a lot of work we had to do. First thing we had to do was shovel a lot of snow. We had to shovel a wagon wheel which is just used for underwater for like an emergency underwater navigation. That leads back to the main hole that we cut out which is a six by six triangle that our divers can get in and out of.  Then we had to set up our tents both our warming tent and the tent that we use on our dive side. Exercises like cold response are important especially to our community because it makes us practice and learn these new methods of cold water and ice diving that say that Norwegians or Dutch use that we can take into our community and apply to different jobs which make it easier, faster and just all around better for our community. Working with the Americans we've seen the way they do things working above and also under the ice. The whole thing about the establishment and also the way they do their diving. They use a different type of equipment than we do and we've learned like how they use for example their standby divers how the procedures from getting the standby diver ready and also the diver checks before diving. Arctic operations is one of our capabilities. We don't always get the opportunity to exercise that in Virginia and Honoroi provides a great training ground and opportunity to exercise our Arctic operations. It's been a great experience working with our Norwegian and Dutch allies and we've been able to learn a lot from each other and foster relationships to support future operations.


I was stationed here in the Air Force from 2002 to 2007, so I came in, I moved here just kind of as all those mergers and consolidations were beginning down on the strip and I certainly had a perspective as an outside observer but I'd love to hear what your perspective was as someone who was inside the industry at the working level and moving up during that time period.