Welcome to All Hands Update. I'm Petty Officer Andrew Johnson. There's still time to let the DOD know your concerns and challenges at work as part of the RAND military workplace study. The results of this study will help senior leaders evaluate current workplace relations, professionalism and personal safety in order to determine future policies, programs and training. As part of the study, invitations to the survey were sent to all female active duty sailors with more than six months of service and a quarter of randomly selected active duty males. The survey is voluntary and confidential. No one in the DOD will see any individual responses. This is your chance to be heard by senior leaders. If you did not receive an invitation to the survey, but would like to participate, contact the RAND Corporation. The survey is scheduled to close September 24th.


So this one asks us to calculate the degree of unsaturation in the following formula. And then it tells us that this formula belongs to caffeine C8H10N4O2. So if you recall, and if you don't, it's OK. Because I'm going to have to teach you. Whenever you have the halogen, which we don't have in this one, we'll say x. You add one hydrogen to it. Add one hydrogen to the hydrogen. If you have oxygen down the calcogens, so oxygen and sulfur are the two main ones. Like that, you don't do anything. You don't add any hydrogen. You add zero hydrogen. Then nitrogen and phosphorus on down. You subtract one hydrogen from that. And you recall the formula for unsaturated alkane. What is that? So C and H2 and plus 2. Like that. So what we're going to do here is use these rules, take these atoms off, add and subtract those atoms, and then use that C and H2 and plus 2. This molecular formula says that we have two oxygens. What are we supposed to do to the number of hydrogens? Don't do anything, right? So we're going to just cancel those out. What about nitrogens? What are we supposed to do for each nitrogen? Subtract one hydrogen. So since we've got four of them, we're going to subtract four hydrogens. So our new formula is C8H6. Like that. That makes sense, right? Because we subtracted the four hydrogens. So CnH2n plus 2 tells us that if we have C8, we should have how many Hs? H2n, that's 16, right? Plus 2 is 18. So that should be our formula for the saturated hydrocarp. But in fact, we have C8H6. So obviously every time that you do this, the targets are going to cancel out. So we have 18 minus 6. What is that? 12. Very good. And remember, we're doing this for every two hydrogens. So every two hydrogens is one unit of unsaturation. So if we've got 12, how many units of unsaturation are degrees? Six degrees of unsaturation. Any questions on that one? Wonderful.


Live from Las Vegas, it's theCUBE. Covering Informatica World 2018. Not to you by Informatica. Okay welcome back everyone, this is theCUBE's exclusive coverage here in Las Vegas at the Venetian Hotel, I'm John Furrier, co-host of theCUBE with Peter Burris, co-hosting with me this next two days, wall-to-wall coverage, our next guest is Richard Kramer who's the chief healthcare strategist for Informatica World, back from last year at a great chat, we talked about data swamps and data lakes this year, it's about governance and the enterprise, great to see you again, thanks for coming back. Thanks for having me back. Obviously healthcare, we can go on and on, Peter and I can arrange about that, but this is really where the healthcare has had data challenges always, and they've had regulations, governance, some will say maybe, maybe not. What's different this year for you and your conversations? Obviously we talked about data swamps last year and data lakes, where is it this year? What's the conversation with customers in healthcare? What's happening? Well I think it really is a reflection of the maturity of people using data, naturally coming from a data swamp or a data lake and how do we keep it from becoming a swamp, you govern it, and so as people start to use data, which we're really coming into our own in healthcare, governance becomes the top topic. When I start to share data and people ask me where did this come from, what did it mean, and I'm not able to answer that question, that's a governance problem, and so we're really starting to see enterprise data governance and compliance come to the forefront of almost every one of my conversations. And where's the catalyst coming from? Is it some of the regulation? Is it some of the awareness? Is it a moment where the straw breaks the camel's back, so to speak, I mean, where is it coming from? The governance question. It really is coming from an executive level, whereas we start to use data, we have more executive dashboards, there's a desire to actually make data driven decisions, both for business purposes and clinical care. If you can't explain where the data came from and what it means when people ask you questions, they don't trust it. And so I think it really is, as we start to really use data for the first time, it needs to be reliable and trustworthy, and that's a governance problem. It's not a tool problem, it's not an architecture problem, it's a people process problem, and that's governance. Well, one of the things that's true about healthcare is healthcare has been driving the vanguard of ethics in society for probably a few centuries now. And it's starting to happen in technology as well. I think the whole concept of GDPR is made even that much clearer as a consequence of people actually becoming a little bit more concerned about their health information getting into the hands of people they don't want to get access to that information. How is this relationship between healthcare, ethics, and now governance starting to affect the conversations that you're having in healthcare and beyond? Well, I think healthcare has had HIPAA, which is all about privacy and protection of information. We've had that for a long number of years, and but that was really at a data element, not an appropriate use, but hey, this data you can't share without permission. Now we're talking- And it wasn't about the subject, it was about the data that you controlled. That's right. And now we're really talking about, and genomic data is a big part of this, is the ethical use of data, right? Can I use this data appropriately? If I'm doing it for your benefit and to help you care for yourself? Yeah, I think we probably can, but it's a governance challenge, right? What data do I have? What am I allowed to use it for? For what purpose and who is consented to that? I mean, we have a similar issue that if you're a hospital that also has a health plan and you can share data about a patient from that health plan with that hospital, but how about a competing hospital across town? Well, I can't share that data potentially because of regulatory reasons. So really the need to know what data you have, what policies apply to that data, and be able to consistently and authoritatively govern that data, I think is really a good example of what's driving enterprise data governance and compliance. So on the compliance side, when you think about outside the United States, obviously GDPR Friday kicks in. That's creating a lot of awareness. Yes. What's the impact of that, if any, to healthcare? Is it no big deal? We've been there, we can handle this. They have the data issues. What are you hearing on that front? So really two-fold. First, GDPR is probably the best representation of really good, stringent, proper consumer privacy data controls that exists. So even if you're not compelled to abide by GDPR, it's a great roadmap and it's a great model to follow because it's just good data discipline. We also have the good fortune data informatica that some of the leading healthcare organizations in the country are our customers and they happen to have footprints in Europe. And so they do in fact have a GDPR challenge. Do I have a patient from the EU that's coming to my US based facility? Do I have a US based patient that's in an EU facility? Do I have an EU licensed provider? The complexity of the GDPR challenge for some of our US based healthcare customers is pretty involved and they're acutely aware of it. So I don't think there's been anything like GDPR in terms of data protection that's existed in healthcare. That's going to change the game. I guess my gut feeling again, you're the expert on this, but my feeling is that it's just will slow things down. I mean, just it's mind boggling that. I'm a European patient going to the US hospital. Now, something has to happen that didn't have to happen before. Or is that, am I getting it right? I mean, I think that it holds the potential to get it to slow things down if you treat it as a one-off, if you treat it as good data architecture and you implement a system that that's just an artifact of how you manage data, it doesn't slow anything down. I think it makes things quicker. So the mandate is go faster. Because it sets the priorities. That's right. Well, it sets a priority and it forces you to have a good data architecture that operates like a well-oiled machine. But let me explain what I mean by that because it's very consistent with what you're saying. One of the biggest challenges about data is a lot of executives don't understand it, don't know what to do with it, can't treat it as an asset. GDPR, amongst other things, is forcing a consensus around what data can be to the business, what it should not be to the business. And that's helping to set priorities so that folks, you may be right, it may be on one-off basis, people may complain about it. But if it's used as an architectural direction, it may actually accelerate because it sets a consensus about what the priorities should be. Yes, and where you started is exactly why. It is a universally understood business imperative that every executive knows. And the fact that underlying it is great data architecture, well, that's just a bonus because it sets the priority correct. But here's my challenge on that because great data architecture is aspirational for many, but not feasible in the short term. So how do they get there? They want to have, hey, I want, that's some great data architecture.  Like some customers might be, I know hospitals might be more advanced, but they might hate, well, maybe not. But, okay, okay, so take us through that. Some people might aspire for great data architecture, but might take time to get there. So great data architecture, though, this is part of the generational market shift in data. And in the past, we had data silos. And data silos are bad, we must break them down, and we must centralize and control data as a path to value. That took a heck of a long time and actually could not really be achieved. What's changed now is we accept silos are going to exist, self-service for data consumption exists. The problem is not now, how do I centralize and control data within an inch of its life to get to value? The challenge now is how do I manage enterprise data as an asset, accepting that that's the landscape? A data catalog changes everything. Talk about the impact of that, because this is super important. It's not centralizing the data, it's just having a catalog with visibility into the metadata of all the data. Exactly right. So before, I didn't know where all of my data was, and data security being enough. If I don't know I have it, how the heck can I secure it? Well, with a catalog, for the first time, it's straightforward, simple, and easy to know what data I have. You actually have a chance of securing it. So the answer, that's the path to getting real value with great data architecture without taking decades to try and centralize and control. It's time for dancing. Richard, we got the music coming on. Last year, it was data lakes, data swamps. That's awareness now as enterprise, enterprise governance, the catalog looking good from you guys, congratulations. Good to see you. Thanks for coming on. Thank you very much. All right, day one, wrapping down, kicking off the solutions exhibit hall here for Informatica World 2018. I'm John Furrier in Peterborough. Stay tuned for more coverage here from Las Vegas. This the Cube.


Hi, it's Bridget. Welcome to Up Above Life Channel. The purpose here is to inspire your spirit and to fill you up with hope. My intention today in this weekly channeling video is to bring in a wonderful inspired afterlife spirit. Her name is Louise Hay. Perhaps you know her. She is the founder of Hay House Publishing Company and has been a philanthropist and such an advocate for developing our spirit, connecting to our intuition and really for healing. So such a powerful stand for self-healing and awareness. And it is my pleasure to connect with her in the afterlife and share our conversation with you. Today we have a topic focus. So we are going to be talking about spirit guides. So let's welcome in the energy from the afterlife of Louise Hay. Hello. She says, hello, dear. That's what she says. I love working with you, Louise. I always do.  You have such a compassionate energy. I just want to smile and I want to cry and I just feel good connecting with you. It's interesting for those of you who are watching. I really respected her in human life and human terms, but I didn't resonate with a lot of her teachings and a lot of her healing work that she did on self-love, self-care, self-healing. I wasn't really drawn to at the time during her lifetime. And yet I felt like I had this incredible, as though she was sort of a mentor for me even though it wasn't in my healing and my spiritual journey. It was actually in the energy of business and advocacy, the way that she created her publishing company. And that backstory is so inspiring to me as a woman and as a woman that works in the psychic and healing arena. It is definitely such a, it's a tricky place to have a business and to make your living. And you took something that you believed in and you're so courageous and you just took a stand and you created this publishing company and welcomed in many different kinds of diversity and authors and concepts and topics, such a wide range of topics. There's literally something for everyone on their spiritual journey at Hay House Publishing now. And that's because of you and your vision and so I respect and admire the vision so much. Okay, I'm gushing. I know some of you are probably annoyed by that, but you know what, too bad. I am really, thank you. A lot of gratitude, Louise. A lot of gratitude. She said it's, there's no other choice. She says it's easy to do what you believe because there's no other choice. It's what is the alternative. Excellent point. Thank you for that. What is the alternative? It's easy to do what you believe in, to live what you believe. There's no other choice. What is the alternative? Beautiful. Thank you. All right, let's talk about spirit guides. Can you share some of your wonderful insights from the afterlife perspective? It's especially interesting because you've been a teacher in human life about spirit and spirituality and connection and healing. This should be very interesting to hear. What is your explanation from your spiritual now as a spirit perspective of spirit guides? What is a spirit guide? She says a spirit guide can take many forms. It is important to know that because it's possible for you to block the recognition of having a spirit guide. She says, when you step in to this adventure, into a physical form and you have made that sacred agreement, you come in with an army of healers, of helpers, of incredible beings that love you. And their mission throughout your lifetime is to love you, to hold you in love and love you through all of the triumphs and the struggles that you will encounter as you experience human life. So a spirit guide is exactly as it sounds. It is spirit. It is energies, multiple energies that support your spirit. Your spirit is guided. Your spirit is guided. The energy of the light of your being is guided. This is what is meant. This is the true, the truest meaning of spirit guide. And she says, that's not what you were hoping for, is it? Well, I think that's quite profound. When we are in our human context now, if you could shift into, try to recall, Luis, when it was like to be a person in a body with an ego mind, we're dealing with an ego mind. And in this context, meaning and definition is very important for us to help us truly allow our spirit to be guided. We've got to understand what spirit guide is, we personify it, we make it into a person. Is it that our spirit guide, do we have a person, a one energy representative that just stays with us, helps to guide us as their one spirit guide for many is a person or an energy spirit guide. It kind of sounds like a singular thing. So is that true? Does that exist? The way our mind, our mind in human form defines it. Can you explain that? Yes. Yes, it does exist. Your reality is yours to create. It is true, what you have said previous, you co-create your life experience. I know it is hard to understand all the concepts and principles, it does seem quite complicated, it rather is for the mind, but it simply is. It is all energy. So whether your mind needs to consider the idea of one, sort of like a bodyguard of sorts, indeed that may be what is reality and true for you. In whatever form you need, that is how your spirit will be guided. I am not in a position to say there is one. For me, when I was in body, my memory, ah yes, the physical body, there is a lot of matter there, a lot of mass to move through. And she's showing me, like I see images of like lasers trying to cut through big chunks of boulders and rocks, like on the side of a mountain. Like that's what she's showing me, the representation of what it's like to live in a body and how it is to try to get spiritual information like the laser beam cutting through huge boulders of rocks. So she's remembering, identifying with us. Good image. That's very accurate, doesn't it feel for those who are watching? Very accurate. I recall I have had many guides on my human journey and they varied in the expression from animals in powerful spirit totems, shaman guide energy, which are definitely people in form. Something your mind can relate to that is a very good point. Something your mind can relate to, which is why it does feel, indeed it does feel important to learn about the different types of spiritual aids, spiritual assistants, spiritual advisors as in, I'm not simply speaking of the religious based or the secular based identities, icons or deities. I'm speaking of the vast variety of the way, the many, many ways that your spirit is guided through what you would classify as individuals or people like forms. There are many, many from so many beautiful customs and cultures and lineages that you have experienced and multiple lifetimes that you have lived indeed and it would make sense. And as I am in the state of the ego mind and connecting to ego mind and mentality perception, human perception of spirit guide, it does definitely make sense. It is quite rational and realistic to approach spirit guide in this way and to allow yourself, for example, to work with archangels to as Brigitte does to be, excuse me, I'm sorry Luis, throw it a little. Ah, it's the body clearing. She says, it's the body, you don't need to apologize for what the body does. The body does what the body needs, Brigitte. Indeed, you are such a, we should talk about body energy and body and all that. Oh, there's so much we could talk about Luis. Let's focus on the spirit guide though. Brigitte will not get distracted. I will try not to get distracted. So please continue. As I was saying, I was using the example of you, Brigitte, as Archangel Michael is one of your many, many advocates. He most certainly loves and adores you and he has been with you all along, even before you were able to see or sense him. He has always been there for you. In fact, it's quite interesting how that story unfolds, isn't it? Yes, I'll have to tell you guys at Above Life Channel about my story about meeting my guide for the first time and knowing that it was recognizing that Archangel Michael was an angel because I didn't know that when I first connected with him. I was new to all this stuff. I didn't know and it's okay to not know and understand all of these concepts. They are, Luis is right, it can be quite, it can seem quite complicated, quite daunting and overwhelming. So she says, it is quite sensible to conceive a spirit guide as a person or in the likeness of a human being. It may be more palatable to the mind to allow for that. And yes, that is the case. I had many guides in my lifetime. Mother Mary was one of my dearest guides. And no, to answer the question, I did not have a specific, she says, not Catholic, not in the way of a particular faith. But Mother Mary, the divine feminine mother, the love and the compassion that she showered upon me in our connection was such a gift to me. And she really saved me. She really saved me. Mother Mary taught me about compassion and about self love and the importance of self love as part of healing. She was a wonderful teacher to me. And in this way, she was a spirit guide, the way that you would understand a spirit guide to be. Okay, so can you talk about that? So spirit guides, energy beings that may or may not be in a form. So they may look like a Sherpa guide, a Shaman guide, an archangel, an animal or multiple other different forms of deities like Mother Mary, as you mentioned as one of your lead guides, one of your guides. What are the rules of spirit guides? Because you mentioned Mother Mary teaching you or mentoring you. Is that one of the roles that a spirit guide might play or provide us in our human lifetime? Most certainly, she says, most, most, certainly. Yes, that is one thing you can definitely count on is learning and growing. And there will be teachers that show up to you, show up for you to be able to usher you through a period of time where you are experiencing a lesson, or you are learning or discovering something new about yourself, about your human life, perhaps, or about your energy as, as you are getting to know yourself as a spirit, truly as a spirit. So yes, many roles, mentor, as you mentioned, teacher, friend, friend. And she's referring to, I refer to, sometimes when I'm in session, when I've discussed spirit guides before, this is Bridget talking, I have used the concept of comparing the spirit guide as a best friend for your soul. Oftentimes, someone that may have been incarnated previously with you. And so you know them really well. So you don't recognize really when their energy is with you because it's always been with you. It's very familiar.  So best friend to your soul. That's how I describe it. And then I also describe there's a lead, like one guy that's with us for all, all time. Is that accurate? I mean, is that not because I am in human form. So I do have limited understanding. And so I only know what I've learned through my personal experiences and through my guides and my teams and the contacts, the contacts I've had with other spiritual teachers, masters, helpers in sessions with other people. So I've had a lot of different experiences. But that's what I kind of understand that there's one that's a primary kind of a lead. And then there are others that sometimes rotate based on need. Is that an accurate reflection? Or is there something that you can offer us to explain how that works? She said there can be one or there can be many. It is simply a choice of the spirit as it is incarnated.  She says, I have seen some with three up to six, she says, six actual spiritual beings that are guiding the energy through life. So she's not referring to, she's not saying the person, she's never saying us as a person, she's referring to us as an energy being and as a spirit, which I think is really beautiful. That's a form of respect is how it feels to me. She's recognizing you as you are created in the perfect light, love, empowering, inspiring energy that you are. That's how it's coming through. So you've seen three or six. I have seen when I've had sessions with people repetitive guides show up over and over and over again. But I've also seen them change out many times as well. So she says, indeed, I believe that there would be indeed, I believe. Indeed, it's related to the belief. What I believe is what is, is what she says. And you look for the experiences to to affirm that belief. Okay, so because that's how I believe it works, that's what I see. That's what you're telling me. Yes. Okay. Wow, interesting. I'm open to learning more about that, to exploring and expanding my perspective as well. And she says, and so you will, you shall in future experiences that you have as well. And then she says, but for you, there are most certainly a few lead guides. She said, there are at least two that I can see Bridget. Yes, I know, there are at least two. And she says, the reason perhaps, Bridget, that you feel that there is a lead guide is because you are identifying the soul, the spirit of the individual, the soul that's incarnate into a body, you are identifying that as the primary. And perhaps that is why you perceive there is one lead guide. And as well in your, as you have identified, she says, your personal experience with Archangel Michael and of course, Margaret in your journey has gifted you with this loving and powerful bond of connection. And she says, it's natural to want that for others. So it works differently is what I'm hearing you guys. It works differently for depending upon what you believe. And then your belief system is solidified. Oh, interesting. We look for matches to what we believe. Thank you. I really do appreciate the energy of your presence. It feels so good. Do you guys feel her energy? It's really, it's so gentle. It's so gentle and just very tender. And thank you so much. You feel a lot like Archangel Handel. And I've worked with Handel in session a lot. She's one of the balancing energies for me when I work with women for divine feminine. And so I can really feel that and I can feel that in you. And she's like, it's because we are advocates for one another. Our spirits are bond. She said they're tied. I'm like, okay, connected. She said our spirits are tied, which is like a link or a connection. But she uses the word tied.  Thank you so much for coming in and bringing this energy of compassion and understanding about spirit guides from the afterlife. This is Bridget at Above Life Channel. You've been watching a conversation about spirit guides with Louise Hay from the afterlife. I hope that you have felt inspired in your own spirit today and that you are giving yourself the opportunity to really fill yourself up with hope as you are learning here, as you are watching and experiencing the energy of these channeled the messages from the afterlife. Remember, the most important thing for you to remember is that this is your life. This is your life. So live it. Live it like the gift that it is. Thank you for being here. Thank you so much, Louise. So appreciated.


So in my hands I have the Galaxy S21 FE. Now this device was rumored not to come out and well it's finally here but in 2022 this is Samsung's latest fan edition device. Now let's see how it stacks up against the S20 FE and let's see if it's actually worth it. Hey guys Thunder E here and thank you for joining me in this video. We finally have the Galaxy S21 FE and let's take a look at this device closely because it's got a very different build from the S20 FE from technically two years ago. Now it's got a styling of looks that reminds you of the Galaxy S21 with the way the camera notch is at the back which is pretty nice but it's got this matte black finish if you will this matte finish at the back. It actually comes in four colors we have olive white graphite and of course purple and I do like the graphite look because it kind of kind of you know shades in between charcoal and a bit of gray as well. Now the overall build is really nice feels very comfortable in your hands. The device is 6.42 inches in terms of the screen size which is different from the Galaxy S20 FE which is 6.5 inches. When you start with them next to each other you can actually see the S20 FE is necessarily taller than the S21 FE. Now in terms of the cameras you're looking at similar camera housings for improvements the S21 FE has a 1212 and an 8 and improved night mode and then you also have a 4500 mAh battery with this device comes in two size variants for the S21 FE 6 gigabytes of RAM with 128 gigabytes of storage and 8 gigabytes of RAM with 256 gigabytes of storage. Now when we look at the displays of this device we can see it's that it does have a 6.42 inch display that is a Full HD Plus and is also Super AMOLED 2x display not sure what that means but from Samsung's point of view it's a better display than we had with the S20 FE and it kind of shows it's really nice the color textures look just a little bit better if you will and you can see the whole punches are in the same location we have a 32 megapixel camera in the front. So I've stated specs that are similar and slightly different with both devices when it comes to battery size I mentioned they're both the same when it comes to charging you have the same charging options now here are some things that are a little bit different so if I go ahead and reach out to the cases or actually the packaging for both devices they are very different in size the S20 FE came with a full size package which means you got a charger in the box with the S20 FE while the S21 FE here has no charge in the box and only comes with a usb type c cable so how times have changed and that's how it actually stacks up the packaging's do look the same from these devices we've stated all those specs out there how do they compare in terms of different features let's start off with audio and speakers because this is where I was really stunned with what Samsung has done with the S21 FE but how about you guys take a quick listen I mean honestly the S21 FE just sounded better louder and clearer which is a huge jump from the S20 FE and again it helps a lot of people if you're listening to music if you're gaming on your device which is something of course a lot of people will be doing now in terms of processors though we're looking at an upgrade from the S20 FE which had the Snapdragon 865 which was a nice solid processor but we do have the Snapdragon 888 on the S21 FE and when we look at the games that we can play on them we start off with our very first game of course which is called unimobile which runs well on both devices we're looking at a solid 60 frames per second which is something the 865 could do quite well and when we go over to pubg mobile we also see the same thing with smooth extreme for both devices in terms of these settings runs at 60 frames per second and then we move to ultra hd ultra for both the S21 FE and the Galaxy S20 FE we also got 40 frames per second so that's all well and good now the main test here of course is Genshin Impact now the S20 FE playing Genshin Impact we got actually about 40 frames per second for a 30-minute gameplay and actually it dropped down to about it started off at 49 when we were playing at the max settings and then it dropped down to about 42 within the first 10 minutes and then stated 42 to 40 in that range in basically 30 minutes of gameplay now with the S21 FE this is where I was truly stunned by how its performance actually played out we got 60 frames per second for a full 30 minutes of gameplay it continued without any issues whatsoever slowdowns were not noticeable it was just a solid gaming experience which is something great to see and gives me a lot of hope for the Galaxy S22 series once it comes out now now you're saying okay that's pretty cool but what about temperature and heat because we all know that look Snapdragon AAA devices ran really hard and it does run warm I would say in terms of temperatures we've got about a hundred and nine hundred ten degrees throughout gaming session so that's something to take note while the S20 FE definitely ran cooler now those are great features to look at and great things to see and it kind of kind of you know brings to the point that the S21 FE is a better device but what about the camera because that's one of the things that helped the S20 FE it was a solid package for everything the S20 provided at a cheaper price point well the cameras are improved samples by the improved night mode but instead of me boring you how about you take a look at some of the camera videos and samples yourself the front facing camera shooting a 4k 60 I've got the S21 S21 FE on my left the S20 FE on my right just looking at the screens they look completely different better colors in the S21 FE though definitely some noticeable improvements but you guys tell me what do you think who has the better camera is it pretty much the same or are the improvements with the S21 FE now I think overall when a consumer looks at it you're going to go out this is quite an interesting price point because it comes in the S21 FE comes in at $700 which is kind of similar to where it launched with the S20 FE but because this is coming in 2022 I expected a lower price point right now you can pick up an S20 FE from Amazon for about 524 through carriers you can cheap get pick it up from a cheaper price point as well as also through Samsung now I definitely know that Samsung will be having some awesome you know trading offers for the S21 FE once it launches on January 11th but we'll have to wait and see I do know that Verizon is offering up to $700 trading for the S21 FE so which means you can get the phone for basically $0 down if you're trading something that's comparable so I'm going to ask this question for you here right at the end is do you think the S21 FE is a worthy upgrade at its price point over the S20 FE and are you going to be picking one up if you are leave your thoughts down below and your comments if you guys want to pick up any of the devices the S20 FE or S21 FE use the links down below and this is Thunder E saying thank you and always enjoy entertainment


Fort Henry was the gateway to the Confederate heartland. In fact, the first book to really bring to light the strategic significance of Fort Henry and Donaldson was Benjamin Franklin Cooley's 1988 work, which was subtitled The Key to the Confederate Heartland. Cooley was including both forts in that subtitle, but it was really Fort Henry more than Fort Donaldson that gave the Union access to the southern heartland, since it protected the Tennessee River, which went straight south into Alabama. Fort Donaldson protected the Cumberland River, which gave access to Nashville, but it ran east and then back up into Kentucky. The Confederates building the fort understood that the Tennessee River was the most crucial waterway, even given the importance of Nashville's resources. So when they constructed Fort Henry, they made sure that it could withstand a respectable assault. Its walls were 20 feet high, and at their base, they were also about 20 feet thick, though they narrowed as they moved upward to about 10 feet thick at the top. 11 guns were positioned to fire on the river, and another six were pointed toward the land to repel an army. In the river, the Confederacy piled stones and logs and dirt to make the river less passable, and they also deployed their new technology of floating mines called torpedoes to add an additional barrier to a naval attack. Surrounding the fort was a swamp, which was nearly impassable for infantry to begin with, so they built a single road and gave access to the fort with a drawbridge like we would expect in a medieval castle. They also dug rifle pits around the fort so soldiers could fire their guns from a safe location outside the walls of the fort. To complete all of this, in the small window of time the Southerners were dealing with, they brought in teams of slaves from Alabama to do most of the work. The result was a fort that could provide a formidable defense with even a modest garrison. But the men who chose the location for the fort never bothered to ask any of the locals about the geography they were dealing with. Had they done so, they might have learned that the ground they were building the fort on was part of the Tennessee River, whose waterline would rise and fall with the seasonal rains. As it happened, they started construction at a time when the river was particularly low, giving them ground that in other months would be covered with water. Although Ulysses S. Grant and Captain Andrew Hullfoot would earn credit for conquering Fort Henry on February 6, 1862, it might be more accurate to say that the majority of the credit for the Confederate defeat was the rain they faced just prior to the Union attack. I'm Chris Calton, and this is the Mises Institute podcast, Historical Controversies. In the previous episode, we looked at the tension in the West coming into 1862, and Lincoln's impatience with the inaction of his generals. At the end of the episode, General Halleck, commander of the Department of the West, finally gave Grant and Foote permission to commence their attack on Fort Henry, a battle that is frankly a bit anti-climatic, but had a tremendous degree of strategic significance. Across the river from Fort Henry, the Confederacy had also started building another fort, Fort Hyman. Grant's plan was to have the Brigadier General Charles Smith move down on the western side of the river to capture Fort Hyman, while Brigadier General John McLernan moved down at the eastern side to capture Fort Henry. Captain Andrew Foote would move down the river with his gunboats, with the iron clads in the front to take the fire from the forts, and the timber-clad gunboats in the rear lobbing shells from a safer distance. The trip from Cairo showed the attack getting off to a poor start. One of the transport boats sank on the way, forcing the men on board to jump overboard and swim to the shore. In a different accident on another boat, the brother of one of Grant's subordinate officers fell into the waters and drowned, having been weighed down by his weapon in uniform. As the ships approached the fort, the weather seemed to be a bad omen. Heavy rain was falling, which made the current stronger and brought down branches and other kinds of debris into the waters around the ships. In one case, one of Foote's iron-clad gunboats became tangled up in a pile of driftwood, and it was pulled a half-mile downstream despite its engines working at full capacity and having its anchors lowered. So this should give you an idea of the strength of the river currents that the Union forces were fighting against just to get to the forts. But as it happened, the weather may have actually proven to be more of a benefit than a hindrance for the Yankees. Driftwood wasn't the only thing that the currents carried downstream. It also took the Confederate torpedoes out of harm's way. The naval crew still picked up a couple of torpedoes that didn't get swept downstream, though. To the Union, this was a new technology. The crew of one ship picked up a torpedo, turned a screw to open it up, and the mine started to emit a hissing sound. Thinking it was about to explode, they flung it overboard and started leaping to find cover.  But the Union now had access to the Confederacy's new technology to study for themselves. The attack began on the western side of the Tennessee River, where General Smith took two brigades of troops to capture Fort Hyman. There were no roads on this side of the river, so the soldiers had to march during a downpour through the swampy Tennessee backcountry, which one soldier described as, quote, this outlandish portion of secessed them, end quote. At some points, the men had to wade through waters that were so high that they had to carry their cartridge boxes over their heads to keep them from becoming soaked. As they trudged slowly and miserably through the swamp, they could hear the firing of cannons as the naval assault on Fort Henry apparently began, but they couldn't tell who was winning, if anybody. But after hours of marching when the Union troops finally came to Fort Hyman, they found it abandoned. They were disappointed, most of them hoping for their first taste of combat. Frustrated at the lack of fighting, the only firing that took place on the western side of the Tennessee River was when, in the words of one of the Iowa soldiers, quote, a flock of sheep came near our Bioback, and our men commenced firing as though it was a battle. Our colonel stops it, though but few sheep were killed, end quote. Another Missouri soldier expressed his disappointment at not getting to fight the rebels. In a letter home, he said, quote, instead of resistance, which we expected, what was our surprise to find the camp entirely deserted? Their cowardly legs got the better of them. We did not get a shot at them. They were cooking dinner when the cannonating began and ran away leaving it on the fire. It was very nicely cooked when we got here, and if it was sase, tasted well. We found many of their letters, some only half finished when the panic seized them. If they had whipped the Yankees the way they told their friends they intended doing, we would have fared badly. But they didn't, end quote. The officers also found the makeshift headquarters for Colonel Adolphus Hyman, the man for whom the incomplete fort was named. In his tent, they found some of his papers as well as a feast that had only just been prepared before the Confederates evacuated. The Union officers dined on the fresh pork, cornbread, and coffee that had been left for them. One of Smith's subordinate officers later reminisced that, quote, the absence of Colonel Hyman was never more sincerely regretted. Out of a small contribution foraged from General Smith's right pistol holster, we drank to the excellent Germans' health, end quote. With Fort Hyman under Union control, the first small victory in Grand's plan had been won without bloodshed. McLernon's forces on the eastern side of the river would not have quite so easy a victory. Just like their counterparts on the other side of the river, they were hardly prepared for the weather or the swampy terrain of secessedum. One soldier remembered, quote, we took a circuitous route so that we had to go 10 or 12 miles to get five in such a road, mud, mud, mud, mud, creek almost up to our knees, end quote. There were some poorly constructed roads on the eastern side, but the rain had rendered them so muddy that they were useless. The cannon fire from the gunboats was, as one soldier put it, quote, splendid music to march by, end quote. But when the firing stopped, they didn't know what it meant. Had Andrew Foot been beaten, or was he going to claim credit for the capture of the fort, stilling the army's glory before they could even get there? The Union soldiers under McLernon were blind to what was going on at the fort, but from what they could hear, major events were unfolding without them, good or bad. At Fort Henry itself, the Confederates were not much more aware of what was going on, especially those in the rifle pits around the fort. With the rain coming down hard, their field of vision was small. The first thing they could see was the black smoke coming up from cannon fire, as well as the sound of distant shots. As the morning progressed, the smoke got closer and thicker, but still the soldiers could see nothing on the river. Finally, just before noon, the first ironclad gunboat emerged from the smoke and came into the Confederate field of vision. Then a second one emerged, then a third, then a fourth. Each of them firing their cannons from their turtle shells that floated above the water line as they moved in. River gunboats, particularly ironclad ones, had never been used in the United States before, so you might imagine the intimidating side of these gunboats emerging from the smoke for these Confederates. They fired as they moved in, but they anchored 600 yards away from the walls of Fort Henry to fire at close range. Inside Fort Henry, Captain Jesse Taylor described the fires, quote, one broad and leaping sheet of flame, end quote. In command of both forts, Henry and Donaldson was Brigadier General Lloyd Tillman. Even before the cannon fire from the Union gunboat started bearing down on him, he knew that he was in no position to hold off Granton foot. The rain had been pouring down on them for a while now and the water was rising around the fort so that it was, quote, on the point of being submerged, end quote. He was learning now that Fort Henry had been constructed in a flood zone. And even if Granton foot couldn't flush him out, the water would. As soon as he learned that Union troops were closing in on him, he ordered everyone to evacuate to Fort Donaldson while the artillery's covered their escape.  So by the time that the Union gunboats were anchoring 600 yards away from Fort Henry, they were attacking a fort that was already in the process of being evacuated. But there were still those in the fort returning fire and both sides took damage. The fort had been manned with older guns as the Confederate government in Richmond was being stingy about sending out cannons and ammunition to anywhere that wasn't between Richmond and Washington DC. One of these guns, the 24 pound rifled cannon, exploded from the inside, either killing or wounding every man handling it, as well as some of the artillerists at nearby guns. Even more than the loss of men, the psychological effects of this explosion dampened the Confederate defense. In the words of the engineer on site, quote, "'The effect of this explosion "'was very serious upon our artillerists. "'First, because it made them doubt "'the strength of these large guns "'to resist to the shock of full charges. "'And secondly, because much was expected "'from the long range or rifled cannons "'against the gunboats.'" End quote. So now the men working the larger and presumably more effective guns were worried that the equipment couldn't be safely handled. They may have been right as it wasn't long before another rifled cannon, this time a large 42 pounder exploded, killing another three men and wounding several more. One of their largest guns became an operable when a primer became stuck in the vent and nobody could get it loose. Nobody died in this mishap at least but the rapid loss of guns meant that the ability of the Southerners to hold off the attack was quickly slipping away. As enemy fire came down around them, a fourth gun was destroyed along with a handful of men working it. All of this occurred while the Union ships were still moving into place. By the time foot's gunboats anchored at their 600 yard point, the Confederacy had already been reduced from 11 to only seven operable cannons. But this was enough to hit the Yankees with at least one devastating shot. The ironclad gunboats each suffered dozens of hits from the Confederate cannons but most of the damage was minor. The Essex, however, was a different story. When the Confederates landed a hit against the ship, they saw it float downstream, apparently disabled. They recognized the victory in taking one of foot's ships out of commission, but what they couldn't see was the horror taking place inside it. As later described by one of the survivors on board, the Confederate shell tore through one of the ship's portholes and took out the top of the head of the captain's young secretary. Even worse, the shell continued flying until it hit the worst place that a steamship could be damaged, the boiler. The cylinder that contained the steam was ripped open and the men around the boiler were scalded. The number of men scalded vary in the books I've read. One lists 29 and the other 32 but included among them was the ship's captain, William Porter. Several of them died from the injuries. Those who could leapt out of the nearby portholes and into the water. Though several of them drowned, unable to swim in their agony. The two pilots of the ships who were civilian contractors were both killed. One of them was found still holding the spokes of the will with one hand while his other hand was clutching the rope for the bell to signal the alarm. A gunner nearby was found dead, having been killed so quickly that his corpse was still kneeling as he had been in the process of taking a fresh shell from the ammunition box for his gun. But this catastrophe was the only serious damage the Union would suffer. With water rising around Fort Henry and the Confederate cannons going out of commission one by one until they were down to only four smoothbores, Tillman knew that it was time to surrender. At two o'clock, he waved the white flag and ordered the lowering of the Confederate flag that waved about Fort Henry. Had Tillman known what Andrew Foote was thinking at the time, he may have tried to hold out a bit longer. Foote himself had been knocked down by a Confederate shell that landed close to the pilot house on his ship, knocking the breath out of him, even though nothing actually hit him. He later wrote his wife, quote, at a moment when it seemed as if we must be killed or sunk, the big secession flag was hauled down and victory was ours, end quote. When Tillman surrendered, he and roughly 100 of his men were taken prisoner. Communication about the decision wasn't very effective between those inside the fort and the rest of the Confederates who were manning the rifle pits in various locations. As some of the infantry marched southward, they didn't actually know what was going on. They thought they were being taken to fight the Yankees, but they also thought it was odd that they were marching in the opposite direction. Upon realizing that the fort had surrendered, some of them were outraged, as one Alabama volunteer wrote, quote, it soon dawned on us that the fort had surrendered and we were retreating, running from the Yankees. We, who had so recently left home with visions of glory to be achieved on the fields of battle, of hundreds of Yankees to be slain with our buck and ball and our long-bladed knives steeped in Yankee gore, actually running before we had fired a gun or even caught a glimpse of a blue coat, end quote. Union soldiers under McLernon were similarly disappointed. They had been trudging through the merciless terrain for hours, suffering the mud and rain, only to realize that the Navy gained credit for the capture of Fort Henry before they could even face combat. But as cavalry did come across some of the Southerners as they were retreating and they gave chase. As an Alabama, remember to the move, quote, when it became known that we were retreating, the impulse to go faster and faster seemed to strike all of us at the same time. While the dashing past of small squads of frightened cavalrymen and an occasional shot in the rear served to accelerate our speed until short-legged fellows like myself had to go in a lively trot to keep up with the procession. End quote. As the Union cavalry closed in, the retreating Southerners had to race to stay out of their reach. One soldier had the measles at the time and when the Northerners closed in on him, he had to make the choice between surrendering or possibly being shot or diving into the ice cold waters of a creek that stood in his way. He chose the water along with several of his comrades. With the geography blocking their retreat, McLernon was able to capture an additional 38 prisoners as well as killing at least one fleeing Southerner. Those who were lucky enough to escape reached Fort Donaldson soaking wet, many of them having tossed to their blankets, rations and weapons to hasten their escape, leaving them without adequate provisions to survive the winter cold. As the Northerners took Fort Henry, they claimed the spoils of victory. This included the working guns that the Union was able to take as their own, of course, but also any items left behind by the Confederates, including their letters home. One staff officer remembered, quote, there was everything that can be thought of taken by the first ones in. Gold watches, splendid uniforms, blankets, a large number of tents as well as barracks. Some I hear got $50 to $300 in money out of the officer's trunks. One got a hundred half dollars, end quote. But for many soldiers, the thrill of victory was dampened with their first recognition of the grim horrors of war. One man wrote his sister, quote, I saw four rebels that were killed in the fort.  Another described a similar experience, quote, on every side lay the lifeless bodies of the victims and reckless confusion, intermingled with shattered implements of war. Our eyes then met each other's gaze with a sadness full of meaning that forbade any attempt to speak. And in the quietness like that of a graveyard, we walked slowly over the desolate scene, end quote. Grant arrived less than an hour after foot to accept Tillman's surrender and he congratulated the Navy for their victory. Even though McLernan did nothing more than chase down some already retreating Confederates, he made sure to take as much credit for the victory as possible, sending out a series of letters to politicians, including President Lincoln, to inform them of the crucial role he played in the outcome of the battle. Grant, for his part, simply wired General Hallick, quote, Fort Henry is ours, I shall take and destroy Fort Donaldson on the eighth and return to Fort Henry, end quote. Grant, of course, would find that Donaldson would not be so easily conquered. Ever since the capture of Fort Henry and Donaldson have been identified as crucial events in the Union War after their importance has been treated as a single issue. But Fort Henry really should be seen as the most important of the two of them. Even had Grant not moved on to Donaldson, access to the Tennessee River was the largest victory that came out of them, even more so than the occupation of Nashville, which is on the Cumberland River and was protected by Fort Donaldson. This is because the Tennessee River continued straight south, all the way in Alabama, and not far from Corinth, Mississippi, which would be an important strategic city and Grant's efforts over the coming months. The Confederates probably recognized this even before the Union did. News of the fall of Fort Henry spread fear through the southern states. One soldier referred to it as, quote, a perfect bull run on our side, end quote. As if to prove this true, Foote sent his entire Timberclad division under the command of Seth Ledgerd Phelps south down the Tennessee River to conduct a significant, though often ignored, Union expedition, the first one that would push deep into the Confederate territory. In fact, one of the reasons that Grant did not press against Fort Donaldson as quickly as he claimed was because they wanted to wait for the return of these ships. The expedition started as simply a quick move to destroy the railroad bridge that crossed the Tennessee River only a few miles south of Fort Henry. By destroying this bridge, railroad transportation between Columbus and Bowling Green was cut off. Rendering it that much more difficult for Leonidas Polk and Albert Sidney Johnston to reinforce each other. By the way, in the last episode, I said that Albert Sidney Johnston was the brother of Joseph Johnston. They were not related. I don't know how I got that idea in my head, but I apologize for the oversight. The listener corrected me, they were not related. The Union had knowledge of the Confederacy attempting to build their own river-capable iron clads along the Tennessee River. With the railroad bridge destroyed, Phelps had nothing stopping him from moving further south and doing damage to the Confederacy in places where they had no means of defending themselves. And Grant encouraged him to push further. So with only three wooden gunboats, the Tyler, the Lexington, and the Conestoga, Phelps probed south. As they came to the bridge, they found Confederates trying to disable it. Upon seeing the Union gunboats, the Confederates took off on unarmed transport steamers. Phelps sent his two faster ships, the Lexington and the Conestoga, to pursue them while the slower Tyler stayed behind to destroy the bridge and raid the deserted Confederate camp. In the camp, Phelps found more letters left behind by the Confederate Navy officer Isaac Brown, which referred to Tillman as a traitor for surrendering Fort Henry so readily. Phelps was on the Conestoga, which was the fastest of his three ships. Chasing the Confederates further south, they caught the three Confederate steamers and forced them to stop. The Southerners on them landed the ships and destroyed them so they couldn't fall into Union hands. The explosion of one of the ships, which was loaded up with gunpowder, also destroyed the house of a local resident who Phelps suspected to be owned by a Union loyalist. I don't know if Phelps was right or not, but his suspicion was that they deliberately halted their steamers near this guy's house so that it would be destroyed with the ships. Phelps' own ships took damage from the debris sent flying with the explosion. As he described it, quote, even there our skylights were shattered by the concussion. The light upper deck was raised bodily. Doors were forced open and locks and fastenings everywhere were broken. The whole river for half a mile around about was completely beaten up by the falling fragments in the shower of shot great balls, et cetera. End quote. The next day, now February 7th, Phelps found an even better prize. In Hardin County, Tennessee, they came across a dock where an ironclad gunboat was being constructed. The Southerners working on it took off at the side of the Union ships and the half-finished gunboat, named the East Port, was taken, giving the North another ironclad. To protect the gunboat, he left the slower Tyler behind while the Lexington and Conestoga continued their expedition south. On February 8th, they passed East Port, Mississippi, the town that their previous ship had been named after. Here they captured two more Confederate steamers. One of them was loaded up with iron, probably on its way to the Tredegar ironworks. It now belonged to Phelps. Wasting no time, Phelps continued to move until he was in Florence, Alabama. They came across three more Confederate ships, which were torched by Southerners before they too could fall into the hands of the Yankees. Phelps sent men to salvage what they could from the ships before they finished burning, and they managed to take some supplies that were to be delivered to Fort Henry, as well as iron plating that was being shipped north for the East Port. As they were taking their spoils, some of the citizens of Florence came out to plead for mercy from the Yankees as their town was undefended. They asked, as Phelps later wrote about it, quote, that they might be made able to quiet the fears of their wives and daughters with assurances from me that they should not be molested, end quote. Phelps answered that his men weren't savages and they were only there to enforce the law, obviously referencing Lincoln's standard justification for the war. Florence was his last stop and Phelps turned back north. On the way back north, on February 9th, Phelps also stopped back at the camp where the Tyler had been left protecting the captured East Port. There they found abandoned Southern rifles, as well as more mail and some other equipment. They set fire to everything they left behind, including the log huts that the soldiers had been sleeping in. What most struck Phelps, though, is the adulation he received from some of the locals. According to his own account, Union sentiment ran high in this part of Tennessee and some of the citizens he and his officers spoke to told them how badly they had been treated at the hands of the Confederates. In his recollection, quote, tears flowed freely down the cheeks of men as well as of women and there were those who had fought under the stars and stripes at Monterey who in this manner testified to their joy, end quote. Some of the other cases we've talked about tales of Unionism among the locals have been exaggerated. Such exaggerations are common in cases like these on both sides where each side claimed that it was liberating the people in an enemy territory. Phelps' account is difficult to corroborate in this case so it can be taken with some degree of skepticism. But there's also certainly some truth to his finding Unionists in Tennessee. Like Kentucky and Virginia, Tennessee was very split in its support for either the Union or the Confederacy and Phelps did bring back 25 recruits from his expedition who volunteered to fight for the Union army. And he claimed that had he stayed a bit longer he could have raised an entire regiment. In addition to a few new recruits, the expedition had netted the Union three ships, one of which was a partially built iron-clad gumboat that was in great condition, as well as a bounty of supplies and iron. He had also destroyed another six boats. Another benefit of this expedition was the information that Phelps brought back with him which would influence the move south that would take Grant to Corinth. Perhaps most significant though was the effects that his expedition had in the mines of the Southerners. Citizens in the deep south such as the residents of Florence thought they were well insulated from Union assaults at least at this point in the war. The raid down the Tennessee River shook their confidence in their own security. In Columbus, Kentucky, one panicked Confederate wrote to his wife, quote, I hear the Yankee gunboats are at Florence, Alabama. Ending the sentence with three exclamation marks. Newspapers throughout the south reported on the quote unquote Lincoln gunboats that moved down the Tennessee River. The Confederate command enrichment finally seemed willing to respond to the pleas for more resources around the Tennessee and Cumberland River defenses. But their feet dragging had limited what they could do before Grant's attack on Donaldson which they all knew was imminent. Johnston made the decision to remove his army from Bowling Green to defend Nashville. He also sent General John Floyd to take over for Tillman at Fort Donaldson. Floyd, now the ranking officer at the fort, was the former United States Secretary of War but he had no actual military experience. Within days, he would be testing his inexperience against Ulysses S. Grant in a five day battle for control of the Cumberland River. This will be the topic of our next episode. Historical controversies is a production of the Ludwig von Mises Institute. If you would like to support the show, please subscribe on iTunes, Google Play or Stitcher and leave a positive review. You can also support the show financially by donating at Mises.org slash Support HC. If you would like to explore the rest of our content, please visit Mises.org, that's M-I-S-E-S dot O-R-G.


growth under high and low concentration of nutrients, so the next picket is used to swing Okay, maybe I need to bring it closer now getting very close here but Everything for the science now Okay, does this have a laser? Okay, no pointer Yeah Wow, okay. Thank you, Martina. This is sponsored by her the equipment. I Will list you in acknowledgments Okay, my name is Justus. I just finished my PhD in the group of Michael Monhard at ETH Zurich The group has now moved on to Rutgers University Michael is also recruiting so if anything that you see here is interesting to you and you're considering a postdoc in theory Then Yeah, please consider the lab. I'm Developing basically theory for the evolution of microbial growth traits Typical questions that I'm interested in is what traits should we expect from evolution and how fast do they evolve? The approach here is to understand selection pressures really well and really sort of in depth Using ecological models and then combine this with models from population genetics to come up with an evolutionary trend and The work that I'm going to present here came out at the beginning of the year together with our co-author Noel who is a postdoc in Zurich with Martin Ackerman and Together we looked at the evolution of growth at low concentration of nutrients and the background here is that microbes play a really important function in the environment one way to see this if you see these diagrams of nutrient cycles here different boxes indicate different forms that carbon is stored and say the ocean or land environment and you see these arrows and these are basically The fluxes I think in a year in the units of gigatons and microbes play a role in bringing down CO2 into the ocean and also then Leasing CO2 again when they eat say the marine snow and if you want to calculate any of these fluxes you need to know about the population growth rate of these populations and Growth is a complicated process inside the cell with many inputs. There is sometimes a Special scenario where we know that the entire process is limited by a single nutrient This is explicitly what you construct in a lab experiment with M9 where supply all the other essential nutrients a phosphine Nitrogen and high concentrations and then you know that usually glucose is the limiting nutrient and This is a nice setting because it sort of allows to describe the entire growth as the function of this one concentration And if you look for a function to describe this you end up with a mono model that was mentioned a lot in it in the talks before it's it's I think maybe the first law of quantitative microbiology And this is the curve that Monod described in 1942 in his PhD thesis and He used a relationship that was known from enzyme kinetics. It has two parameters a maximum growth rate That's the floor or the ceiling here and then this parameter K, which I call the half saturation concentration And it's sort of drawn in this Think line here the K has different Words sometimes people call it they're also the nutrient affinity or the monoconstant What's interesting about it? It's basically at the intrinsic scale of resource concentration for the organisms So this is a trait and it sort of encodes what? Concentration the organism needs to reach half its maximum growth rate When we think about the evolution of this trait It's relatively clear that lower would be better and in this model you can see if you lower the K You basically shift this curve a bit to the left and then you get higher growth, especially low concentrations So the intuition is clear But it's there's an opportunity to be more quantitative and we did basically two things we looked at an empirical distribution of these growth traits and Trade database we saw that there are systematic differences between species and That could be explained perhaps by evolution We'd also didn't see a trade-off between the K and the G max Or no evidence for it and then in the second part sort of used an evolutionary model to ask How should the K evolve now actually in numbers how much lower should it be and? It depends on the environment that you're involved in yes When you say trade database for G max and for K. Mm-hmm. I think now somebody mentioned that this this this K is all over the place, right? But what what empirical database yes, so it's a database we collected. It's a database we collected from literature data, so But can you make sense of it? I mean this case extremely difficult to measure. I think I think we can make sense of it I think maybe you let me explain a bit what we see and then the goal is also to sort of Resurrect the K measurements that it's not all noise, but there's actually some sort of signal in it and this is the starting point of this is the collection of these trade measurements and This is the work of Noel. She went out and looked for papers that basically took a species and Decided limiting nutrient and then measured this response and reported the K energy max. There were other Summaries of these data that we used One is from the from the 90s and the 80s these two modes we focus on systems biology organisms And then there's a lot of trade data from fighter plankton And the kind of table that we end up with is we have some information on the species on and their strain labels There are two trades G max and K and then we have sort of all these meta variables like temperature and experiment type Just to give you sort of a look At the historic trend this is the number of measurements that were reported in each year This is the original measurement of Mono, and then you can clearly see there's a trend 80s was probably the early 80s was probably the best time to Measure these these case and then people measure less and less and Two important things to say here that we took care to only include data from growth rate. There are other Limiting concentrations that are reported, but they're sometimes based on measurements of respiration or measurements of uptake When you check For In a subset of the data from this fighter plankton database You can see that while there is sort of a similar functional form for uptake Actually the half saturation concentrations are not the same we exclusively focus on the growth trades and We also have a lot of diversity of measurements in this data set. So there's say at least three ways to measure this You can use a chemostat and in the chemostat the parameter that you tune is the dilution rate And the parameter that you measure is the concentration at steady-state So if you set a range of constant dilution rates, you get this response curve You can also do this in a series of batch cultures where you tune the initial concentration And you always try to measure the growth rate at steady-state And then a third way is to do actually only one match cultural cycle and measure a time series And if you can sort of resolve the time points up here, there's some information on the K in this deceleration If you actually look into Monod's thesis, he used this large of the last approach There's some Fundamentally different biology going on. So this is a steady-state across environments This is sort of a trajectory where there's some sort of history dependence Both of them gave rise to the same response. I think this is something that at this point we only sort of accept But I think it would be maybe interesting from to hear from physical physiology people So all right the number three is especially even though it was a Monod original is especially a suspect here because If you are just about to finish the exponential growth you are transitioning to the growth You you may actually have your G max may change systematically because you start Preallocate and maybe resources for the next environment or for stationary phase And since all you can measure is a ratio between G max and K you you kind of rely on G max staying the same throughout the entire Entire growth curve That does make sense. I'm sorry. I didn't get it right now, but maybe we can well Yeah, we can we can talk about I think the question I want to ask is connected to this So you were saying that option number two and number three give the same response Do you mean that the values of G max and K that you get from these two type of experiments are the same? Something that we sort of explicitly checked But I I think I mean I didn't perform these measurements. I just wanted I think it's interesting that The mono model has been around for a long time They were always competing models that people proposed like the droop model and also a hauling type response But it sort of survived right? This is a model that survived 70 years and it was always sort of good enough for what the people trying to do and then apparently In both of these situations it fitted the data To the best that the original authors sort of could decide I'm going to move on To what the the data actually shows so this is our data set we have here a number of resources from left to right the most resource measurements are actually in phosphate and and as a sort of a Neutron that is much studied in marine organisms and then we have glucose is sort of a nutrient of systems biology You can sort of see it in the colors. So green are prokaryotes Orange are eukaryotes possibly cells a little bit larger and then we have different shapes for organisms that are safe auto trolls because they fix as fight as phytopunk than they fix energy from the light and classical hate or trolls like E. Coli and One thing to see here is that it goes 10 orders of magnitude If you consider all resources For comparisons so this dot here, it's at roughly 10 millimolar. This is a concentration You would use in a classical M9 medium with glucose. So that's your 0.2 percent glucose and Say the concentration that the LTE uses is about two orders of magnitude lower But it's still relatively high compared to these half saturation concentrations for E. Coli We see systematic differences sort of especially between phosphorus and the rest We don't really have a good idea why If you look at These dashed lines. This is another sort of sanity check. This is a concentration Where a cell with this volume one micrometer squared One micrometer cubic would have one molecule per cell so this is say roughly the volume of an E. Coli cell and At this concentration If you call I had a half saturation this low, it would be basically be able to grow at maximum rate with one molecule per cell Low most of our data points of E. Coli are actually up here in this glucose bar So it's a bit removed. So probably it's it's more like a hundred molecules per cell And then of course you have larger organisms Sort of this line goes down But it's sort of good good to see that most of these points are above the line There's two exceptions which are vitamins thymine and vitamin B12 Unfortunately, we only these are single measurements. We don't know about the variation in these but It would be highly interesting if somebody reports more vitamin measures in the future Sorry Do you have some data for the same organisms same conditions that we can see how many orders of active users between different data sets? I mean, I'm going to zoom in on glucose You mean Okay, so but these are not the same temperature or is there just like we're going to talk about temperature and experiment type Yes Yeah, you mentioned that you don't understand why phosphorus is the lowest But for instance There should be some correlation of this key with stoichiometry of the nutrient and Famously there is a Redfield law, which is approximate stoichiometry of carbon to nitrogen to phosphorus among marine organisms Which tells you that for instance nitrogen should be six times more Abundant inside the biomass and carbon is another hundred times more abundant than phosphorus So I would if I just squint at your data I will see that the carbon at least the glucose is Largest the nitrogen somewhere in the middle and the phosphorus is somewhere at the low end So that that may be the explanation for your trend between elements Yeah, I think this is this is exactly sort of the type of thinking Yeah, it would be very interesting Maybe we can build a model for it that connects these two things So if you zoom in on glucose you can resolve the variation by species and you see I'm gonna single out two species E. Coli and yeast and You can see Each of them has large variation, but there's still systematic differences between them there's next to no overlap between these two distributions and Systematic differences between species is also something that we see on other resources If we focus on E. Coli we can now ask okay where does all this variation come from and we have these meta variables that we recorded in our database and what I did I took This as the Predicting variable and asked how much of it can be explained if I correlated with maximum growth rate with temperature with the experiment type With sort of the strain labels that we have and then with the author So the author is a bit tricky I think the author is a combination of all of these two things So you have little publications that actually measure the same strains that other authors did so every author basically Came up with a Unique spot or a unique patch in this landscape of possible conditions, but they rarely sort of measure the same conditions that somebody else did Let's go The most I'm going the method is this experiment type That's where we record basically batch chemo start batch with time series and these things This is the next slide on this slide We had strain labels and Most of the strain labels were unique So there was only one measurement, but there was two strain labels that were where there multiple measurements One is ML 30. This is the original strain that one all measured and you can see it's different groups that measured it and They got Variation that was much less than what we see in the entire data set ML 30 or 8 is a mutant of ML 30 and here we see now Same strain with two very different values if you look at the experiment type now, so these experiments were either done in batch culture or the chemo start and These are all chemo starts measurement here's the difference between chemo southern batch so this is actually a paper I think that tried to explicitly test this and I think it gives us sort of an estimate like You can take this Basically, it could be off by 1.5 orders of magnitude or say two orders of magnitude depending chemo southern batch If you go to temperature temperature does not have a big effect. So these were actually measured at different temperatures And then maximum growth rate is actually uncorrelated in this data set So these are all the color measurements where we had maximum growth rate and you a trade-off here would be a positive correlation, but if you calculate the the rank correlation, there's No significant correlation at all This interesting this was interesting to us that there was no max correlation of maximum growth right here so we checked more closely we also see no mat correlation in the yeast and Then we checked on different nutrients and There's also the result is always the same when you calculate the rank correlation coefficient It's not significantly different from zero Okay, so what leaves this out with there's a large variation within species and we we see from like looking at an individual examples That maybe one or two orders of magnitude could be explained by the experiments for conservative But there's still systematic differences between species that are larger and This is not explained by selection on maximum growth rate So your maximum growth rate does not explain you okay, so this was interesting now because we We thought okay, maybe there's a history here that these strains say East and E. Coli have evolved in different environments in the past and that is sort of reflected in in their mean half saturation concentration this is a classic theme in Evolution that features of the environment imprint sort of on the organism. This is two birds from Darwin's finches Darwin's finches were studied I think first by Darwin himself who saw that they have different beak sizes and then later in 1950s by a Couple of evolutionary biologists and I think up to this day by Peter and Rosemary Grant and the idea One of the observations here is that the beak size reflects the size of the seeds that they're eating Something like this could be here in this microbes that E. Coli It's original habitat is the gut or say the waste water these are low glucose environments by yeast Is used a lot on fruits on and in baking conditions. That's a lot of sugar. So maybe that's reflected okay There's a hypothesis and we used basically modeling to test it This is the outcome of the modeling So we did we modeled evolution in the chemostat We see that evolution is pretty relentless. So if you give it if you keep giving it mutations The chemostat will drive the K low and lower and only when you run out of mutations Well, the evolution actually come to a stop So the chemostats environments. They're really aggressive and they basically would drive this K to the boundary of what's physiological possible Until you sort of hit suddenly a constraint that lowering the K would change other traits Now in the batch culture environment, this is an environment. That's like the long-term evolution experiments We have these growth cycles actually even if you give it a lot of mutations all the time evolution sort of stabilizes by itself and That was sort of from the evolution perspective the most interesting mechanism to be focused on that quickly sort of the simulation is simplified in the Basically, we have some some growth cycles going up and down in the background and then we sample Mutations and then these mutations can expand and replace the previous type new mutations appear Sometimes they also fail to fix and the way we calculated is that for every mutant that appears We calculate a selection coefficient and then a fixation probability and then basically with a certain probability of reject or accept that mutation and this Something that I wanted to just highlight as a teaser. So calculating the selection coefficients was a key technical step and We break it down to a basic unit one growth cycle Say this is somewhere in the middle of the competition where they're 50 50 for each growth cycle We can calculate the selective advantage from the beginning to the end The number that we calculate here is this S. It's the selection coefficient. It only depends sort of on Frequencies at the end and the frequencies at the beginning we were We did not care sort of what happened inside the growth cycle and so we Decided to not Simulated but instead calculate the S and just given the traits and the initial frequency we can directly predict the final frequency Using an explicit formula and on the tutorial on Tuesday I will talk about a bit more about this because this is an explicit representation of selection pressure Sort of understanding how this object changes with concentration can tell you how in which conditions say a mutant on G max Is selected more than a mutant is selected on K Okay, there was a key assumption in our model. That's basically how we sampled the mutation. So We draw a random mutation effect And that is from a uniform distribution that has a maximum value of kappa and What we assume is that this Effect does not change. So here you can get plus minus kappa and here you can still get plus minus kappa This is Not realistic, so you would expect that as the trade changes also the range That mutations the effect that mutations can have would maybe shrink so kappa would get smaller However, it's what we are interested in is basically more a maximum possible evolution So if you give the process always new mutations that have this fixed relative effect What is the maximum possible evolution that you can get from selection and What you see here is Trajectory, this is a population that starts at a certain ratio k to r0 is this highly unadapted The k is much higher than the environmental concentration used in the spatch culture It quickly goes down and then stabilizes. You can see there's some stochasticity here. This is because of the sampling and Stochastic probability of fixation that we use the One thing to say about the time scale. So these is this is 50 times the population size So at this point we Over this time scale. You also see sort of the fixation of some some neutral mutations at the end There is a threshold here that forms a plateau we can calculate it But I first wanted to give you sort of the intuition what happens here in the growth cycle So we start in a situation that is highly unadapted where we have a clear exponential phase And then this deceleration at the end if you'd measure your d you would see it in this curved shape here And if we in this situation calculate what would 1% on the growth rate and 1% on the k A 1% improvement in each of these traits how much fitness would that give you we can break it down by these two traits This is the total fitness that a 1% mutant in each of these traits has and You can see that this much comes from growth rate and this much comes from the K and In this case we can see sort of the K is actually more strongly selected because the 1% in the K gives you a larger Contribution to the relative fitness. However at evolved stage now your Current K is already much lower than the resource concentration, which you mean you have this very sharp arrest at the end The growth is now very much like in a kink You've basically evolved the deceleration of a and all the selection that is left is now on the maximum growth rate And this is the the mechanism By which we get this plateau that you basically in the beginning have a lot of selection on the cave But this pressure sort of as you adapt You This face gets shorter and shorter you expose the trade less and less during the competition and you have less selection We get a scaling relationship That says that the evolved trade depends on the concentration that you would use for your evolution and the population size at the bottleneck This one last feature That's interesting here That's asking are these two parameters independent You said that the selection coefficient was also related to G max, but yeah, so for the evolution we So we've seen in a trade distribution right that these trades are largely Uncoordinated So we could assume that they evolve independently and to make things Can assume an independent Mutation effect on the two trades and to make things even simpler we just assumed a mutation effect on the K So the K of the G max in this background is not evolving No, and your experiment do you also allow cell to die between one spike and the other? So you just study the growth and the stationary phase So we have death in form of this dilution But not within the growth cycle. Okay, so we get this this a scaling relationship and this is Basically what the hypothesis said right you have your environmental concentration and your wolf trade is proportional to that However, there's also this additional factor of the population size at the bottleneck that sort of interferes with it and and the evolutionary terms this is a balance between selection and drift at the bottom and There's one Very subtle detail That these two parameters could actually not be independent depending on how you run your evolution experiment so this is One way to transfer between growth cycles is I have another question. So can you get the pre-factor? Between K evo are zero. Yeah any because then you can test it with values There are values from effective cooperation size of different. Yeah, yeah, we have the we have the pre-factor There's a pre-factor that also depends on the maximum mutation effect you can have and then there's a local earthquake term So the problem is we have Undetermined this so we actually don't know the concentration that Equal I would experience in the gut and we don't know if it's a chemostat or a batch culture for the where we know this really well is the LTE and And the LTE what you see is that the concentration they used was Too high to create a selection pressure on the K so to basically Cut the short these two things depending on how you transfer they can be correlated And this is one way to transfer is to reset to a fixed biomass of your first growth cycle one day And you reset to the same OD Now if you would use a larger resource concentration You would still reset to the same OD in this case the bottleneck size and the resource concentration are independent And you can really get this scaling relationship However, most of the experiments work this way where you reset with a fixed dilution factor So growth cycle with more resources like the right one here also gives you a higher population size and you get this positive correlation between the two things and If you put in the mouth and you look at the factors in the formula you can see that this actually cancels out What we then reconstructed is basically an inverse problem this is the Distribution of case that we've seen in the coli data and we asked with what sort of Glucose concentration would they be compatible with and here we assume basically We can estimate mutation effect from the LTE Not a direct test, but we For this you would really have to measure spontaneous mutations But we basically assume that the thing that we observe in the LTE is At the evolutionary steady state So this is the 140 micro model that they're using here and now if you would Take An E. Coli in your data set and ask which resource concentration that it would evolve on It depends what kind of environment you assume If it's a fixed bottleneck biomass you can say well these E. Coli They came from a higher concentration environment but if it's a fixed dilution factor you can see that This E. Coli here is compatible actually with a lot of resource concentrations So in this sense, it's not a biomarker for the environment So even if you know the wall of trade it's compatible with a lot of historic concentrations Okay, this is I Would say the evolutionary high point I think especially interested Maybe in this context to discuss more about the trade-offs and if you have any questions Yes, I have to happy to take them