I mean, you always want to get off to a good start. Obviously, when you're getting some threes to start, it looks good, but I just think we were just getting good looks to start the game and sharing the ball. And they're a good team. They compete at a high level. So if you want to go up to a good start. But then when you got tight to two, what'd you guys do to make that turn around to 20 over on right now? I'm just kind of executed and getting stops. And I think maybe a couple shots weren't the best decisions. But we should let them make it out into transition. And that's where they're at their best. So just execute offensively and then defensively ready to get stops. And there's a lot of us to get out of transition and get good looks. What convinced you to tell your dad you were going to let it fly tonight? I mean, he texts me all the time. I mean, he said something about last game, about the threes looking better. And he said, I'm just going to let it fly. And so that's just what my mindset was. Just let it fly. I don't think about it. So I'm going to knock someone down. Were you thinking about it? No, not really. But I mean, obviously, you know, you're not really making shots. I felt like I was playing fine, regardless. But it'd be nice to make some shots to just let it fly. In terms of the shooting, I guess how has your kind of progress as a shooter been? Ever since you kind of got here, it seems like you're a lot more comfortable, a lot more confident in those. Yeah. And I think each year you just get more comfortable, more confident. Honestly, when I first got here, it was a roller coaster. I just trust the work that I put in. All the coaches, all the teammates even trusted me. So I got to trust myself. Jackie, you also have a career high for blocks and a season. What has enabled that for you? For blocks and a season? Blocks and a season, yes. For you? In the game? 87. No, you have 87 on the season. Oh. You have a career high. But you have a single season and a bunch to play. That's crazy. I didn't realize that. I didn't realize it was close to that. But just trying to have active hands, being in the right spot and I'm tough people in the shot blocker. So I got to block shots. What is it about this defensive that makes that possible? We've got a lot of elite defenders, a lot of guys that are competing on both sides of the ball. So we have guys that are doing things like that. It just drives you to compete more defensively as well. And it's just a lot of fun playing in this defense. You also lead the NBA in plus, minus, net rating. The list goes on. What is it about you in this season that you are making all of that possible? Yeah, I don't think it's really me. I mean, I've got great teammates around me that kind of make it simple. I'm just trying to go out there and compete and help us win in any way possible. So obviously, you want to make the game better when you're in it. So just competing and make the right play. And a lot of credit to my teammates for sure. Did your dad let you know those things? No, he didn't tell me that. He keeps the stats mostly for you guys. He doesn't really tell me the stats as much as you guys probably think he does. So I just kind of figure with him back and forth. So. Thank you very much. Presented by your New England Ford dealers. Built for America. Built Ford Proud.


My name is Amador Osio. I am with Apache Del Rio Organization. We're inter-tribal here in San Antonio. And what are the other organizations in inter-tribal? Well, the tribes, we have our brothers from south of the border, which is one of my brothers here. And we also have some Comanche, which were from this country. Also, we have the La Pan, the Quahuiteka, the Pueblo. We have Pueblo Indians too. So we have a variety of brothers. We also have a brother from Puerto Rico, which is with the Taíno Indians. So yeah, we have a variety of tribes in our organization. And who is with you today? And which tribe are you representing? I'm from the Jurepecha tribe, from Michoacan, Mexico. That's from central west Mexico. I know, I've been there. So tell me about why you're here today. Today, like you all know, is recognized through the government as the whole month, as Native American month. And the month of November. So we're very, very proud of that, that they finally did that for us. We usually come and do, we've been here since they broke ground when it was used to be Volcker Park, for the Phil Harbour Park. We've been helping Susan and her group. In the Medina River, a natural area since 2004. So next year is going to be our 10th anniversary with them. And that's more or less how long our group has been together ever since we started out over there. So we're very excited about next year coming along. But we're here to just show the people that we still exist. We're still here, you know. And just show some of our song and dance and our stories and a little bit of our history. And also for a blessing. Of course. We're going to go ahead and bless the area here. Okay, alright. Well, thank you so much. You're very welcome.


Yo, what's going? How many people are done the first part of assignment three? How many people are done with assignment three? Okay, well, then more time. Yeah, assignment threes do on Friday. The scores look pretty good. Looks like this part is not challenging people too deeply. So today we're going to keep talking about on this data structures and we'll do a little design exercise where we talk about caching, which is one of the obvious ways that we use memory to make the file system seem faster. So remember, we just got done talking about swapping where we use the file system to make memory seem larger, but we also use memory to make the file system seem faster. Sort of an obvious, obvious thing. Announcements for today. Have anything up there? Grading update. So Ali has promised me that on Friday, grades will be done for the midterm. However, the midterms will not be ready to return on Friday. So here's what I'm going to do. Friday is also the deadline for the midterm grade evaluations. I will get as much of that done. I think it's unfortunately also at 5 p.m. So probably at some point on Friday, once I have the midterm grades incorporated and your scores for assignment one and assignment two, I will put those together and produce an estimate of a midterm grade. I don't even know what my options are. Whatever.  The only reason for the delay is we need to take them to the scanners to get them scanned in so that we can return them. Any questions on that? Is that okay? Everybody's excited to get their midterm back? Okay. So last time we were using some tools to poke around on a real file system. This is EXT-4.  So EXT-4 identifies every file with a number, referred to as its inode number, that inode number identifies an inode, which is sort of the top of the data structure that holds all the other information about the file, including the file contents. Some of the information is stored directly in the inode. That includes the stuff that you can see here, including things like timestamps, permissions. Anyone remember what this particular inode is? Idle number two, kind of a special case. Yeah. Root. This is the root of the file system hierarchy. It's important to have a well-defined root. We'll see this why we need this when we talk about path translation. We need to be able to have a starting point. We're going to get to that in about 10 minutes where we talk about translating an actual path name to an inode number, which is something that the file system has to do every time you access a file by its name. It needs to find the inode number that corresponds to it so it can locate the rest of the information about the file. Anyone remember? EXT-4, all files have a number. How does EXT-4, given an inode number, how does it find the inode that contains the information about the file? How does it find this data structure? Anybody remember how this is done? It's a very common operation where I know I need to look up some information about inode X. How do I find inode X on the disk? Yeah. Yeah, so I'll remember all the inodes are put in these well-defined locations at format time. So one of the things that EXT-4 does when you format the disk is create all the inodes that it will ever use, that will ever be available. And it puts those in specific spots on the disk so that when it needs to look up a particular inode number there's a very fast and simple translation that allows it to figure out what disk block do I need to load in order to find this information. So this is an example of this. I have a couple of blocks up here that store my inodes and then I have the data blocks I'm actually going to allocate. What does this remind you of? Something that you might be working on right now? Yeah. This is like Cormac, right?  I take a little bit of it somewhere. This is a normal place for it. Use it to create some data structures that I need in order to allocate the rest. And that's just overhead here. The actual stuff where it's going to store all your precious contents is over here. These are the data blocks that I'm actually going to use. But of course I need some information about how they're allocated and what files are associated with this stuff. Okay. So and we said there were a couple of consequences of this. One was that we could run out of inodes. The other is that the inode may not be located close to the data blocks that are linked to it. And actually it's kind of interesting here. So go back and what data block is associated with this inode? Inode 2 is a directory which is a special type of file. 4k in size. It has one block. What block is that? Yeah. 8. You start it off good and then you stall it out there. Yeah. 8, 7, 3, 7. Yeah, right here. This is the block. That's the only block associated with this file. It's a directory. The contents aren't very large and so it fits inside of 4k. And EXE4 here is using a 4k block. Who knows where 8, 7, 3, 7 is? But you can imagine it's not necessarily if I'm numbering the blocks from 0 on upward. I have inode 2 which is probably way over here. And then that data block is somewhere out there, not necessarily. Given the number, you wouldn't assume that it's particularly close to the inodes themselves. The inodes probably take up block 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. Okay. So let's do some other, let's talk about directories. So directories are kind of the foundation of how we do path mapping. Remember this really nice idea that I'm going to be able to create this hierarchical name space, allows me to organize things, allows me not to have to look at every file on the system at once. Et cetera, et cetera. So how is this actually done? On EXE4 and other file systems, a directory is a special type of file. Think of it as in many ways like other files. It has an inode. It takes up space on disk. The amount of space it takes up on disk and query. But the format of the directory is fixed. And the directory contents are only manipulated by the file itself. So it's just kind of a weird mix of something that is partially a file system data structure, but it is also visible to you as a user. You can manipulate this in sort of well-defined ways. So let's look at this. So I don't know if you knew this, but you can actually get LS to print off the inode number of the files and directories that it lists. Has anyone done this before? Good, because there's no real reason to. I don't know why this exists. So LS-I, I'm listing off the root directory. So here's root, and the inode number as we promised is 2. Did this again? Now let me list the contents of the root directory. And here's everything that's in here. If you've set up a Linux system, this is pretty familiar to you. You've got bin and Etsy, home, sbin, all these familiar directories. But they've got numbers. And every file or directory has its identified bin. I don't ever hear the inode numbers that are assigned to them. There's something weird here. Anybody notice? Well, weird things, yeah. Proc insists that the same inode number, oh my gosh. This is terrible. The file system is broken. What? What's going on here? This is not good. This would normally be a bug in your file system. Quick, call the EXT-4 people. Something is wrong with the EXT-4. We found a bug. Or, anyone remember Proc Sys? Yeah, they're fake. They're fake. Proc insists our fake file systems. They do not exist on disk. And so the inode number is just sort of made up. I don't know why there's an inode number there at all. So Proc insists, do you guys understand what that means? Proc insists do not live on the disk. If you unplug that disk, you can still get to Proc and Sys. Not a problem. The system may crash for other reasons, right?  But they don't actually live on disk. So has anyone ever messed around with Sys before? Has anyone ever used Sys for anything? Oh, interesting. Has anyone ever used Proc, poked around in Proc? Has anyone used Proc indirectly? How many people have used Proc indirectly? Everybody raised their hands. So I think you all have. How? What tool uses Proc? Top. And PS. Yes. Good answers, right? So all top does is every second or so it just rereads a bunch of stuff from Proc and redraws the display. You can look at the code yourself. There's nothing fancy. So what Proc is is a clever way for the OS to share information about things that are going on on the system. I could do this in another way. I could have a special system called Interface that was all devoted to being able to retrieve information about running processes on the system. That would be another way of exposing information. But what Linux does, which is pretty clever, is it reuses this file abstraction. It says, OK, I'm going to create a directory called Proc. Proc has one sub directory for each what? Process or task, actually. I think it's both processes and threads. And inside that sub directory, you can find all sorts of really cool stuff. You can figure out what the command was that used to start it, whatever. But this is all fake. When you're cd'ing and manipulating that directory, all the contents are being provided in real time by the operating system. There's no disk blocks that are being used. Same thing with sys. Sys is more regularly used to control the system. So there's lots of places in sys where, for example, if you want to disable your Wi-Fi card, so this is a cool trick you can use to impress your friends. Instead of hitting the icon, which a normal person would do to turn off your Wi-Fi, you can probably write zero to some value in sys somewhere, and it'll have the same effect. What happens when you write that value? That write ends up in the kernel, and some kernel code runs and says, oh, this person wants to disable Wi-Fi, and so it doesn't. So this is another kind of interesting way that the OS can provide a flexible interface to a bunch of different capabilities that it has without having to use special system calls. These are fake files. OK. What else is interesting about this? There's a couple of other interesting item numbers here. What is this file? Anybody know? VMlinus. I think that's a directory where either the kernel or the directory the kernel lives in. The kernel image is actually loaded in an uncompressed array boot. I think it's a compressed version of the kernel. So it has a small I know number. That's probably one of the first files it was created on. All right. And then here's, so now let's do this inside a subdirectory, and this prints off a couple of, so Home has two subdirectories, one's a bunch of, and again these have these I know numbers associated with it. Any questions about this? For the file system, names are numbers. Pretty common for a computer, right? OK. So file system names, I know numbers, and directories are files, and the job of a directory then is to map names to I know numbers. That's what the directory does. So going back and looking at this, this is just a file, right? So this is the directory we just looked at this. Just one last example using Debug of S. So this shows us some information about, this is what's known as the file system super block. This is even more metadata that's created during format. And this is kind of interesting. It shows you where the file system is mounted, what directory is sort of the root directory of this file system. There's a magic number here that probably corresponds to EXT4, I think. It shows you the state, whether the file system is dirty, whether it needs to be cleaned, which we'll talk about in a few lectures. I node and block count. So here's how many I nodes have been allocated on the system, and here's how many I nodes are available. So at this point, we've allocated about half of the available I nodes on the system. For blocks, you can see that we've allocated about 40% of the blocks on the system. So this is good. This is kind of what you want to see. It means that I'm allocating space faster than I'm allocating I nodes. But they're not too far off. If I was allocating I nodes a lot faster than I was allocating space, I'd be worried I would run out of I nodes. If I was allocating space a lot faster than I was allocating I nodes, I'd be worried I'd created a lot too many I nodes and they were taking up space on the disk because I could use for something else.  So block size and information about when the file system was created. Any questions about this? There's simple metadata. Also in the super block are going to be the locations of the I nodes on disk because EXT4 actually stores them in a couple of different places. I'll show you that in a second. Ah, here we go. More information. I'm going to show you it right now. I node size. This is the size and bytes of the I node data structure, 256 bytes. The first I node is 11. I don't know why. That's very interesting. Now down here, what this starts to do is tell you so on a large disk, what would be the problem? Let's say I did the following. Sort of like what you guys do for your core map. I put all of the data structures at the beginning of the disk and then I put all the data blocks at the rest of the disk. This sounds like a great idea. What's the problem on a really large drive? Or even on a medium sized drive? What problem does this create on a spinning drive? Yeah, Sean? Yeah, remember, every time I access a file, I usually need to touch the I node and a data block. And if I put all the I nodes in one spot on disk, think about it physically, probably where those I nodes are going to be is on one of the edges of the platter. And then the data blocks are all the rest of the way. So if I'm asking, as the disk gets full and I allocate more and more data blocks, the data blocks get farther and farther and farther away from the I nodes that I've created. What's a simple way to solve this problem? Do you want to answer that question? Do you want to say something else? Yeah, that's a great point too. So mission critical data structures, things like frequently I nodes and super blocks, a lot of file systems actually make a couple of copies of them on the disk. Because remember, parts of the disk can go bad. So if I have a sector that fails suddenly and that sector had my super block on it and that's the only copy of the super block I have, the whole disk is completely toast, right? Not good. What's a simple solution to this I node location problem? Well, that's even more complicated than I was thinking, yeah. I could put the I nodes in the middle, okay, so that's, now I've gone, I've had this, the seek time's gone down by a factor of two, so that's a little bit better. What else can I do? Well, I mean, I'll just, I'll accept that answer. You can, I can put groups of I nodes throughout the disk. I can put a group here and then have some space, put a group here. So I put groups of I nodes at different places and this is what EXT4 does. And so this is the beginning and this goes on for a while. I think on this drive, they were like, I don't know, a couple dozen groups. Each group is like its own little disk. Every group has some I nodes. It has a block bitmap. What do you think a block bitmap is for? What do I do with my block bitmap? It's a bitmap though. It's really small. What do I do with the block bitmap? It's in there. There's an I node bitmap too. What are those four? Nope. Nothing to do with addressing. That's an interesting direction to go in though, yeah. Yeah, this is my used block bitmap. This is how I know whether stuff's allocated. That's the most efficient way to store an array of allocated or de-allocated bits. It's just one bit. So I pack it into a bitmap to save as much as possible. I've got a block bitmap here that tells me what blocks are free. I've got my I node bitmap here that tells me what I nodes are free. The I node table starts at, these are probably a sector, a disk sector number starts at sector 545. And this tells me some information that I can pull from those bitmaps. I've got some free blocks. How many free I nodes? I nodes. How many free I nodes? Zero. So this group is actually full. This group has all of the files in it that I can create. There's still some data blocks left. And to be honest, I don't know if EXD4 allows me to allocate data blocks from a different group. Maybe it does. But the point is in this group, I've used up all my I nodes. And I still have some space left. In this group, you can see I've used up all my I nodes. I have fewer free blocks. I'm going to engage in some wild speculation and just point out that when you create a system like Ubuntu, a lot of the files that get created at the beginning are probably small. They're like little configuration files and other things. So those probably cause the early files to take up less space on average, right? You can see that clearly the average file size in group one is smaller than in group zero, right? Because they both have the same number of files. In both cases, they've allocated all the files that they can hold. But in group zero, I have more free space still left over. Any questions about this before we go on? Okay. So let's talk about how we actually do... Now you guys have all the information that you need to understand how we do path name translation. Let's talk about how we do this. So when you open a file, you pass in a path. What does the file system have to do? How do I find... What does the file system need to do? There's a translation step that's involved here. You need to translate, in this case, Etsy default keyboard into what? To an inode what? Number. I need to find the inode, right? So I need an inode number from this thing. How do I do that? Okay. Now, in certain cases you might pass in a relative file name. What does the system do if I pass a relative file name? How does it get this absolute file name? Yeah. This is a current working directory. That's why your process is a current working directory. That's what allows you to use. The point is that by combining the current working directory and a relative path name, I can get an absolute path name that the system can then consume. Okay. So I have to translate this to an inode number. So here's how I do this. I start... So essentially I break this up by the path name delimiter, which in this case is a forward slash, and I handle each part incrementally. So the first thing I have to do is I have to bootstrap the process. So I need to find the root inode, and this is why the root inode number is hard coded, because this allows me to bootstrap this process without having to know anything else. So I don't have to look up root. I know what root is. So I go and I open the file with inode number two. What kind of file is that? It better be a directory. It is a directory, right? It's certainly possible in the process of translating a path, if you give the system a bad path, it might get to the point where something that needs to be a directory or is a file at which point it's going to fail. But in this case, we know that the root directory is a directory. So we're good. So now I open the directory with inode number two. Now, remember what I said before, which is that directories essentially are data structures that map path name components to inode numbers. If you guys are familiar with like JSON or something, you can just pretend that the directory has like a JSON string in it that maps path name components to inode numbers. In reality, it's probably a more efficient data structure than that, but that's basically what it is. The directory contents are this mapping. And what I'm going to do is I need to look for an entry matching ETC. And in this case, let's say using our previous example that ETC has inode number 393218. So what's the next step? So I've opened root. I've looked up ETC in essentially the hash table that represents a directory. Okay, well, I don't open ETC, what do I open? The file system doesn't understand those names, those fancy names of yours. It has no idea what ETC is. And of course, there could be a thousand different ETCs in different directories. What do I open? I open 393218. That uniquely identifies an inode. Now, what could happen? Now again, you guys are all pre-programmed to know this stuff. ETC is a directory. But what would happen if ETC was not a directory? Let's say that I got to this point and ETC was in a directory. First of all, how would I know? Well, remember, the distinction between files and directories is done at the file system level. So when the file system loads the inode, you remember in the inode information it said directory. So the inode allows me to determine whether or not this is a file or directory. If it didn't, I could make files and be late in the contents. The file system doesn't want me to do that. That's weird. So I find... Now, there's a couple things that could go wrong here. What else could go wrong? I'm looking up 393218. What else might happen here? At this point, that would cause this to fail. Yeah. The inode 393218 does not point to a valid file. It's an unallocated inode. It's empty space. Now, assuming that the inode exists and that it's a directory, I do the same thing. And I just repeat this process until I locate the inode number that I'm looking for. And this is how path name translation works. I think that's it. And then eventually, assuming this all works, assuming that every step succeeds, I open the file. Now I've managed to translate a path to an inode number and now I can do whatever else I want. So this is one of the translation steps that the file system needed to be able to perform. It had to be able to translate names, path names to inode numbers. And this is the way this is done. Any questions about this before we go on? Pretty simple. I wish I had an example just showing the internal contents of a directory, but again, you can imagine what's in here. Has anyone ever... So when you're like just because I know in your free time you just kind of like CD around your system and just type ls in random places, right? That's what I do. What's the file size in most directories on a Unix system? When you list directories, it'll list a file size. What is it? 4k, why is that? It's the block size. That's the minimum directory size. Is that the size of all directories on your system? How can I create... Let's say I wanted to create a directory that was larger than 4k. What do I do? No, remember I can't manipulate those files directly. I have to do things to the file system that caused the directory to get bigger. What would I do? Yeah. I could add a bunch of files to it. If I was lazy and I wanted to add as few files as possible, what would I do? What's that? Nope.  No, I'm even lazy, right? How do I add as few files as possible? What's that? No, a directory is just another name. It doesn't matter. How do I add... This is a great question. I should have put this on an exam. How do I add as few files as possible? What does the directory have to store? It has to store mapping between what and what. The name, the path name component, and the I know number. Which part of that can I control? Yeah. Make a bunch of files that are really, really, really long names. Right? Because, look, I mean, that name's got to be in there somewhere. So if I have no idea what the maximum file name size is on a bunty, you guys can try this right now if you want to. Just hold down a key for the rest of the lecture.  Right? And when you come back to, hit return and see if it works. I'm sure there's a maximum at some point, but whatever the maximum is, that's what you want to use because that's going to make the directory as big as possible. But if you have a lot of files in certain directories, you'll notice that the directory size will start to increase. And that's simply because I need more space to map all of the files to I know numbers. What else does this mean about file system performance? Interesting performance implications. Given all that you guys know about data structures and algorithms. Right? How can I make this process very slow? Right? Yeah. Okay, so I can make it longer just by adding folders since all folders, that's certainly true. But what else will make this slow? There's another step here that could potentially be slow. I have no idea what fancy algorithm is used here. If the directory has a lot of entries in it, then that takes a while. Has anyone ever run LS and it just sits there looking at you for a couple of minutes? And then it starts like printing off gobs and gobs and gobs and gobs and gobs and gobs and gobs of output.  But whatever.  The longer those lookups take. These are just some interesting consequences of this process. Okay, so now we've talked about how I map names to numbers. And that's sort of half of the story here. The next thing that we're going to talk about is something else I have to do. So once I get to the file, so now I've taken the path name that you gave me and I found the I know number. I'm in good shape, right? Unfortunately, you actually probably also want me to get that kind of interesting. I mean, file systems get no points for just finding inodes. You would not be very happy with the file system that just did that. So now I actually have to be able to retrieve and modify data blocks, right? The actual contents of the file. Now in this case, there's a different translation problem. So now I have an I know number. If I'm trying to, you know, I'm saying read and I made up a mistake. What does this call have to do? That's to translate something into something. So the file handle at this point, if the file system is saying it has information about the I know number in it, and this has all been done, right? Because remember, open did that translation. This is another reason why it's helpful to have open. Because open means that I can do that path name translation to I know translation once. So I can read and write and just reuse the results. So this is another reason that it's kind of helpful to have open and close. So I don't have to do those translations every time. But I've got this. So I've got an I know number. I know the file I'm working with. What am I translating now? I want to write a byte of data or read a byte of data. Second translation step. What am I being provided? I've got the I know. I know that. That's done. A plus on the I know. What don't I have? Data block. I've got to find the data block. What am I being given? Or what do I know? I like that. The logical location. Yes. What is that usually called? Offset. I know the location in the file. Now, the file is an abstraction. I mean, the file goes from zero to the length of the file. But it's probably not laid out that way on disk. I'm just figuring out how do I map the offset to a data block or data block. Because if I'm writing a large chunk of data, I actually need to find all the data blocks from the beginning of the right to the end. Same thing with a read. Okay, so now I'm translating this offset to a data block. I need to figure out what data block or blocks to modify. This is a little trickier than what I did before. I'm just going to use the math names because the file size can vary. I want to be able to support very small files and I want to be able to support very large files. There are multiple ways of doing this. Let's talk about a couple. There are similar trade-offs here in certain ways to what we talked about with page tables. I can store the blocks in a linked list type data structure. You can imagine if I did this the i-node has to be the head of the list. It's got other information. It doesn't store any contents, but it has to point to the first data block. Then every data block contains potentially at least a pointer to the next data block. Maybe if I want to get fancy and go backwards more easily without having to start over, I also contain a pointer to the previous data block. What's nice about this? Is that nice? This is kind of simple. The amount of information sometimes me and the slides are on the same wavelength. The amount of information in the i-node is very small which is good. That's something I always want. Remember, i-nodes are fixed size so I just can't put very much stuff in there. What else? What's a problem with this? There's one kind of disgusting programming grossness problem here. Can anyone identify what it is? How is this going to make you sad? That's an algorithmic bit of grossness. I have O and lookup time to get to a random location. That's sad. There's another bit of sadness here that, trust me, you would hate to have to do this. Okay. You're on to something with that answer. It's not quite correct. Who maintains the pointers between the blocks? The file system has to maintain those. That's not file system state. What does that mean about the data blocks themselves? How large are they? They were 4K and then I had to do what? No, I have to link them together. In order to link them together, what do I have to do? What has to be in the block? No. The pointers.  How much usable space is there in each block for the person to read and write from? 4K minus 8 bytes. You're going to just hate that as a programmer, trust me.  Okay. That divided by 4,092. It's not a good computer science number. You just don't want that number. And the offset lookups are slow. That's the other thing. I think I would be more bothered by the other thing. Okay. Here's something else I can do. I can store all the data blocks in one sort of flat array and just index the array. When I create the file, I create this array of data blocks and then I use the offset as an index. What's nice about this? Compared with the other one? Yeah? Oh, one lookups. We like that. What's terrible about this? This will also make you super sad. Yeah? I need a contiguous file of blocks, which is sad. What else? I have a very small and fixed size file. Anytime I create a file, I've got to put aside all the space in the way, which is also sad. And then I need to... That's the maximum size a file can get. And it's not going to be very big. Say goodbye to all your MP3s and your pirated movies and whatever else you have. That's big. And a large portion of this is probably empty for some part. Here's what we do. Here's the actual way we solve this problem or the way a lot of file systems solve this problem. We have a lot of files on our tree, but it's a little more clever. And the observation here is that... And this is an interesting trend. So, for a while... I actually... I would love to see the distribution. If anyone wants extra credit... A few points extra credit. Compute the distribution of file sizes on your machine and send me a graph or post it on Piazza. Because I would be fascinated to find stuff. But... Anecdotally, a lot of files are small. Those small files on Unix-like systems where you don't have a registry are things like configuration files. Small bits of information here and there. They're scattered all over the system. But we also want files to be able to grow as large as... basically infinite size almost. And some files do get big. Now, I suspect that over time the distribution of file sizes is that that tail is getting bigger and bigger and bigger because you guys have more movies and more media and more photos and more stuff like that that are bigger. So I think it's probably shifting to the right a little bit. But those little small files are still there. So here's what we do. The inode stores one pointer basically. It stores a pointer to blocks.  So we refer to these as direct blocks. The inode also can store pointers to blocks that contain pointers to blocks. So these are referred to as indirect blocks. What else do you think we can store on the inode? Just extending this idea. Adding an additional layer of indirection. Of course, we can store pointers to blocks that have pointers to blocks but the files have pointers to blocks. So these are called doubly indirect blocks and you can keep going, you can have triply indirect, you can have quadruply indirect whatever. So how does this look? It kind of looks like this. I should really have a better diagram for this. So the inode in this case has two pointers. So this is the beginning of the file. This is the first data block. This is the second data block. Now once the file gets larger than this this is my indirect block. Now the indirect block itself has two pointers to data blocks. If the file got even bigger, I could allocate a pointer to a block that itself had pointers to other blocks and pointers to data blocks and you can just imagine this keeps going and going and going. So on modern file systems now you can use this technique to essentially address, I don't know, I can't remember ZFS, I think the maximum file size is like in the petabytes or something. So what is in a petabyte file? I don't think I would try to open a petabyte file. I think I would be frightened. Vim would be very slow, right? Trying to load the whole thing. Sitting there like, oh, just let me, I just want to change one byte. Because clearly what you want to do in a petabyte file is change one byte. That's a common operation. So what's nice about this? Other than the fact that I can essentially by manipulating the number of blocks I can pretty much store as much data as I want. But from a data structures perspective what's nice about it? So these doubly indirect blocks what do these represent? Do these store file data? No. They're overhead.  That's unescapable. I'm going to have to have data blocks that are gone. That are not able to be used to store data. But from a data structures perspective what do I want? What's the goal? Yeah, so I want a quick lookup. So that's one thing. Fighting against that. So the fastest lookup was this array that didn't allow the file to be sized. The other problem with the array was that the amount of overhead was fixed. What I want is the, I want the overhead. I want the data structure size to scale with the size of the file. So in this case if I have a file that only has one data block I don't have any overhead. The inode just has a pointer directly to that block. When you remember we looked at the root inode that's all it had in it. There's no extra overhead. It's 256 bytes. It had a pointer to block whatever it was 8, 7, 6, 7 or something. That's the contents of the directory. I'm done. There are no extra data blocks that have been harmed in this process in order to store a small file. And that's really good because a lot of the files on the system are small. Remember every directory is itself a file and most of those directories are 4k. So in this case it's really nice. I have no extra blocks that I need to store the directories but as the file gets bigger I have to start allocating space to store these doubly and triply indirect blocks. The nice thing is that space grows logarithmically with the size of the file which is good. And the lookup times also grow in the same way. And the offset lookups are still fairly fast. I think this is if you want to impress me do the big O analysis. I don't really care. I mean it's better than having to walk a linked list. So I'm sold. And of course it allows large files to get really, really big. Really as big as I want. Certainly as big enough to be private. Okay. Any questions at this point? Let me see where we are in time. I might... Alright. I'm just going to stop here before we launch into a discussion of caching. We'll come back and start here on Friday. Good luck with assignment 3 part 1. We'll see you guys on Friday.


Hello everyone, I'm Alicia Woodruff and welcome to the Fort Report. Pop quiz, what do you do with grease and food scraps when you're cleaning up in your kitchen? If you answered put it down the drain or garbage disposal, you may be starting the holiday season with a sewer back up. Just because you put the grease down the drain doesn't necessarily mean it's going very far. In fact, as we learned from Mary in the water department, food particles and grease sticks around in your pipes like that party guest that just won't leave. So what you're seeing here is we've got a camera going through a sewer pipe and all this build up on the sides is grease. Grease is really our biggest maintenance nightmare in the sewer systems. And when it solidifies in those pipes, it becomes as hard as a rock. Just like your body has veins and arteries, the city's water and sewer system gets a pretty important liquid to the parts that need it and carry off the waste. And just like those veins and arteries, months and years of fatty grease can build, meaning less water gets through until the pipe is blocked completely. The issue is if our pipes get congested, that flow is going to back up somewhere and it could end up back it up in your house and we don't want that and you don't want that. Palms throughout the city are connected by the sewer system, so even if you dump grease just once, you may not be the only one who does it.  You can stop greasy build up in the pipes around your home by soaking up grease from pots and pans with paper towels and emptying any food scraps into the trash, even if you have a garbage disposal. If it turns out to be too late for your home and the sewer does back up, make the city your first call no matter what time of day or night. In a small report you have a sewer back up, we'll send a crew out to see where the back up is. Is it on our line or is it on your line? If it's on our line, we'll take care of removing the blockage. If it's on your line, we'll let you know and we'll let you know either way but we'll let you know it's on your line and then you'll need to call a plumber to resolve the problem.


Hey guys, um, I hope you can hear me well This is my first life, so let me just check if everything works fine If you can hear me and the mic is working well Just let me know in the comment section that would be really good that's perfect Um, just give me a couple of seconds so that some people come up and then we're gonna start with this live Um So yeah, this is this is my first live view actually since I started I started this YouTube channel And I'm super excited to do this with you today The goal is to basically answer your questions. I'm sure we have many also prepared a couple of notes And I'm gonna you know basically answer some of the most common questions that I often receive Some are related to the tropics the smart drugs to brain hacks And so on and so on and basically if you have any questions, I mean Yeah, don't hesitate to to to reach out to use the live chat. I'm gonna read all the time What they have in your mind and I'm gonna try to Basically answer questions and help you out improve your brain performance because that's all what your inception is about, right?  It's about hacking your brain Achieving peak performance states are being more focused, you know Having more brainpower less anxiety less depression and that kind of things So maybe if you're ready, let's just start up. I think the most common question I receive is Do I prefer smart drugs or do I prefer? nitropics Now that's a tough question In the past I was experimenting a lot with smart drugs now smart drugs as you probably know are Drugs like Midefinal like Adderall like Ritalin And you need usually in the prescription for those drugs now on the other hand We have nitropics like a copperman area like radiol, I would say like Lyon's been much from like citicline Also like synthetic and tropics like nupept or rest attempts and so on And you don't need a prescription for them. You can go to any online store and basically buy them now many people love smart drugs and I had some good experience with them, but honestly for long-term brain health for long-term performance I mean the tropics are you know Is what you should go for Basically, they are mainly natural compounds, right? I mean we have some synthetic compounds as well But mainly natural compounds that have been used some of them for ages or centuries basically They provide lots of benefits very little side effects if you take them in the right way and Yeah, I mean for those reasons go from tropics a smart drugs can help you out now and then right they can if you have like Really busy week or a day or you know, you're starting a new business or something's going on You can of course Go for smart drugs. They can help you out, but for long-term use. I definitely don't recommend taking them Is piracetam a smart drug or an atropic? It's an atropic. It's a synthetic atropic all the rest of them are I had some experience with them. I Mean the rest of them the rest of them is like a regional atropic. It was synthesized synthesized and 60s I think something like that And yeah, it's a man-made man-made compound I didn't have such good results with piracetam or in general with recitams a Bit more with nupit. I got nupit actually. It's a funny story.  What's inside? But yeah, anyway with you know, it's nupit or in this game was nupit then and I got recitam as well So yeah, rest of the rest of them is atropic um Yeah That's what I hoped it was now. I'm joking and don't play with drugs Do a week do I Recommend Madafino Many people ask me that like Madafino smart drug like and then the people ask me like what's better my lip, bro You know, I'm a big fan of my lip, bro And then they say like what's better like my lip, bro or Madafino anything? This is not the best question because it's like what's better like coke or any kind of any other drug or like Ashwagandha, I mean, that's like, you know You can't compare those things so You know Try to differentiate between the tropics and smart drugs and go for the tropics always always always I'm new to this and I want to combine to rest them and rodeo or set. Is that a good idea? Yeah, well, it depends on what you want to do In general like this, I don't see any big issues with combining these two compounds rodeo Is great for anxiety. It's gonna Make it more calm It may boost your focus a bit And the rest of times are in general good for calling to performance. So it's a it's a good combo now personally I would go for more Well Here's what I would say try rest of them try to rest of them in this case see how it works on you and Then we can tweak that on that you get the best results when it comes to the tropics is always very important to Kind of a start with a clear goal like what exactly do you want to achieve? Do you want to have more brain power more better memory? Do I have more focus? Do you want to be more? Relaxed they have issues with depression they have a DD or ADHD and all those factors play a crucial role So first start when you're choosing tropics first start with your goal make a clear goal and then Search for the appropriate compounds now on your inception dot com my side. You're gonna find lots of resources And if you have any specific questions, I'm always available by the way guys I'm still coughing a bit because I just Had covered I got quite 19 Just recently so I'm still getting over that. I feel pretty good though, but yeah, just letting you know Yeah, well if you have ADHD attention deficit hyper activity disorder Well, there's a lot of things you can do so taking certain tropics is really good You should definitely go for omega-3. I should take omega-3 Probably a bit higher in EPA than in DHA Or if that's something you cannot get just go for you know an equal amount of eBay and DHA This is like the crucial compound for brain performance because ADHD and ADD basically means abysses in the Prefrontal cortex, right? So when you try to focus when you try to work hard Basically your prefront cortex shuts down when you need the support, you don't get it that's why we need to boost a Disparter brain and and omega-3 is like the basic supplement that you need and then And then I would go for other compounds as well like I would check cytical in or alpha GPC as a Calling compound. I would probably look at the component area for memory Lance mid mushroom. Those are all amazing amazing tropics that I love love love I'm looking at my art questions um Someone asked me Recently Actually, I'll just answer this dot in a shaganda. I love a shaganda. Um, I have some experience with KSM 66 Um, and I had the other shaganda as well. I think it's called sensory or something like that They're pretty similar. I've done some research on them and I couldn't couldn't find a big big difference They're really good for a general Well to make you the calmer Do they help people with with anxiety so you can help people with anxiety when with depression? Um, and it's pretty beneficial lots of studies support its effects Actually, I think it's right now. I take it on a regular basis usually the afternoon Because I was experimenting with with a shaganda in the morning, so I took it as apartment morning tropic stack and honestly That wasn't the best so it kind of decreased my focus, but it made me like Unmotivated so that's why I'm taking it in the afternoon So yeah, a very good nitropic you can you can combine a shaganda with with rodeo there or self for example to strong adaption hurts But I love this combo actually works really well for me Now I was talking about the brain hex some someone asked me recently I Got I get those emails all the time like why am I like my top brain hacks best things? You know I can do odd to improve brain performance and so on um, and Here's the thing so you know Brain hacking or hacking your brain It can be super fun Like it includes so many different stuff you can do but there are three basic things You need to take out and if you take out those two basic things that all other stuff You can do it. We'll just add a little bit like we'll have just a little bit But once you need to take our first into care of the baseline so first is sleep sleep is crucial now I use I don't if you can see it I use or a ring as a sleep tracker. You can use any kind of other sleep tracker You can use a free app on your smartphone. Whatever just for a couple of weeks. It's important because it will help you Kind of understand how well you sleep how much of deep sleep you have every night And this is like really important because if you don't Regenerate over the night, right? And then you wake up without energy. I mean no notropics will help you There's no I mean No, like coffee is gonna boost your energy maybe a little bit But after a couple of hours to be tired again because you didn't sleep well enough. So this is super important Then nutrition is is is equally important maybe even more it depends We developed a thing called the brain hackers diet is it we just recently published it You can go on on my homepage on your inception.com and on the homepage You're gonna find a link to it where you can download what what brain hackers died and it's basically just a scientific approach to Optimizing your brain performance through eating the right foods. Basically.  And that's the whole idea with brain hackers that So nutrition is is crucial. So if if if you do a mistake here Then I'll again known tropics will help you at least, you know, what's gonna happen You're not gonna have as much of a effect. So the tropics won't have such a strong effect on your performance and that's that's that's a big thing and then lastly brain exercise so I'm a big fan of a game called dual and back game You can you can download this for free You just go and Google check it out and the pointless game is to Basically, well, you need to remember certain patterns in the right order And with the game you're gonna improve your focus and your memory both things at the same time it's pretty challenging them pretty challenging but Yeah, you see you see results quite quickly and if you combine those those three things So sleep the right nutrition with the right supplements, of course and brain exercises.  Yeah, it's really it's gonna be amazing And then all other things a lot of hacks. There are many of them Well, we'll help you out a bit more But not as much as this basic those basic things for we'll do it for you Um All right, if you have any questions guys, just yeah, let me know One of the questions I often also receive is what are my favorite in tropics and I could talk about in tropics for ages, obviously That's what I started with In 2016 or 15 actually was when I launched our reception tropics were the first thing now Here's the thing in general. I know in the tropics pretty well as so I know individual compounds pretty well, but In general, I prefer in tropics. Thanks, right? I prefer pre-made sub supplements on tropics. Thanks because For most people right for most people they're more convenient They're safer They're usually well researched and you know, it's really hard to do a mistake to make a mistake with them, you know That's why I prefer in tropics. Thanks. Even for me personally in my like on most days when I'm not testing a particular on tropic Um, I am taking in tropics tech. All right from from from different brands So Yeah, because the reasons I mentioned now if you are an expert if you did your own research then of course go for individual in tropics You know where you can get them you can go on you can buy them on Neutropics depot or pure in a tropics or there are many different sites And then you can stack them at home the way you want to but for most people. Well, I think tropics tech start are better Now obviously if you look at the rankings at this moment my favorite in tropics tech is still Mind the pro and it has been for ages now. I've tested I think over a hundred plus in tropics supplements and I always get back to to mind the pro now. You may be wondering like are they pain me? No, they're not paying me None of the brands are paying me for free reviews Of course, we have an affiliate system, but I have an affiliate system with all the brands basically Or many of them the high quality ones, of course so I'm not like in any way Kind of incentivize to to to promote mind the pro or any other in tropics techs I love alpha brain as well. I like quality of mind is amazing But I always look at many factors and we develop this review or this ranking system for supplements Because what I wanted to do was have an independent review system where people would just are Well, my my team would just add in all the data about particular in tropics Or in tropics tech, you know And then we would get a final score and based on the score we will rank all the supplements and that's what we did and We have over like 30 35 ranking of factors from individual compounds from the dosages from the quality of compounds to Pricing distribution customer support so we look at all those factors and then we get a fun score and Since we did this for the best year or so My liberal was ranked number one Now quality of mind for example, it's all often mentioned and I love those guys at near-hacker collective the so The challenges with quality of mind is it has 28 ingredients, right? Obviously, they're not as well-dosed as mind the price and you also have to take six or seven capsules per day and If you're like me if you're taking many supplements, I mean, I think in a tropic stack then I take like omegas Omega-free supplement then I take some magnesium in the evening. I think Ashwagandha right now I'm taking the copper money area as an individual compound I'm taking vitamin D free with K2 and so I think you know many capsules and then be complex I was running that super important for brain power right for the brain performance And then with so many compounds, I mean, it's often Yeah it's often kind of a hard to Or with so many capsules to take it's basically sometimes it's really Pretty bad to take that there's one six capsules on the tropic stack. You know, it's like oh fuck I have to swallow all that So those are some of the challenges we have with quality in mind compared to mind the pro But again both in tropic stacks really good What is the best tropic stack for immediate immediate effect? great question, um While something that contains caffeine and aloe tionine because that's what gives you the boost Barana also, I would say stack stack performer gives you an immediate effect for sure I'm thinking quality of mind will give an immediate effect as well Alpha brain may give an immediate effect, but it has no caffeine it will We have other compounds those in a very interesting way and Usually people experience immediate an immediate effect, but not as strong as with stack Performer or other compound other supplements that contain caffeine So always look for for immediate effect always look for you need you need some kind of an energy booster and they're not many out of there usually combination of caffeine and aloe tionine Works really good For long-term use Well, I would say I would say definitely mind the probe mind the pros is my favorite as an tropic stack If you look at individual tropics, then we have a copper moniary Rudiola Ressia a lance main mushroom One cooling compound either is alpha gbc or citric acid in a cognizant or a phosphatility lesser in PS You know something like that And then you can you can add some amino acids like aloe tionine for example So that that that what I would use that's what I would use for long-term use Like for example with caffeine and And Well with caffeine it's a problem for long-term use. I was just Actually shooting one video for you guys on which will be published Probably next week And I was doing some research on caffeine So here, you know caffeine is added to my tropics text because because of the immediate effect, right? And I love personal up drinking coffee.  There's no doubt about it, but Coffee drinking coffee or taking Caffeine in a supplement form will come with side effects Okay, so coffee coffee will give you a quick energy boost that's gonna last for like an hour or an hour and a half It depends on how fast your body metabolizes it and then a crash will follow, right? That's the reality okay, um and Because of that usually companies or like supplement brands. They add some L TN into it to kind of balance this Now another thing that caffeine will do or coffee will do as it's gonna Basically push your adrenal glands to make more cortisol and this can lead to adrenal fatigue And that's not what many people talk about, right? You don't up me here. They only hear about the positive effects and how Yeah, it may it boost your energy and purpose and so on so because of those reasons I'm a bit I'm a bit careful careful careful with caffeine Because I mean to stimulant and caffeine as the world's the world's most Used psychoactive drug and not many people know that So yeah, be be careful just don't overdo it especially if you do drink coffee or take caffeine Don't take it in the afternoon afternoon because half life So caffeine is gonna stay in your blood for about five to nine and a half hours as they have life of the cake of caffeine so if you drink coffee at noon and The half life is like nine hours.  And if you want to go to bed at 10 p.m I mean you've got to have issues, right? And it can negatively impact your sleep. So that's something you need to be aware of Um Well, when I was recently talking about You know different brain foods, um, I got this question of plant-based diet Versus ketogenic diet versus paleo diet Now I'm not a nutritionist but I've done lots of research for myself and The thing is I don't want to compare those diets because they're based on different philosophies It's really hard to generalize But in my opinion just looking, you know from the brain perspective, right, what's the best for brain and Also, what's the best for your heart because if your heart doesn't work well, your brains are gonna work well um, I am more leaning towards plant-based Diet especially, you know, if you look at the people who live the longest those in the blue zones For example, um, they have the lowest incidence of Alzheimer's disease Of other cognitive related issues and they mainly eat plant-based diet with some fish, for example So yeah, that that's that's how I see that but I mean you can eat pretty healthy on a ketogenic diet as well Um, will good choline intake help with reducing the fatigue you get after taking caffeine? Um, honestly, I'm not sure about that I'm not sure if choline will help you with that Altenin can uh I think rodeo I can help as well and also A lemon balm Melissa, so this can help as well um Just keep in mind you need the small dosage of of those balancing compounds, especially lemon balm because You still want to get the benefits of caffeine, right? um Yeah, it's totally safe to swallow capsules daily. Um Now if powder form is better well It depends on the quality of capsules, I would say so some capsules uh There are different types of capsules available now Sadly most supplements some of them brands use low quality cheap capsules Uh, but there are some exceptions And some capsules are made of so they're they're vegan um, and more importantly they have some probiotic compounds in in them. So basically when you swallow the capsule um You also get some probiotics, which is important for gut health and because of the gut brain connection also for brain health, right? um So and because of that if you if you take a high quality supplement, I don't have issues with taking capsules, but I mean honestly, probably I mean powder is better because It's directly You go there directly from the source. I say take the source directly without anything else But I'm not You know, I'm not stressing about it or I don't I wouldn't worry about it too much What is more important though is that you take a high quality supplement. That is so much more important um So, yeah um I got one question recently What did you when if you have add or adhd?  Like I mentioned before I talked about this just before a little bit But mainly about adhd Now, I don't know if you knew but they're different They're they're like seven types of add or adhd available. So you have different types of So people have different types of add and adhd and for each type There's a special special protocol available. I have all of those protocols Um, and I would say like this if you have add or adhd Let me know and we can we can work on that now usually We we can do a lot but sometimes in some cases I just I'll recommend you visiting certain experts It can do like a brain Imaging so use like spec Um Imaging um to get like an insight into your brain on how your brain performs Actually on how different regions in the brain work and based on that Um, based on that, uh, you'll get the right protocol Um, because the thing is with add and adhd.  That's a great question. Um I well, I never had issues with that honestly. Um, but um, don't get ali Um, I didn't know what's the other word for that. I would check it out Uh, don't get ali um, I think it's afro For something Well, yeah No, uh, long portfolio and a long check long check. It's also called Um, I hear that people have really good experience with with that with don't get ali or Long check um And I tried it once but for no different reason um and um Yeah, uh, based on the research I've done, um I would I would try this um, I'm just testing another Yeah, no, well Let's let's let's let's let's leave this for a while because I'm testing something else And I don't want to share this with you until I test it and see how it works But yeah for that for sex drive. I'm going to try that And if it doesn't work or if you're still in somebody else, let me know and I'll I'll find something for you. That's not a problem um People often ask me about or a ring If I like it if I recommend it um And um, I love it. It's really good works well um, and the cool thing about it is that it it's really Um, it's really gonna help you improve your sleep quality And once you improve your sleep quality have more energy throughout the day and everything will work better So definitely go for it Um, definitely daily. No, no, no, no. Um, I would definitely not recommend Using me definitely the only way the only time you can use what that's not there is if you're drop your doctor prescribes it to you So if you have like some sleep related issues and they think what definitely is the best compound or if you have a DD And they give you a definitely or for whatever help for whatever a reason Then yeah, go for it um, but in other cases don't take it daily because of these side effects um If I tried himalaya meant it, um Let no, I haven't tried it. I don't know what it is, but I will Himalaya meant it Um, I will have a look right now Um, it's for mental energy. I see that. Yeah, okay Uh, basically, it's uh, it's a product, right? So it's a supplement that has different compounds Time has a Bramhe. Well, that's it. Yeah Well, based on the based on my quick overview I would have to look at the compounds a bit more in the details Uh, it has it contains bramhe, which is Bacobamonary Um, which is great for memory um, and has winter cherry Which is um, yeah, shaganda, which is great for anxiety and depression And it contains indian pennywort, which honestly, I don't know. So I don't know exactly how it works, but it looks interesting um There's one great prop if you come from india Well, actually if that doesn't matter if you come from india, but there's one great indian supplement I just recently tested Um, let me open this this up I have to I have to search for it. Just give me a second And um, it worked pretty well so It was really really affordable I was I was surprised on how how affordable it was Um, and I know why it's so affordable because many compounds are sourced directly from india So it's called ultra brain Um, check ultra brain. There's a review on my site. You can check it out. Um, if you need brain booster And if you're from india, but they also ship worldwide. So yeah, um But they're mainly the other prop for indians and the countries around Um, this is an tropic to try. I test it out. I think I still I have it here somewhere. Um So yeah, it's pretty good. It's pretty good Any good appetite suppressants weight loss supplements in your experience? Great question. Um, let me go Let me open one file where I have those Just give me seven And we'll have a look. So so here's the thing with weight loss um I didn't have I didn't have much experience with that. Um, basically because uh, I never had issues with that um So so From from that perspective, it's kind of a hard to hard to give you a good a good tip. Um But I'm looking here. I'll have to look for that. Uh, specifically. I just sent me an email. Okay And I'll I'll check this for you But for appetite, I know there's some tropics I'm I'm pretty sure I have I've written them out somewhere Because people ask me about it before I don't know them by heart. Uh, right. I can't remember them. Um, but But there's some of the tropics that can that can suppress for appetite However, the issues with supplements for for for weight loss is that usually they're not really effective So for example, yeah, you have like hormone hormones like ghrelin, which is um The hunger hormone right and leptin is the other one. Those two are a hundred point for for for Um, so they're they're called the hunger hormones, right? so usually You try to suppress them Um by taking certain supplements, but based on the the studies I found so I read a couple of books on that And one book was based on seven hundred thousand studies So basically all the studies that are that exist and are some are related to weight loss or um, you know Anything that that has ever been researched That could help people lose weight And basically the best way to lose weight as to eat the right foods Like like someone wrote here eat volume food with low calories for weight loss. Yeah, so calories the amount of calories you'll take Or you will eat It's of course important Or crucial You have to be in deficit But what's more important is that you eat the right food so the best foods you can eat to decrease your appetite are those that so Some of the best foods are those that have have amounts of fiber Right because fiber will fill you up and you're not going to be hungry So so try that. Um, try to increase the amount of fiber And You'll see you should be less less hungry.  You're gonna be much better Um, my friend wants to quit smoking, right? The painkillers can help you by reducing the amount of dopamine released after taking a serum You think ginseng will help him quit? A really good question And I don't have the answer to that uh I don't believe ginseng will be effective uh Sadly It's not it's not so citizen tropic is not So strong that would um that would would would be able to do that I think so especially because someone is a long time smoker. I mean It's gonna be it's gonna be hard. Um Well, that's a great question if I can recommend something for Um It set me for that. I'll I'll have to look I didn't didn't work on that a lot, but Um, I'm I have some resources who are where I could I mean, I could I could have a look at and and share this with you Um, so just send me an email with that specifically Um, and I'll I'll get back to you in that but I mean he can try panic ginseng I'm just not sure it's gonna work well Um, especially because I mean this is a habit Right smoking is and it's an addiction, right and it's kind of hard to get over that Awesome. Just send me an email Um, great guys, um Do you have any other questions for me? Um If anything, I mean, I'm gonna be here for a couple of more minutes. Um I'll focus any more fiber and complex cars to me that what is double five? Top five or top ten tropics um Rudiola rusea a couple monnery monnery landscape mushroom citiculin As cognizant I prefer a prefer this this form And then combination of caffeine and lt and in is amazing. Um What else? um Altyrazine alcarnatin are good amino acids, but usually don't need them. Um, then um, I would say I would say Ashaganda is amazing. Um, but this is more for like anxiety. Um, and um Yeah, those would be my top compounds that I can think of right now Millet the melatonin is great for sleep for example, but only for sleep, right? Not for like, you know something else. Um Magnesium It's not a typical on tropic, but great for sleep for example. So all those tropics are really really worth taking. That's what I take on a daily basis Um, what's closest thing to limitless spill? You're just in something for something legal. Um, you're not gonna find it Or at least I didn't find anything Close to limitless spill like I mean limitless spill is based on a fictional uh product anyway the NCT 48, right? I mean, I haven't seen that in real life and I talked to many people so it could Be that it exists, but I just didn't get across it. Um, like the best the closest thing to limitless spill in my opinion is following For example, my specific morning routine. So actually started it started in the evening. So having an optimal sleep following a morning routine with six times steps that include um, taking a cold shower That include going out into into an age of for a short walk to include some meditation Super healthy breakfast specific super healthy breakfast for break from us and so on and so on then taking some tropics and then drinking Bulletproof coffee Without uh, so I don't think I don't think they'll eat the butter um If you do all that in the right order, I mean every brain I'm preparing an online course on that which I'll share with you soon I'll discuss all that in details But if you do all that You will feel like you just took a limitless spill. You don't need any synthetic compounds I mean, this is so powerful and that's what I do erasingly to get in the flow in the flow my opinion on the ketogenic diet, so um When I was researching diets ketogenic diet was the first one I tried And for the first couple of weeks, I had really good experience. I felt good I felt focused. I was energized and then after a month or so my performance started decreasing um And when I did more detailed research and when I talked to nutritionist Everyone said that's the problem with ketogenic diet. You just lack too much of Well different compounds different vitamins The different different issues with that so So based on the research I've done especially on the brain health ketogenic diet for long term use Is definitely not appropriate For short term effect. Yes, maybe for a couple of weeks But for long term not even, you know, the bio hackers that Some bio hackers very famous ones Prefer or often talk about really ketogenic diet, but they also talk about cycling it. It's very very important Now keep in mind your brain runs on glucose. It doesn't run around on anything else, right? And since this is the case, I mean Pilling up with too much fat. It just not gonna work um And there are other issues with the ketogenic diet Um, so that that that's my view.  That's what I care about um And people on the ketogenic have issues with that Um, not in the short term in the long term or in the mid term And because of that I try to I try to avoid it um So that's my view Trip starts after three months. Uh, what kind of trip you have in mind? That'll be interesting to know Um, so guys if I have any more questions, let me know Otherwise I will do another life probably In a week or two weeks. We'll see It depends on how many questions I get and then I'll prepare the answer to those Uh, if you have any specific questions, uh, just send me an email. I'm pretty quick. We're responding uh With with responding so yeah, just send me an email um, and um, yeah I'll try to I'll try to answer your questions I'm just looking if there are some more questions if I missed something Then you'll not the problem um Look at then you'll go go go go on my Go on my homepage go in your reception come and you'll see there the um, the brain hackers diet and you can you can download um, like a pdf file with all the tips Everything that I recommend regarding optimal diet for optimal performance brain performance Um, it's totally non-biased scientific based. So check it out. I'm sure you're gonna learn all new cool things favorite resident, um honestly, I tested a couple of recitems And I don't have a favorite one because I didn't have any so um, I was in none of those recitems had like any kind of special effect on my performance um I did like a blind test. I was giving a recitem. I didn't know which one was it um, I took it and Yeah, not much happened. So I cannot say I have a favorite recitem um, sadly but As I before I do prefer natural Neutrophics, um Yeah That's how this All right guys, if you have any more questions, let me know. Otherwise Uh, thanks for being here with me. I hope uh, it learned you learned something new It's necessary to cycle the tropics. Um, not necessary But highly recommend. So it's necessary to cycle hoopers in eight hoopers. Yes, serata, for example This is a compound that needs cycling. It has to be shown um, but other compounds I do recommend cycling them because you don't want to Build them up, you know in your system basically, um, you don't want to Overdose on the on those compounds Um, you you want to take them for a long term, right? Um, that's why I do like this. I take in tropics for five days and then stay do this off um That's what I do Um, and works really really well because you want to have You want to have um those compounds in your system? you know basically most of the time But not all the time I mean and since we lack long-term research long-term studies That's the safest way to go about it Um, you can take mind the pro in a faster state. I don't think you'll have any problems if you feel like um, some stomach pain or Something like that. Um If you feel sick then then take it with with some food but This very really happens with mind the probe with other compounds if you take like high amount of culling culling or high amount of caffeine in in a capsule form on a In a faster state or so on an anti stomach This can cause issues I had some really bad experience with that And I don't want you to you know, I don't want this to happen to you So but with mind the probe I never I think I never heard that people had any issues when I take when I took it in a faster state And I tried out and works well for me. Um What metropics are best for boosting mental clarity? Um, basically all the tropics we talked about before are amazing So first of all omega-free as the baseline product or metropic and then um Again alpha gpc is great or citicline um is great for mental clarity And that's what that's what I would take um, I'm thinking if Just give me a second. I'll check something out because There's There's one compound. Let me check it out. They buy it here. There's one compound I don't remember right now That is also pretty good Let me see No, I don't have it um I don't have it here, but there's one more when I come by that I thought about um, also, so for example, um, I'm just thinking of um, for mental for mental performance um, also turmeric Or turmeric. I'm not sure about the pronunciation turmeric. I think it's a great It's really antioxidant great For for mental clearness mental clarity um, all right guys I think that's it for this life Thanks for being with me. If you like it, please share my channel linked to my channel um And um with with your friends. I was super happy about it Again, if you have any questions, don't hesitate to contact me Um, I will look at um meant that I'll try it out. I'll reach out to the company and then try it out and share this with you Um, thanks. Thanks for sharing this with me. Um, yeah send me an email I'm always available and um Then let's catch up soon again. 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