section 3 of The Verbalist this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Bill Borscht the verbalist by Alfred Ayers section 3 diction through friend diction this is a general term and is applicable to a single sentence or to a connected composition bad diction may be due to errors in grammar to a confused disposition of words or to an improper use of words diction to be good requires to be only correct and clear of excellent examples of bad diction there are very many in a little work by dr. LT Townsend professor of sacred rhetoric in Boston University the first volume of which has lately come under my notice the first ten lines of dr. Townsend's preface are quote the leading genius of the People's College at Chautauqua Lake with a view of providing for his course a textbook asked for the publication of the following laws and principles of speech the author not seeing sufficient reason for withholding what had been of much practical benefits to himself consented the subject matter here in contained is an outgrowth from occasional instructions given while occupying the chair of sacred rhetoric and quote one the phrase leading genius is badly chosen founder projector head organizer principal or president some one of these terms would probably have been appropriate to what course race course course of ethics aesthetics rhetoric or what footnote should be a textbook for his course and not for his course a textbook and footnote three the following laws and principles of speech and how came these laws and principles in existence who made them we are to infer it would seem that professor Townsend made them and that the world would have had to go without the laws that govern language and the principles on which language is formed had it pleased professor Townsend to withhold them four sufficient reason then there were reasons why professor Townsend ought to have kept these good things all to himself only they were not sufficient five practical benefit is there any such thing as impractical benefit are not all benefits practical and if they are what purpose does the epithet practical serve six consented to what it is easy to see that the doctor means exceeded to the request but he is a long way from saying so the object writers usually have in view is to convey thought not to set the readers to guessing seven the outgrowth of would be English eight occasional instructions very vague and well calculated to set the reader to guessing again nine given to whom ten the chair the definite article made it necessary for the writer to specify what particular chair of sacred rhetoric he meant these ten lines are a fair specimen of the diction of the entire volume page 131 quote to render a given ambiguous or unintelligible sentence transparent the following suggestions are recommended and quote the words in italics are unnecessary since what is ambiguous is unintelligible then who has ever heard of recommending suggestions doctor Townsend speaks of mastering a subject before publishing it publishing a subject page 133 quote violations of simplicity whatever the type show either that the mind of the writer is tainted with affectation or else that an effort is making to conceal conscious poverty of sentiment under loftiness of expression end quote here is an example of a kind of sentence that can be mended in only one way by rewriting which might be done thus violations of simplicity whatever the type show either that the writer is tainted with affectation or that he is making an effort to conceal poverty of thought under loftiness of expression page 143 quote this quality is fully stated and recommended end quote etc. who has ever heard of stating a quality on page 145 doctor Townsend says quote a person cannot read a single book of poor style without having his own style vitiated end quote a book of poor style is an awkward expression to say the least a single badly written book would have been unobjectionable page 160 quote the presented picture produces instantly a definite effect end quote why this unusual disposition of words why not say in accordance with the idiom of the language the picture presented instantly produces etc. page 161 quote the boy studies geography and hates everything connected with the sea and land end quote why the boy as there are few things besides seals and turtles that are connected with the sea and land the boy in question has few things to hate on page 175 doctor Townsend heads a chapter thus art of acquiring skill in the use of poetic speech this reminds one of the man who tried to lift himself over offense by taking hold of the seat of his britches how to acquire skill is probably what is meant on page 232 quote Jeremy Taylor is among the best models of long sentences which are both clear and logical end quote Jeremy Taylor is a clear and logical long sentence true our learned rhetorical says so but he doesn't mean it he means quote in Jeremy Taylor we find some of the best examples of long sentences which are at once clear and logical end quote since the foregoing was written the second volume of Professor Townsend's art of speech has been published in the brief preface to this by and we find this characteristic sentence quote the author has felt that clergyman more than those of other professions will study this treatise end quote the antecedent of the relative those being clergyman the sentence it will be perceived says quote the author has felt that clergyman more than clergyman of other professions will study this treatise end quote comment on such art as Professor Townsend's is not necessary I find several noteworthy examples of bad diction in an article in a recent number of an Australian magazine the following are some of them large capital always manages to make itself master of the situation it is the small capitalist and the small landholder that would suffer etc should be the large capitalist himself etc again the small farmer would be despoiled of the meager profit which strenuous labor had conquered from the reluctant soil not only are the epithets in italics superfluous and consequently weakening in their effect but idiom does not permit strenuous to be used to qualify labor hard labor and strenuous effort again capital has always the choice of a large field should be the choice offered by a large field again should capital be withdrawn tenements would soon prove insufficient should be the number of tenements etc again men of wealth therefore would find their fifth avenue mansions and their summer villas a little more burdened with taxes but with this increase happily balanced by the exemption of their bonds and mortgages their plate and furniture the thought here is so simple that we easily divine it but if we look at the sentence at all carefully we find that though we supply the ellipses in the most charitable manner possible the sentence really says men would find their mansions more burdened but would find them with this increased burden happily balanced by the exemption etc the sentence should have been framed somewhat in this wise men would find their mansions more burdened with taxes but this increase in the taxes on their real estate would be happily balanced by the exemption from taxation of their bonds mortgages plate and furniture again men generally would be inclined to laugh at the idea of entrusting the modern politician with such gigantic opportunities for enriching his favorites we do not entrust one another with opportunities to enrich would better the diction again the value of land that has accrued from labor is not a just object for confiscation correctly the value of land that has resulted from labor is not justly an object of confiscation accrues properly used more in the sense of spontaneous growth again if the state attempts to confiscate this increase by means of taxes either rentals will increase correspondingly or such a check will be put upon the growth of each place and all the enterprises connected with it that greater injury would be done than if things have been left untouched we have here it will be observed a confusion of moods the sentence begins in the indicative and ends in the conditional the words and italics are worse than superfluous rewritten if the state should attempt to confiscate this increase by means of taxes either rentals would increase correspondingly or such a check would be put upon growth and enterprise that greater injury would etc. Again the theory that land is a boon of nature to which every person has an inalienable right equal to every other person is not new the words theory and boon are here misused a theory is a system of suppositions the things man receives from nature are gifts not boons the gift of reason the gift of speech etc. The sentence should be the declaration or assertion that land is a gift of nature to which every person has an inalienable right equal to that of any other person is not new or more simply and quite as forcibly to which one person has an inalienable right equal to that of another is not new or more simply still and more forcibly to which one man has as good a right as another is not new by substituting the word man for person we have a word of one syllable that expresses in this connection all that the longer word expresses the fewer the syllables if the thought be fully expressed the more vigorous the diction inalienability being foreign to the discussion the long word inalienable only encumbers the sentence quote we have thus passed in review the changes and improvements which the revision contains in the first epistle to the Corinthians it has not indeed been possible to refer to them all but so many illustrations have been given in the several classes described that the reader will have a satisfactory survey of the whole subject whatever may be said of other portions of the New Testament we think it will be generally admitted that in this epistle the changes have improved the old translation they are such as make the English version conform more completely to the Greek original if this be true the revisors have done a good work for the church if it be true with regard to all the New Testament books the work which they have done will remain a blessing to the readers of those books for generations to come but the blessing will be only in the clear representation of the divine truth and therefore it will be only to the glory of God end quote this astonishingly slip shot bit of composition is from the pen of the Reverend Dr. Timothy Dwight if the learned professor of divinity in Yale College deemed it worthwhile to give a little thought to manner as well as to matter it is probable that his diction would be very different from what it is and if he were to give a few minutes to the making of verbal corrections in the foregoing paragraph he would perhaps do something like this one change thus to now to write some of the changes three strike out and improvements for for contains changes substitute some other form of expression five instead of has been right was six strike out indeed seven instead of refer to right site eight change illustrations to examples nine instead of in right of ten instead of the reader will have right the reader will be able to get 11 change satisfactory to tolerable 12 change portions to parts 13 not talk of the old translation as we have no new one 14 strike out as superfluous the words are such as 15 change version to text 16 substitute nearly for completely which does not admit of comparison 17 substitute the indicative for the conditional 18 and sentence with the word work 19 introduce also after be 20 instead of remain in the sense of be use be 21 introduce the after four as for the last sentence it reminds one of Mendelssohn's songs without words though here we have instead of a song and no words words and no song or rather no meaning as is often true of can't we have here simply a syntactical arrangement of words signifying nothing if professor Dwight were of those who in common with the colleagues and new ones think it worthwhile to give some attention to diction the thought conveyed in the paragraph under consideration would perhaps have been expressed somewhat in this wise quote we have now passed him review some of the changes that in the revision have been made in the first epistle to the Corinthians it was not possible to cite them all but a sufficient number of examples of the several classes described have been given to enable the reader to get a tolerable survey of the whole subject whatever may be said of the other parts of the New Testament we think it will be generally admitted that in this epistle the changes have improved the translation they make the English text conform more nearly to the Greek this being true the revisers have done a good work and if it be also true with regard to all the New Testament books the work which they have done will be a blessing to the readers of these books for the generations to come and quote die with man and brute die of and not with fevers consumption the plague pneumonia old age and so on differ writers differ from one another in opinion with regard to the particle we should use with this verb some say they differ with others that they differ from their neighbors in opinion the weight of authority is on the side of always using from though a may differ with see from D in opinion with regard say to the size of the fixed stars I differ as to this matter from Bishop Lough Cobbett different to is heard sometimes instead of different from directly the Britons have a way of using this word in the sense of when as soon as this is quite foreign to its true meaning which is immediately at once straightway they say for example directly he reached the city he went to his brothers directly he the saint was dead the Arabs sent his woolen shirt to the sovereign London news Dr. Hall says of its use in the sense of as soon as but after all it may simply anticipate on the English of the future dirt this word means filth or anything that renders foul and unclean and means nothing else it is often improperly used for earth or loam and sometimes even for sand or gravel we not unfrequently hear of a dirt road when an unpaved road is meant this commode this word is rarely used in commode is accounted the better form this remember this is a word vulgarly used in the sense of forget it is said to be more frequently heard in the south than in the north distinguish this verb is sometimes improperly used for discriminate we distinguish by means of the senses as well as of the understanding we discriminate by means of the understanding only it is difficult in some cases to distinguish between etc should be it is difficult in some cases to discriminate between etc we distinguish one thing from another and discriminate between two or more things doc warf the first of these words is often improperly used for the second of docs there are several kinds a naval doc is a place for the keeping of naval stores timber and materials for shipbuilding a dry doc is a place where vessels are drawn out of the water for repairs a wet doc is a place where vessels are kept afloat at a certain level while they are loaded and unloaded a sectional doc is a contrivance for raising vessels out of the water on a series of airtight boxes a doc then is a place into which things are received hence a man might fall into a doc but could no more fall off a doc than he could fall off a hole a wharf is a sort of key built by the side of the water a similar structure built at a right angle with the shore is generally called a pier vessels lie at wharves and piers not at docs donate this word which is defined as meaning to give to contribute is looked upon by most champions of good english as being an abomination donation is also little used by careful writers donates as mr. gould may be dismissed with this remark so long as its place is occupied by give bestow grant present etc it is not needed and it should be unceremoniously bowed out or thrust out of the seat into which it has temporarily intruded done this past participle is often very inelegantly if not improperly used thus he did not cry out as some have done against it which should read he did not cry out as some have against it in other words as some have cried out against it done is frequently a very great offender against grammars as covet to do is the act of doing we see people right i did not speak yesterday so well as i wish to have done now what is meant by the writer he means to say that he did not speak so well as he then wished or was wishing to speak therefore the sentence should be i did not speak yesterday so well as i wish to do that is to say so well as i wish to do it that is to say to do or to perform the act of speaking quote take great care not to be too free in your use of the verb to do in any of its times or modes it is a nice little handy word and like our oppressed it it is made use of very often when the writer is at a loss for what to put down to do is to act and therefore it never can in any of its parts supply the place of a neuter verb how do you do here do refers to the state and is essentially passive or neuter yet to employ it for this purpose is very common dr blair in his twenty third lecture says it is somewhat unfortunate that this number of the spectator did not end as it might have done with the former beautiful period that is to say done it and then we ask done what not the active ending because in this case there is no action at all the verb means to come to an end to cease not to go any further this same verb to end is sometimes an active verb I end my sentence then the verb to do may supply its place as I have not ended my sentence so well as I might have done that is done it that is done or performed the act of ending but the number of the spectator was no actor it was expected to perform nothing it was by the doctor wished to have ceased to proceed did not end as it very well might have ended this would have been correct but the doctor wished to avoid the repetition and thus he fell into bad grammar mr. speaker I do not feel so well satisfied as I should have done if the right honorable gentlemen had explained the matter more fully to feel satisfied is when the satisfaction is to arise from conviction produced by fact or reasoning a senseless expression and to supply its place when it is as in this case a neuter verb by to do is as senseless done what done the active feeling I do not feel so well satisfied as I should have done or executed or performed the active feeling what incomprehensible words don't everybody knows that don't is a contraction of do not and that doesn't is a contraction of does not and yet nearly everybody is guilty of using don't when he should use doesn't so you don't go John doesn't either I hear double genitive an anecdote of mr. Lincoln an anecdote of mr. Lincoln's we see at a glance at these two phrases are very different in meaning so also a portrait of brown a portrait of browns no precise rule has ever been given to guide us in our choice between these two forms of the possessive case sometimes it is not material which form is employed where however it is material and it generally is we must consider the thought we wish to express and rely on our discrimination dramatize refer to adapt drawing room refer to parlor dress gown within the memory of many persons the outer garment worn by women was properly called a gown by everybody instead of being improperly called a dress as it now is by nearly everybody drive refer to ride do owing these two words though close synonyms should not be used indiscriminately the mistake usually made is in using do instead of owing that is do which ought to be paid as a debt that is owing which is to be referred to as a source it was owing to his exertions that the scheme succeeded it was owing to your negligence that the accident happened a certain respect is due to men's prejudices this was owing to an indifference to the pleasures of life it is due to the public that I should tell all I know of the matter each other their great authors address themselves not to their country but to each other buckle each other is properly applied to two only one another must be used when the number considered exceeds two buckle should have written one another and not each other unless he meant to intimate that the Germans had only two great authors which is not probable eat grammarians differ very widely with regard to the conjugation of this verb there is no doubt however that from every point of view the preferable forms for the preterite and past participle are respectively ate and eaten to refined ears the other forms smack of vulgarity although supported by good authority I ate an apple I have eaten dinner john ate supper with me as soon as you have eaten breakfast we will set out editorial the use of this adjective as a substantive is said to be an americanism education this is one of the most misused of words a man may be well acquainted with the contents of textbooks and yet be a person of little education on the other hand a man may be a person of good education and yet no little of the contents of textbooks abraham lincoln and edwin forest knew comparatively little of what is generally learned in schools still they were men of culture men of education a man may have ever so much book knowledge and still be a bore but a man cannot be a person of good education and not be so far as manner is concerned a gentleman education then is a whole of which instruction and breeding are the parts the man or the woman even in this democratic country of ours who deserves the title of gentleman or lady is always a person of education in other words he or she has a sufficient acquaintance with books and with the usages of social intercourse to acquit himself or herself credibly in the society of cultivated people not moral worth nor learning nor wealth nor all three combined can unaided make a gentleman for with all three a man might be uneducated in other words course unbred unschooled in those things which alone make men welcome in the society of the refined effectuate this word together with ratiosinate and eventuate is said to be a great favorite with the rural members of the arkansas legislature effluvium the plural of this word is a fluvia it is a common error with those who have no knowledge of latin to speak of a disagreeable effluvia which is as incorrect as it would be to talk about a disagreeable vapors effort without effect some writers deal in expletives to a degree that tires the ear and offends the understanding with them everything is excessively or immensely or extremely or vastly or surprisingly or wonderfully or abundantly or the like the notion of such writers is that these words give strength to what they are saying this is a great error strength must be found in the thought or it will never be found in the words big sounding words without thoughts corresponding our effort without effect and quote William Cobbett refer to forcible feeble egoist quote one of a class of philosophers who professed to be sure of nothing but their own existence end quote read egotist one who talks much of himself quote a tribe of egotists for whom I have always had a mortal aversion end quote spectator either this word means strictly the one or the other of two unlike both which means two taken collectively either like each may mean two considered separately but in this sense each is the better word to use give me either of them means give me the one or the other of two he has a farm on either side of the river would mean that he has two farms one on each or either side of the river he has a farm on both sides of the river would mean that his farm lies partly on the one side of the river and partly on the other the use of either in the sense of each though biblical and defensible may be accounted little of any better than an affectation neither is the negative of either either is responded to by or neither by nor as either this or that neither this nor that either and neither should not strictly be used in relation to more than two objects but though both either and neither are strictly applicable to two only they have been for a very long time used in relation to more than two by many good writers and as it is often convenient so to use them it seems probable that the custom will prevail when more than two things are referred to any and none should be used instead of either and neither as any of the three not either of the three none of the four not neither of the four either alternative the word alternative means a choice offered between two things an alternative writ for example offers the alternative of choosing between the doing of a specified act or of showing cause why it is not done such propositions therefore as you are liberty to choose either alternative two alternatives are presented to me several alternatives presented themselves and the like are not correct English the word is correctly used thus I am confronted with a hard alternative I must either denounce a friend or betray my trust we rarely hear the word alternate or any of its derivatives correctly pronounced elder refer to older elegant professor proctor says if you say to an American this is a fine morning he is likely to reply it is an elegant morning or perhaps often are by using simply the word elegant this is not a pleasing use of the word this is not American English professor but pop and j English ellipsis the omission of a word or of words necessary to complete the grammatical construction but not necessary to make the meaning clear is called an ellipsis we almost always whether in speaking or in writing leave out some of the words necessary to the full expression of our meaning for example in dating a letter today we should write new york august 25th 1881 which would be if fully written out I am now writing in the city of new york this is the 25th day of august and this month is the 1881st year of the christian era I am going to walix means I am going to walix theater I shall spend the summer at my aunt's in other words at my aunt's house by supplying the ellipsis we can often discover the errors in a sentence if there are any enjoy bad health as no one has ever been known to enjoy bad health it is better to employ some other form of expression than this say for example he is in feeble or delicate health enthuse this is a word that is occasionally heard in conversation and is sometimes met with in print but it has not as yet made its appearance in the dictionaries what its ultimate fate will be of course no one can tell for the present however it is studiously shunned by those who are at all careful in the selection of their language it is said to be most used in the south the writer has never seen it anywhere in the north but in the columns of the boston congregationalist epigram the word epigram signified originally an inscription on a monument it next came to mean a short poem containing some single thought pointedly expressed the subjects being very various amatory convivial moral eulogistic satirical humorous etc of the various devices for brevity and point employed in such compositions especially in modern times the most frequent is a play upon words in the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really conveyed bane some examples are when you have nothing to say say it we cannot see the wood for the trees that is we cannot get a general view because we are so engrossed with the details verbosity is cured by a large vocabulary that is he who commands a large vocabulary is able to select words that will give his meaning tersely by indignities men come to dignities some people are too foolish to commit follies he went to his imagination for his facts and to his memory for his tropes epithet many persons use this word who are in error with regard to its meaning they think that to apply epithets to a person is to vilify and insult him not at all an epithet is a word that expresses a quality good or bad a term that expresses an attribute all adjectives are epithets but all epithets are not adjectives says crab thus in virgil's potter aneus the potter is an epithet but not an adjective epithet is the technical term of the rhetorician adjective that of the grammarian equally as well a redundant form of expression as anyone will see who for a moment considers it as well or equally well expresses quite as much as equally as well equanimity of mind this phrase is tautological and expresses no more than does equanimity literally equal mindedness alone hence of mind is superfluous and consequently inelegant anxiety of mind is a scarcely less redundant form of expression a capricious mind is in the same category irratum plural irrata esquire an esquire was originally the shield bearer of a night it is much and in the opinion of some rather absurdly used in this country mr grant white says on the subject of its use quote i have yet to discover what a man means when he addresses a letter to john dash esquire he means no more nor less than when he writes master the use of esquire is quite as prevalent in england as in america and has little more meaning there than here it simply belongs to our stock of courteous epithets euphemism a description which describes an inoffensive language that which is of itself offensive or a figure which uses agreeable phraseology when the literal would be offensive is called a euphemism eventuate refer to effectuate everlastingly this adverb is misused in the south in a manner that is very apt to excite the visibility of one to whom the peculiar misuse is new the writer recently visited the upper part of new york with a distinguished southern poet and journalist it was the gentleman's first ride over an elevated road when we were fairly underway in admiration of the rate of speed at which the cars were moving he exclaimed well they do just everlastingly shoot along don't they every this word which means simply each or all taken separately is of late years frequently made by slipshod speakers to do duty for perfect and tire great or all possible thus we have such expressions as every pains every confidence every praise every charity and so on we also have such diction as everyone has this in common meaning all of us have this in common every day latin a fortiori with stronger reason a posteriori from the effect to the cause a priori from the cause to the effect bona fide in good faith in reality kertiorari to be made more certain keteris paribus other circumstances being equal de facto in fact in reality de jour in right in law eche homo behold the man ergo therefore etc and the rest and so on except a extracts exempli gratia by way of example abbreviated e g and ex g r ex officio by virtue of his office exparte on one side an exparte statement is a statement on one side only ibed him in the same place abbreviated i b i d idem the same id est that is abbreviated i e imprimis in the first place in statu quo in the former state just as it was in statu quo ante vellum in the same state as before the war intransitue in passing index expurgatorious a purifying index in extremis at the point of death in memoriam in memory ipsi dixit on his sole assertion item also labor omnia vinkit labor overcomes every difficulty locus sigali the place of the seal multum in parvo much in little mutates mutandis after making the necessary changes ne plus ultra nothing beyond the utmost point nulans volans willing or unwilling notabene mark well take particular notice omnis all o tempora o moris o the times and the manners otium cum dignitate ease with dignity otium sinna dignitate ease without dignity particips criminus and accomplice peccavi i have sinned per se by itself prima facie on the first view or appearance at first sight pro bono publico for the public good quid nook what now quid pro quo one thing for another an equivalent quantum formally rara avis a rare bird a prodigy resurgum i shall rise again siri atem in order sinna dea without specifying any particular day to an indefinite time sine qua non an indispensable condition sweet generous of its own kind fade me come go with me verbatim word by word versus against valet farewell via by the way of vike in the place of vide si viet armus by main force viva voke orally by word of mouth vox populi vox day the voice of the people is the voice of god evidence testimony these words though differing widely in meaning are often used indiscriminately by careless speakers evidence is that which tends to convince testimony is that which is intended to convince in a judicial investigation for example there might be a great deal of testimony a great deal of testifying and very little evidence and the evidence might be quite the reverse of the testimony refer to proof exaggeration weak minds feeble writers and speakers delight in superlatives refer to effort without effect except no one need apply except he is thoroughly familiar with the business should be no one need apply unless etc excessively that class of persons who are never content with any form of expression that falls short of the superlative frequently use excessively when exceedingly or even the little word very would serve their turn better they say for example that the weather is excessively hot when they should content themselves with saying simply that the weather is very warm or if the word suits them better hot in temperance in the use of language is as much to be censured as in temperance in anything else like in temperance in other things its effect is vulgarizing execute this word means to follow out to the end to carry into effect to accomplish to fulfill to perform as to execute an order to execute a purpose and the dictionaries and almost universal usage say that it also means to put to death in conformity with a judicial sentence as to execute a criminal some of our careful speakers however maintain that the use of the word in this sense is indefensible they say that laws and sentences are executed but not criminals and that their execution only rarely results in the death of the persons upon whom they are executed in the hanging of a criminal it is then not the criminal who was executed but the law and the sentence the criminal is hanged expect this verb always has reference to what is to come never to what is past we cannot expect backward instead therefore of saying i expect you thought i would come to see you yesterday we should say i suppose etc experience we experience great difficulty in getting him to take his medicine the word have ought to be big enough in a sentence like this for anybody we experienced great hardships better we suffered extend this verb the primary meaning of which is to stretch out is used especially by lovers of big words in connections where to give to show or to offer would be preferable for example it is certainly better to say they showed me every courtesy then they extended every courtesy to me refer to every false grammar some examples of false grammar will show what everyone is the better for knowing that in literature nothing should be taken on trust that errors of grammar even are found where we should least expect them i do not know whether the imputation were just or not emerson i proceeded to inquire if the extract were a veritable quotation emerson should be was in both cases how sweet the moonlight sleeps towns and art of speech volume one page 114 should be sweetly there is no question but these arts will greatly aid him etc ibbid page 130 should be that nearly all who have been distinguished in literature or oratory have made the generous confession that their attainments have been reached through patient and laborious industry they have declared that speaking and writing the ones difficult for them have become well-nigh recreations ibbid page 143 the have been should be were and the have become should be became many phenomenal adverbs are correlatives of each other harkness's new latin grammar page 147 should be one another hot and cold springs boiling springs and quiet springs lie within a few feet of each other but none of them are properly geysers appletons condensed cyclopedia volume 2 page 414 should be one another and not one of them is properly a geyser how much better for you as seller and the nation as buyer than to sink in cutting one another's throats should be each others a minister noted for prolixity of style was once preaching before the inmates of a lunatic asylum in one of his illustrations he painted a scene of a man condemned to be hung but reprieved under the gallows these two sentences are so faulty that the only way to mend them is to rewrite them they are from a work that professes to teach the art of speech mended a minister noted for his prolixity once preached before the inmates of a lunatic asylum by way of illustration he painted a scene in which a man who had been condemned to be hanged was reprieved under the gallows female the terms male and female are not unfrequently used where good taste would suggest some other word for example we see over the doors of school houses entrance for males entrance for females now bucks and bulls are males as well as boys and men and cows and sows are females as well as girls and women fetch refer to bring fewer refer to less final completion if there were such a thing as a plurality or a series of completions there would of course be such a thing as the final completion but as every completion is final to talk about a final completion is as absurd as it would be to talk about a final finality first rate there are people who object to this phrase and yet it is well enough when properly placed as it is for example in such a sentence like this he's a first-class fellow and i like him first rate if i didn't you bet i just give him hail columbia for blowing the thing all around town like the big fool that he is firstly george washington moon says in defensive firstly i do not object to the occasional use of first as an adverb but in sentences where it would be followed by secondly thirdly etc i think that the adverbial form is preferable to this one of mr moon's critics replies however desirable it may be to employ the word firstly on certain occasions the fact remains that the employment of it on any occasion is not the best usage webster inserts firstly but remarks improperly used for first flea fly these verbs though near of kin are not interchangeable for example we cannot say he flew the city he flew from his enemies he flew at the approach of danger flew being the imperfect tense of to fly which is properly used to express the action of birds on the wing of kites arrows etc the imperfect tense of to flee is fled hence he fled the city etc forcible feeble this is a novice kind of diction in which the would-be forcible writer defeats his object by the overuse of expletives examples and yet the great centralization of wealth is one of the great evils of the day all that mr blank utters says upon this point is forcible and just this centralization is due to the enormous reproductive power of capital to the immense advantage that costly and complicated machinery gives to great large establishments and to the marked difference of personal force among men the first great is misplaced the word utters is misused the second great is ill chosen the other words in italics only and feeble the sentence again in countries where immense large estates exist a breaking up of these vast domains into many minor freeholds would no doubt be awe of very great advantage substitute large for immense and take out vast many and vary and the language becomes much more forcible again the very first effect of the blank taxation plan would be destructive to the interests of this great multitude class it would impoverish our innumerable farmers it would confiscate the earnings of our industrious tradesmen and artisans it would and paralyze the hopes of struggling millions what a waste of portly expletives is here with them the sentence is high flown and weak take them out and introduce the words enclosed in brackets and it becomes simple and forceful friend acquaintance some philosopher has said that he who has half a dozen friends in the course of his life may esteem himself fortunate and yet to judge from many people's talk one would suppose they had friends by the score no man knows whether he has any friends or not until he has their adoption tried hence he who is desirous to call things by their right names will as a rule use the word acquaintance instead of friend your friend is a favorite and very objectionable way many people especially young people have of writing themselves at the bottom of their letters in this way the obscure stripling protests himself the friend of the first man in the land and that too when he is perhaps a comparative stranger and asking a favor end of section three recording by bill borst section four of the verbalist this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by bill borst the verbalist by Alfred Ayres section four Galsam through irritate Galsam here is a good satirist anglo-saxon word meaning malignant venomous churlish that has fallen into disuse gentlemen few things are in worse taste than to use the term gentlemen whether in the singular or plural to designate the sex if I was a gentleman says Ms. Snooks gentlemen have just as much curiosity as ladies says Mrs. Jenkins gentlemen have so much more liberty than we ladies have says Mrs. Parvenu now if these ladies were ladies they would in each of these cases use the word man instead of gentlemen and woman instead of lady further Ms. Snooks would say if I were well bred men men of culture and refinement gentlemen in short use the terms lady and gentlemen comparatively little and they are especially careful not to call themselves gentlemen when they can avoid it a gentleman for example does not say I with some other gentleman went etc he is careful to leave out the word other the men who use these terms most and especially those who lose no opportunity to proclaim themselves gentlemen belong to that class of men who cock their hats on one side of their heads and often wear them when and where gentlemen would remove them who pride themselves on their familiarity with the latest slang who proclaim their independence by showing the least possible consideration for others who laugh long and loud at their own wit who wear a profusion of cheap finery such as outlandish watch chains hooked in the lowest buttonhole of their vests Brazilian diamonds in their shirt bosoms and big seal rings on their little fingers who use bad grammar and interlard their conversation with big oaths in business correspondence Smith is addressed as sir while Smith and Brown are often addressed as gentlemen or vulgarly as gents better much it is to address them as sirs since writing the foregoing I have met with the following paragraph in the London publication all the year round quote socially the term gentlemen has become almost vulgar it is certainly less employed by gentlemen than by inferior persons the one speaks of a man I know the other of a gentleman I know in the one case the gentleman is taken for granted in the other it seems to need specification again as regards the term lady it is quite in accordance with the usages of society to speak of your acquaintance the duchess as a very nice person people who would say very nice lady are not generally of a social class which has much to do with duchesses and if you speak of one of these as a person you will soon be made to feel your mistake end quote gents of all vulgarisms this is perhaps the most offensive if we say gents why not say ladies gerund I have work to do there is no more to say our phrases where the verb is not in the common infinitive but in the form of the gerund he is the man to do it or for doing it a house to let the course to steer by a place to lie in a thing to be done a city to take refuge in the means to do ill deeds are adjective geren's they may be expanded into clauses a house that the owner lets or will let the course that we should steer by a thing that should be done a city wherein one may take refuge the means whereby ill deeds may be done when the two ceased in the 12th century to be a distinctive mark of the dative infinitive or gerund for was introduced to make the writer's intention clear hence the familiar form in what went ye out for to see they came for to show him the temple bane get in sentences expressing simple possession as I have got a book what has he got there have you got any news they have got a new house et cetera got is entirely superfluous if not as some writers contend absolutely incorrect possession is completely expressed by have foxes have holes the birds of the air have nests not foxes have got holes the birds of the air have got nests formerly the imperfect tense of this verb was gat which is now obsolete and the perfect participle was gotten which some grammarians say is growing obsolete if this be true there is no good reason for it if we say eaten written striven forgotten why not say gotten where this form of the participle is more euphonious as it often is then got goods this term like the other terms used in trade should be restricted to the vocabulary of commerce messers Arnold and constable in common with the washington market huckster very properly speak of their wares as their goods but mrs. Arnold and mrs. constable should and I doubt not do speak of their gowns as being made of fine or coarse silk cashmere muslin or whatever the material may be gould against alford mr. edward s. gould in his review of dean alford's queens english remarks on page one thirty one of his good english quote and now as to the style of the dean's book taken as a whole footnote mr. gould criticizes the dean's diction not his style and footnote he must be held responsible for every error in it because as has been shown he has had full leisure for its revision footnote better to revise it and footnote the errors are nevertheless numerous and the shortest way to exhibit them is in tabular form footnote is to put them in tabular form and footnote and quote in several instances mr. gould would not have taken the dean to task had he known english better the following are a few of mr. gould's corrections in which he is clearly in the right paragraph four into another land then should be into a land other than paragraph sixteen we do not follow rule in spelling other words but custom should be we do not follow rule but custom in spelling etc paragraph eighteen the distinction is observed in french but never appears to have been made etc read appears never to have been made paragraph sixty one rather to aspirate more than less should be to aspirate more rather than less paragraph nine it is said also only to occur three times etc read occur only three times paragraph forty four this doubling only takes place in a syllable etc read takes place only paragraph 142 which can only be decided when those circumstances are known read can be decided only when etc paragraph 166 i will only say that it produces etc read i will say only etc paragraph 170 it is said that this can only be filled in thus read can be filled in only thus paragraph 368 i can only deal with the complaint in a general way read deal with the complaint only etc paragraph 86 insofar as they are idiomatic etc what is the use of in paragraph 171 try the experiment tried the experiment read make and made paragraph 345 it is most generally used of that very sect etc why most paragraph 362 the joining together two clauses with a third etc read of two clauses etc gown refer to dress graduated students do not graduate they are graduated hence most writers nowadays say i was he was or they were graduated and ask when were you or was he graduated grammatical errors the correctness of the expression grammatical errors has been disputed how it has been asked can an error be grammatical how it may be replied can we with propriety say grammatically incorrect yet we can do so quote no one will question the propriety of saying grammatically correct yet the expression is the acknowledgement of things grammatically incorrect likewise the phrase grammatical correctness implies the existence of grammatical incorrectness if then a sentence is grammatically incorrect or what is the same thing has grammatical incorrectness it includes a grammatical error grammatically incorrect signifies incorrect with relation to the rules of grammar grammatical errors signifies errors with relation to the rules of grammar they who ridicule the phrase grammatical errors and substitute the phrase errors in grammar Make an egregious mistake. Can there it may be asked, with some show of reason, be an error in grammar? Why, grammar is a science founded in our nature, referable to our ideas of time, relation, method. Imperfect doubtless as to the system by which it is represented. But surely we can speak of error in that which is error's criterion. All this is hypercritical. But hypercriticism must be met with its own weapons. Of the two expressions, a grammatical error and an error in grammar, the former is preferable. If one's judgment can accept neither, one must relinquish the belief in the possibility of tersely expressing the idea of an offense against grammatical rules. Indeed, it would be difficult to express the idea even by circumlocution. Should someone say, this sentence is, according to the rules of grammar, incorrect, what? The hypercritic may exclaim, incorrect, and according to the rules of grammar. This sentence then, the corrected person would reply, contains an error in grammar. Nonsense, the hypercritic may shout, grammar is a science. You may be wrong in its interpretation, but principles are immutable. After this it needs scarcely be added that grammatically no one can make a mistake, that there can be no grammatical mistake, that there can be no bad grammar, and consequently no bad English. A very pleasant conclusion, which would save us a great amount of trouble if it did not lack the insignificant quality of being true. End quote. Vulgarisms and Other Errors of Speech Gratuitous. There are those who object to the use of this word in the sense of unfounded, unwarranted, unreasonable, untrue. Its use in this sense, however, has the sanction of abundant authority. Weak and gratuitous conjectures. Porson. A gratuitous assumption. Godwin. The gratuitous theory. Sothe. A gratuitous invention. De Quincey. But it is needless to dwell on the improbability of a hypothesis which has been shown to be altogether gratuitous. Dr. Newman. Grow. This verb originally meant to increase in size, but has normally come to be also used to express a change from one state or condition to another, as to grow dark, to grow weak, or strong, to grow faint, etc. But it is doubtful whether what is large can properly be said to grow small. In this sense, become would seem to be the better word. Gums. Nothing could be more incorrect than the bringing together of these two auxiliary verbs in this manner, and yet we occasionally find it in Writers of Repute. Instead of had I known it, had you seen it, had we been there, we hear had I have known it, had you have seen it, had we have been there, had ought. This is a vulgarism of the worst description, yet we hear people who would be highly indignant if any one should intimate that they were not ladies and gentlemen say he had ought to go. A fitting reply would be, yes, I think he better had, ought says all that had ought says, had rather. This expression, and had better, are much used, but in the opinion of many are indefensible. We hear them in such sentences as, I had rather not do it, you had better go home. Now what tense it is asked, is had do and had go? If we transpose the words thus you had do better to go home, it becomes at once apparent, it is asserted, that the proper word to use in connection with rather and better is not had, but would. Thus you would better go home. Examples of this use of had can be found in the writings of our best authors. For what Professor Bain has to say on this subject in his composition grammar, refer to subjunctive mood, half. It might have been expressed in one half the space. We see at a glance that one here is superfluous. Hanged hung. The irregular form hung of the past participle of the verb to hang is most used, but when the word denotes suspension by the neck for the purpose of destroying life the regular form hanged is always used by careful writers and speakers. Haste. Refer to hurry. Heading. Refer to caption. Healthy. Wholesome. The first of these two words is often improperly used for the second. As onions are a healthy vegetable. A man if he is in good health is healthy, the food he eats if it is not deleterious is wholesome. A healthy ox makes wholesome food. We speak of healthy surroundings, a healthy climate, situation, employment, and of wholesome food, advice, examples. Healthful is generally used in the sense of conducive to health, virtue, morality. As healthful exercise, the healthful spirit of the community, meaning that the spirit that prevails in the community is conducive to virtue and good morals. Helpmate. The dictionaries suggest that this word is a corruption of help and meet, as we find these words used in Genesis 2.18. I will make him a help meet for him. And that the proper word is help meet. If, as is possible, the words in Genesis mean I will make him a help meet suitable for him. Then neither helpmate nor help meet has any raison d'être. Highfalutin. This is a style of writing often called the freshman style. It is much indulged in by very young men, and by a class of older men who instinctively try to make up and clatter for what they lack in matter. Examples of this kind of writing are abundant in Professor L. T. Townsend's Art of Speech, which as examples are all the better for not being of that exaggerated description sometimes met within the newspapers. Volume 1, page 131. Quote, Very often adverbs, prepositions, and relatives drift so far from their moorings as to lose themselves, or make attachments where they do not belong. End quote. Again, page 135. Quote, Every law of speech enforces the statement that there is no excuse for such inflated and effective style. Such style. To speak thus is treason in the realms and under the laws of language. End quote. Again, page 175. Quote, Cultivate figure-making habitudes. This is done by asking the spiritual import of every physical object seen, also by forming the habit of constantly metaphorizing. Knock at the door of anything met which interests, and ask, Who lives here? The process is to look, then close the eyes, then look within. End quote. The blundering inanity of this kind of writing is equaled only by its bumpious grand eloquence. On page 137, Dr. Townsend quotes this wholesome admonition from Coleridge. Quote, If men would only say what they have to say in plain terms, how much more eloquent they would be. End quote. As an example of repertorial highfalutin, I submit the following. Quote, The spirit of departed day had joined communion with the myriad ghosts of centuries, and four full hours fled into eternity before the citizens of many parts of the town found out there was a freshet here at all. End quote. Hints. Never write about any matter that you do not well understand. If you clearly understand all about your matter, you will never want thoughts, and thoughts instantly become words. Quote, One of the greatest of all faults in writing, and in speaking, is this, the using of many words to say little. In order to guard yourself against this fault, inquire what is the substance or amount of what you have said. Take a long speech of some talking lord, and put down upon paper what the amount of it is. You will most likely find that the amount is very small, but at any rate, when you get it, you will then be able to examine it and to tell what it is worth. A very few examinations of the sort will so frighten you that you will be forever after upon your guard against talking a great deal and saying little. End quote. Cobbitt. Quote, Be simple, be unaffected, be honest in your speaking and writing. Never use a long word where a short one will do. Call a spade a spade, not a well-known oblong instrument of manual husbandry. Let home be home, not a residence. A place a place, not a locality. And so of the rest. Where a short word will do, you always lose by using a long one. You lose in clearness, you lose in honest expression of your meaning, and in the estimation of all men who are qualified to judge, you lose in reputation for ability. The only true way to shine, even in this false world, is to be modest and unassuming. Falsehood may be a very thick crust, but in the course of time, truth will find a place to break through. Elegance of language may not be in the power of all of us, but simplicity and straightforwardness are. Write much as you would speak, speak as you think. If with your inferiors, speak no coarser than usual. If with your superiors, no finer. Be what you say. And within the rules of prudence, say what you are. Quote, go critically over what you have written, and strike out every word, phrase, and clause which it is found will leave the sentence neither less clear nor less forcible than it is without them. End quote, Swinton. Quote, with all watchfulness it is astonishing what slips are made, even by good writers, in the employment of an inappropriate word. When Gibbons rise and fall, the following instance occurs. Of nineteen tyrants who started up after the reign of Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace or a natural death. Allison, in his history of Europe, writes, Two great sins, one of omission and one of commission, have been committed by the states of Europe in modern times. And not long since a worthy scotch minister at the close of the services intimated his intention of visiting some of his people as follows. I intend, during this week, to visit in Mr. M's district, and will on this occasion take the opportunity of embracing all the servants in the district. When worthy such as these offend, who shall call the bellman in question, as he cries, Lost, a silver-handled silk-lady's parasol. The proper arrangement of words into sentences and paragraphs gives clearness and strength. To attain a clear and pithy style it may be necessary to cut down, to rearrange, and to rewrite whole passages of an essay. Gibbons wrote his memoirs six times, and the first chapter of his history three times. Beginners are always slow to prune or cast away any thought or expression which may have cost labour. They forget that brevity is no sign of thoughtlessness. Much consideration is needed to compress the details of any subject into small compass. Essences are more difficult to prepare, and therefore more valuable than weak solutions. Pliny wrote to one of his friends, I have not time to write you a short letter, therefore I have written you a long one. A parent elaborateness is always distasteful and weak. Vividness and strength are the product of an easy command of those small, trenchant Saxon monosyllables which abound in the English language. As a rule the student will do well to banish for the present all thought of ornament or elegance, and to aim only at expressing himself plainly and clearly. The best ornament is always that which comes unsought. Let him not beat about the bush, but go straight to the point. Let him remember that what is written is meant to be read, that time is short, and that other things being equal the fewer words the better. Repetition is a far less serious fault than obscurity. Young writers are often unduly afraid of repeating the same word and require to be reminded that it is always better to use the right word over again than to replace it by a wrong one. And a word which is liable to be misunderstood is a wrong one. A frank repetition of a word has even sometimes a kind of charm as bearing the stamp of truth, the foundation of all excellence of style. A young writer is afraid to be simple. He has no faith in beauty unadorned, hence he crowds his sentences with superlatives. In his estimation, turgidity passes for eloquence, and simplicity is but another name for that which is weak and unmeaning. End quote. George Washington Moon. Honorable. Refer to reverend. How? I have heard how in Italy one is beset on all sides by beggars. Read. Heard that. I have heard how some critics have been pacified with claret and a supper, and others laid asleep with soft notes of flattery. Dr. Johnson. The how in this sentence also should be that. How means the manner in which we may therefore say, I have heard how he went about it to circumvent you. Quote, and it is good judgment alone can dictate how far to proceed in it and when to stop. End quote. Cobbett comments on this sentence in This Wise. Quote, Dr. Watts is speaking here of writing. In such a case an adverb, like how far, expressive of longitudinal space, introduces a rhetorical figure. For the plain meaning is, that judgment will indicate how much to write on it, and not how far to proceed in it. The figure, however, is very proper and much better than the literal words. But when a figure is begun it should be carried on throughout, which is not the case here. For the doctor begins with a figure of longitudinal space, and ends with a figure of time. It should have been where to stop, or how long to proceed in it and when to stop. To tell a man how far he is to go into the western countries of America, and when he is to stop is a very different thing from telling him how far he is to go and where he is to stop. I have dwelt thus on this distinction for the purpose of putting you on the watch, and guarding you against confounding figures. The less you use them the better, till you understand more about them. End quote. Humanitarianism. This word in its original theological sense means the doctrine that denies the Godhead of Jesus Christ, and a verse that he was possessed of a human nature only. A humanitarian, therefore, in the theological sense, is one who believes this doctrine. The word and its derivatives are, however, nowadays, both in this country and in England, most used in a humane philanthropic sense. Thus the audience enthusiastically endorsed the humanitarianism of his eloquent discourse. Hatton. Hung. Refer to hanged. Hurry. Though widely different in meaning, both the verb and the noun hurry are continually used for haste and hasten. Hurry implies not only haste, but haste with confusion, flurry. While haste implies only rapidity of action and eager desire to make progress, and unlike hurry, is not incompatible with deliberation and dignity. It is often wise to hasten in the affairs of life, but as it is never wise to proceed without forethought and method, it is never wise to hurry. Sensible people, then, may be often in haste, but are never in a hurry, and we tell others to make haste, and not to hurry up. Hyperbole. The magnifying of things beyond their natural limits is called hyperbole. Language that signifies literally more than the exact truth, more than is really intended to be represented, by which a thing is represented greater or less, better or worse, than it really is, is said to be hyperbolical. Hyperbole is exaggeration. Our common forms of compliment are almost all of them extravagant hyperboles. Blair. Some examples are the following. Rivers of blood and hills of slain. They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions. The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, and trembling, Tybur dived beneath his bed.  I saw their chief tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted fur, his shield the rising moon. He sat on the shore like a cloud of mist on a hill. Ice cream, ice water. As for ice cream, there is no such thing, as ice cream would be the product of frozen cream, in other words, cream made from ice by melting. What is called ice cream is cream iced, hence properly iced cream, and not ice cream. The product of melted ice is ice water, whether it be cold or warm. But water made cold with ice is iced water, and not ice water. If. I doubt if this will ever reach you. Say, I doubt whether this will ever reach you. Ill. Refer to sick. Illy. It will astonish not a few to learn that there is no such word as illy. The form of the adverb, as well as of the adjective in the noun, is ill. A thing is ill-formed, or ill-done, or ill-made, or ill-constructed, or ill-put-together. Ill fares the land to hastening ill's appray, where wealth accumulates and men decay. Goldsmith. Imarist. This adjective and its synonyms, indecent and indelicate, are often used without proper discrimination being made in their respective meanings. Indecency and immodesty are opposed to morality. The former in externals as dress, words, and looks, the latter in conduct and disposition. Indecency, says Crab, may be a partial. Immodesty is a positive and entire breach of the moral law. Indecency is less than immodesty, but more than indelicacy. It is indecent for a man to marry again very soon after the death of his wife. It is indelicate for anyone to obtrude himself upon another's retirement. It is indecent for women to expose their persons, as do some whom we cannot call immodest. Immodest words admit of no defense, for want of decency is want of sense. Earl of Roscommon. Impropriety. As a rhetorical term defined as an error in using words in a sense different from their recognized signification. Impute. Non-painstaking writers not unfrequently use impute instead of ascribe. The numbers of blunders that have been imputed to him are endless. Appleton's Journal. The use of impute in this connection is by no means indefensible. Still, it would have been better to use ascribe. In our midst. The phrases in our midst and in their midst are generally supposed to be of recent introduction, and though they have been used by some respectable writers, they nevertheless find no favor with those who study propriety in the use of language. To the phrase in the midst, no one objects. Jesus came and stood in the midst. There was a hut in the midst of the forest. In respect of. Quote. The deliberate introduction of incorrect forms, whether by the coinage of new or the revival of obsolete and inexpressive syntactical combinations, ought to be resisted, even in trifles, especially where it leads to the confusion of distinct ideas. An example of this is the recent use of the adverbial phrases, in respect of, in regard of, for in, or with respect to, or regard to. This innovation is without any syntactical ground, and ought to be condemned and avoided as a mere grammatical crotchet. George P. Marsh. Lectures on the English language, page 660. Insofar as. A phrase often met with and in which the in is superfluous. A want of proper opportunity would suffice, insofar as the want could be shown. We are to act up to the extent of our knowledge, but insofar as our knowledge falls short, etc. Inaugurate. This word, which means to install in office with certain ceremonies, is made by many lovers of big words to do service for begin. But the sooner these rhetorical high flyers stop inaugurating and content themselves with simply beginning the things they are called upon to do in the ordinary routine of daily life, the sooner they will cease to set a very bad example. Indecent. Refer to Imodest. Index Expergatorious. William Cullen Bryant, who was a careful student of English, while he was editor of the New York Evening Post, sought to prevent the writers for that paper from using over and above for more than. Artiste. For Artist. Aspirant. Authorist. Beat. For Defeat. Bagging. For Capturing. Balance. For Remainder. Banquet. For Dinner or Supper. Bogus. Casket. For Coffin. Claimed. For Asserted. Collided. Commence. For Begin. Compete. Cortege. For Procession. Co-Temporary. For Contemporary. Couple. For Two. Darky. For Negro. Day before yesterday. For the day before yesterday. Debut. Decrease. As a Verb. Democracy applied to a political party. Develop. For Expose. Devouring Element. For Fire. Donate. Employee. Enacted for Acted. Endorse. For Approve. And Root. Esquire. Graduate. For Is Graduated. Gents. For Gentlemen. Honorable. House. For House of Representatives. Humbug. Inaugurate. For Begin. In our midst. Item. For Particle. Extract or Paragraph. Is Being Done. And All Passives of this Form. Jeopardize. Jubilant for Rejoicing. Juvenile. For Boy. Lady. For Wife. Last. For Latest. Lengthy. For Long. Lineancy. For Lennity. Lover. Loan or Loaned. For Lend or Lent. Located. Majority. Relating to Places or Circumstances for Most. Mrs. President. Mrs. Governor. Mrs. General. And All Similar Titles. Mutual. For Common. Official. For Officer. Ovation. On Yesterday. Over His Signature. Pants. For Pantaloons. Parties. For Persons. Partially. For Partly. Past Two Weeks. For Last Two Weeks. And All Similar Expressions Relating to a Definite Time. Poetis. Portion for Part. Posted for Informed. Progress for Advance. Reliable for Trustworthy. Rendition for Performance. Repudiate for Reject or Disown. Retire as an Active Verb. Reverent for The Reverent. Role for Part. Ruffs. Routies. Sakesh. Sensation. For Noteworthy Event. Standpoint for Point of View. Start in the Sense of Setting Out. State for Say. Taboo. Talent for Talents or Ability. Talented. Tapas. The Deceased. War for Dispute or Disagreement. This index is offered here as a curiosity rather than as a guide, though in the main it might safely be used as such. No valid reason, however, can be urged for discouraging the use of several words in the list. The words aspirant, banquet, casket, compete, decrease, progress, start, talented, and deceased, for example. Indicative and Subjunctive. I see the signal is unconditional. If I see the signal is the same fact expressed in the form of a condition. The one form is said to be in the indicative mood, the mood that simply states or indicates the action. The other form is in the subjunctive. Conditional or conjunctive mood. There is sometimes a slight variation made in English to show that an affirmation is made as a condition. The mood is called subjunctive because the affirmation is subjoined to another affirmation. If I see the signal, I will call out. Such forms as I may see, I can see have sometimes been considered as a variety of mood to which the name potential is given. But this cannot properly be maintained. There is no trace of any inflection corresponding to this meaning, as we find with the subjunctive. Moreover, such a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and subjunctive forms. I may go, if I may go. And further, we might proceed to constitute other moods on the same analogy, as, for example, an obligatory mood. I must go, or I ought to go. A mood of resolution, I will go, you shall go. A mood of gratification, I am delighted to go. Of deprecation, I am grieved to go. The only difference in the two last instances is the use of the sign of the infinitive too, which does not occur after may, can, must, ought, etc. But that is not an essential difference. Some grammarians consider the form, I do go, a separate mood, and term it the emphatic mood. But all the above objections apply to it likewise, as well as many others. Bane Refer to subjunctive mood. Individual This word is often most improperly used for person, as the individual I saw was not over forty. There were several individuals on board that I had never seen before. Individual means etymologically that which cannot be divided, and is used in speaking of things as well as of persons to express unity. It is opposed to the whole, or that which is divisible into parts. Endorse Careful writers generally discountenance the use of endorse, in the sense of sanction, approve, applaud. In this signification, it is on the list of prohibited words in some of our newspaper offices. Quote The following rules are endorsed by nearly all writers upon this subject, end quote. Dr. Townsend It is plain that the right word to use here is approved. The public will heartily endorse the sentiments uttered by the court. New York Evening Telegram The public will heartily approve the sentiments expressed by the court is what the sentence should be. Infinitive mood When we can choose it is generally better to use the verb in the infinitive than in the participle form. Ability being in general the power of doing, et cetera, say to do. I desire to reply to the proposal of substituting attacks upon land values, and making this tax as near, nearly, as may be equal to rent, et cetera. Say to substitute and to make. This quality is of prime importance when the chief object is the imparting of knowledge. Say to impart. Initiate This is a pretentious word, which with its derivatives many persons, especially those who like to be grand eloquent, use, when homely English would serve their turn much better. Innumerable number A repetitional expression to be avoided. We may say innumerable times, or a numberless times, but we should not say an innumerable number of times. Interrogation The rhetorical figure that asks a question in order to emphasize the reverse of what is asked is called interrogation. As do we mean to submit to this measure, do we mean to submit, and consent that we ourselves, our country, and its rights shall be trampled on, doth God pervert judgment, or doth the almighty pervert justice? Introduce Refer to Present Irony That mode of speech in which what is meant is contrary to the literal meaning of the words, in which praise is bestowed when censure is intended, is called irony. Irony is a kind of delicate sarcasm or satire, railery, mockery. In writings of humor, figures are sometimes used of so delicate a nature that it shall often happen that some people will see things in a direct, contrary sense to what the author and the majority of the readers understand them. To such the most innocent irony may appear irreligion. Cambridge Irritate Refer to Aggravate End of Section 4 Recording by Bill Borscht


Aloha, I'm Dan O'Farran, and I'm Tim, product manager at Pegasus. I am a network protocol engineer. And our talk today is to propose and talk about the proposed cadence for network upgrades, which you might also call hard forks. And changing it from the old model, which is kind of like buying a plane ticket, everyone gets on the same plane, you pick seats, you do a months and years in advance, and things don't change, it flies out or it doesn't. And instead of replacing it with a train model where you show up with a train platform and whoever's there leaves and whoever's there doesn't. But first, let's start with a little bit of history. What did network upgrades look like before this? It was a lot like a family vacation. Frontier, Homestead, Byzantium, Constantinople. Mom and Dad would tell us where we're going, we'd pack the car, you'd sneak in your favorite toy, we'd drive and drive and drive, we'd get there eventually, and it would all be happiness and sunshine in the end. Except when it wasn't. There were a few network upgrades that were a little more emergency, all hands on deck type situations. The first two were the Shanghai attack, and the second one was when there was a security flaw discovered as part of Constantinople. In those situations, we all came together, we all got the network upgrade out in a timely and fast fashion, laser focused on what the problems were. So where does that put us today? So the beginning of the year, we proposed a plan for Istanbul where we would take everything from the beginning and we'd have landmarks along the way that we would do things like have the EIPs ready and all that other stuff, go from step to step down to waterfall, and it was going to be rainbows and sunshine, it was going to be awesomeness, right? Yeah, well like everyone in this room probably knows, waterfall doesn't work for software development. But we tried it anyway for Istanbul.  We would have a kickoff in January, give ourselves a good amount of time to review all the EIPs so that around mid-May, we could have a final list. This would give us two months to work on client implementations which brought us to mid-July. This way we could deploy the test nets around mid-August and finally have our upgrade go live on Mainnet by mid-October, which was supposed to be two weeks before DEF CON. We're working next week? No, we're not. And so how many of these deadlines have we actually hit? We hit the first one, the kickoff. And obviously a lot of things went wrong here. And one of the more interesting ones is that the Ethereum community had grown a lot since the previous upgrade. So when it came time to review the EIPs, instead of having only a handful to review, there were so many that I wasn't able to fit them on this slide using the fund they gave us. And so this means that around mid-May, when we should have had a final list of EIPs for the upgrade, we were still trying to wrap our head around all of these. They were in completely different stages. Some of them were early drafts while others had working test nets and there were dependencies across all of them. So this was not ideal and we obviously missed that deadline. So we actually got our final list of EIPs for Istanbul around mid-July, which is when we should have been having the client's implementation done. This pushed back the client's implementation to the end of the summer around August, which is when we should have gone live on the test nets and it pushed back the test net upgrades to October, which is when we should have had our main net upgrade. At this point, the main net upgrade will probably be at the end of the year or early 2020. And so as this was happening, a lot of people realized it was not going super well. And there were suggestions made around how we can make Berlin the next upgrade go much smoother than Istanbul. So we might walk you through some of these ideas that the community brought forward and try to bundle them together into what we've called the train station model. The first person to notice how poorly things were going was Alexei Kunoz, the brains behind state rent and stateless clients. And he posted a blog post where he outlined basically where things were at, where things could be and where they should go. On the first pick your outlines, what was going on with the first set of network upgrades. Everyone would come together, they would write their tests, but there was one special client that had special privileges. Alexei, the C++ client, was the one client that could actually produce the reference tests that were needed by all of the other clients to verify that all of their consensus critical code was correct and was going to function properly. So before anything could progress, Alexei had to have all of their stuff written and the tests written and then they had to go work with the other clients and work back and forth. They created a gating function which is why a lot of the network upgrades moved in lockstep before because there was one task that had to be accomplished. So what Alexei proposed is instead of focusing on as a group and having one client and doing everything at once, that we split these upgrades that details into various working groups. So it would have various areas of concern and interest that they would recommend proposals in. And in these network groups they would produce reference implementations for what they thought needed to be changed. Now what he proposed is a very important thing for the reference implementations. It was going to use a new tool written by Dmitri from the Ethereum testing team called retest death. What Dmitri did is he went and got all of the testing code that I left needed to produce these reference tests and he took out the need to have a left run these. So you can create a reference test from any client that implements the APIs that retest death uses. Geth has implemented them, Basu has implemented them and obviously Aleph has implemented them. So from these you can create your EIPs and you can target any of those three platforms right now to generate your reference tests to create an EIP to test. So we are not tied to just one implementation and one implementer to produce the reference tests anymore. The second idea that came up is the need for EIP champions. This is a picture of tweets from the Berlin All Core Devs meeting. And from their Alex different Alexei but Alex proposed that each EIP needs a champion and Boris echoed it, said yes. EIPs need a human being that we can go to and we can talk to and say, hey, what is the status of an EIP? One human that can call into the All Core Devs call and say, hey, state rent is going more into stateless clients right now so you won't be seeing this for a while. It needs one human who coordinates. So when we say, hey, we need more tests for EIP 2200 and we can talk to that person, they can go back to the developers and they can create those new tests. It is not just one person do all those things but if the EIP is small enough or the person is dedicated enough, it could be the person implementing it but it is one person who coordinates and is accountable and champions the EIP through the process taking it through the steps as available. And another big idea that was introduced this year is the concept of EIP centric for King. This was brought forward by Martin of the Ethereum Foundation. And the general idea is that instead of having all our EPs move through the various stages of the upgrade at the same time, you have each EIP progress independently and you only schedule them for an upgrade when they get to a point where they're ready to do so. So using this model, if you wanted to get an EIP live on mainnet, the way you would go about it is this. You first start by writing your EIP and then you'll go on all core devs to get what is called an initial acceptance. This means that the core developers are generally positive towards your idea and that assuming everything goes well in the next steps, they'd accept a PR for a well-written implementation of your EIP in their client. And this can be a really useful signaling mechanism for organizations that fund some of the teams working on these EPs. Organizations like the EF, like Modell-Dau or like Consensus can use this initially acceptance status to know that they're funding in efforts that has a fairly high likelihood of making it on mainnet. So once you have this initial acceptance stamp, you go and work on your reference implementation. This just means implementing your EIP against one of the major clients and then generate your reference tests using retest that. This would kick off the security evaluation period of your EIP where you'll want to reach out to people in Ethereum who are familiar with the bits of the system you're changing so that they can poke at your EIP. As you're going through all of this, you wanna feed everything you learned back into your EIP specification and specifically under the security consideration section.  At that point, all the other mainnet clients will implement it and it'll be scheduled for a testnet upgrade. Once that upgrade goes live, assuming everything is fine, then it'll be scheduled for mainnet and will be deployed on the next mainnet upgrade. And James Hancock put together a really good diagram to explain this process. So you see at step zero, you start off with your draft of an EIP and there the only gating function is you need to get it approved by EIP editors. This just means your EIP meets the basic EIP templates requirements. From there, you get a green light from all core devs or an initial acceptance, which means that they're generally positive towards your idea and that they'd accept a good PR from it in their code base. You start working on your implementation and then you own the testing for it. So not only are you generating the reference tests and trying to test both the happy path as well as the quirks and edge cases for your specific EPs, but you also wanna get in touch with the EF testing team and other people who are knowledgeable about what you're changing to make sure that all of the important security considerations get fed back into the spec. Once you've done all that, you go back on all core devs, get your EIP move to accepted and it'll be scheduled for the next upgrade. At that point, it'll move into last call and we'll keep running the reference tests against it all the way up to the test net block. If it goes live on the test nets and everything is fine, then it'll be scheduled for main net and finally your EIP will be live on main net. Finally, as Tim mentioned, the Ethereum community is growing. There's more people that we need to take considerations into rather than just the developers and the researchers who are creating these items. We have people running exchanges, we have people running their own personal information, we have corporations running nodes, and we have service providers such as Infura that run these Ethereum nodes. And we need to take into consideration that they need some standard amount of time to react to these node upgrades. So a few months ago I proposed EIP 1872, a set of upgrade windows to tell us when we should do our network upgrades rather than just picking a random day when we're ready to fork. So there were several recommendations in there. Some of these I feel stronger about than others. The first recommendation that I feel the most strongest about is that we should fork on the third Wednesday of a month. Kind of like how Microsoft has their patch Tuesday where their security patches will come out on a second Tuesday of the month unless it's emergency patch. That way, system administrators know that they should not take vacations during the second week of a month because that's when a lot of the work is gonna come around to testing and upgrading the clients. Similarly, node operators would know that the third week of a month is probably not the best time to take vacation because that's when a network upgrade could occur. Now these could occur in any of the 12 months, but the second thing that I recommend, this is more of a recommendation, is that we pick four specific months that we prefer to launch main nets, main net upgrades. Those will be January, April, July, and October. Those are three months apart, and those have the advantage of missing a lot of U.S. and European-centric conflicts around vacations and holidays so that the operators in those areas won't feel any conflicts with those. However, sometimes it's necessary to delay a network upgrade as happened with Constance and Opal. In those cases, the delays would go out in month increments. If we have to delay it, we pick a new third Wednesday of the month, probably the next month, to shift it out a month. And the aim here for this is to do these network upgrades twice a year. We would do one in January and one in July, or one in April and one in October. So once you schedule one, you would do one six months later. And of course, in this recommendation, you could always fight fires whenever and wherever they happen. If we have another situation like Constance and Opal or the Shanghai attacks, we can upgrade it on very short notice or we can cancel the fork and move it out on very short notice. If there's an emergency, those recommendations do not constrain us acting on those emergencies. But if it's not an emergency, the discipline that comes with a timeframe like this will be appreciated by the people who have to operate the Ethereum nodes that all of our networks depend on. So a synthesis from all of these four recommendations, we get to the train model. So rather than a model where we're all flying on an airplane and we're going for a specific flight at a specific time, instead it's like we're going to a train station and as the trains come and go, you come and go. Yeah, and there's four main ideas here. So the first is that the EAP should progress independently. Like we said before, you don't want to have all the EAPs moving in lockstep towards the various stages of the process. Instead, every EAP and working group moves at their own pace and whenever something is ready to ship, only then do you schedule it for an actual upgrade. The second point is that EAPs have a champion, a human being who the all core devs can contact and say, hey, is this EAP ready for this network upgrade? Should we move it to the next one? It's a single point of contact who can answer these questions and help move the EIP through the process. Maybe motivate the team to make deadlines and maybe just let all core devs know that we found an issue and we're not going to make this network upgrade. And the third idea is that whatever is done is whatever shifts, sorry. So this way, an upgrade consists of basically the EAPs that are in a spot where they're ready to go live. Anything that's still in progress gets moved to the next upgrade. Like we said, if there's any last minute issue, then you can obviously kick that EAP out to the next train as well. And the final recommendation is that we move to semi-annual network upgrades rather than the annual or less upgrades that we've been doing in the past. One of the big advantages that we get out of this is that when we tell an EIP that you're not ready for this network upgrade, the next upgrade is only six months down the road rather than a year or more down the road. So they know that the work that they put into will still show up in a reasonable timeframe rather than some unknown timeframe in the future. They'll reduce a lot of the anxiety when it comes to scheduling and moving stuff in and out of a network upgrade. And from this, we can make sure that what goes into the network upgrade is the good stuff. And like we said earlier, we didn't come up with all of these ideas. The community mostly did. So we wanted to make sure we linked back to them so anyone who's interested can go and dig a bit deeper into the original sources. Yeah, if you Google Alexiakunov, that's the article that you'll find. And so yeah, that's what we had. Thank you all for listening. And we have a couple of minutes for questions if anyone has any. Hey, thanks for the talk. I was just curious what's required to get miners on board with this like plan of doing regular hard forks for upgrades and are there any like difficulty adjustments that are happening with each of those hard forks? Who on board? Miners? Miners? I don't think it would change anything for miners. So the only, obviously like the difficulty bomb is one thing that comes up and that's usually solved through an EAP. So if we want to delay the difficulty bomb again, we simply choose whatever upgrade we wanna do that in and add that to that upgrade. So is the idea then that the difficulty bombs would be changed to line up with this schedule that you're proposing? To be determined. And historically for the past two upgrades, it has kicked it out one fork, but my understanding was that they were trying to kick it out more than one fork. It's just, we've had difficulties getting these network upgrades out. Thank you. And one of the other reasons for proposing the regular timeframe is so that the miners know, hey, Wednesday of a month is coming up. We should check Ethereum. Are we forking? Are we not? So the miners are another important member of this community that we need to take into consideration. Any other questions? Okay. Thanks everybody.


Hey guys, welcome back with another episode of House of the Dragons. The king's rage at the princess is softened by the return of his brother as a willing subject rather than an opposing monarch. Demon is not clinging to his throne as king of the Narrow Sea. Instead, he kneels to Viserys and surrenders his bone crown, regaining his place in court after being exiled to the Vale. Demon is greeted with a warm brotherly hug, a wine-fueled banquet, and a long, loving reminiscence session. Viserys and Demon aren't the only ex-rivals who have made peace in king of the Narrow Sea, at least for now. Ranra and Allison have also re-established contact, with the princess appearing to have accepted her friend's new status. Viserys and Demon have their own heart-to-heart conversation as they travel down memory lane. Ranra expresses her fear and disdain for a life of spawning heirs, causing Allison to shift uncomfortably. It's a scene that might seem inconsequential at first sight, but that foreshadows what's about to come, for as Allison spends the episode cradling her baby daughter and lying bored under the naked and sore-covered king, Ranra gets to meet a whole new world most princesses only ever dream of, who doesn't love it when a disobedient heiress goes full princess jasmine and gets a makeover to experience life as a commoner. House of the Dragon takes a break from the darkness in episode 4 to embrace this classic, entertaining trope. Nonetheless, viewers should temper their enthusiasm, because this little adventure will, of course, have serious consequences. Ranra flees the red keep with Demon through a secret passage and learns about the pleasures of king's landings nights. She consumes cheap alcohol, amuses herself with acrobats and fortune tellers, and attends a satirical play that reveals a lot about what the people truly think of having an heir as their future queen. They dislike it. The real high point of this family adventure occurs at a brothel, where Demon demonstrates to his niece that there is more to sex than just making royal babies. Though it isn't always the case, as evidenced by Allison's blank stare at the ceiling, if just watching the people at the pleasure house have a good time isn't enough to persuade the princess, Demon isn't afraid to get his hands dirty. The prince and princess finally let go of the sexual tension that had been building up between them since Demon first put a necklace around Ranra's neck in episode 1. But her uncle turned lover backs out of the last minute and abandons her. The princess returns to the castle alone and without her disguise, making Lord Otto's spy's job much easier. Ranra, having been dumped by one of her love interests, turns to another. Upon arriving at the Red Keep, she seduces Ser Kristen and caps off her night of adventures with a sexy knight. However, while the princess sleeps with a smile on her face, other political agents are plotting to use her sexual awakening against her. After receiving word of Demon and Ranra's indiscretion from a child spy, who answers to Prince Demon's now ex-lover Mazzaria, Lord Otto rushes to deliver the bad news to the king. After all, it is a hands job to occasionally tell uncomfortable truths. King Viserys is enraged after hearing what his trusted advisor has to say, and there's something for everyone. First, he accuses Lord Otto of fabricating lies in order to tarnish the princess' reputation and of plotting to ensure that House Hightower has an heir to the Iron Throne.  Demon asks Viserys for Ranra's hand in marriage in true Targaryen fashion, but the king refuses, especially since the prince already has a wife waiting for him in the Vale, a wife to whom he should return right away. Will Demon follow orders for once, or will he pull an unexpected stunt like the last time the king banished him to the Vale? That is yet to be determined. Last but not least, Viserys talks to his daughter. Though Ranra has sworn to Allison that nothing has happened between Demon and her, and Allison has assured the king that the prince only said what he said out of spite, Viserys is skeptical. He chastises his daughter, who responds by saying that if she were a man, none of this would be a problem. Besides, Lord Otto's claims are false, according to Ranra. The king responds with a harsh lesson that the princess must learn if she is to rule in the future. Viserys assures Ranra that she will still be queen, but reminds her that she has duties to fulfill, fully aware that disowning his named heiress will only cause division in House Targaryen. To end the political unrest that has been growing since, Lord Corliss promised his daughter to the son of the sea lord of Braavos, launching an alliance with the free cities. Ranra must marry Lainer Valerian. The princess agrees, but only if her father performs his duties as king, namely, removing the usurpers. As a result, King Viserys summons Lord Otto to the small council room for the final in a series of unpleasant meetings. The king remembers his own father, Baelin, who served his hand to King Yaires prior to Otto and died after only five days on the job. It's unclear whether the king has always suspected something was wrong or has only recently realized what was going on, but he leaves no doubt that Lord Otto is to blame for his father's death. Viserys then brings Allicent to the table, claiming Lord Otto used his own daughter as a distraction after Queen Emma's death. Otto attempts to defend himself, but his time has run out. The king expresses gratitude for his service to the crown and relieves him of his duties. He then has a maester administer a morning after potion to Ranra for good measure.