Hi, I'm Denshi. A year ago today I made a video about the most impressive projects on Scratch, a game making engine that lets you move about these blocks and essentially manipulate sprites on a 2D plane. Now just using this simple game mention, people were able to create everything from physics simulators to recreations of Terraria to fully functioning 3D games. So just in case you haven't seen that video, I recommend you have a look because there's some pretty impressive stuff in there. However, in today's video I'm not going to be talking about more games. In fact, I'm going to be tackling the other main aspect of Scratch, or main draw. That being animation. Because in the same way that I can place blocks here in a sequence and add logical elements to make a game function, I can also do the same and create an animation where, say, the cat changes size or changes color or changes sprite or plays sounds, draws stuff on the screen, all sorts of different things. I don't know about you, but in my opinion Scratch is a lot more accessible, especially to younger people when it comes to making animations. I mean, it has a built in drawing tool, everything is quite easy to manipulate in code. You can always look at other people's scripts and look behind people's projects if you're stuck. So I think this is actually a really, really great platform for kids to learn or an animation in addition to programming. But one more thing before I begin with this video. There are a lot of impressive animations on Scratch and I'm going to be talking about those in today's video, but I'm not going to be sitting here and just reacting to them. A reaction channel. I don't consider that a fair use of people's content. So there are a lot of fantastic ones that you can check out. I'll have them linked in the description. I'm showcasing them right now if you want to have a look for yourself, but I won't be looking at static animations, animations where I don't interact with anything in today's video because I don't want to feel like I'm just watching something passively and not contributing with actual commentary or interaction with the content. So I'm just getting that aside. I'm not going to be talking about any storytime animations or similar things on here, even though there are many impressive ones, simply because I wouldn't be able to add anything to them. So instead of doing that, I've selected a bunch of quite interactive animations, things that showcase different things people have been able to make with Scratch. And there's some pretty impressive stuff in there. Now I'm going to start this video by talking about Conway's Game of Life here recreated on Scratch. I consider this an animation or a semi interactive animation because it's not a game in the sense that you interact with anything.  And by placing these blocks in different ways, the Conway's Game of Life logic kicks in. And the moment that you click Play, the logic plays through and the game of life begins. Now I'm not going to sit here and explain how the game of life works. Essentially the blocks can take food from each other and all that kind of stuff. I'm not going to sit here and explain the mathematics, but the idea is no matter the starting conditions, you're always going to get an indefinite number of steps to ending conditions where the blocks just kind of stay still. So I consider this a pretty cool project. I think it's quite impressive people are able to code this in Scratch. I like that there's a random button it can go through and create random patterns and some pretty funky stuff can happen. There's also a few presets here like the lightweight spaceship here, which is this little thing that moves to the right of the screen. So yeah, there's a lot of cool stuff that you can do in Conway's Game of Life. This is a pretty cool interactive animation to start off with. Next up, we have something created by Gilo Owl. If I'm pronouncing that right, I'm not sure. This is a UI demo for a new version of Scratch essentially. And I really like this because it's quite interactive. You can go through and look all the different pages. There's even a dark mode that you can enable and everything goes dark. That's pretty cool. And I mean, just in general, the design for this new Scratch interface looks pretty sleek in my opinion. I don't know. I think it looks pretty cool. And yeah, you can browse through all these different pages this person designed. I think it's cool that people are able to create semi-animation slideshow things just using Scratch. So I really like this. I like the colors. I like the design. It's very impressive. Next up, we have an animation of the solar system, which is entirely in 3D. This one really blew my mind when I first saw it. So you can basically look around with the mouse, move around with WASD. And it's not just limited to that. If you click on Settings, you can go through and, say, change the speed of time. And it even calculates years for you down here, here we're in 2018. And we can even slow or reverse time. We can do all sorts of wacky stuff. And we can also click on a few different options for orbits to make them a little bit, you know, look cool. Here are these trails and you can hide names. And there's this Orbit Customization tab where you can change the orbits of different planets. So here I've selected, say, I don't know, let me select the orbit of Earth. So Earth's orbit, you can change the way that it looks. You can make it, say, more eccentric, which makes it go really far in one direction and then closer in another direction. Yeah, I mean, this is great for physics class. I think this is a really cool animation. I think this is probably one of the most impressive things that I've seen when it comes to making an interactive experience. This is actually not too bad of a way to learn about orbits in the solar system, although I've already messed them up. Venus is way too far. So I've screwed up the orbits. There's Pluto. Now, it only goes to the solar system, but there's a few other celestial objects around here. That's pretty cool. So yeah, this is a really, really cool animation of the solar system. There's a lot of impressive features here. And I like the feature where you can change the passage of time and the fact that it actually shows you the months as a passage. But that's pretty impressive. I'm pretty sure those are linked to the actual orbit of the Earth and not necessarily to the time that passes, at least as far as I can remember. Now, here's a project by Bachdi. Today is a field day for bad pronunciations. And this one's called DIY pen animation. This one's pretty cool because it lets you customize the pen tool and scratch. So the pen tool lets you draw stuff on the screen. And here you can essentially set different settings for it and make it less thick. And it takes advantage of variables being passed into the pen tool to create these very, very cool looking patterns. And you can even speed this up by using turbo mode, which lets you click shift on the little go key over here. And there you go. We got some we got some pretty trippy things, as they would say, pretty peculiar drawings here. Next up, this is actually quite peculiar.  And you can set the displacement or like, yeah, the displacement of the different oscillations for the balls and make them do many different melodies. So you can change it to lots of different things. You can increase the amount of lines and you got some pretty cool sounding songs from it like this, for example. Then, of course, you can also get these really, really cool sinusoidal circle patterns. This is just reminding me of math class and you can change the instrument. So yeah, this is a pretty cool instrument tool. I like these kind of demos that showcase something really simple, but quite interesting if you start messing around with it. This is made by Procseal. Next up, I'm not quite sure whether I want to call this an animation or not. But it's this interactive system for creating logic gates here. You can hold down and like click a bunch of times on these buttons. Eventually, yeah, yeah, there you go. We're working on there. Oh, there we are. And you can then connect different little logic switches and logic gates to create logical circuits. So here we have an and adder, I guess. And here's an output to spit it out. And if we turn both of these on, there you go, that goes on. So I think this is pretty cool. There's a few presets here. You can use it for exclusive or and we have a one bit adder. So there you go. You can add two bits and get different numbers out of it. Here's a four bit adder. Check it out. One, one, one, one, one, one, one and you get an output out of it. So I'd say that's pretty cool. And finally, I'm not sure that really counts as an animation, but this is far too impressive to leave out of the video. This is an animation maker for scratch. And I'll showcase a few features here. But basically, it's a bit like stickman animations that you can make with basic tools online. And you could move about the stickman and as soon as you move them in the way that you want them to be in, you can press space to capture a frame. And then if you keep moving them around, you can capture different frames. So in this story, this blue guy is about to violently attack the red one. That's what I'm trying to make here.  If you click play, the animation actually interpolates. So it doesn't just move in static images. It actually moves between the different animation frames smoothly, which when I saw that, I was really, really impressed because just being able to do that is crazy. You can also introduce this block into the scene, but the block actually says static. So it doesn't matter where you place it. If you move it in a frame, it'll always stay that way throughout the entirety of the animation. Yeah, but I think this is just so incredibly meta. Someone's made an animation tool in scratch, which is an animation tool. So yeah, I hope you enjoyed this video about scratch animations. There was a lot more stuff that I've probably not had a chance to look at yet and feel free to leave any suggestions in the comments. If you think there's any cool animations or demonstrators or demos or whatever that you think would be interesting for people to watch. I've been Denji. These have been the most impressive scratch animations. Goodbye.


What's what's that thing? Dreymont just said we said Insecurity is loud. Yeah I'm in the playoffs. He's not and you know to address No, I'm just saying to address the social light right like there's a lot of guys in NBA that Really poured their heart and soul into basketball Are willing to do whatever it takes to win There are a lot of guys that have different things that drive them motivate them I think if we look at you know him and the way he approaches life fame all that Stuff that we could see that you know his priorities tend to vary right like that's why he dressed the way he does he You know approach the basketball the way he does the comments he makes Insecurity is loud like you you know that you're there You know shooting shots to try to get a contract. You're probably not Even a third star really on a good team because if you were the Lakers would have kept you Right part of the reason you left was to try to make more money like these are all things that are facts


Response generalization, which is essentially untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to trained target behavior. So an example would be... Oh! See, he prompted me. That was a bad joke. Sorry. Brad, sing!  That's the one I taught him how to sing. Now let's see if he has some response generalization. Brad, sing! Baby Shark dude do do do. Baby Shark do do do do do do do. Baby Shark do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do. Brad, sing! Old Mac Donald had a farm... Buzz buzz buzz buzz buzz buzz buzz. I don't want any more children's songs. Brad, sing! I get no kick from champagne. mere alcohol doesn't thrill me at all. but I get a kick out of youtube. That's it, we're done.


Hello, everybody. Welcome back to another Premiere Pro tutorial. This one going to show you how to create the picture-in-picture effect for lectures, for PowerPoint presentations, where you have like, for example, you have a lecture in the background here, or a slide, and in the bottom right, or wherever you want to put it, you've got a circle with your face as you do your teaching. This is very popular for PowerPoint presentations, for lectures, for even for gamers, if you want to have your gaming footage, and then your face in the bottom right. How did I do it? Let me show you step by step. Let's delete all of this nonsense, and let's go ahead and do it. I'm even going to delete slide, going to delete that as well. So we've got the lady loaded up in our project or the teacher, and then we've got the slide. The first step is you want to grab your footage, your video footage, and generally that's the larger of the two, drag and drop that, and put it in your timeline like I've done here. Now this is obviously a teacher, and of course, we want to focus on her. So the next step, if you're following along with me, this is science people. I'm going to take this video, and I'm going to move it to video track two, as I just did there. So there you go. So now I just moved it up, I just clicked on it, and moved it up. Now the next step, before we start adjusting the teacher, I'm going to drag and drop in slide, the the lecture, the image, you'll notice here that I've got this saved as a PNG file. However, a JPEG, or a TIFF, or maybe even a PDF, I think I can't remember. A lot of different formats work, and you just want to export them to make sure that you've got a format that works with Premiere Pro. Drag and drop this into the timeline on video track one, and then you know what, we can just make this the same length as the video. So if I turn the top off, there you go. We've got this video, we've got the slide underneath it. Now here's an important part. The slide is not correct in terms of formatting. So I'm going to click on the slide layer. I'm going to right click on this, and then I am going to scale to frame size. When I do that, that just basically blows it up, and it makes it the correct size, or the same size as the video. So the video now and the lecture are the same size. All right, good. You're following along, hopefully. Now click back on the video track right here like I've done here, and that snoring is my bulldog Kingston, so apologies for that.  So you want to go to video effects. Let's just close everything up here. I'll show you exactly how to do video effects. Drop down to transform like I've done here, and now grab the crop option. We're going to drag and drop crop onto the top track, so the track with the teacher, in this case, the lady. Okay, good. We've dropped it on there. Nothing's happened, not to panic. Head up to effect controls like I've done here, and then as I scroll through here, you're going to see crop. This is where we're going to go ahead and start making some money. So I'm going to go ahead and click on the create ellipse mask. This is going to create a circle crop, but if you want a rectangle or a unique shape, go ahead and do that, but we're going to do a circle. I'm going to click on that, and now it draws basically, it draws a sphere for me, and now I'm going to move that sphere basically over her face. So let's go to somewhere around somewhere about there. Yeah, that looks fine. Okay, good enough. So we've got that over her face, but again, this isn't what we want. We need to make a couple more adjustments. The next step, and this is a critical step, is we need to go ahead and take at least one of these options here to 100%. And what happens is, is we're basically telling it that we want to mask out the entire background. However, again, this is incorrect because you'll see here that we've got the background, that we've got the slide showing through. All you need to do now is check the inverted box and presto. We've now got a circle around this lady's face, or around the teacher's face, and it looks pretty good. Another option while I have you here is if it has a blurry edge, if you do not want the blurry edge, just drop the mask to zero and that gives a hard edge, depending on the look that you're going for. Okay, so you can even, you can turn these up to 100% as either, but as long as at least one of these is at 100%, it works. Now what I'm going to do is I'm going to click out of it. So I'm just going to click on here, and then what I'm going to do now is I'm going to double click on her or on the circle, and you're going to see here that I can now start to move her. For some strange reason, I can now grab that video and move her, and her and the teacher is inside the circle. So I'm going to go ahead now and scan through here, hit play, and you will see that now she, oh my gosh, she's a bit out of frame there, but not to worry, she is now where we need to be. This is how you go ahead and add yourself into a lecture with the circle crop method. Thanks for watching.


Hey, we're back live at EMC World 2012. I'm John Furrier, the founder of siliconangle.com and siliconangle.tv. I'm joined by my co-host. I'm Dave Vellante of wikibon.org and John, this is the spotlight on the future of backup and recovery. It's sponsored by the EMC backup and recovery systems division. And we actually, watching Steve Manley up on the big screen, he's doing the live keynote. He's coming over here right after this. But John, we're going to set up the whole backup and recovery market with a specific discussion on purpose-built backup appliances. We had B.J. Jenkins on earlier. Good segment, right, B.J.? Do you want a good job? Yeah, I mean, Dave, backup and recovery is one of those things we just heard from the secret CTO just joined a year, gave us some commentary. EMC has maintained their leadership, mainly because of their portfolio of products. One of them and that portfolio is backup and recovery, which is not going away anytime soon. So I think the market angle here, Dave, is to really drill down and saying, okay, what's really going on in backup and recovery? Here are the facts. Big data is emerging on the scene, clouds emerging on the scene, new infrastructure at the IT level, and new data, driving business process and improvement, analytics, et cetera. It's putting pressure on the infrastructure, mainly around real-time information. Real-time, as David Floyd from We Can Find will talk about, is about low latency. So that's going to change the game at the edge, in terms of flash and architecture, but also is going to require different backup challenges. So BJ Jenkins, I thought was pretty interesting when he talked about the set of challenges around backup and recovery, from compliance to tech, et cetera. Yeah, he's up on the keynote right now, and Mark Hopkins has set of slides that we prepared, and we're going to do the first one, we're going to look at the market angle. And so you could see here, there's this new category of devices called purpose-built backup appliances. And John, you know, it was that the tape was the way you did backup, and then all of a sudden, the industry started doing disk-based backup. And my assumption was always that the market size for those disk-based appliances could be no bigger than tape, but it's actually bigger than that now. IDC says the market was $2.4 billion last year, growing at 43%. The tape has been declined, and it's probably around a couple of billion, you know, maybe two to three. I like the acronym PBBA. Yeah, Purpose-Build Backup Appliances. Backup Appliances. I was thinking PB... Peanut Butter and... PB&J. Something else. Yeah, but it's an interesting acronym, but think about this, Purpose-Build. Appliance has been the rage lately. Why is that? Why is this not?  There is a total cost of ownership angle here around this. Why is the Purpose-Build Appliance thing really working? Backup is a very specific, you know, operation. You think about it. It's a batch job. It's very CPU-intensive. You got to have, you know, fast backup and fast recovery. So it's a very specific, narrow type of application. And so having an appliance made a lot of sense. And as you can see, the market's enormous. This is all this pent-up demand. And a big part of the reason I think here, John, is that nobody wanted to invest anything more in tape because tape is just a horrible medium. It's great for certain things like we were at NAB and we heard that, you know, in certain broadcast industries, where you're doing a lot of editing, a lot of revisions, having tape as an archive and a deep archive makes sense, but for backup, it's going away. And the other thing you're seeing is this pent-up demand from virtual machine sprawl. VMware and other virtualization technologies came up, came out, and it really stressed the backup window. The time in which you had to actually protect your data, let's say overnight, keep shrinking. And so disk has become the dominant backup platform and data de-duplication, the ability to reduce and optimize the amount of data that lives on that disk has become a fundamental game changer in terms of optimizing the cost associated with that. So, John, we just did a survey at Wikibon and you can see this here in the next slide. We asked people, what's your single biggest challenge in 2012 for IT? Hold on, this is the bar chart slide, hold on, make sure we got that. Yeah, the bar chart slide. So we asked people, what's your single biggest challenge, IT challenge in 2012? And this, the survey was self, you know, ranking. Four or five things came up that really struck me. One was budget constraints, no surprise there. First and second, virtual statistical dead heat, data growth was the second. And then, you know, a distant third and fourth, but still higher than the rest, data protection and the inability of IT to respond to the business. So you asked before what PBBA's purpose-built backup appliances are all about. It's all about these four things, the trying to really focus on budget constraints, bring de-duplication into the fold so that you're doing disk-based backup with economics that are closer to tape, close enough to deal with number four here, which is agility and responses to business. I don't think the slides are on the screen. Yeah, so- Bar chart, do we have the bar chart mark? Keep going on. Yeah, so then data growth is the other one and that's the other thing that is really stressing backup windows is the massive amount of data that we're seeing here. And it's really, it's all about data protection. And then we heard from BJ Jenkins this morning about security. So when you look at this market, so this is a double y-axis graph that we have here. You can see the left hand side terabyte ship- So the title's PBA market up into the right. Yeah, it's growing like crazy. So it's a double y-axis. The right hand side is dollars. The left hand side is terabytes. You can see the bars are terabytes. They're growing like crazy. The revenue's growing like crazy. So the revenue's grown from 1.6 billion in 2010 up to almost six billion by 2016, according to IDC's forecast. IDC just released a critical report on this marketplace and you can just see it's growing like crazy, growing much, much larger than the entire tape market is for backup. So it's quite amazing. But this is the most amazing statistic. This next slide, this pie chart. EMC has the dominant share in the PBA market according to IDC, 66%. So EMC, as you know, John, had Avamar. It had a network that it bought, purchased from Legato years ago. It bought data domain for $2.5 billion as what we at the time called a defensive play to keep NetApp from getting it. But it's become actually a very aggressive, offensive move, allowing EMC to get 66% of the market. And that's quite astounding. They've had that market share since the data domain acquisition. They've held it. You see IBM's got 15%, HP's 4%. IBM and HP both have said they're coming after EMC.  We heard BJ Jenkins today say that he felt as though that was sustainable. They're going to extend their product lines. They've got some new models of data protection that we're going to talk to Steve Manley about. And the final piece that we have here, John, is really sort of four key areas that we want the customers to look at. One is data growth in your shrinking RPO and RTO, the recovery point objective and the recovery time objective. Recovery point objective being how much data you can lose. Recovery time objective, how long it takes for you to get data back. Those shrinking RTO and RPO windows are stressing backup windows. So if that's the case, it might be time to rethink your backup processes. And so can organizations leverage these existing processes or do they have to rip and replace? That's really the fundamental issue. And a lot of customers that we talk to are choosing the latter, rip and replace, even though nobody wants to do that, John, because it's expensive and disruptive. But because of virtualization and the benefits of virtualization, they're forced to re-architect their backup. The third question is what's next in backup and recovery? How is backup and recovery evolving? We've heard today a couple of times this notion of the time machine, Apple time machine for the enterprise, being able to dial down and dial up, how much data you're willing to lose, take snapshots throughout the day. And finally, as IT transforms to become a service, how will backup change? Will we see data protection as a service emerge as opposed to what we've seen for years one size fits all? So John, those are some of the issues we're looking at at Wikibon and SiliconANGLE. We've got a number of segments here. We've got Stephen Manley coming up. We've got a panel of experts. We've got some customers that we're going to talk to about this issue. And so give me your final word and then... I think this is a category that's obviously solution specific. It's not as clean, rip and replace. It's complex. As you mentioned, this cost involved. So I think one of my observation here, Dave, is that with the evolution of tape, taking more of a real, real backseat role and spinning disk becoming the key backup platform and flash becoming the primary storage for these new application environments, spinning disk will be the primary backup, combine that with virtualization and all the requirements around cloud compliance. It's a very interesting market. It's one that really you want to go with the leader on. I think EMC is poised here for some success. A lot of people aren't trying to crack this code, but it's not that easy. So I think this 66% share in this market by EMC is something that's a dividend, quite frankly, from their smart acquisition moves with data domain and Avamar and others. So here EMC is reaping the benefits of the over, as people said, the overpriced acquisition of say data domain. Remember, they were in a bidding war with NetApp for this. So here EMC has got the packaging. And I think that that's what customers want. I think budget constraints are really, really important, but also the data growth. So the question in my mind is this, is a rip and replace viable given that at the same time your business is exploding and the architectures are changing? So that's my angle. And you're absolutely right, that's the key issue. EMC's, the luxury they have is they have strategies for both. If you want to do the rip and replace and optimize for virtualization, that's what Avamar is all about, source side de-duplication. At the same time, if you don't want to, that's what data domain's about, pop it right in. Others are coming after them. I mentioned IBM and HP. There are others, smaller companies as well. Let's see if they can attack. We heard today earlier from BJ Jenkins about end-to-end. Yeah, I mean Dave, you and I have talked to CEOs in this business on theCUBE here. Tucci, Capelas, McDermott, the SAP, Schnabe. And all the top executives talk about flexibility for the customer. And I think ultimately the number one requirement is you got to know where you are on this backup rip and replace versus the continuous improvement. Because at the end of the day, the vendors in this space who want to compete and win have to offer the total solution, okay, and give customers flexibility of choice. John, we've got Stephen Manley, who's coming up next. He's the CTO of the EMC BRS division. Bill Holmes, VP of IT Infrastructure at Loomis to bring us the practitioner's perspective. And then we're coming back with Jason Buffington and David Floyer to have the independent perspective from our analysts, and so keep it right here. Stay tuned to this spotlight on the future of data protection. We'll be right back with SiliconANGLE.tv's continuous coverage of EMC World Live from Las Vegas. Be right back.


Another important skill that you should have gotten in courses prior to calculus is the ability to evaluate a function. And when we define a function using our function notation, what we're actually doing is we're giving a recipe a set of instructions for what we should do to our input quantity x. So when we write f of x equals some formula, what we really mean is for f of x, what we're going to do is we're going to do something with our input variable. For example, if I have the function f of x equals x plus 5, I can read this and what this is saying is it's saying take x and add 5 to it. Or if I have g of x equals x cubed minus 2x plus 7, what this is doing is it's saying take x, cube it, there's my first step, subtract twice x, and then add 7, and that's the recipe. And the important thing here is that it's important to understand that x is actually a placeholder and by itself it has no specific meaning. I don't have to use x here. I can use any other thing that I want to to indicate that there is a place there to substitute in some value. And so for example, I can find f of x equals x squared plus 2x minus 5, find f of black square. And well, how do I do this? Well, here's an easy way to proceed. We can write down our function definition. Paper is cheap. So there's no reason not to write down our function x squared plus 2x minus 5, even though it's in the problem, just write it down. Paper is cheap. And then what we'll do next is we'll just drop out every occurrence of our variable and we'll replace them with an empty set of parentheses. Paper is cheap. Don't try to save space. f of empty set of parentheses equals no longer x, empty set of parentheses. Everything else stays squared plus 3 times empty set of parentheses minus 5. And what I have now, you can think about this as a template for how I'm going to evaluate my function. And the key here is that whatever I put in the first set of parentheses needs to go in all the sets of parentheses. So what do I want? Well, I want f of black square. So black square should go into the first set of parentheses there. And if it's in the first set of parentheses, it should be in all the sets of parentheses. So I'll put it in here and I'll put it in the last one. And there's my f of black square is this thing. Well, what about some other algebraic expression? So here's f of x equals square root x squared plus 4x minus 1. And I want to find f of x plus h. So again, we can set up our template. We're going to drop the x and replace it with an empty set of parentheses. Paper is cheap. Go ahead and take up space. f of empty set of parentheses equals square root of empty set of parentheses squared plus 4 times empty set of parentheses minus 1. And the rest of those don't change. So wherever I saw an x, I'm just replacing with an empty set of parentheses. And paper is cheap. I'll copy that down again. Whatever I put in one of them is going to go in all of them. So I want an x plus h in here, which means I need to put an x plus h in here and in here. And I may have to do a little bit more algebra after this, but this is the starting point for evaluating functions.


William Campbell, and he is in tons of these B horror movies produced by Roger Corman. He was also in the original Star Trek twice, once as Trilane in the Squire of Gothos, and also as Koloth in Troubled Triples. He then reprised the role of Koloth in Deep Space Nine.  Yeah.


Monday, January 30th, a Floyd County truck and passenger vehicle were in a collision in Allen, Kentucky, which resulted in the death of county employee Paula Vasquez and her son Daniel. Vasquez's toddler and Daniel's twin sister were also in the vehicle and are currently being treated for their injuries. There was a car coming from Prestonsburg in the opposite direction and the car appeared to hydroplane and hit the truck. It was broadside. It wasn't head on and it appears the car kind of rolled up on the truck and rolled off to the side. When I arrived on the scene, we just knew that we had one county employee involved in the truck. We didn't realize that the individual in the car was another county employee that worked for us at our senior citizen center in Mud Creek. Vasquez's family has set up a GoFundMe page to help cover funeral expenses and medical costs. They have currently raised $2,400 of a $20,000 goal. Well anytime we have a loss of life, it's a tragic event, but when you know someone it makes it even worse. Good people, good employees, I mean these are folks that we see on a regular basis and we want to make sure that their needs are being taken care of and that's what we're trying to do with Mr. Goble and Impala's family as well. As we have updates, we'll pass the information along to you, but right now we need to be prayed for the family and the daughter that's currently in the hospital next to them and that she pulls through. So we're just asking for prayers and for people to keep them in their thoughts if possible. To donate to the GoFundMe, go to gofund.me backslash 5 CD 55861. Donations can also be made directly to Nelson Fraser Funeral Home in Martin. Reporting for Mountain Top News, I'm Brianna Robinson.


Good morning as mentioned my name is Jean Zen one of the radiation oncologists at the University of Washington And I'm going to speak a little bit about the role of radiation and kidney cancer Many of you are probably not too familiar with radiation therapy. So starting with the very basics Most radiation treatments in the United States are generated using these machines called linear accelerators And so this is what an image of a linear accelerator looks like and basically the radiation is actually generated by this machine And it comes out of the head of the machine in something we call a gantry So the patient is lying on a treatment table like this and the whole thing feels a lot like a CT scan But basically this gantry on top can actually rotate 360 degree around and the table that the patient is on can rotate as well So you can have radiation beam angles that come from any direction There is no radioactive material anywhere in the room The only time there's radiation present is when the machine is on and the patient is getting treated So some of the common questions I get are you know, while I glow in the dark? No, you will not Am I harmful to other people? No, you are not because you are not radioactive There's been a lot of changes to radiation therapy over the past few decades the goal radiation therapy as well As I guess all cancer therapies has always been simple You want to kill the cancer cells and you want to try not to kill the patient Accomplishing that of course is much more difficult and so kind of in the beginning stages of radiation We started with very simple rectangular shaped radiation treatment fields so on the left is basically an x-ray of a patient kind of low back and pelvis and Drawn and out lines of kind of this light green and orange line Are two bones in the low back that have had cancer spread to those bones? And we are providing radiation therapy to help treat on provide pain relief and You probably it's probably hard to see but there's a red rectangle that's outlined and basically that's the shape of the radiation field It's a simple rectangle where we have one beam usually come in from the front one being coming from the back And that's how we treat that lesion the image on the right is a picture of what a whole green radiation field looks like So as mentioned previously sometimes cancers including kidney cancer can spread to the brain and if there's just one or two Spots we will try to do very focused radiation But if there's a lot of different spots then we will often just do radiation to the whole brain And we treat that which is this basically rectangular shaped field We do add blocks over here on one side because you're trying to treat the brain inside the skull and there's no reason to Treat the face But these are you know fairly simple radiation treatments and we actually still do this in our clinic today a More recent development in the past several years has been something called radio surgery or stereo tactic radiation There's a lot of different names for this depending on who's advertising it But basically the general concept is instead of kind of one or two rectangular shaped fields You're now using radiation beams that are coming from a lot of different directions They're all converging on the tumor with the help of providing a high radiation dose for the tumor and a much lower dose elsewhere So this is an example of a patient's lung x-ray with a tumor depicted in the left lung and these yellow lines showing a lot of different radiation beams coming from different directions converging on the tumor So what might that look like on a CT scan? So for example if this is a patient who has a tumor in the lungs say it's a kidney cancer That's spread with a lung nodule on the top image You basically have a little red circle showing there's a tiny tumor right there And in the middle image you're seeing a lot of yellow lines showing a lot of different radiation beams coming from every which direction All converging on the tumor and on the bottom figure your show is basically seeing these lines Representing different doses of radiation. It's a little bit like a topography map. So there's a thicker yellow line That's basically saying that's the full dose of radiation that we're giving and that's covering the tumor plus a few millimeter margin And then there's a kind of pinkish line a little bit further out that represents about 50% of the radiation dose And then there's a much fainter teal line with a lot of fingers sticking out that represents about 10% of the dose So you're basically seeing the track of the different radiation beams Converging on the tumor to provide the full dose of the tumor while falling off much lower doses of radiation as you move further away from the tumor Similarly another very common scenario that we use this for is for treating patients whose tumors have spread to the bones and the spine So the vertebral bodies and the spine so the very kind of simple Decades old way of doing it is with a rectangular shaped beam coming in from the back similar to what we saw in one of our earlier slides and Basically you have full dose tonic to the back and the icidose lines kind of fall off as you go to the front But you're basically providing a fairly high dose of radiation to this entire whole rectangular area More recently you can now use different beams of radiation So this one is actually using nine separate beams radiation coming from different directions They're all still converging on the tumor So now you're getting a much higher dose to this bone that's involved with cancer in the back And there's lower doses elsewhere in the body and the very last one is talking about something called I am RT Standing for intensity modulated radiation Meaning not only do you have radiation beams coming from different directions But the shape of the beam actually changes during treatment And what this can do compared to the other radiation techniques is you can carve kind of a concave shape So for something like the spinal cord Spine lesion where you're trying to treat the bone surrounding the spinal cord But you would ideally like to not give a lot of radiation to the spinal cord itself The something called I am RT can actually carve out a doughnut So you're actually getting a higher dose to the bone surrounding the spinal cord and a lower dose the spinal cord itself This is a kidney cancer conference. So of course we can also do this to the kidney These are three images showing axial sagittal and coronal slices Of a CT scan basically showing there's a tumor in the left kidney And we are aiming at that tumor and that red splotch is basically the full dose with a very light blue Splotch about 30% of the dose and so this is a sagittal image kind of going like this and what you're showing is This is the size of the entire kidney and we're aiming at a tumor that seems to be in the middle Third of the kidney and this is another corona slice showing that as well that this is the whole kidney And we're giving radiation to about the middle third of it One thing I will point out is for bringing the task This is we can treat with radio surgery as well But we do it with a slightly different machine and a slightly different system We have a system called the gamma knife and here You actually do have radioactive sources cobalt inside this little kind of the head of the machine here The patient is lying on the table and we attach this immobilization helmet device to them They kind of move back into this into this head of the machine and they're actually up to 201 radiation beams But we don't usually use more than eight to ten at a time depending on the location of the tumor And you're able to focus on the radiation on a brain tumor with it with accuracy of about within about a tenth of a millimeter This device unfortunately doesn't work for anything outside the body because you have to be able to go into the machine And so you can do that with the head, but you can't you know put a lung in there You can't go back in far enough And so if we're going to talk about being very precise with the radiation to perhaps within a millimeter Then you need to be very confident that you know where your tumor is when you're treating Otherwise, you're going to miss and so with the technology evolution There's also been an improvement in terms of image guidance so image guided radiation therapy What does that mean? so I think we look at an image similar to this whole brain radiation at the beginning of the time our time together and Basically if we were treating a patient with whole brain radiation Then when we treat the patient we would actually take an x-ray before we treat to make sure that we see the skull That the beam is positioned correctly and the patient is positioned correctly and then we would turn on radiation beam But what you're talking about some of these more sophisticated radiation treatment So the skull is an exception because your brain is entirely encased by bone and that's easy to see on an x-ray But if you're treating a tiny tiny nodule in the lung or the kidney or the liver You don't necessarily see that very well on an x-ray image And so now there's been evolution where before we treat for these high-dose treatments We actually do a CT scan every day on the treatment table before we turn on the radiation beam So for example, this is what a CT scan might look like that we use to plan the radiation treatment So there's a tumor in the lung right there and the older what we call combing CT That's just the name of the CT scan we get before do radiation treatment looks something like this It's not great quality, but it's at least better than an x-ray and being able to show you Oh, yes, there's a long tumor right there We can do all sorts of fancy fancy image registration things to make sure that your lining patients up properly But the newer generations of combing CTs have improved in quality So that you're not able to see things pretty well and you can make sure that you're aiming at the correct target before you turn on radiation beam Something we else we deal with in the chest as well as upper abdomen where the kidney resides is tumor motion So again, you need to see where the tumor is and need to make sure that what you're treating is not moving So for example, we live in a three-dimensional world, but in radiation oncology We talk a lot about a four DCT where the fourth dimension is time So this is an illustration of for example, if you had a tumor in the lower part of the lung The problem is that as we breathe your diaphragm moves up and down And so tumors in the lower part of the lung as well as the upper abdomen move with your respiratory motion And so this is showing an example of if you're taking in a breath Inspiration then your diaphragm moves down because your lungs are expanding and so the tumor tends to be lower down in the chest But if you exhale your lung volume is now a lot smaller and so the tumor actually moves up in the chest So for a tumor like this if you only did a scan on one phase of the breathing cycle You can actually miss this and then aimed at it You can actually miss the tumor for a good portion of the breathing cycle So there are two major ways to deal with this one is you just make the volume that you're treating bigger So that you're encompassing the entire volume of the tumor as it's moving up and down as you're breathing The other volume option is do something called respiratory gating And so what's happening is a patient is on the table and we actually put a little marker on their abdomen because you can Trek respiration based on sort of the abdominal wall motion You have a little camera that's tracking it The patient is wearing a pair of fancy glasses and they can actually see their breathing cycle kind of go up and down As their abdominal wall goes up and down and we program the computer so that the radiation beam only comes on for a portion of the breathing cycle So for the tumor that we were just looking at for example We can say well We are only going to treat this when the tumor is over here inside the circle and not when it's out here outside of the circle And so as we're tracking the patient's breathing between inspiration and respiration with this squiggly line here We can actually program the computer so that the radiation beam only comes on so you're you don't Have to treat a large volume to get the whole tumor as it's moving through the respiratory cycle But you're not you're also not missing the tumor for part of your treatment time And so I thought you know so that was kind of a reveal of a lot of our toys But I thought I would actually mention some of the relationship to sort of a relationship between radiation and renal tumors a lot Of you are probably not very familiar with radiation unlike certainly what dr. Tycote and dr. Gore does and part of that is because radiation has not been used very much in kidney cancer treatment There's been a lot of debate But most people would agree that renal cell tumor cells for whatever reason are a little bit radial resistant Meaning it takes a slightly higher dose of radiation to kill a renal tumor than many other kinds of cancers that are out there Surgery has been the standard treatment for localized renal cell cancers But we know that sometimes cancers can still come back after surgery and so for decades We have tried adding conventional radiation to surgery by conventional I mean unlike radio surgery where you get a very few treatments Very high dose per treatment like three to five treatments Conventional radiation you get treated with a low dose of radiation every day Monday through Friday And this goes on for several weeks five to six weeks usually We've tried adding this kind of radiation to either before the surgery or after the radio after the surgery In order to for in hope of decreasing local recurrence There's been multiple randomized trials done about this and unfortunately it's not clear that I actually helped and Unfortunately, the treatment can also be quite toxic because we're treating a fairly large area of the body Not only do you want to get the kidney with its tumor? You're trying to get all the lymph nodes in the area that could have tumor spread and so we really do not do this However in the more recent years with technology evolution There's been more interest in trying to do this radio surgery so very high dose per treatment very few treatments somewhere between one to five and There's a lot of very right now The data is still fairly new and so most of the data consists of very small patient series Meaning someone saying well, we treated 20 patients with this and this is how they did this is probably a slightly bigger study That was published in the last year looking at 40 patients who had a total of 45 Surrogically untreatable renal tumors and by surgically untreatable usually it means the patients are not in good enough medical shape to undergo and Fractomy and Basically what they felt what they did was they gave 25 gray of radiation You don't have to know what that means other than gray is just what we used to measure radiation dose But 25 gray in one is a pretty hefty radiation dose And basically what they're trying to show here is the patient had a tumor in the right kidney on an image like this left Is right right is left and each one of these blue lines represents a beam direction for the radiation So lots of directions for the radiation beam converging on the tumor in the right kidney And these three images basically just show coronal sagittal and I'm sorry axial sagittal and coronal images With the radiation dose line distributions look like with the red line being the areas that they wanted to treat and green line being the full dose of radiation and then the lower doses as you move further away and At a medium follow-up of about 28 months, so a little over two years the average tumor size they treat it was about 42 ml most of us don't know what that means so it's about the size of a golf ball and 39 of the 45 tumors that were treated were in remission meaning they were smaller and then they did not get any bigger 19 tumors disappeared. So what does that look like? So this is a sample image of basically a left kidney tumor this black area is basically the tumor this white area is normal kidney and This is the tumor that was treated with radiation and about a year later. There's still something there We don't know for sure what it is. It could be scar tissue. It could be live cancer cells The only way to know for sure would be to do a biopsy to remove it But basically patients are then continually monitored with imaging and if it's smaller great or it doesn't grow But if it's growing then we count that as progressive disease What were the overall control rates these are all very well selected kind of patient populations So overall they were just trying to say that progressions free survival and overall survival at a time point of like two years is fairly reasonable about 80 to 90 percent The treatment was fairly well tolerated a little bit of kind of skin irritation dermatitis from radiation a little bit of feeling tired There's some nausea because there's usually a lot of bowel around the kidney and stomach So there can be some nausea so that's out of 40 patients total and then for these patients who all had fairly normal kidney function to begin with The it just shows that the radiation at least did not kill the kidney function They still had relatively normal kidney function after the radiation treatment The authors concluded and I think it was a fair statement that in very carefully and well selected patients The short-term safety and efficacy of radio surgery the kidney tumors seem encouraging But again these are very short follow-up treatments the results seem similar Not necessarily better than other kinds of a blade of techniques that are out there And it's you will need further study with bigger patient populations and longer follow-up to see what's really the long-term efficacy of these treatments Similarly in patients, you know, I think as dr. Ty Cote mentioned radiation we tend to see patients a lot more for kidney cancer who have already metastasized So we certainly do radio surgery to sites of metastatic disease as well And similarly there's a lot of kind of small patient series out there showing what the efficacy is This is a particular series looking at 50 patients who have metastatic renal cell carcinoma and eight patients with inoperable primary renal cell carcinoma They actually treated 152 tumors total out of these patients and so most patients were getting treated to about three to four spots with radiation because I've metastatic cancer the regimens were not quite as aggressive as 25 times one 25 gray times one treatment, but they're fairly aggressive as well. It's usually somewhere between three or four treatments and The vast majority of these patients were treated to the lungs is that tends to be a spot that the renal Kidney cancer spreads to quite a bit with other sites spread out through the body as well including media staining Other kidney adrenal gland liver, etc. and bone of course In terms of local control, I think you know with radiation if we give a high enough dose of radiation We can kill anything so local control is pretty good But the sobering fact is unfortunately these are patients with metastatic cancer and they develop new metastatic cancer spots during follow-up And so it's always very sobering that you know, there are limitations to what we can and cannot do in terms of side effects Again, these are fairly well tolerated out of the 58 patients that were treated grade one side effects They're usually pretty mild there you may notice them, but you're not terribly bothered by them grade two They're starting to become more bothersome But they usually are relatively easy to manage with say a new medication or something like that Grade three that's starting to be more serious because you usually have to intervene like do some kind of procedure Grade four is usually something that requires hospitalization, but overall it was reasonably well tolerated And I think the last portion I'll talk about is you know radiation We've always considered ourselves to be a local therapy meaning it works where we point the beam it doesn't work elsewhere, but we are also very excited about all the developments in immunotherapy and We are also actively trying to figure out what can we do to partner with it because I think dr Tech Cody presented very exciting data But the problem is it's not the response rates overall are not high and we certainly like to see it higher And so what we know is by the time someone has a tumor that's large enough to be seen on a scan It's probably figured out some way of evading the immune system Otherwise you would never have known that it was there and so usually a lot of these tumors They're in some kind of immunosuppressive environment, which is why giving a drug that kind of in Kansas the immune response works So for radiation what we think happens sometimes is there's a tumor we zap it with radiation It dies and in the process of dying it releases a lot of protein called antigen that ordinarily would not be seen and If your tumor is just sitting in a very immunosuppressive environment Then it can release all the antigen at once your immune system still won't respond because they're being suppressed But if you're using radiation and something like one of the immuno checkpoint inhibitors together Then maybe they can help boost each other. So it's almost like having a vaccine And so the this has been looked at for the longest period of time in melanoma And this is a case study report that was published in a very prestigious medical journal in 2011 New England Journal of Medicine and it was actually just a case report of one patient with melanoma that was metastatic and This patient was on the ipuloma mask. It's the one of the kind of CTLA for Immunotherapy agents and what this patient had was multiple sites of disease from the melanoma So there was a spot on the right side of the spine up there that the white arrow is trying to point to There were some lymph nodes in the lung There is a spot in the liver and at the time the patient's spleen was perfectly clean So this is August of 2009 the patient is on ipuloma mask and by November 2010 There's cancer progression in all these spots. So the spot in the back was a little bigger The lymph nodes in me to sign them were a little bigger The liver spot was a little bigger and now there are multiple spots that are visible in the spleen At this point the patient because of pain in the back received radiation radio surgery to the tumor that was in the back So that's what this bottom left figure is basically they received 9.5 grade for three treatments focused on that tumor in the back and They continued on ipuloma after in this whole time and what they saw was a month after radiation treatment Everything still looks about the same nothing's changed yet because it takes a while to see response About three months after that the tumor in the back is a lot smaller not surprising We treated it with a fairly high dose of radiation But what was completely surprising was that even though they're on the same drug ipuloma Map that they were previously progressing through the other spots of cancer were responding as well So the lymph nodes in the media stymum the liver spot all the spots in the spleen And this remains sustained over about the nine month period that the case report was reporting And so there's a lot of excitement about the possible combination of radiation and using that with these checkpoint inhibitors to prime the immune system So right now at the University of Washington We actually have a clinical trial for patients with metastatic melanoma and radiation and we're in development with our colleagues to Possibly open up a similar trial in patients with metastatic Renal cell carcinoma as well with basically you don't have to look at all the details of this trial schema But what we would be proposing would be that patients are on this nevola map that we heard quite a bit about from dr. Ty Coney They also get another drug It's a pill called now finivir that helps to prime the immune system as well as three doses of radiation to a particular tumor somewhere in the body and Then we kind of monitor response not only to the tumor that we treated but also elsewhere as well So because as I said the medical community were very excited about immunotherapy But there's a lot of work underway to try to figure out. How do we make everyone? Every patient we treat one of those kind of miracle responders that you see on the news So I think that's probably the entirety of my talk and I think the only other thing I was going to say that I think I got a hint of from dr. Gors talk as well as dr. Ty Coney it's not just about the technology It's about knowing how to use it so and sometimes knowing when is the right time to not use it I think that's all I have to say. Thank you Last thing you were talking about the upcoming study on the immunorab Were you talking about melanoma patients or kidney cancer? So for that particular study, we would expand it to include patients with melanoma kidney cancers and long so those are three cancers where the Immunotherapy the nevola map are currently considered to be standard of care


Okay, so let's continue. So I will try to give a summary actually of this last part of the course related to planetary ionosphere. Now, I had quite maybe a long introduction but I will maybe skip some slides and anyways it will be uploaded on the website presentation so you will have it. You will have all the slides. So I mentioned in the morning that there's two interfaces with the solar wind. So the magnetopause an external interface and the internal one internal one is the ionosphere. And actually, the ionosphere it can be is one of an example of a multi MHD approach actually the solar wind we consider the plasma as one fluid. But the ionosphere is different. We should for the MHD equation, we should write them for each ion species that we have. Also here, we have an additional term really, which includes actually the iron or the collisions between the species that we are considering. And in the continuity equation you would see here that we have two terms, the S are the source terms and the sources are related to well usually photo ionization, or the energetic particles and the last terms. They would be related to the chemical reactions or the recombination or charge exchange actually. Maybe very quickly, some history about the ionosphere so ionosphere was discovered in 1901 by mostly in Italian Marconi, who actually was performing first radio signal transmission and across the Atlantic Ocean actually. And he could perform this experiment successfully so the ionosphere was kind of discovered accidentally actually and many years later on. The success of his experiment was interpreted by the presence there should be a kind of conductive layer in the atmosphere that is making this experiment possible. And while in 1926, the word ionosphere was invented to characterize this layer in the atmosphere. Okay, how do we measure I mean they are the ionosphere we knew the altitude of the atmosphere this kind of plot is called I don't know. And basically by transmitting a wave kind of train of waves at different. Let's say a frequency, because they get reflected by the ionosphere, we can kind of estimate the altitude of the ionosphere. So the y axis is the altitude as a function of the wave frequency. And you see, so this is the signature of the reflected waves from the ionosphere and most of them are between 400 and let's say 600 kilometers so that's the altitude of the ionosphere on earth actually. And you would, you can see that above six megahertz above this frequency. There's, there's no reflections of the waves. So the waves just propagates and go into space. And that's, that's actually what we call the cutoff frequency of the way. So all the waves which are lower than this frequency will be reflected. And this phenomena, I mean the reflection of the way we can it happens from earth but also can happens from space. So there's lots of in the electromagnetic spectrum for instance the very large wavelength waves they are also blocked by the atmosphere and reflected into space. Okay, so as you all know the atmosphere plays a very important role in our communications and GPS signal and also because it's a, it's made of charged particles. It's very sensitive to any kind of changing of the magnetic or electric conditions in space. It doesn't want to move. Okay, so here just a profile actually. So the altitude profile on both figures in the first one of the neutral gas so of the atmosphere and the second plot is of the plasma density. And here the red curve is the density of the neutrals and the blue curve is the temperature of the neutrals. And these different. Well, at this different altitude, we have the different layers of the atmosphere troposphere stratosphere middle sphere and these different layers are actually controlled by the changes of the temperature in the atmosphere of earth. However, this is the second plot here it shows the profile of the ionosphere of earth. And now the structure of the atmosphere of earth is not controlled by the electron temperature, but more by the electron densities. And here you see the different. Well, at least here we have three layers region F, E and D. The solid line is the atmosphere during daytime and the dashed lines is enduring the night side. And you see of course as expected because the atmosphere is formed mainly by photo ionization due to the EUV solar radiation during the night time the electron density is much higher than the night side. But then we still have a relatively important electron number densities in the night side and that's because of the rotation of the earth and also the transport of the plasma from the day side to the night side. And so there are two basic requirements to form the ionosphere. Well, first you need to have a neutral atmosphere, and the second requirement is the presence of the source of ionization of these gases. And this ionization can be due either by photo ionization so from the photons and or from energetic particles coming from the solar winds or from the magnetosphere itself. So this is just an example actually of an ionization by absorption of extreme EUV light with so on the atom here, the oxygen, which would give a positive ions plus a free electrons. You mean for the oxygen the atom. What are you talking about mono atomic oxygen just yes, mostly oxygen. It depends on the altitude actually. Yes. So, is so it's just the composition of the atmosphere of. So it's basically the atmosphere I can show this plot. Yes. They are the dense. Yeah. You see here this is the profile of the density of the neutral atmosphere. I mean, I this year we don't show the composition, but the density is much higher at lower attitude than at higher attitude now. I'm, let me show. Yes.  So this is kind of here I'm showing just the neutral density in Earth's atmosphere. So. So at least what so the dioxin is the density is really important. So let's say at this altitude, but then due to lots of photo chemical, well, this photo dissociation and chemical reactions, then mono atomic oxygen can be as well produced. Because they are transport of. Yes, but I mean it's lots of processes that take into account. Okay, so I talked about photo ionization. I can skip this. Now, okay, so photo ionization is a kind of a source of the performing the ionosphere. Now we have some other kind of reaction that from which we lose actually this positively charge ions and one of them is recombination and recombination always happens. And that's when so ions are lost by recombining so. So they will just gain an electron and this will produce an atom plus release of energy. And an example of this is what we call air glow, actually, an air glow is just the lights that we you observe, which represents basically they are no sphere. And it shouldn't be confused actually with auroras, which is formed with a different kind of process. So air growth is very different from the northern lines or the auroras. And then you can have dissociative recombination when you have splitting of a molecule into atoms and excited states. So why actually the profile of the ionosphere is, I mean the shape is very particular as I showed you there is a peak in the ionosphere at a certain attitude. Why is it the case. So, actually, this is because it's, and I will show it to you here, maybe more qualitatively because so it's like this because it's the super super position actually of the attitude dependence of the particle density and the flux intensity. So, I showed you before so the actually the neutral particle density and the profile decreases exponentially as a function of height. Okay. I can show using like barometric row low actually that the this is the expression of the neutral particle density, the profile and assuming an ideal gas and isothermal temperature. density here is written as a function well certain and zero density at a certain reference let's say height, and then the big age here I don't know if you're familiar but it's the so called scale height and is a function of the temperature well the mass. And the scale height is basically it reflects the vertical width of the atmosphere, because how can you define what is the width of the atmosphere. So we use this quantity to characterize the different let's say with or layers. Yes. Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah. And surprisingly it works really very well actually. It's better always to start very simple and they say that when you go to up to a month. When you feel something pressure. Yeah, basically when you pass some flags. Yes. scale, some portion of the scale. Because we go to your. Higher. Yes. Yes. Yeah. So this is how. So this is how the density of the particles varies the function of the altitude due to gravity mainly the density of the neutral especially is much higher at lower attitude than at higher attitude. Now how would you think the flux and density would vary. Would it vary the same way or. So it will vary in the opposite way actually. So the intensity of the solar radiation with decrease. Going down in altitude. Okay, and you can see it directly here. So, actually, the combination of this density profile on the intensity of the solar flux is actually gives the ionization kind of rates of the ionosphere. So at high very high attitude, the density, the neutral particle density is very low. But then, even though the intensity of the solar radiation is very important, but we don't have much neutral to to ionize. So, well, this is why the ionization rate is lower at higher attitude. And at very low attitudes. Now, the density of the neutral particles very high, but then the intensity of the solar radiation is very low. So that's why as well the ionization rates. So there is an optimum attitude where the ionization rate is maximum. And that's what gives actually kind of this profile of the ionosphere. Okay. And then the ionization rate while the intensity would change, but then the profile would say the same but of course the intensity was. Yes, yes, of course. Exactly. Yeah. Yes. Yeah. So this is mainly so and the solar flux is actually given by this formula here, which depends on the solar flux outside so at infinity here, which is the solar flux outside the atmosphere, and then it depends as well of course on the optical depth. Now, I will skip some slides but this was actually in the 1931 is Sydney Chapman actually, who proposed a very simple mathematical model to explain the formation of these ionized layers in the atmosphere. And of course there are some assumptions I will skip. So, so if we consider only one type of gas, one. Well, and that the atmosphere is horizontally stratified so we consider very simple geometric geometrically the problem. And then we also consider only monochromatic radiation so only one wavelength, and that the atmosphere is isothermal so that the scale height is constant as well so basically you can think that we are only considered one layer and the kind of the ionosphere. Well, you can actually show that the, the iron production rate for a given the neat angle so the neat angle is the angle between the vertical direction with respect to the direction of the sun. So if the neat angle is zero. This is here you get the maximum actually. And that prime here is a kind of reduced a scale height. So is this. Well, yes, so it's it's kind of the altitude with respect to a reference altitude. The maximum iron production rate so at the neat angle equal to zero, and then time the so exponential these well valuables, and the ratio of so this I write the iron production rate is this formula is what is known the Chapman function. And so this is an example actually here the y axis is the altitude. The axis axis is the ratio of the production rate over so the normalized one over the maximum iron production rate. And from this also from this formula you can get as well the ratio of the density over and zero as well. So normalized kind of electron number density is produced. So you can fit. I mean this for a given the neat angle, you can get this kind of different profile of the atmosphere. So for the neat angle equal to zero here you get the maximum ionization rate at well this attitude but then changing the neat angle. Of course it will be lower at 90 degrees. Okay, I can, I mean one also important thing I wanted to talk about is the ionospheric currents. And that's very important because actually they are not here. It's coupled to the whole magnetosphere by providing some, let's say electrical conductivity channels, and this plays a very important role actually in space plasma since the ionosphere, it will connect. The different regions, electrically. And so this would play a role in the energy transfer and the momentum from one region to another. So if we take the classical arms low. So in the absence of magnetic field, you have here the current is simply equal actually to the conductivity of the plasma due to the collisions times the electric field. Now if we add a magnetic field. As you know so we obtain the generalized arms low, and here the formula is a bit more. More complex, let's say, so it is related to the electric field, but then we have here the electron velocity across be. So if we are parallel interaction parallel to the magnetic field, then this term goes to zero and here we have what we call the parallel conductivities, or we obtain the field aligned current so the currents that are aligned with the magnetic field. But if we are perpendicular to the magnetic field. It's not as simple as the first one here we can get two types of conductivities. In both cases we are perpendicular to be now here the conductivity becomes a conductivity tensor actually. And in the direction parallel to the electric field we have what we call the Peterson currents, and in the direction perpendicular to E we have what we call the whole currents. And this illustration. So, these are illustration of the different conductivities or different currents. So we have the field aligned currents, the Peterson currents, and the whole currents, and this will actually connect to the magnetosphere with the ionosphere. And it kind of will close the current system in the magnetosphere. Yes. Yes. Yeah. Yeah, so that's how actually. So, kind of this whole system is connected to with each other through. Yes. Yeah. Okay, so they almost use an hour solar system so actually all the planets, except one, they have ionosphere and except mercury mercury has a very thin ionosphere. But we. So it's basically, it doesn't really have an ionosphere it has only an exosphere so it's kind of the upper layer of the ionosphere. And also the moons around planets they can have by the atmosphere. Also around comets, they can have ionosphere and the rings of Saturn as well they have their own ionosphere actually due to the photo ionization of the charged dusts and the dust as well. Let's talk a little bit. How long do I have. Okay, yeah, yeah, yeah. So, yeah, so I will just give you an example of the, how we can measure in situ actually, or we could measure in situ the ionosphere of Saturn. And I will focus actually in the final phase of the Cassini mission, which started between April 26 until September 2017. And here on board and for this I will show your measurements from the Langley probe. So again, the Langley probe is this instrument which is on board the spacecraft. And during this final phase, actually, it was completely spectacular because for the first time Cassini so performed for 22 orbits, and it crossed actually the gap between the planet and the main ring. So for the, this is maybe a video. So for the first time we could actually sample in situ this region here between the rings of the planets and and and Saturn. And also we could measure in situ for the first time. So you can see it crossed as well and or in this region. Okay, and then here you will see the different flybys or the different orbits during this final phase of the mission. You can see it here. Yes. So every week there was a one crossing of this gap between the planets and the rings. Yes, every week. Yes, every week we had one flyby. Yeah, but because this is the video. And so with the Langley probe, we could take in situ measurement in this region here very close to the planet and the rings. So we could measure, we could measure in situ the ionosphere of Saturn. So this is an illustration of all the orbits. The final orbit, it actually crossed. It actually was just the end of the space mission with. And so it was just it, it plunged into the atmosphere of the planet and then it just evaporated in inside center. Yes. So this is the control kind of crash of the instrument action of the spacecraft. And this is all the 22 orbits, and you see that this is, let's say the closest approach at the closest approach, the orbits they cover different altitudes from Saturn. And this is, I mean, in this region here, the closest, the innermost rings is called the D ring. And the D ring is very dusty ring very thin transparent ring. Now I will show you a real image taken by Cassini actually. This is a real image. And it's basically kind of the same of this one. Yeah. And this is, this is the highest altitude of the orbits when it crossed this region. This is the D ring, and you see some of the orbits they even they crossed even inside the D ring. So with this measurement we could also probe in situ the D ring region. And it was kind of risky because the, the, the scientists, the engineers, I mean, they oriented the spacecraft in a way that the, the high gen antenna was facing the, the dust and all facing the ring so to protect the instrument, but it was very risky because we didn't know what to expect actually. And it went really very well so for the first time we could also measure in situ with the rings of Saturn's, at least the innermost D ring. And again here I'm showing you the Langley probe instrument, which was actually developed in the Institute of space physics in IRF in, in, in Uppsala Sweden. Okay, so here I'm showing you one example so off the first. So this is the altitude profile of the electron number density for the first proximal orbit proximal orbit. So this panel is the electron number densities and this one is the electron temperature. And let's say there's lots of information on this curve. The blue, I mean all this part of the plot is the inbound. And then the, so in the northern hemisphere, and then the magenta line or the pink one is the outbound portion of the orbit so this one is in the southern hemisphere. So the dark blue curve here it represents the electron number densities inferred from the Langley probe instrument. The red curve is the iron number densities inferred from the Langley probe. And so we also consider the ionosphere as a quasi neutral medium. And this is you can see it here actually the iron number density and the electron number density they are coincide very well. And then the black curve here is the electron number densities but estimated from the upper hybrid frequency, the cut off frequency of the upper hybrid ways actually. And just to show you here an example. This is a spectrogram of an energy spectrogram. A frequency time spectrogram actually off the wave during this proximal orbit. And you can see very broad band emissions but more importantly above the electron cyclotron frequency, you can see here very narrow band kind of emission. And this was actually at the upper hybrid frequency. And from this basically formula we can estimate the electron number density. And this is the electron number densities inferred from this upper hybrid frequency. And it's, it's very well, consisting very well with the Langley probe measurements.  But it's very well consistent. Now you see this is the closest approach here at the lower attitude, and you see that's the ionosphere of Saturn, at least below 4000 kilometers is about the density is very high about 10,000 1000 for this case particles per CC, and the temperature is very low is about 0.1 EV so it's a very dense and cold ionosphere. You can also note very clear a symmetry between the inbound and the outbound in the profile. And you see here very sharp decrease actually in the electron number densities here. Well, but here there was a data gap, but it's consistent for the other flyby, and, and a local increase in this region. So this was, this is really very nice because this actually related directly to the ring shadows. So the a and the bearing are opaque to the EU B solar radiation. I can show you. Yes. So this is Saturn, again, one of the orbits of Cassini, and on the color here it shows the the electron number densities. So these are the rings. The first rings, the D and the series are very transparent to the UV solar radiation. But this is not the case to the B and the a ring, they are very opaque to the UV solar radiation. And so below in the southern hemisphere, there was a shadow actually because of these trains. So of course in this shadowed region, there's much less ionization. And so we have much less electron number densities. So it was very, and in between these rings, you see here there's what kind of a gap. It was discovered by Cassini, so the scientists. So, so that's why it is named the Cassini division, and it's transparent to the UV solar radiation and that's why we observe kind of a local ionization in this region. So it was very nice that with the lightning probe, we could actually observe this. The presence of this a and the bearing shadow. And also we could study the effect of this a and the bearing shadows on kind of the transport in the ionosphere of Saturn. Okay. I will just I will show this and then I can stop. So here I showed you only one example of the ionosphere of Saturn. But of course, we want to try to construct a standard ionospheric profile for Saturn. We want to combine all the proximal orbits. So these are all the orbits of Cassini and Saturn, the y axis is the altitude as a function of the latitude here, and the color bar represents the electron number density. The crosses here represents the closest approach of Cassini to to Saturn, and it's in the southern hemisphere basically is a minus five degrees. And also, here you can see it very clearly the clear asymmetry between the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. And this is, as I said, due to the ring shadowing effects. So, if you want to construct the kind of ionospheric model for Saturn's ionosphere, we need to exclude these effects of the rain shadows. So we just focus on analyzing all the electron number density profile in this box here so basically around equatorial latitude between minus 15 and 15 degrees. So we, so we can compare these electron number densities profile between the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. So this again the y axis the altitude as a function of the electron number density the color. Okay, let's forget about the color bar so far. In the northern hemisphere and then in the southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere, you can see well that the electron number density increases increases at as we go down in altitude. And you can see that the density goes up about more than 10,000 particles per CC at the closest approach so it's very high very dense ionosphere actually. Note that in the northern hemisphere, the, the profile are kind of organized. So above 4000 kilometers except this orbit here, but I will tell you why the profile I mean the variation is kind of constant with the altitude, then between let's say 2500 kilometers up to about 4000 kilometers here the profile look like variable and more kind of structured, and then below 2000 kilometers the profile becomes smooth again. As if we have kind of different layers here in the northern hemisphere. Now if we compare to the southern hemisphere. This is not the case actually at all these altitude. In the region that the profiles look like very structured and variable and not at all organized as is in the northern hemisphere. So why is it the case to understand the difference between this northern and southern hemisphere profile. We have the what is called the magnetic L shell values. The magnetic L shell value is the distance on so the equatorial plane, where the magnetic field so crosses the equatorial plane. Okay, so if an L so very particular L shell value here is about 1.11. And that's where the D ring starts actually. Okay. So all the color colors. So, yellow or red represents actually basically the crossing of the D ring by the magnetic field. So when we add this information to this profile, you see that well in the northern hemisphere. The ionosphere. So, this yellow color is only above 6000 kilometers, which means that in the northern hemisphere above 6000 kilometers, the magnetic field is actually or the atmosphere is coupled to the magnetic field that crosses the D ring. But in the southern hemisphere. This actually happens at all these different attitudes. So this actually showed indirectly the role of the magnetic fields in kind of shuffling, or the structure of the ionosphere, but also it, it implies the important role of the my magnetic field in facilitating the coupling actually between the rings, and the ionosphere of Saturn. And we have this clear asymmetry with between both, basically because the, the whole magnetic field the dipole magnetic field of Saturn is shifted towards the north. So we have also an asymmetry in the kind of the structure of the magnetic field. You have current along the. Yes. Yes, yes. And I mentioned this profile, this particular profile here, why this is the electron number density, why for this one is much lower than the other ones. Actually this, this profile is one of the cases where the casino was very close to the jury. And so, when we look at the landing probe data. We could see that for this case, actually, the electron number density was very low, because the landing probe could indirectly measure the presence of negatively charged us. That's why the electron number density was lower. So this is basically the landing probe observations. The y axis is the bias voltage as a function of time, and then the current is shown in the color bar here. So when we compute, it's not very clear here. So when we compute the different number densities. So the red one is the iron number densities. Okay, the red curve. And this is the closest approach in this region. And let me check because I forgot. And the electron number density let's look only at the red curve and the blue curve, the electron number density is given by the blue curve. And the iron number density is given by this red curve. And you see, the iron number density is not equal to the electron number density. And we know that the plasma is quasi neutral in the ionosphere it should be quasi neutral. So this means that we have additionally negatively charged dust that corrects for this quasi in neutrality and that's how indirectly we could measure the presence of the negatively charged us. So, then of course, so we took all so the profile in the northern hemisphere because here we don't have any effect from the rings of Saturn, and we can kind of construct average ionosphere or standard ionospheric profile of Saturn. And based on this only this observation we can kind of categorize the ionosphere of Saturn's in three different layers. So above 4000 kilometers, the profile look kind of constant between 205 2500 kilometers and up to 4000 kilometers, the density kind of increases exponentially. And then below 2500 kilometers the profile becomes more the game. And we compare this average profile to the profile of the final plunge of Cassini that actually covered continuously all these altitude ranges. And then we see that it's quite comparable actually the profile where above 4000 kilometers quite constant in this way in this layer we have lots of variations, and then below the profile becomes smooth again. And then for these different layers we can fit this kind of layers, and we can estimate the scale heights as well in these different layers in the ionosphere of Saturn. And I forgot to mention, okay, let me. So in this below 2000 kilometers. Here, the, the, let's say, we will have well chemical equilibrium processes will dominate because we are, we are at very low altitude. And in this range, we would have the diffusion kind of equilibrium processes that would dominate. Maybe these variations could be due to other kind of waves. Other kind of transport processes but it's very difficult to say with these data and then above 4000 kilometers at very high altitude the ionosphere starts connect with the plasma sphere. One last thing maybe I wanted to show yes. That also, I mean, we could detect you see here there is one peak. This at very low altitude at 200 kilometers from Saturn, but this doesn't mean that this is the main peak of the ionosphere it could be one of the peaks of the ionosphere. That's it. I think I'm done. Thank you. I wanted to go talk about the ring channel effects but I think I can stop here and but it will be in the presentation. Okay, I'm thirsty actually so just drink water. Yeah, I was. No, I think just maybe the order in which they discovered them. I think maybe a was discovered in the beginning. The D there's the F ring the earring and I miss one but there's, I think it's just the order. No, no, no easy. Yeah, actually, yes we do have, but I didn't show it here because we have no next. Maybe I can add some references I mean I, there are already some references but, of course, here I only talked about the Langley probe. Well, maybe I could have talked about other instruments as well, but we there was also magnetometer on board the spacecraft and we could measure in detail as well. The magnetic field the internal magnetic field of Saturn. I forgot the value but it's a very strong field actually, but yeah. Yes, yes, it's much stronger than earth. What I only remember is that you know the, the inclination of Saturn's rotation axis is actually very well aligned with the axis of the magnetic fields. And there's no inclination actually, and they could calculate the angle which was 0.00 something so extremely low so it was perfectly aligned actually with. So the, so I show the electron currents actually increases exponentially with exponentially and then at some point, it saturates once the potential of that we apply it balances the potential of the plasma that's. Yeah, yeah, yes, yes, yes. Yeah. Yeah, exactly. And the velocity. Yes. One more mobile because the slides are. Yeah. Yeah. Exactly. That she's more expert than me on language. Yes, for this one. Yes. I think well for this case we are really measuring nanometer size grace so extremely small and the speed of the space was very high I forgot how much so this. At the closest approach, yes, they dominate, but not all over the space. Yeah. Thank you. Thank you. Okay, I have lots of future project but I can tell you, at least for now what I'm, I mean, my background was really solar wind turbulence that's what I did in my PhD but then in my postdoc and so far I'm doing much more planetary kind of or magnetospheric related kind of processes. And now I'm actually mostly involved in the mass spectrum analyzer instrument that I present you so I'm kind of doing instrumental calibration as well for the Beppe Colombo mission. Yeah. Yeah, you're welcome. Thank you. Yes. Yes, we can get out with now maybe a five. We have like 15 minutes. Okay, that's a challenge. It is a different lens, like the easy one, rock and roll, heavy metal or jet. Jets are going to be. We can do the chorus to them. Yeah, okay. So you needed the projector? No, no, no. All the same school.