So, we have looked at the process of runoff and we have seen that out of the total precipitation some part is abstracted through interception, diffusion storage, evaporation, transpiration and infiltration and the rest goes as runoff. This runoff is the component in which we are very much interested as water sources engineer because we want to know how much water is available at a certain point in a river. So, that we can use it to supply water or so that we can design some flood protection works if the magnitude of the water available is very high. So, in order to look at this we have to analyze in the quantity of water which is available at a certain point and for that purpose we sometimes for gauging stations which measure the height of water or the depth of water in the river and correlate that with the discharge. So, that if we measure the depth or what is known as the stage then we can obtain the discharge from the stage discharge curve. Now, this gauging station may not be available at all rivers, but let us say that some river has a gauging station the recorded the gauging station is typically in terms of stage which is converted to discharge and a typical record will look like this. So, this is the year and this denotes the date or the day of the year. So, first represents the first January and in this case 365 will represent 31st December. So, for the whole year we will have data available for the discharge through the river and what is typically done is the discharge is averaged over a day. So, this is the daily mean flow passing at that point. So, if we have a catchment and there may be a river and then there is a gauging station here at point A then measuring the stage at point A we can convert that into discharge and for the daily discharge data we can obtain what is the mean daily discharge at that point A for different times of the year. So, on first January we can see that the mean discharge was 10.2 meter cube per second on second it was 11 and similarly we have data for all other day in at day 200 the discharge is quite high at 121 meter cube per second and similarly at the end of the year it is 17.1 meter cube per second. This record is available for a number of years for example, we have shown 5 year data 2002, 3 2004 of course, we will have 366 days. So, this corresponds to 31st of December and then again 2005 we have 365 days. So, we have a lot of data 5 times 365 plus 1. So, in order to analyze all this data we need to reduce the data in some form. So, that we can analyze it more quickly and accurately. So, for that purpose typically what is done is we divide it into range of flow. So, instead of taking individual values of the flow we can say that we will divide the discharge into certain ranges. For example, here we have divided them into discharges of 10 for high discharges and 5 for lower discharges. So, this represents the discharge range again in meter cube per second. So, this is the daily average discharge in meter cube per second and what we do is we look at each year how many days are there on which the average falls in this range. So, for example, 2001 there is no data which is more than 140 or in the range of 140 to 150 in 2002 on 4 days the mean daily flow was between 140 and 150. Now, when we talk about the range typically we would include the higher range. So, this will be included and 140 would be excluded. So, if the discharge is exactly 140 then it will go into this range if it is 140.001 then it will go into this range. So, similarly in all other ranges and for each year based on the available data we can obtain the number of times or number of days on which the discharge is within that range. So, for example, here we can see that 35 to 40 there a large number of days with that range and then finally, we would our aim is to obtain a flow duration curve which tells us that what is the probability that a particular discharge will be equaled or exceeded how much percentage of time. So, for that we need to obtain the cumulative or the total number of days for this 5 year period on which the discharge was within 140 to 150 or 130 to 140 and so on. So, we can see that total number of days out of these 5 year data there are 6 days in which this charges within the range of 140 to 150. Similarly, there are 26 days on which this charges within the range of 130 to 140 and then we would do a cumulative discharge. So, this will be 6 then 6 plus 26 will give us 32 and so on. So, this 6 represents number of days for which this charges higher than 140 and 32 represents number of days for which this charges higher than 130 because 130 to 140 is 26 and 140 to 150 is 6. So, total of these 2 will give us the number of days for which this charges more than 130 meter cube per second. Similarly, we do all this and ultimately this 1827 represents 5 year data. So, 5 into 365 1 actually it should be 1826. So, this represents the total number of cumulative number of days for which discharge is exceeded. And now we can do a frequency analysis to analyze the probability of exceedance. For example, we write Q as we have done in the previous slide and then we write the cumulative again this is from the previous slide. This probability p is m over n plus 1, where m represents the cumulative total and n represents the total number of records in this case 5 years. So, dividing this cumulative number of days by the total number of records plus 1, we get a probability of 0.33 percent for discharge to be within the range of 140 to 150. Similarly, we can look at this charge of 5 to 10 and the probability is 99.95 percent. So, this tells us that almost 100 percent of the time this charge will be more than 5 meter cube per second. So, if we look at the flow duration curve which expresses this data in graphical form, here we have a probability in percent for a given Q and this probability is of exceedance, which means that if we look at any particular Q for example, let us look at Q equal to 70. Then this gives us a probability almost 25 percent that a Q of 70 meter cube per second would be equal or exceeded or in other words, we have a value of let us say 140 here, which has a very small probability of exceedance and then we have a value of 5 here, which has almost 100 percent probability of exceedance. So, what it means is that if we go to the river and measure the discharge every discharge over a day for any day, there is a very high chance that it will be more than 5 meter cube per second and there is very little chance that it will be more than 140 meter cube per second. The average discharge throughout the day is likely to be smaller than 140 and if we look at this point, then the probability that discharge will be higher than 70 meter cube per second is about 25 percent. So, this gives us a flow duration curve and we can use this curve to obtain the reliability of certain discharge. For example, when we design let us say a power plant, we want some discharge which will be available, we can say let us say 85 percent of the time. So, we can look at this and say that our 85 percent dependable discharge is about 25 meter cube per second. So, if we design something based on design value of 25 meter cube per second, then it is likely that 85 percent of the time the discharge will be more than that. So, this gives us an idea about how much flow is available in a river. Now, based on this availability of flow, we can design let us say storage system which can store water and then supply it when the flow is smaller. So, for this purpose, we analyze it as what is known as a mass curve and mass curve is nothing but how much accumulated mass of water is available throughout the year and to analyze a mass curve, we can look at in terms of monthly rate. So, instead of analyzing daily data, it is better to combine data for a month and plot it versus average monthly rate. So, if we look at this, January let us say that we have certain point again, we have a catchment and then at point A, we are measuring the stage and therefore discharge and the mean monthly flow at the point A for different months is let us say obtained as these values. So, we can see that the mean flow rate is very high in September just after the month owns and it is still higher in August and October, but then again it decreases as we go over here and decreases as we go over here and January, February again there is a reasonable amount of 45 and 48 meter cube per second. So, this represents overall an average flow rate throughout the month and based on this, we can find out the volume. So, for example, in January there will be 31 days multiplied by 24 hours then 3600 seconds. So, that gives us a volume which we have shown here in terms of million meter cube. So, this value of 120.5 represents the volume of flow in the river in the month of January. So, for the entire month of January 120.5 million meter cube of water will pass through this point A. Similarly, for February, March and so on till December and of course, September has the highest amount of volume available for the entire month. Now, we can add them up and find out the cumulative volume. So, 120.5 is here then 120.5 plus 116.1 will give us 236.6 then 236.6 plus 101.8 will give us 338.4. So, in this way we can obtain an accumulated mass which gives us 1682.6 million meter cube for the entire year and based on this value, we can obtain an average rate throughout the year. If we have this much volume available, we can convert this into an average rate which in this case turns out to be 53.4 meter cube per second. So, this means that the entire water available to us at point A can be represented by an average rate of 53.4 meter cube per second throughout the year. So, this rate is the maximum supply rate which we can maintain in the river throughout the year, but again we can see here that the flow available is only 45. So, if we have to maintain a rate of 53.4, we must build some storage and so that during these years water can be taken out of the storage because the supply rate is less than the demand of 53.4. So, in order to analyze how much storage capacity we would need, we plot the mass curve as shown here. So, this is for different months, the cumulative volume, this is again in million cubic meters. So, this shows for the whole year, what is the accumulated volume for a certain time. So, in January, we have so much accumulated volume and at the end of December, we have so much accumulated volume which we have already seen as 1682.6. So, this value is 1682.6 and if we join these two points, this will give us the maximum demand which we can satisfy which can be met. Now, typically we would not use the demand as 53.4, this value is the maximum value, but let us say our demand is smaller than this. So, for a given demand, for example, let us take the demand as 45 meter cube per second. So, for this given demand, if we want to find out what is the storage required, then what we need to do is we need to draw the line which has a slope of 45 meter cube. So, this line will give us an idea about how much storage we would need for demand of 45 meter cube per second. And in this case, suppose this is the 45 meter cube per second line, we draw a line tangential to this curve and parallel to this and then the difference between these two will give us the storage in terms of million meter cube. So, if we look at the calculation, what we can do is in tabular form, we can find out what is the difference between the available mean flow rate in the river and the demand which we want to maintain. In this case, the demand is 45, in January the mean flow rate is also 45. So, there is no difference. In February, the availability is 48 meter cube per second while the demand is 45. So, we have a surplus of 3 meter cube per second. So, till this point, we do not need any storage. Now, this 3 meter cube surplus can be converted into a volume in terms of million cubic meters. So, again 3 meter cube per second into 20 meter cube 28 days, 24 hours, 3600 seconds will give us meter cube and then we divide it by 1 million to get this value in million cubic meters. Now, after February, if you look at the March data, in March we have a supply of only 38 cubic meter per second while the demand is 45. So, that means we have a deficit of 7 meter cube per second which translates into a deficit of 18.7 million cubic meter for the month of March. In the next month, again we have a deficit and so on till we reach July in which case again we get a surplus. So, these 4 deficit months, they are the critical months for the storage capacity and our storage should be sufficient to take care of these deficit values. And if we add all these volumes, we get minus 205.1 which really corresponds to this. In the graphical terms, this storage numerically would be equal to 205.1. So, this tells us that if we want to have a storage reservoir built at this point A, we can build a reservoir with the capacity of 205 million cubic meters and we would be able to satisfy a demand of 45 meter cube per second throughout the year. So, this is the required storage capacity, yes. Similarly, if we change the demand, let us say now we want to have a demand of 50 cubic meter per second. In this case, we can see that from January itself, we have a deficit and then up to December, August to December, we have surplus. So, in this case, following the same philosophy, we can add up all these volumes and we get 284.1. In graphical terms, this would simply mean that drawing a line at 50 and then parallel to that and taking an S, which would in this case turn out to be 284 million cubic meters. So, this procedure gives us the required storage for a given demand. Now, sometimes our storage may be limited. For example, we may say that we do not have this 284 million cubic meter of available storage. The maximum we have available is only 200 million meter cube. So, the problem which we now have is, suppose we have the storage available to us 200 millimeter cube, what is the maximum demand which we can meet with this storage? So, for that purpose, we can do a number of things. We can do iteratively in the graphical method also. We have this S as 200. So, we can take this difference and draw tangential lines here and find out what is the rate which gives us S exactly equal to 200 or we can do it. These days, computers are easily available and there are lot of facilities which we can give any value here, find out this S and then we can say that make this value equal to 200 and find out what is this cube. So, in that case, we start with any value. Suppose, we have started with this 50 and we have obtained minus 284.1 or we have started with 45 and we have obtained this 205.1. One option would be to do some kind of interpolation between 45 and 50 and 45 we have 205.1 at 50, we have 284.1. So, little extrapolation will give us the value for 200, but using the spreadsheets, we can put any value here. This value will be different from 200 and then we ask the computer what should be this value to make this 200 and in this case, it turns out to be that this value is 44.5. So, this is the demand which can be satisfied for 200 million cubic meter of storage. So, using these techniques, we can determine either what is the storage required for a given demand or what is the demand which can be satisfied for a given storage. So, we have looked at the problem of finding out the storage for a supplying required rate of water or we can find out what is the maximum rate which we can supply for a given storage. Now, we move on to discussion of hydrographs which we have seen are record of the discharge in a river with time and suppose we have data given like this. This is time in hours and for a particular rain, the intensity is given here. We obtain the runoff as q. So, this is the total runoff which includes the base flow and the direct runoff. The intensity of rainfall is given here so we can see that at 4 hours. So, let us look at 0, 4, 8 and up to 12. So, from 0 to 4, we can see that there is no rain. Then the intensity is 8 millimeter per hour. Now, if we look at this at time t equal to 5, the intensity is 8, 6 it is 8 and 8 it is 8. Then at 10 hours and 12 hours the intensity is 6. So, by plotting at 4 it is 0, but if we look at the runoff, we see that the runoff starts increasing at t equal to 4. So, from 4 it goes up to 5 that means the rainfall has started roughly at about 4 hours. So, instead of showing it at 5, we say that from 4 to 8 we have a intensity of 8 millimeter per hour and then from 8 to 12 we can idealize this as intensity of 6 millimeter per hour. So, this is our rainfall, which is causing this runoff. Of course, rainfall will cause the direct runoff and base flow will come from the ground motor contribution. So, if we plot the total runoff, so this is the runoff it starts at 5, then it starts to go down if we look at these values 5, then 4.5 and 4. So, it goes down till the rainfall starts. So, this is the point at which the rainfall has started and then the runoff starts rising. So, if we look at the data we can see that at 12 hours it reaches a peak of 28 meter cube per second. Which is shown here and then again it starts to decrease because rain has stopped and it will continue till it becomes almost constant at about 4 after 64 hours. So, we get the runoff or the hydrograph, the runoff hydrograph as this typical curve. Now, our aim is to derive the direct runoff hydrograph, which means that we have to somehow separate the base flow component and we also have to find out the effective rain. So, this hydrograph which we have shown here, this is the total rainfall part of it will go as infiltration or evaporation. So, that loss as we have seen earlier is given by the phi index in a very simple average loss function. So, we will see how to obtain the phi index, how to separate the base flow and obtain the DRH. The first starting point of course is quite clear that wherever it starts rising we can say that this is the start of the DRH. As we have seen here the base flow contribution is decreasing at a certain rate. One of the methods of separating the base flow is just taking a constant value of base flow for example, this and saying that everything above this line is the direct runoff. But that method is not very accurate. So, we will be using a method in which from the peak we take a distance of n where n depends on the catchment area. In this case, let us say that the catchment area A is 30 square kilometers. The value of n based on various observations has been given as if A is in kilometer square then n comes out to be in days. So, for an area of 30 square kilometers we get n about 40 hours. So, that means the direct runoff will stop 40 hours after the peak. So, in this case we can get some point here which will be 40 hours from the peak. The method of base flow separation is that the ground water contribution is continued till the peak. So, just below the peak we will continue it and then we will join the point after n days directly with this point. So, using this method of base flow separation we can obtain the d r h by taking this q total runoff and subtracting the base flow which is done here. So, corresponding to total runoff 4 hour ordinate we get 0 because this is the start of the d r h. So, d r h starts here corresponds to t equal to 0. The ordinate of course is 0 then at 1 hour which is this point we take the ordinate which is 5 meter cube per second and subtract the base flow contribution which is computed from here and we get a d r h of 4.75 saying that the base flow contribution at this point is 0.25. So, these ordinates give us the direct runoff and we can see that the total discharge maximum discharge in this case is 26 which is 28 minus this 2. So, in this way we can obtain the d r h and plot it and this figure shows the d r h. This d r h is because of a rainfall which is given by 2 4 hour 2 4 hour rains of intensity 8 millimeter per hour and 6 millimeter per hour. Now, we have to find out the phi index and to do that we need to find out what is the volume of direct runoff and that computation can be done based on the d r h ordinates. So, here we have shown the ordinates of the d r h at t equal to 0 we have 0 then 1 4.75 at 2 8.5 and at 52 it stops here. So, for a 4 hour rain the runoff will continue for about 52 hours. Now, we can find out the volume which is accumulated at different times this is in 1000 meter cubes. So, at time equal to 0 then we have 0 volume at 1 hour we can say that this corresponds to the mean between 0 and 4.75 for 1 hour duration. So, if we do that we get 8.5 5000 meter cubes and here we have cumulative from the beginning of the rain. So, doing this for each time step you will notice here that the time steps are not uniform here we have 0 1 2 and then it becomes 4 6 8 10 12. So, we have a difference of 1 here then 2 and then it becomes a difference of 4 up to here last point we have we can interpolate 148 also here, but in this case it is 8 hours here. So, 8 hour difference then this 4 hours 2 and 1 generally the computations are much easier if we have equal spacing of the coordinates, but in this case since the rising limb is very steep we have decided to take small intervals on this and therefore it is not uniformly spaced computations are little more difficult in this case, but we can still do it using the spreadsheets. So, let us look at this volume for each time step and cumulative volume. So, for the entire direct runoff hydrograph the volume is given as 1.43 million cubic meters. So, this 1.43 million cubic meters on an area of course is given 30 and the volume. So, we want to find out what are the losses. So, we can find out what is the excess rain volume in this case the volume of the rain will be same as the volume of the DRH and therefore, we can convert into a depth would be 1.43 10 to power 6 divide by 30 kilometer square we can convert into meter square. So, so many meters and this turns out to be 47.7 millimeters. So, this means that the DRH which is shown in this figure this DRH is the result of 47.7 millimeter of rain over the entire catchment area of 30 square kilometer. The assumption of course is that the rainfall occurs uniformly over the entire area in that case it should have a depth of 47.7. If you look at the rainfall hydrograph the depth total depth is 8 millimeter per hour into 4 millimeter 4 hours plus 6 millimeter per hour into 4 hours equal to 56 millimeter. So, out of the total rain of 56 millimeters the effective rain or the excess rain is only 47.7 millimeters. So, that means we have a loss of 56 minus 47.7. So, 8.3 this 8.3 millimeter loss is occurring over a time period of 8 hours. Therefore, we can say that the phi index will be 8.3 divide by 8 which is 1.04 millimeter per hour. So, if our rainfall is like this 8 and 6 then we have a phi index of 1.04 that means our effective rainfall intensity for 4 hours this would be 8 minus 1.04 and this would be 6 minus 1.04. So, this is the effective rainfall 4 hour of intensity 6.96 another 4 hour of intensity 4.96. So, in this way we have obtained the phi index which tells us that effective rainfall intensity for the first 4 hour period is 6.96 or almost 7 millimeters per hour and for the second 4 hour period it is almost 5 millimeters per hour. Now, suppose we have a unit hydrograph available for the catchment. We can use that unit hydrograph to compute the direct runoff for storms which have a duration of 4 hours. So, for these 2 storms which are consecutive storms of 4 hour duration we can use a 4 hour unit hydrograph to predict what will be the direct runoff. So, let us assume that a 4 hour unit hydrograph is given to us. So, this is given a little later we will see how to obtain or how to derive this unit hydrograph, but let us for the time being assume that 4 hour unit hydrograph is given. So, you can look at the ordinates and this is the figure of 4 hour u h. So, as we have seen already 4 hour u h means this is due to 1 centimeter rain over a period of 4 hours which indicates that the intensity should be 1 by 4 centimeter per hour or we can say 2.5 millimeter. So, this hydrograph is a result of intensity 2.5 millimeter per hour continuing for 4 hours. So, if we draw the effective rainfall this is 4 hour duration and this is 0.25 centimeter per hour. So, this is 0.25 centimeter per hour or 2.5 millimeters per hour. So, because of this assumption of linearity we can now obtain the direct runoff for any rainfall of duration 4 hours or of a different intensity. For example, we have seen that the first rain 4 hour rain which we had has intensity of 6.96, the second had intensity of 4.96. So, if we want to use the 4 hour unit hydrograph to compute the d r h for these effective rain falls of 6.96 and 4.96 duration for 4 hours we can make a table like this where the first column shows first 2 columns show the 4 hour u h. The next column q 1 q 1 corresponds to a rain of intensity 4.96. 6.96 millimeter per hour while 4 hour u h we have already seen 4 hour unit hydrograph corresponds to 2.5 millimeter per hour. So, q 1 can be obtained by the 4 hour ordinate multiplied by this factor of 6.96 over 2.5. So, this 2.1 is nothing but 0.75 times 6.96 divide by 2.5 this will give us 2.1. Similarly, for 2 if you replace this by 2 we would get 5.5. So, in this way the first this column q 1 shows the result the direction of because of rainfall of 6.96 millimeter per hour for 4 hour duration. Now, the second rainfall is again 4 hour duration but the intensity now is 4.96. So, now not only we have to multiply with this factor 4.96 upon 2.5. So, q 2 has a multiplying factor of 4.96 over 2.5, but it is also shifted because the rainfall is starting after 4 hours. So, we have to shift the ordinate by 4 hours. So, whatever this 0 corresponds to this 0 at 6 hours the value which we get will correspond to 6 minus 4 which is 2 hours for the 4 hour unit hydrograph. So, 2 times 4.96 over 2.5 will give us 4.0. So, this 4.0 is the value at 6 hours. So, q 2 at 6 hours will be equal to 4 hour ordinate at 6 minus 4 hours into the factor 4.96 over 2.5. So, we can take any value we can take this t equal to 10. The value here 15 corresponds to 4 hour unit hydrograph at 10 minus 4 which is 6. So, 7.5 times almost factor of 2 which will give us 15. So, in this way we find out q 2 lag it by 4 hours and then we add these 2 to get the total direct run off because of this entire rain. Because of the principle of superposition we can add these 2 and get this value of q. So, in this way we can super impose any number of rains provided they are all 4 hour duration and we can plot this is the from 4 hour. So, this is the d r h the solid line shows the value this value which we have obtained from the 4 hour unit hydrograph and these symbols this we have earlier shown as the observed from the our analysis of measured data at the outlet. So, we can see that they are quite close, but they are lot of assumptions in the unit hydrograph theory and therefore, they are not exactly matching, but still it is fairly good match and therefore, a 4 hour u h can be used to obtain d r h for storms which are of 4 hour duration. Now, we can derive unit hydrograph for any other duration which is a multiple of 4 hours by this principle of superposition. For example, if we want to obtain 8 hour u h for 8 hour unit hydrograph what we can say is that the 8 hour u h can be divided to 2 4 hour segments 8 hour u h corresponds to a rainfall which has intensity of 1 by 8 centimeter per hour or i is 1.25 millimeter per hour which is exactly half of the intensity which we have used for 4 hour u h 4 hour u h has i equal to 2.5. So, we can add 2 4 hour u h. So, this is first 4 hour unit hydrograph shifted by 4 hours. So, if you look at these 2 columns 2.5 millimeter per hour 4 hour and 4 hour the this column represents the d r h because of a rain of 2.5 millimeter per hour for 4 hours this represents same thing, but shifted by 4 hours because rainfall is now starting after 4 hours. So, we have 4 hour unit hydrograph ordinate shifted by 4 hours. So, this value corresponds to 0 the value at 6 corresponds to 2 8 to 4 and so on. This shifting then allows us to sum them up and after summing we can get total q and divided by 2 because as we have seen the 4 hour u h has intensity of 2.5 8 hour u h has intensity of 1.25. So, after summing them up we get an effective rain like this and then we divide by 2 to get effective rainfall same as the 8 hour u h. So, in this way we can obtain an 8 hour unit hydrograph which plots this last column versus time. So, at different times what is the discharge which we can get for an 8 hour u h which means due to a rain of duration 8 hours and intensity of 1 by 8 centimeter per hour. So, getting 8 hour unit hydrograph or let us say 12 hour unit hydrograph if you want 12 hours then it is the same procedure because the 12 hour u h corresponds to a rainfall which is duration of 12 and intensity of 1 by 12 centimeter per hour. So, that the total volume is 1 centimeter. If we add 3 4 hour u h ordinate by shifting them by 4 hours we get effective rainfall 12 hour duration, but intensity of 1 by 4. So, after summing them up we have to divide it by 3 to get corresponding to 1 by 12. So, any multiple of 4 hours we can obtain the unit hydrograph directly from the 4 hour unit hydrograph, but for any other duration which is not a multiple of 4 hours let us say we want unit hydrograph for 6 hour duration or we want 3 hour duration or 2 hour duration. Then we cannot directly use this principle and we have to use what is known as the S curve. The S curve indicates rainfall of infinite duration. So, suppose we are talking about a 4 hour S curve the intensity would be 1 by 4 centimeter per hour, but the duration will be infinite. So, what it means is that we have a rainfall which is continuous with intensity of 1 by 4 centimeter per hour or in terms of millimeter 2.5 millimeter per hour. Now, we want to find out the direct runoff because of this rain the excess rain. So, we do again the same thing we assume that this is a lot of consecutive rain falls of 4 hour duration. So, if we have a lot of 4 hour consecutive rain falls we can use the shifting method again. So, the first column shows the 4 hour unit hydrograph we have omitted some data here and here. Then the second column shows the same data, but shifted by 4 hours. So, this is a shift 4 hour shift this is 8 hour shift 12 hour and so on. So, this is again the same data repeated, but shifted by 4 hours every time and then we sum them up. So, for example, this 21.9 is the sum of all these columns, 21.25 this is again the sum of all these columns and so on. So, in this way the last column here Q represents the effect of a continuous rainfall of infinite duration with intensity 2.5 millimeter per hour. As we can see in the end here the values will become almost constant and if we plot this S curve it would look like this. The constant value here corresponds to rainfall of intensity 1 by 4 centimeter per hour occurring over an area of 30 in this case we have taken the catchment area as 30 square kilometer. We can convert into meter cube per second and the value turns out to be about 21 meter cube per second. This means that if a rainfall of intensity 1 by 4 centimeter per hour occurs continuously over the entire area of 30 kilometer square at steady state it will give us a discharge of about 21 meter cube per second. Now, this shape if you look at this shape of the curve it is not a very smooth shape there are lot of wiggles here. This is because of our 4 hour unit hydrograph is not exactly correct we have some approximations there and therefore, in computations we can see these wiggles. So, if we want to make it smooth we would like to fit some kind of smooth curve like this and use that as our S curve. So, this S curve is because of rainfall of infinite duration now suppose we want the unit hydrograph for a 2 hour duration rainfall. In that case what we can do is we can shift this S curve by 2 hours which means that the other S curve is because of rainfall again of infinite duration, but shifted by 2 hour and then if we take the difference of those 2 d r h's the difference will be caused by a rain of 2 hour duration 1 by 4 centimeter per hour intensity. So, if we take 2 S curves shifted by this 2 hour duration take the difference of the ordinate that difference will be because of this effective rain and if we want 2 hour unit hydrograph then we will have to multiply it by 2 because this represents 1 by 4 into 2 centimeter equal to half centimeter of rain. So, that is what we have done here in the next table time this is the smoothed the smooth curve which we have fitted here the ordinates of that smooth curve are given here and then we lag it by 2 hours. So, this 0 corresponds to this 0 with the lag of 2 hours similarly this 50 at 10 corresponds to 50 at 8 and so on. This difference is multiplied by 2 so that we get unit hydrograph for 2 hour duration and this is plotted in this figure. So, you can see that at 2 hour unit hydrograph is obtained using the S curve. So, 2 different S curves 1 starting from 0 the other lagged and then we take the difference multiplied by 2 to get the 2 hour unit hydrograph. So, in this way we can obtain the unit hydrograph for any duration which is not a multiple of the given duration. It may be less than 4 hours it may be more than 4 hours for example, 5 hours also 6 hours also we can do the same thing we plot the S curve lag it for the given time period. Suppose, we want to derive a 6 hour unit hydrograph we can make the 4 hour S curve lag by 6 hours. The resultant difference is because of rain of intensity 1 by 4 over a period of 6 hours that means, total rainfall of 1.5 centimeters. So, whatever ordinate we get as the difference we have to divide them by 1.5 and we will get the 6 hour unit hydrograph. So, in today's lecture we have seen how to obtain the flow duration curve from the stage measurement at a given location. How to obtain reliability like what is the reliability of a discharge 85 percent or 90 percent. So, how much time it will be available in the river? In other words we can say that what is the 85 percent or 90 percent dependable discharge which will be equal or exceeded for a certain percentage of time. Then we have seen how to obtain a direct runoff hydrograph from the total runoff measured at a point by separating the base flow. There are lot of techniques of base flow separation but we looked at one particular technique which work very well in this case. After separating the direct runoff hydrograph we can find out the volume of direct runoff and therefore, we can find out the effective rainfall. And from the total rainfall and effective rainfall we can obtain a phi index which will then give us effective rainfall hydrograph or ERH. So, from an ERH and DRH we can obtain unit hydrograph which we will see little later. But suppose we know the unit hydrograph for a particular duration and we have rainfalls of the same duration occurring. We can obtain the total runoff direct runoff because of these rainfalls of same duration by using the unit hydrograph for the duration of 4 hours. So, we have seen how to obtain DRH given the unit hydrograph and we have also seen how to obtain unit hydrograph for different durations which may or may not be a multiple of the duration of the given unit hydrograph.


Hello, everyone. Welcome to Oxmer Toyota. I'm Gabrielle, and I wanted to talk a little bit about this vehicle. You guys, this is a 2023 Toyota RAV4. It's a hybrid and it's the Woodland edition. Now it's in the beautiful Calvary blue, which you're not going to see very often. So it's kind of rare in that aspect. So on the front of the RAV4 with all hybrids for Toyota, you are going to have that blue in the inside of the symbol. There is going to be the LED daytime running lights, and then the projector headlights. Now going on to the side, with the Woodland edition, you're going to have the 18-inch bronzed alloy wheels. Something else with that package, you'll have the high-profile roof rack rails up there. And then all wheel drive will be in the black. You'll have the RAV4 and then the hybrid again in the black. And here is your Woodland sticker right there showing everyone that you're driving the Woodland edition. And then you're going to have the dual exhaust as well. Now going into the interior, you are going to have your all-weather floor liners, but guys they have little trees and it states the Woodland edition. You'll see that in the driver, passenger, and even the back and the trunk that I'll show you in a little bit. You also have a backup camera with us. You're going to have an 8-inch touchscreen. You'll have Apple CarPlay Android Auto. There's going to be a couple different driving modes. You're going to have Sport, Eco, Normal, and Trail. Alright so going into the second row, you'll have more than enough room for your passengers. Again you are going to have your all-weather floor liners and you have your USB-C charging. Alright guys so let's go ahead and check out the trunk space. Alright so we do have that second row seated down so this is very off-road capable. So you have more than enough space to put all that luggage that you would be carrying with you. Again you are going to have that all-weather floor liner and then you aren't also going to have a cargo cover right here that just snaps right into place. Alright guys if you have any questions on this RAV4 Woodland edition, let us know. All of our contact info is listed right here. Thanks for watching and I'll see you soon. Bye!


Item number SCP-003 Object Class, Euclid Special Containment Procedures SCP-003 is to be maintained at a constant temperature of no less than 35 degrees Celsius and ideally kept above 100 degrees Celsius. No living multicellular organisms of category 4 or higher complexity may be allowed to come into contact with SCP-003. In event of total power failure, if SCP-003-1 begins to increase its mass, assigned personnel must engage in skin contact with SCP-003-1. Ideally, personnel may use their body heat to return SCP-003-1 to above the critical temperature. However, skin contact must be maintained even in event of SCP-003 reaching activation temperature, lasting at minimum until SCP-003-1 advances fully to its second growth stage. Personnel who enter SCP-003's containment area must first be examined for body parasites of category 4 or higher complexity and sterilized if such organisms are present. All personnel who have come in physical contact with SCP-003-1 are to immediately report for sterilization afterwards. SCP-003-1 must not be removed from SCP-003-2, except in case of emergency procedures detailed above. Any significant change in SCP-003-2's rune activity, including pattern, frequency or color, should be reported within 3 hours of occurrence. Sensation of rune activity must be reported immediately. SCP-003-2 must be supplied with power via the source-designated generator 003-9 at all times. Description SCP-003 consists of two related components of separate origin, referred to as SCP-003-1 and SCP-003-2. SCP-003-1 appears to be composed of chitin, hair, and nails of unknown biology, arranged in a configuration similar to that of a computer motherboard. Testing reveals SCP-003-1 to predate earliest known circuit boards by a factor of thousands of years. SCP-003-1 is considered sentient, but not actively dangerous except under certain conditions. SCP-003-1 was found on a stone tablet, SCP-003-2, on which it currently resides. The runes on SCP-003-2 are not part of any known language and emit pale, flickering light patterns. SCP-003-2 is controlled by a non-biological internal computer, the contents of which are mostly inaccessible without risk of damaging SCP-003-2. SCP-003-2 is capable of controlled emissions of radiation, including heat, light, and anomalous radiation types. SCP-003-2 contains an internal power source of an anomalous nature, which appears to have been losing power since several centuries before discovery. It is considered probable that SCP-003-2 was created for the purpose of containing SCP-003-1. Partially interpreted data recovered from SCP-003-2 may refer to a past and or potential future LK class restructuring event caused by SCP-003-1. SCP-003 was located by remote viewing team SRV04-Beta. It appears possible that SRV04-Beta was deliberately contacted by SCP-003-2. Other organizations have also been alerted to SCP-003's existence, possibly by similar means. Despite this activity, SCP-003-2 does not appear to be sentient based on its lack of reaction to M03 gloria analysis and procedures. When SCP-003 drops below the temperature of 35 degrees Celsius, both components react. First, SCP-003-1 enters a growth state, characterized by an exponential increase in mass. This growth state consists of two stages. In both stages, SCP-003-1 partially feels its growth by converting matter around it, starting with any surrounding inorganic material, including atmospheric elements, then non-living organic material, including cells of dead skin, hair, chitin, enamel, keratin, and other biological materials. The first stage is always the same. SCP-003-1 will first increase its mass, then take a form similar in shape to an ophioroid, brittle star, of 15 meters in diameter, including what appears to be a central processor of 3 meters in diameter. It will form sensory organs that appear to scan its surrounding environment, and will partially convert the area around it to an unidentified anomalous substance. SCP-003-2 seems immune from conversion. The second stage describes a growth alteration, which occurs when SCP-003 comes into contact with living organic material. SCP-003 appears to template itself off of the organic material, and will attempt communication with organisms that match its initial template or templates. In its second stage, SCP-003-1 may pause, slow, or change its growth, then will also convert inorganic and non-living organic elements into functionally similar structures, while anomalously altering their physical makeup. While growth is consistent in the first stage, in the second stage, SCP-003-1's growth rate is diminished by 20-90%, so long as SCP-003-1 remains in contact with living organic material. The percentage is determined by the complexity of the organisms in contact with SCP-003-1. SCP-003-1 appears to devote a large amount of processing power to analysis of living organic material. During each of SCP-003-1's growth stages, SCP-003-2 releases bursts of radiation that temporarily inhibit SCP-003-1's growth, or reverse this growth when the temperature of SCP-003-1 rises above 100°C. Similar radiation emissions have been replicated or recorded via other anomalous means. SCP-003-1's biology has been the subject of extensive study. Significant elements have been identified similar to SCP-... SCP-1512 and SCP-2756, the latter two of which have no further confirmed connection with SCP-003-1, and no known connection with each other, and none of which are fully understood. Technically, even less understood than SCP-003, thanks to the extensive cross-disciplinary research on the SCP-003 objects. To date, no convincing analysis has been put forward which satisfactorily explains SCP-003-1's connection to these SCP objects or others, nor its connection to modern technology beyond appearance, and potential mimicry via unknown mechanism. Addendum 003-01. Acting on information gathered from linguistic analysis of SCP-003-2's runes and comparative data analysis, research team M03Gloria has managed to establish a link between SCP-003 and Data Expunged for analysis of functions. SCP-003-1 must now be considered sentient, and it needs to be kept a minimum of one kilometer from Data Expunged and the resulting byproduct at all times. Addendum 003-02. SCP-003-2's power loss has been exacerbated by the procedures performed by M03Gloria. On orders of 0510, M03Gloria will continue procedures. Addendum 003-03. During M03Gloria procedures, SCP-003-1 doubled its mass and began rapid structural growth. Temperature was immediately returned to 100 degrees Celsius. Growth and mass increase of SCP-003-1 continued for 9 minutes and 6 seconds, at which time a sustained radiation spike was produced by SCP-003-2. In response, SCP-003-1 returned to its normal state in 3 minutes and 39 seconds. New growth dissolved into a dusty residue which was collected for analysis. Both SCP-003-1 and SCP-003-2 ceased all detectable activity. SCP-003-2 did not resume activity until connected to an external power source. SCP-003-2's runes glowed uniformly gray and did not resume normal activity for 3 hours. SCP-003-2 no longer appears to be able to maintain containment area at a temperature above 35 degrees Celsius without external powers supplied by Generator 003-3 through 9. Addendum 003-04. The procedure detailed in Addendum 003-03 was repeated, and SCP-003-1 again entered a growth state. After 10 minutes and 13 seconds, SCP-003-2 once again produced a sustained radiation spike. SCP-003-1's growth stopped for 36 seconds, then resumed at its previous pace. On quadrupling its mass, SCP-003-1 formed a coherent outer shell and body. After appearing to scan its environment and partially converting its environment, SCP-003-1 then breached containment, entering the Observation Gallery, where 9 members of M03 Gloria were present. On physical contact with team members, SCP-003-1 encompassed them in rapidly grown appendages and stopped growth for 15 minutes. SCP-003-1 then resumed growth and rearranged the component parts of the center of its form to the shape of a 3 meter tall female humanoid, with peripheral tentacles shifting to extrude primarily from SCP-003-1's newly formed hair and spine. SCP-003-1 then produced rudimentary vocalizations in an apparent initial attempt to communicate with researchers. Data expunged. An unknown individual approached the compromised containment area in company of a full squad of agents. The individual claimed to be acting on orders of 05-10 and attempted communication with SCP-003-1. Data expunged. Following this incident, Agent Jackson of M03 Gloria successfully restored power to SCP-003-2 and activated backup generators to return the temperature to 100 degrees celsius. SCP-003-1 returned to its normal state in 21 minutes and 7 seconds and was successfully re-contained without incident. All 9 members of M03 Gloria affected by SCP-003-1 were afterwards found to be physically unharmed with no residual effects besides psychological trauma. The converted materials of SCP-003's former containment area did not dissolve and are now under analysis. Addendum 003-05. In light of the previous incident, 05-10 was removed from the 05 Council by joint decision of 05-05 and 05-05. M03 Gloria procedures have been indefinitely suspended. Special Access Program M03 Gloria required. Transcript of Incident Report A-21B Cycle 8 for dissemination to 05 Command and Staff. Interviewers and present 05-2, 05-5, 05-7, 05-10 and Staff. Interviewed Dr. Tilda David Moose, M03 Gloria lead, excerpt 35A. She tried to talk to us. We all heard her voice in our heads in a sort of half-language we couldn't fully understand. Some of the others passed out immediately. I lasted a little longer, but it wasn't because of mental fortitude. It's just that she was trying to tell us different things. She showed Jones a replay of all the memories of everything Jones ever felt anything about, all over the course of a few minutes. She ripped three of the researchers apart and put them back together unharmed. She doesn't understand human emotion or pain or very much about how we experience the world. Yes, I would say the containment procedures are necessary. Listen, she wants to remake the world into a paradise.  She would be happy to make a paradise for any sufficiently complex organism she comes across first. Anything with a complex enough mind to accept her, say, a dog, or a house fly. If she breaches again, we have to be there first. What would it be like? I don't know. She showed us images. Not quite images. I could see them in my head, but they're not pictures. The closest thing I can think of is what you see when you close your eyes suddenly and tightly, but brighter and more complex. The images had metallic sounds associated with them and sensory details that we don't have the words or concepts to describe. The whole effect felt like words of some kind. I believe she wanted to see what we could understand so she could understand us. She didn't have time to finish analyzing us. I don't know what would have happened if she had. Item Number SCP-059 Object Class Keter Special Containment Procedures A single specimen of SCP-059 is kept at Site 11b inside a graded Z laminate shielding box composed of depleted uranium, tantalum, tin, steel, copper, and aluminum. Surrounding SCP-059's containment box is a 7 meter by 7 meter by 7 meter area, sealed as a level 4 biohazard area, and surrounded by 3 centimeters of lead shielding. This area is to be sprayed daily with a solution of methyl isothiocyanate to prevent overgrowth of SCP-059-1. Personnel entering an SCP-059 affected area are cautioned to wear appropriate biohazard protection, as well as type K-59-B radiation shielding. They are to remain in the area for no more than 15 minutes, as the radiation shielding is only partially effective. SCP-059-1 infestations found in the wild should be contained by removing the SCP-059 specimen responsible and incineration of all observed SCP-059-1. Large underground infestations are best neutralized by fuel air thermobaric explosives. Additional specimens of SCP-059 are not needed for experimentation, and should be transported to Site 11b for incineration by plasma arc at 10,000 Kelvin. Description SCP-059 is a radioactive mineral of unknown origin, superficially resembling she-light. A component of SCP-059 is believed to originate in an alternate universe, and to be responsible for its anomalous properties. In addition to alpha, beta, and gamma radiation, SCP-059 specimens produce a previously unknown type of radiation, apparently unique to the object, tentatively designated delta radiation. Delta radiation is accompanied by Charankal radiation, visible as a blue glow. Delta radiation is only partially contained by standard radiation shielding. The best results have been obtained using grade Z laminate shielding with an additional super dense metal layer. This reduces the effective range of delta radiation from approximately 20 meters to approximately 6 meters. When an area is exposed to delta radiation for more than 15 minutes, an unknown species of fungus designated SCP-059-1 begins to grow on any exposed surface. This fungus does not require any standard nutrition, but will die within 24 hours of removal from a delta radiation source. SCP-059-1 is itself radioactive, but does not emit delta radiation. However, if a critical mass of SCP-051-1 is allowed to grow, delta radiation from an unknown source other than SCP-059 will appear in the area, further supporting SCP-059-1's growth. Interested readers may consult Dr. Brown for his theories of space-time stress and merger of alternate realities. Within 18 hours, the infected mass will become transparent and disappear, presumably into the universe that is a source of delta radiation. The process then continues, with SCP-059-1 infecting new material. SCP-059-1 will infest both living beings and inanimate objects. Humans and animals infected with SCP-059-1 become immune to the effects of ionizing radiation, but progressively merge with SCP-059-1 and eventually have all tissues replaced by fungal growth. While generally non-violent, they will attempt to expose unaffected individuals to SCP-059. SCP-059-1 infections do not appear to be directly contagious, but only spread by contact with delta radiation. However, long-term exposure to SCP-059-1 has not been adequately tested to rule out considering it a biohazard, as well as a known radiation hazard. Infected individuals still capable of communication describe seeing a world entirely covered with SCP-059-1 where much of the surface is composed of SCP-059. It is unclear whether this is a hallucination or a view into the source of SCP-059. Infectees are generally pleased with their condition and often refer to being in the blue light of heaven. SCP-059-1 is affected by most fungicides, but new growth will continue as long as SCP-059 is present. Early-stage SCP-059-1 infection in humans may be treated with Griseo-Fulvin. However, the treatment is 90% likely to lead to death by radiation poisoning. Treated individuals lose their immunity to radiation and will already have absorbed a now lethal dose prior to treatment. Late-stage treatment should not be attempted as too much tissue will already be converted to SCP-059-1. The remains of failed treatments should be kept out of range of SCP-059. Otherwise, data expunged. SCP-059 specimens have been discovered in eight different underground locations across a range of 5,000 kilometers. No pattern has emerged for their appearance. Specimens range from 1 to 10 kilograms in size and are not part of the normal rock formations in the areas where they have been found. Addendum. Dr. P. has recorded and analyzed the patterns of radiation emitted by the contained SCP-059-1 colony and believes SCP-059-1 may be sapient and attempting to communicate via controlled emissions of radiation. Initial attempts to analyze this language reveal data expunged. Item number. SCP-063. Object Class. Safe. Special Containment Procedures. SCP-063 is to be kept at all times within Dr. P.'s personal bathroom, located within the personnel quarters upon Site-19. Object is to be used as designed at least once in a 24-hour period, or the object will begin to emit an unknown specialized radiation that results in objects and material within a 0.6 meter or two-foot radius being slowly warped and eventually disintegrating into a fine dust. Radiation's effect on living test subjects has not been monitored. Description. SCP-063 appears to be an average pale blue toothbrush. Stenciled along the side of the object are the words, the world's best toothbrush, sick. The word toothbrush is spelled incorrectly, though whether this was accidental or a purposeful action by the creators of the object is unknown. SCP-063 displays the ability to effortlessly cleave through any and all dead or inorganic matter, the focal point of this ability being the bristles. However, matter touched by the bristles is not separated, such as by way of a knife, but completely expunged from existence, leaving no trace whatsoever. This mode of operation is reminiscent of SCP-2207, suggesting the two anomalies share a connection or were created by the same entity or entities. Additionally, subjects who have used SCP-063 have claimed that the experience left their teeth feeling remarkably clean. In spite of its extraordinary abilities, lab analysis has discerned that SCP-063 is completely made of common plastic. Addendum SCP-063 was originally found in St. Petersburg, on the person of a thief working in the area using SCP-063's abilities to crack safes. When questioned about the object, subject professed ignorance, claiming that he simply found the object one day. Questioning of the subject continued until he took his own life. His reason for doing this is, as of yet, unknown. Item number SCP-074 Object Class Euclid Special Containment Procedures SCP-074 is contained at Site 81 SCP-074 is an active info hazard. No research in evaluating its anomalous properties is to be conducted. All personnel who have previously engaged in research into SCP-074's anomalous properties must never come within 5 km of SCP-074. SCP-074 is contained within a 6 m x 6 m x 3 m reinforced glass chamber, filtered to block all ultraviolet light, and situated within a windowless room, lit by monochromatic safe lights, which serve as secondary containment. A smaller containment chamber would significantly increase the probability of SCP-074 spontaneously breaching primary containment. The containment chamber is to be surrounded with scaffolds bearing sheets of live, cultured human skin, held parallel to the surfaces of the containment chamber, and arranged overlapping each other such that lateral coverage is at least 95%. Skin sheets must be a minimum of 3 mm thick, and warm to 37°C, and must be grown from samples provided by D-class personnel with no less than a middle school education, and no more than a high school education. All skin sheets are to be examined on a daily basis for instances of SCP-074-1. All instances of SCP-074-1 are to be excised and incinerated. SCP-074 is to be fed 75 g of fresh shredded apple leaves, genus malus, bark, and fruit, hydroponically grown to ensure lack of pollutants in foreign organisms, once a day, via a mechanical dispenser. In the event of a spontaneous containment breach, personnel can coerce SCP-074 into returning to its containment, by first occupying each of its four sets of jaws with an entire raw apple, then physically pushing SCP-074 in the desired direction, gently tapping its compound eyes with an open palm, or spraying its front pair of antenna with a 0.5% solution of methanoic acid. Description SCP-074 is an anomalous organism which uses various quantum properties at a macroscopic scale, and in other ways modifies the standard laws of physics within its immediate vicinity. The specific nature of these modifications appears to be linked to the extent to which humans in SCP-074's vicinity are aware of the precise details of the physical laws which SCP-074 modifies. Such that, research to determine whether SCP-074 has a given property or capability results in SCP-074 developing or manifesting that property or capability. Archive 074-317e, a full list of the anomalous physical phenomena unknown to be, or to have been associated with SCP-074, is available to personnel level three or higher. Personnel who access this document will be disqualified from working with SCP-074, or for any other reason, coming within five kilometers of Site-81. SCP-074 has repeatedly manifested the ability to spontaneously materialize at locations as much as three meters outside its primary containment. This is believed to be, or to be analogous to, quantum tunneling. Foundation entomologists have tentatively identified SCP-074 as belonging to the order Isopada, commonly known as a woodlouse. Its inertial mass is approximately 1,700 kilograms, but its gravitational mass is approximately 375 grams. Its volume has been estimated at 1.7 cubic meters, approximately the size of a compact car. SCP-074 is female, although it lacks the typical isopod marsupium, or brood pouch in which eggs are incubated, and parthenogenetic. Periodically, approximately 1.3 times per hour when SCP-074 is shielded from ultraviolet light, and approximately 29.2 times per hour when SCP-074 is exposed to unfiltered daylight. The globular organ at the tip of its ovipositor luminesces, and emits what was originally thought to be a form of non-ionizing radiation, but which has since been identified as coherent wave packets of the probability of one of SCP-074's self-fertilized eggs, henceforth SCP-074-1, reifying, i.e. becoming a thing, spontaneously coming into existence. Personnel who properly understand the concept of wave packets are disqualified from working with SCP-074. Instances of SCP-074-1 preferentially reify and incubate within the flesh of humans with knowledge of physics. The rudimentary knowledge of physics which even poorly educated adult citizens of a technological civilization can acquire via cultural osmosis. For example, magnets can attract or repel each other. Matter is made of atoms. Light has a speed. Appears to be sufficient. In the absence of suitable humans to serve as hosts, the wave packets will reify within other organisms or within inanimate objects. However, rather than incubating, the eggs will wither and die, leaving perforations similar to radiation damage at a macroscopic scale. The wave packets appeared to decay over time, as no wave packets or instances of wave packet-related damage have been detected at distances greater than approximately 400 meters from SCP-074. The rate at which successfully incubated instances of SCP-074-1 mature appears to be dependent on the host's exposure to ultraviolet light. Within a host exposed to an average of 30 minutes of unfiltered sunlight per day for a month, an instance of SCP-074-1 was observed to grow from 2 milligrams to 8 kilograms, at which point it was surgically excised and killed. Whereas within a host totally isolated from natural light for a month, the three simultaneous instances reached sizes at excision of only 600 grams, 680 grams, and 710 grams. The complete developmental history and life cycle of SCP-074-1, including how they emerge from their host, and their size at emergence, is not yet known. SCP-074 is currently under a full non-interaction order, until the full extent of the emission waves has been evaluated. A continuous surveillance watch is to be maintained around the active area of SCP-084, with the primary objective of civilian misdirection and external surveillance. With no major roads, trails, or other travel routes nearby, any civilians encountered approaching SCP-084 are to be deemed suspect and detained for evaluation. Under no circumstances are any foundation or civilian personnel allowed into the active area of SCP-084, except with express vocal and written permission of no fewer than two members of O5 command. Centuries are to maintain their posted position with line of sight contact checks on fellow centuries, in conjunction with compass and landmark checking. All reference points should be well outside the active area of SCP-084. Should any sentry fail to report in via vocal roll call, full recall orders will be issued to all sentries, and containment will be re-evaluated by special response teams. In the event of active area fluctuation, full recall orders are to be assumed by all active sentries, followed by appropriate action. No form of radio, GPS, television, cell phone, video camera, still picture camera, or any other recording or electronic media devices are permitted within 100 meters of the active area around SCP-084. Civilians found with such devices within this area are to have said devices confiscated and destroyed immediately. Any recordings collected, data expunged. Description SCP-084 appears to be a large radio tower, positioned in the center of a large open field with two small outbuildings. Direct observation and sample collection from SCP-084 is impossible, due to the effect that is emitted around and from SCP-084. SCP-084 appears to emit a form of wave or radiation that has a detrimental effect on local space-time reality. The most pronounced aspect of this is the alteration of local space within the active area of SCP-084. Externally, the active area forms a rough dome shape of 200 meters in diameter. SCP-084 appears inside this area at random points, appearing to jump at random times, sometimes even appearing in multiple locations at once inside the active area. Internally, the space appears to be unlimited, with SCP-084 at the center. SCP-084 is impossible to reach due to the emitted effect. Attempts to approach SCP-084 within the active area have returned the observation that SCP-084 retains its relative position on the horizon even after three months and twelve days of dedicated direct travel, both by vehicle and on foot. Termination tests have proven impossible, as no means of destruction are capable of physically reaching SCP-084, even when entered from outside the active area. Local space will also distort periodically. This will cause relative distances to randomly extend or contract in a flicker, causing buildings or objects to suddenly jump thousands of meters away or rush up to other points, sometimes even causing overlaps. These overlaps have a markedly detrimental effect on living tissue. The town of SCP-084 is assumed to have been situated in or around the original manifestation of the active area. This town is no longer observable from outside the active area, appearing only once inside the active area. The town has maintained the same population, 343 humans, for the duration of its encapsulation. Births appear to be impossible, along with normal aging patterns. Suicide and or homicide appear to be circumvented by the area of effect, with dead subjects flickering and appearing alive and unharmed several seconds after death. There are also reports of events rewinding, causing things like mortal wounds to visibly freeze and close. Subjects appear to exhibit many events of inconsistent space time, as do most structures. Electronic devices and recording equipment do not function correctly in or around the active area. Subjects report bizarre or unsettling transmissions from video and audio recordings and playback devices. This acts to totally isolate from the outside world, precluding any need for foundation enacted containment. It also appears impossible to leave the active area after a random period of time. One subject, found on the grass plain, reported he had been traveling for six years. He was found approximately 400 meters from city limits. Log 084-A4. Record of observed anomalous events relating to SCP-084. Detailed observation made of the grass plain making up the majority of the active area. The plain appears to be made of one 10 meter by 10 meter section of grass, repeated endlessly to make up the plain. Sections appear to be randomly rotated as they are formed, causing sections of grass and small ground variations to line up incorrectly. Few non-human organisms appear to exist within the active area. Those outside the active area avoid it, and appear to vanish shortly after entering. Animals observed inside the active area appear normal, but behave strangely. Shuttering movements, sudden shivering, repetitive loops, and other abnormal actions appear to indicate these may not be actual animals. Most animals appear to flicker and vanish after three to four hours. Vocal communication is difficult within the active area. Vocal communication appears normal within five meters of the speaking subject, with reports of a slightly muffled quality reported commonly. Outside of five meters, subjects appear to be speaking from a great distance, with a great deal of echoing. Reports of speech being heard several seconds after the subject has stopped talking, and speech occurring with no subjects speaking are also not uncommon. Detailed observation of the radio tower is impossible due to the inability to physically reach it, and the effect of the broadcast on most observational equipment. Basic telescope or binocular systems show the tower to be hazy and static fogged, while more advanced equipment is subject to the anomalous broadcast effect. Weather patterns, as well as basic day-night cycles, appear to be totally random. Overhead sky will randomly cycle between day, night, clear, and other weather patterns. Relative sun and cloud position appear random as well, with frequent flickering and blurring between different states. Physical alteration or damage to anything within the active area is impossible. Actions such as digging, demolition, and new constructions will suddenly blur and be reset to their previous unaltered state at random points.  Humans in the active area around SCP-084 exhibit some of the more striking and easily observed reality distortion effects. These include sudden blurring of limbs or head, appearing to suddenly gyrate at violently high speed for several seconds before ending. Subjects experience no pain and are often unaware of this phenomenon. Looping typically manifested as the repeating of 8 to 20 seconds of time. Subjects will go through an action, example exiting a doorway, picking up an article of clothing, then suddenly freeze and flicker, then return to the original starting position of the loop, and repeat the action, even if this involves a sudden teleportation of significant distance. Rarely, subjects appear to become caught in a permanent loop. Observation and interrogation of subjects show that basic human needs, such as food, water, and sleep, are no longer required after prolonged exposure to the active area. Some subjects report not having eaten or drank for, they believe, five years. One elderly subject also reports having made 2,110 unsuccessful suicide attempts. Subject will sometimes be able to pass through solid matter without incident. These periods appear to last for random periods of time, and begin and end without warning. Subjects inside solid matter when the period ends will become trapped or fused until the period resumes. One subject reports being trapped below the waist in a wall for two years. Extreme psychological distress is observed after long-term exposure. The transmission's data-expunged barrier, which is compromised over long-term exposure, subjects in advanced reception states typically reset after several months. Recorded transmissions show a slight data-expunged cycles overall. Attempting to catalog and record these broadcasts has therefore been remanded to autonomous systems to preclude any additional loss of foundation personnel.


Now we will talk, we have seen sub-Saharan, we will go more globally and talk about land and one question is, are we running out of land or how is actually land used all over the world? I welcome Professor Tom Hurtl, distinguished professor of agriculture economics and executive director at the Center for Global Trade Analysis Purdue University. Thank you Sharon. I want to talk about a topic that's very near and dear to my heart and that's global land use and I want to relate it to global public goods, public goods that are important for everyone in the world and the public goods that we've heard about earlier on in the context of carbon sequestration will be one aspect of that. So here's a brief outline of my talk. I want to start out by, if we want to look forward in time, I think we should first look back. So we'll look back 300 years, 300 years of land use change in the world and then we'll look forward another 100 years. And we'll think about these different environmental, these different public goods associated with land use and a number of them very intimately interwoven with climate change. This is a schematic that just highlights the transformation that the world's land resources go through over the course of history.  The movement is typically from left to right, from undisturbed lands and natural ecosystems to a more structured environment such as we would see in Sweden or Europe more generally. Through that process, there's frontier clearing of land, moving into subsistence of agriculture, small scale farming, and eventually reaching this mature state, which as I say, Europe exhibits presently where most of the agriculture is intensive agriculture. There's not that much land left in natural ecosystems, but there's a lot of protected land. And that's a unique feature. You don't see much of that in the poorest countries. Where will they be in 100 years with regard to protected lands? Will there be land left to protect for them? That's a big question. And of course, built up urban areas become more and more important over time. So let's do the movie. This is a movie of 300 years and we're watching as cropland intensifies around the world. So we're up to 1780, 1790. Of course, very intensive cropland use from the beginning in these areas. But over this period, really, the big action is in the eastern United States, from the settlement in the colonies to more intensive agriculture in the Midwest of the US. But really, by 1900, still very low cropping intensity in South America, remarkably low. It's different from what we see now. 100 years can bring many changes. So when we look ahead, we need to think about this and we're surely going to be wrong, but we need to be thinking about where the big changes will come. Africa also, Southern Africa, Central Africa, very low cropping intensity as well. Let's look over the period from 1900 to 1950 and focus on Southern Africa and Latin America. You begin to see increased cropping intensity in some of those regions. So in North America, the big irrigation projects allowed expansion of cropping intensity in there. We're in 1950 and we're looking ahead, say, it's kind of like being in the year 2000 and looking to 2050. 50 years, look at where Brazil was in 1950 and look at how Brazil evolves now up to the year 2000. And if we took this forward to 2010, despite notwithstanding the slowdown that's been referred to, there was a lot of additional cropping intensity here. So a lot can change over 50 years and we need to keep that in mind as we look forward. So let's think about the next four decades. I would argue that the next four decades are critical with regard to global land use for the following reasons. Population growth will add another 2 billion people. The growth rate is slower and after 2050, population will be growing according to projections at a much slower rate. So I think it'll be much more manageable after that. But in the meantime, we're adding people, but we're especially adding income. And it's a good thing. We've got incomes in Africa growing rapidly now. People as a result are consuming more food and other things related to land. That's a great thing from the point of view of human welfare, but it places additional pressure on land. So I'm predicting that over the next between now and 2050, there's going to be a lot of additional pressure on land from the demand side. At the same time, we're trying to set aside land through red and other policies for carbon sequestration. That's an important source of competition with agriculture. We've got biofuels on top of that, the fate of which are going to depend heavily on energy prices in the long run. And what about the middle income countries going the way of Sweden and setting aside more of their land for environmental purposes? That also is another source of competition for land in the long run. So a lot of pressure in the next four decades. Here is just one possible projection that we put together, one of many possibilities, but it highlights a few of these points. These are projections from 2000 to 2100. So 100 years again.  One thing we see in here though, this is cropland, the blue, and you can see that it's peaking out in mid-century. After that, population is no longer growing so fast. Any continual improvements in technology will actually allow supply to outrun demand and you can reduce the cropland requirements there. It's really this period now, this is the critical time to be thinking about global land use, not in 40 years. This land here, this increased allocation of land set aside explicitly for biodiversity, for parks and so on. We're projecting a much greater increase in this demand for this type of land in the low income countries. But will there be land to set aside at that point or will it all be in some other use? That's an important question to think about. Okay, let's talk about global public goods. Public goods are goods that everyone benefits from, but no one has perhaps the incentive to supply them without government intervention. So very important for us to be thinking about those in the context of an aid agenda. Some of the key public goods, of course, are these parks set aside of environmentally sensitive lands. Will be a very important aspect of that, carbon sequestration. We've heard an excellent discussion of that. Another public good. Why? Everyone benefits from reducing emissions, but who wants to do that? Where's the incentive to do that? We need these financial mechanisms in place to do that. I want to talk a little about climate adaptation. I want to talk about it because climate is changing as we know. The momentum in the economic system, the momentum in the atmosphere, the momentum is already in place for significant climate change to occur. It's a question of how extreme that's going to be. Adaptation is essential. I believe that scientists are likely understating the adverse impacts of climate change on agriculture and the tropics. Why? Because the models they're using were developed in the temperate region. The models they're using weren't developed for looking at extreme temperatures at high levels. So while we're understating the impacts, we're likely overstating, in many cases, the adaptation. These models, again, assume perfect adaptation. They assume that fertilizer is available, the nutrients are available, the credits available to invest in new technologies. If this is not the case, then we're facing significant problems in the low income countries. Investment around adaptation is needed. What kinds of investment? New technologies, heat and drought resistant crop varieties, improved infrastructure. If Ryan's comment, notwithstanding, improved infrastructure does allow you to move products in and out of affected regions. If there is a drought in one region, being able to move in product to feed the people is very important. Because of the likelihood of regions being differentially affected, trade becomes more important, not less. Information. Information to allow producers to make more informed planting decisions. In Tanzania, when we were looking at publicly available weather data over the last 30 years, we found about six weather stations in that huge country, only six reporting over 30 years consistent weather data. How can you make forecasts on that basis? In Sweden, there were probably a thousand times as many weather stations reporting over that period. So information is critical. In addition, climate change is destroying information. It's destroying the traditional knowledge that people have of the climate that's been there for the last thousand years. They've planned on that. No longer will that be available. That information will be destroyed. They need to replace that. So information will become more important in these countries. This is a very important public good that aid agencies need to think about providing. So you need accurate history. You need to know how much irrigated land there is. You believe in India, South Asia, a region that's experiencing the most severe water shortages, we don't know how much area is actually being irrigated. Here are two estimates from very reputable organizations, the FAO and the International Water Management Research Institute. Look at that difference, a factor of two. We need better information. If we want to know the impact of climate change on agriculture, on future water scarcity, we need to understand this. Where should the red funds be directed? I was talking to Arnold earlier on and he was saying we don't have enough money to pay for all of the sequestration we need in Brazil. You need to target it. You need to target it in Indonesia. How do you do that? You need data and information. Land tenure data is extremely weak, especially in Africa. You have this incident where many thousands of hectares were leased for perspective biofuel development in Mozambique. It turned out that much of the land was communally held. They didn't realize how the land was being used, who was on the land. Fundamental information is needed. How much should Tanzania charge foreign investors for this large scale irrigation project that's being planned? Well, that depends on the potential yields in the area. How do we know the potential yields if they aren't irrigating there now? How can you predict that? Information analysis tools are fundamental public good for land-based decision-making in developing countries. It was very nice to see that Channing just shared with me, Channing Art shared with me last night the latest, the report, executive summary of the UN Eminent Persons Panel on global development after 2015. They highlight the importance of the coming data revolution, the importance of providing this information. I think we really need to underscore that. We've been under-investing in this area. It's a global public good that benefits everyone and we need more investment in that area. Thank you.


Listen, it's the message right here. Black boy, tell me how you really feel. Because I just want to build with you.  I want to keep it real with you. I want to live better, eat better. I want to love better, sleep better. Yeah, I want to feel so alive. All right, let's talk about relationships. Yeah.  I just want to keep it real with you. OK. Why won't men allow a woman to help them build or grow? Oh, that's a fantastic question. I like that question. That's a really good question. I think the best analogy that I've heard that explains this a little bit. Because it's a problem that a lot of women find, especially black women, they're like, you know, he said he wasn't ready. He has to go do something or whatever. He's got to go get himself together. And I've said that, too. This isn't just speaking of other people. Like, I've been that nigga as well. I'm still that nigga currently. So Miles Monroe, some people may know him. Some people may not. But he was a famous preacher back in the day. And I think he's from the Bahamas. He died in a plane crash, so he's no longer alive.  And this particular sermon I thought was interesting. He said that the best lesson about relationships is found in the first book of the Bible in Genesis, when God created the world and created man. He said that when God created Adam, the first man, the first thing he showed Adam was himself. He said, I am God. Some people interpret that as a man's first priority should be God, right? And I think depending on your religious affiliation that could, that's debatable. But the very second thing he showed Adam was the gardener. The very second thing Adam saw when he got life breathed into him was the gardener of Eden. And he told Adam to tend to this garden and all the creatures in the garden. So the first thing God gave Adam, after life, was purpose, was work. And Miles Monroe's point was a man's number one priority, or he's a preacher, so his number one priority should be God. But his number two priority should be purpose. And his point was the reason why some of our dynamics are messed up is because some men prioritize women before purpose. And they're looking for a wife before they have a way to take care of her. In contrast, when God created Eve from Adam's rib, according to this story, the first thing he showed Eve was Adam. And also, the reason why Eve ate the apple is because God tasked Adam with teaching her the word. According to the Bible, Eve didn't get the word from God. The word was coming from God to Adam to Eve. Now, again, depending on your religious affiliation, you could disagree or debate that. But I think the number one thing a man needs to focus on is purpose. And I think I suspect men inherently know this.  Most of the time, he's not willing to settle, right? Because we also know this way against controversial, that the caliber of woman that we can attract is equal to where we are in life.  Let me run up this check to maximize the caliber of woman I can attract. And that's the real reason. That's the real reason. So if you could give a black boy age 5 to 13 any advice, three pieces of advice, what would it be? It's interesting. I have a little brother, he's 17 now. And between the ages of 5 and 13, I was trying to give him a bunch of advice. A bunch of, if I knew then what I know now, advice.  He didn't care. What's interesting is now that he's 17, he's now like, damn, dude, you were right. You were trying to put me on game. You were right about women or society or whatever. The first thing I would say is that a nerd is a good thing.  Nerds win in the long run. And what I mean by that is I think boys tend to have short attention spans. But also what's interesting about boys as they differ from girls. So girls can multitask better than boys, that's a fact. But what boys can do is hyper-focus on something for a very long time.  But boys have the ability to hyper-focus on what? You'll see boys play one video game for eight hours, non-stop. Boys have the ability to hyper-focus. And that could be a weakness, but it's also a strength if used properly, especially if you're hyper-focusing on the right thing. So yeah, so nerds win in the long run. So that thing that you care a lot about, focus on it, get good at it, define what it means to you and what it could mean to the world. You said three pieces of advice. The second piece of advice is don't worry about girls. Don't worry about girls.  And hindsight, I don't know if it was necessarily, and this is what's interesting about boys, right? I don't know if it was necessarily to get girls or to convince my friends that I get girls. Does that make sense? Because at the end of the day, what I was looking for was male approval. Especially as a boy. And girls were just a path to male approval. So yeah, because at the end of the day, like the quality of girls that you'll be able to get improves tenfold when you bring value to the world. Third piece of advice, pay attention. I think boys and men can be very narrow minded slash closed minded. And they're more concerned about what they can teach the world as opposed to what the world can teach them. But if we would pay more attention to how things work, and when I say how things work, I'm talking about mechanically. I'm talking about the psychology of people. I'm talking about industry. I'm talking about economy. I'm talking about like, be plugged in. Why people like to say, to have your finger on the pulse. And it could be anything. Because you'll see like little 13-year-old boys, they could tell you every stat about LeBron James. Stats LeBron James himself doesn't even know. So that gift is there. Now if we can direct that to something more positive isn't the right word. Or beneficial to the boy in his future, that would be better. Because unfortunately the reality of the situation is right now, boys aren't doing well in school. You know, we already know male suicide rate is higher than females. We already know that men are falling behind academically, economically, especially black men. So yeah, those would be my three pieces. What would you say are some insecurities that black men feel when trying to climb the corporate ladder or when in the workplace with other races? I mean, I'll speak for myself. I'm fortunate enough to be in those spaces and I'm one of few, right?  That's kind of the reality.  And some of the challenges with that is you kind of recognize the fact that as a black man, you're inherently viewed as a threat. You're inherently viewed as more physically imposing, more sinister, more predisposed to violence, right? And we could talk about Birth of a Nation, W.D. Griffith, but because of that, I have to make sure I'm a little extra articulate. I smile a little bit more than I want to because 60% of my job is making white people comfortable. And honestly, like the best advice that I give to black men who are trying to enter or progress through corporate America or networking or whatever the case may be is learn how to make white people comfortable.  You have to change it from the inside, but you have to get inside. And unfortunately, there's a certain caricature of a black man that they're comfortable with. Anything outside of that is threatening. It needs to be exterminated.