Hi, my name's Leon Rope, currency trader and trading coach at Trading180.com and in this video I'm going to show you a really easy way to understand sometimes complex forex news headlines. So you can stay in trends for hundreds and you know, on a rare occasion, actually thousands of pips and you know, because I know a lot of traders do tend to take profit too early and not really understand what's going on in the market. Now if you're one of those traders who believes that price action is king and fundamentals and the sentiment analysis is nonsense then this video is just not for you. This is videos for those traders who know and understand and believe that really trends and market states like trends and ranges occur due to over the medium to long term that is due to fundamentals and value, right? So the market is buying low and selling high. In the short term the market is really driven by liquidity hunting, market making, etc. in positioning by institutions but over the medium to long term value in terms of you know whether the market was expensive or cheap will show itself in the form of you know, trends or arranging market and so before we get into it there's a few things you must understand. You have to must understand the basics of of macroeconomics and cycles and so everything moves in a cycle, right? Everything moves in a cycle and one of the things that we look towards in the forex world is interest rates, right? Interest rates. Now interest rates is a major factor in forex value, right? So central banks either you know, high crates, yeah? And when you know, central banks are on a rate hiking cycle, yeah? It's because they're trying to appreciate their currency, yeah? And when central banks are on a rate cut and the rate cutting side of their cycle, they're trying to devalue the currency. Now interest rates are driven mainly by two factors which are inflation, right? So inflation. They try to control inflation and central banks have a two percent inflation target, right? Two percent target and also they have the economy to worry about as well. So GDP. GDP, yeah? And you have an inflation cycle which actually is synchronized to the interest rate cycle, yeah? And the GDP cycle as well which is synchronized to the inflation and the interest rate cycle. Now again, interest rates are really driven by what inflation and GDP are doing, right? And so central banks look at inflation and GDP and then they decide whether to hike, hold or cut rates, right? And so in order to really kind of understand some news articles and news headlines, let's say for example you get a news headline. I'm going to show you an example of this matter of fact a bit later where it talks about for example, I don't know, GDP, yeah? Now if we know that interest rate hikes appreciate a currency, yeah? And that's supposed to be a plus and interest rate cuts typically devalue a currency. If we understand that GDP or there's a positive new sentiment about GDP and GDP has a cycle in terms of, you know, you've got the expansion phase, yeah? You've got the boom phase, you've got the contraction phase, you've got the recession phase, you've got the bust phase or slump phase. This is also known as the business cycle and then you've got the recovery phase here and then you've got the expansion and then you're back to boom again, right? And a cycle repeats. Now if you have, if you read some headlines where you're seeing that the headline is very positive and it's talking about the economy is growing, yeah? Then that actually is positive for the economy because if the GDP and inflation cycle are synced with the interest rate cycle meaning that inflation typically rises when interest rates are going higher and GDP also grows when you also have inflation rising and in a rate hiking cycle then you know that interest rates should at least be on the rise all being held, right? Now it does depend and this is what typically historically happens on the macro level. This is not something that happens, you know, one day up, one day down. You have to look at this over three, six to nine month period, yeah? And so if there's a headline talking about GDP growing, yeah? Then what you'll also notice is that inflation should start to pick up which should also mean that the central bank is either in their hiking cycle or thinking about their hiking cycle. And it's the same thing when we're talking about the contraction as well end of the economy, right? Let's say contraction and the economy is heading into a recession. What typically happens in that phase of the economic cycle is that you have disinflation or deflation starts to happen and then you start to get rate cuts. Central bank is on their cutting cycle, yeah? And so it's then, you know, easier to then decide what to do over the medium to long term and have a good medium to long term direction when looking at buying or selling currencies depending on what you read in the headline. So if we know, for example, there's a headline that's saying that inflation is coming down, you know, dramatically, then you should know what end of the GDP cycle you're probably heading into if you're not already in there, which then leads to the central bank should be on the way to either cutting rates or starting to cut rates or thinking about cutting rates which then you can start to position yourself again ahead of time because this is all about buying the rumor selling the fact, of course, the data has to support the narrative but if you start to read these headlines, you know what you need to do over the medium to long term, right? And so these things start to come predictable. And again, if you start to see headlines where the central bank is looking to raise interest rates, you'll know that inflation is likely on the rise and above their 2% target and GDP is maybe looking at the recovery expansion into the boom phase of the economic cycle. And also as well, and this is known as intermarket analysis. And intermarket analysis is really the study of different, I guess, asset classes and how they and how they relate. And so you also have, you know, treasury bonds, right? So you have the bond market, right? So bonds, I put treasury bonds and I put treasury bond yields, right? Because you have prices and you have yields. Now prices, treasury bond prices work inversely to treasury bond yields. Now yields are basically also synchronized to this cycle. So whenever you see an article about yields coming down and again, I must stress, this is not a day-to-day thing. It doesn't mean that one day yields are going up and then everything else is going up and one day yields are going down. Everything else is going down, right? These cycles can take, you know, years to play out. So for example, you could have an interest rate hiking cycle. The last interest rate hiking cycle has probably lasted about a year or so. And you'll have, sometimes it can last maybe a year and a half, maybe two years. A cutting cycle or a holding part of the cycle can last for maybe, you know, months and years, right? And have been known to last for years. And then sometimes the rate cutting cycle can last for again months and years. And so this is not something that this week, this is what's going to happen and next week is, you know, something else is going to happen. And even if you have inflation go up, you can still have GDP go, you know, GDP reading go down. But if we're looking at the macro side of things, we're zooming out and looking at the overall move of these cycles, they historically will be in sync overall, yeah? And so going back to Treasury bonds. So if you read an article in a headline that talks about Treasury bonds rising, yeah? And, you know, traders are piling into Treasury bonds and just thinking to yourself, what Treasury bonds got to do with forex? It has a lot to do with forex. But what you should know is that Treasury bonds, or sorry, Treasury yields. Treasury bond yields, not the price, Treasury bond yields, yeah? If they rise, it typically means that the central bank is looking to high crates, which means inflation is, you know, rising, which also means that GDP should be on the recovery expansion, possibly boom phase of the economic cycle. And in the same way that you have Treasury yields, Treasury bond yields, if you start to read headlines where they're coming down, they're not just down for the day or just down for the week, but you start to read headlines where it's like, okay, we're seeing worries that they should come lower over the medium to long term, then you should know where you are. And you see multiple headlines, right? Maybe you might read a headline today and it's talking about bond yields.  And then you start to say, all right, then well, that's what this means for, you know, the currency, right? And so again, really, the basics of forex is understanding which currency, yeah, is where on its rate cycle, yeah? And so if you have, for example, a currency and you're reading about the euro and they're talking about the euro going into a recession, for example, then you know that the central bank is likely cutting rates. And let's say, for example, the United States, they're not talking about going into a recession. Let's say, for example, they're on the growth end, they're on the recovery end, or they're on the, you know, the boom end of the cycle, then you would know that the central bank is looking to hike rates, which means it's positive, yeah? Or it appreciates the currency, yeah? And so that's where you get a divergence in monetary policy by understanding headlines that talk about interest rates, or inflation, or GDP, or bond, treasury bond yields. And you can even add commodities, yeah, to this too, right? Because you have commodity cycles, again, historically, typically, are in alignment with economic growth because, and commodities such as, for example, oil, yeah? Because the demand for oil in an economy that is expanding and booming, right, and recovering, commodity prices typically go higher because there's higher demand, you know, there are investment in infrastructure projects, transportation. And so when you start to see the economy growing and big economies growing like China, yeah? Then you typically do have commodities like oil, industrial metals, you know, copper, aluminium, etc, start to go higher, right, in price as well. So the commodity cycle is also linked, right, to what we know about interest rates, inflation, GDP, treasury bond yields, and the like. And so let's get into some examples, matter of fact, of this. And so you can see and have a, you know, really kind of quick understanding just from reading the headline, and also as well, maybe a paragraph or two, and, you know, not fear that reading fundamentals and understanding the fundamentals is so complex, because I think a lot of traders, they get put off by fundamentals because of their own self-belief about their understanding, and they feel that it can be too complex. And you can go down the rabbit hole, right, of fundamentals, fundamentals, and the sentiment can be a minefield as, you know, maybe some conflicting news, etc. But from a basic understanding of what is happening and what is likely to happen over a cycle, over the macro side of things, over the next, you know, three, six to nine months, you can see what is likely to happen by just reading certain articles. And the more of these articles that start to come out in the publications that you read, you can then get a feel for what is likely to happen, and stay in those larger trends that are likely to occur. Now, trends don't happen all the time. There are, you know, markets that do range, always known as an auction, right, and you can also understand when a market is likely to auction or how the market is likely to go higher or lower. But let's get into some articles about and read some headlines and see how this, how you can basically apply what I'm saying here to the news. So here we have an article which says, the yen falls as earthquake raises bar for Bank of Japan to end negative rates. And so if you have an understanding of the grasp on obviously cycles and why inflation and GDP affects what a central bank is likely to do with interest rates, just by reading this headline, I know that the, the effect of the earthquake is not good, I guess, in the short term for the, for the yen, right. So it says here yen to see fresh selling pressure as January move now unlikely. So again, let's just go over why. So remember we have, first of all, interest rate cycle, then we have inflation cycle, and then we have the GDP cycle, right. And so if we know that interest rates are just turn that to an I interest rates inflation and GDP. Now, for context, the Bank of Japan is looking to hike rates. Yeah. So they're looking to hike rates on this end of the cycle. Right. Now, if GDP, yeah, is seen as in this earthquake has caused massive destruction in the country, and is going to slow, you know, productivity down as the country rebuilds on the earthquake, yeah, in the short term, then interest rates are unlikely, right, to rise, right. So the end of negative rates mean in that the Bank of Japan currently is in has minus 0.1% interest rates. And what they're looking to do is go to 0% interest rates. So that's basically hiking interest rates. But if the economy is on this end, yeah, or there's a setback with the economy, then the central bank are unlikely to hike rates because you need a growing economy, rising inflation above their 2% target to trigger interest rates to go on this side, right. So just by understanding the basics, yeah, and I get it, you can actually just read the, you know, the subtext, right, the subheadings, which is Gen2Z fresh selling pressure, as January moved now unlikely. Even, it says, even policy change in first half seems hard, Mizuho's camera. And again, if we kind of scroll down and read the article, yeah, it says here, the yen is coming under renewed pressure as a powerful earthquake that hit Japan on New Year's Day makes it harder for the Bank of Japan to abolish negative interest rates this month. And so it says Morgan Stanley, MUFG changed his call for the Bank of Japan rate decision this month, now sees it leaving current policy in place partly as the central bank has to assess the adverse impact from the no-toe peninsula disaster on the economy, right, everything that we've been saying about, you know, the cycles, while speculation about a January tweak is receding, many still expect it to end negative rates, so hike interest rates in April or later in 2024, right. And so that's just an example of, you know, I didn't even have to read, really read this, but just to kind of spell out that you can read the headlines and understand what is likely to happen, yeah, in terms of where you are in the interest rate cycle, and therefore what is likely to happen to the currency, and it says here, obviously, that the yen is coming under renewed pressure, yeah, because if you think about it, the, it was by the rumor, so the fact situation where the market was expecting the Bank of Japan to hike rates a lot sooner, the earthquake has put an end to that, so now the yen has to be revalued, and so that's, you know, how we can say, or we can see that, let's say for example you was in a, you was in a trade and you was looking to buy the yen, or you were already in the yen, and, you know, the yen has been strengthening on anticipation of rate hikes, and then this is now put an end to those rate hikes for now, then you can actually look to get out of and, you know, take profit on that yen trade simply because you know that the rate hikes are not coming as soon as the market is pricing in, so that's where you actually can get out of a trade, right, and take profit rather than sometimes holding on and seeing your profits evaporate, so the next article is, it says here that China's 10-year yield hits lowest since 2020 as easing bets mount, and so, right, let's do this again, so remember we were talking about cycles, yeah, of course you remember, so cycles, but if you remember treasury bond yields also are in sync with interest rates, what, interest rates, inflation, i-n-f, oh, sorry, F, GDP, and treasury bond yields, yeah, so the headline is that the 10-year yield, yeah, hits its lowest since 2020 as easing bets mount, right, so again we talk about the cycle, where are we on the cycle, so it's talking about easing, right, is in cutting rates, yeah, so this is interest rates, and you're seeing that the 10-year yield is hitting its lowest in 10 years, so again it's been trending lower, right, and so what should happen in that environment to inflation and also the economy, that should also be, you know, happening to those as well, right, so let's read the article, it says here that China's bond market rally continued into 2024, remember I said, and it says bond market rally, right, so remember treasury bond yields and prices actually move in opposite directions, so whenever you have yields going up, bond yield prices go down, and when you have prices go up, bond yields go down, right, so when it talks about China's bond market rally has continued into 2024 as bets on the potential for interest rate cuts gathered pace, yeah, so the rally in interest rate bond prices as interest rate cuts gather pace, look at that, right, so you can see when you have, when you're in different phases, yeah, when you're in the up phase, up phase, right, up phase of the cycle, up phase of the cycle, prices, bond yield prices should be on the down phase, and when you're on the down phase, right, of the cycle, then bond prices should rally, so just from this headline alone, again this confirms what we're talking about, right, bond prices are rallying, which is confirming the potential for interest rate cuts, yeah, following weak economic data, weak economic data last year, weak economic data, the contraction side, yeah, the 10-year yield and sovereign notes dropped to 2.54 on Thursday, lowest since April 2020, extending the decline that kicked off in November, a combination of liquidity, support from the People's Bank of China and major lenders, slashing deposit rates for a third time in 2023, fueled expectations that Beijing will loosen monetary policy to further aid growth, right, again, loosen monetary policy, loosen is another word for cutting rates to aid further growth, right, because what you need is to cut rates in order to boost economic growth, and it says here again, rate cut expectations are in play, and also markets overall remain bearish on China's growth outlook, said Albert Leung, a strategist at Nomura International in Hong Kong, yields may have more room to fall if those rate cut expectations hold firm in the absence of any forceful fiscal or property stimulus ahead, right, and also as well in China, you can look this up, you have disinflation or deflation actually happening now at the same time as all this is going on, so you've got bond prices going higher, yields are coming down, right, so yields are weak, right, sovereign yields, the 10-year, the yield on the 10-year, right, dropped to 2.54, right, so it's confirming this end of the cycle, right, and so that really, if you understand this from a macro perspective, then you can make better decisions over the medium to long term, again, if you are a short-term trader, if you're a day trader and just trying to scalp and get, you know, 10, 20 pips here and there, this is likely not for you, but if you are a, I guess what you would call a swing trader, a fundamental trader, a risk analysis or risk sentiment trader like myself, and you are looking to trade, you know, and get hundreds of pips, and you don't necessarily have to hold for hundreds of pips, not at all, but you can, you know, get in on 100 pips, a couple 100 pips, get out, wait for a pull back, then get back in because you understand that the trend, right, the trend should want to continue, you know, moving higher, right, and higher, and if it pulls back again, we understand that this is the overall direction of the trend, and it should be the overall direction of the trend, as long as the data supports that narrative as well, so you have to have the data to back this up, so even if one of the, you know, I would say this before I go and this video is, you know, one of the things that you really want to look out for is, for example, an uptrend, let's say, is data supporting your buy trade, but prices are going to the downside, for example, yeah, because what that allows you to do is buy for cheaper, that's what you're ultimately looking to do, so when you see data that comes out and it's not great for your, I mean, it's great for your trade, but prices are doing something different, normally in the short term that's just liquidity hunting going on, stopping traders out, and then it's likely to continue on its way over, you know, the quarter, six months, potentially the year, but going back to macroeconomic cycles and understanding where you are is really, really important, it's the reason why you have, for example, you know, the stock market rallying, the stock market cycles, right, that also go into this and stock market cycles are linked to what typically central banks are doing with interest rates, so if you've seen the stock market rally recently, it's because of the expectation, in fact, of rate cuts and the rate cuts when the central banks are on their rate cutting cycle that allows, you know, investors, sophisticated investors and institutions to actually borrow for cheaper at a cheaper rate so that they can put their money into a riskier asset like the stock market and get maybe a better return than what they're borrowing their money from, so a lot of people have misconceptions about, you know, the stock market weakening in a recession, know that that doesn't happen if you go back to, for example, the, you know, with COVID when we were in lockdowns and the stock market, you know, dropped for a bit, but then it, you know, made this massive historic rally and, you know, it was mainly because the people that knew and that were borrowing money for absolutely cheap were able to basically put their money into, you know, value stocks, etc. and make a killing, so, yeah, understanding not only cycles, but also intermarket analysis where you are on each phase of the cycle and what is likely to happen to inflation, GDP, you know, bond yields, bond prices, commodity prices, and even stocks, it's all interlinked and so if you know that, it can put you, you know, two, three, four steps ahead of the average trader in a major life a whole lot easier in trying to figure out, you know, which direction to trade. Anyways, guys, I hope that helps, take care, and if you have any questions, post them and I will try and get back to you when I can.


Excel Accounting Practice Problem Financial Statement Creation. Get ready because it's time to excel. Here we are in our Excel worksheet. In prior presentations, we constructed the Excel worksheet from a blank sheet now using it in order to enter transactions to tabs down below example and practice the example tab in essence being an answer key. Let's take a look at it now. So in prior presentations, we've been entering the beginning transactions. Imagine that this is our beginning balances that we want to enter into the system start entering new transactions from that point forward. We have entered the inventory, the accounts receivable and the accounts payable into our trial balance. Now we want to start to think about constructing the financial statements as we go. Obviously the only financial statement thus far is in essence going to be the balance sheet because we don't have any income statement activity yet. We put that all the way to the right on our worksheet. We're going to be constructing it way over here, which means we're going to practice hiding sales to get way over here to take a look at the construction of our balance sheet. Let's go back on over to the P to the practice tab and then I'm going to hide some sales. I want to hide some sales. So I got my trial balance right next to where we're going to be constructing the financial statement. So I'm going to put my cursor on the skinny column, the skinny J skinny J. I knew a skinny J one time. He's still pretty skinny, but he's not as skinny as he used to be. So any case, we're going to go over here to BZ. We're going to right click and we're going to hide those. So we're going to hide that hide. And so now we got this side by side. Let's make this another skinny, a skinny CA skinny California skinny CA California is huge. It's not skinny, but whatever. Here we go. We're going to say then it's going to be the balance sheet, balance sheet. And then let's make, let's make some of it just black up top. So we have some, some items just to note that that's the heading.  So there we go. And then we'll typically have just the assets, liabilities and equity, which we could stack on top of each other, or we can do a side by side. And so a lot of software will stack it like the assets on top and then liabilities and equity on the bottom, because that's a nice vertical analysis when you're in a situation where your screen is kind of your scrunching space this way. But oftentimes people like to see it where it's sprawled out where the assets equal the liabilities and equity. So you could see two sides of kind of like a big T account. So I'm actually going to construct it that way with with the assets on the left liabilities and equity on the right. So let's start, we're going to have the assets here. And we might want to make that as a color. I'm going to make it like this same formatting by paintbrush in that green, put that green on my paintbrush and put it right there. And then we're going to say we usually have a sub category of current assets, those are going to be more liquid assets. So and in accounting software, it'll often name the account types as current assets. So in other words, if I was to put these accounts into software, like a QuickBooks software would have a special name for the checking account, and the cash accounts, because they want to have a ledger, but they would also be a current asset type of accounts accounts receivable would have a special account, but also a current asset, I believe inventory then would simply be under the designation of an account type of a current asset asset type of account generally. But they're all going to be current assets and note, I don't need a special sub categorization for like the checking account in our worksheet, because it's just a current asset, which really should go under basically cash, we should even rename it under financial accounting to just call it this should be grouped up in the category of cash. But we're just going to, we're going to call that the checking account. We don't need us another category for accounts receivable. It's just a current asset. If you see sub categories of these accounts, other than current assets in software, it's probably because the software is using these accounts in a different way needs needs to have special uses for those accounts, therefore creating another category that's not usually on a financial statement as a sub category type of account. Okay, in any case, we're going to say this is going to be cash equal to the cash. And so do I want to build this whole thing out? Let's just add all the accounts here, then this one's going to be the accounts receivable, I was going to build it as we go, but let's just build the whole thing out accounts receivable. And then this one is also a current asset on the inventory. So then I'm going to, I'm going to make this sell a little bit larger between the CB and the CC, make it a bit larger. And we're going to call that total current assets. Let's do our indentation stuff here. So I'm going to, I'm going to say that this this is current assets, meaning it's a sub category indicated by the colon, I'm also going to show it's a sub category by indenting it going to the alignment group and indenting it. And then I'm going to show it's a sub category by putting my information into an inner column, which I'll sum up in the outer column, but a bit overkill on the fact that it's going to be current. And I'm going to pick up that zero, which will pick it up and change once we complete it. I'm going to say this is going to be equal to the 20,500. And this one's going to be equal to the 2896. And then I'll underline it here, home tap font group underline. Let's do another indentation on the total down here alignment indentation. And then we'll sum up in the CD column. CDs are almost obsolete these days, aren't they? Because now we got like other stuff streaming stuff. I don't even use my CD player anymore. Whatever. I had a cassette player once. Any case, let's do the next one. Then we're going to say that's the total current assets. And then we could just have the total assets because we don't have any long term. Oh, yeah, we got property planting equipment. So let's say property, plants, let's just say plant and equipment. And colon. Now the property planting equipment might be called depreciable asset, it might just be called fixed assets. This is something that would have a separate category as you can see a normal financial statement reporting and software will often call it something different. So if I was to add these accounts into the accounting software, they would probably need to be categorized with a special asset category type like


Hello and welcome to Physiology Open. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation which is visible to us, we call it as light. The visible light spectrum ranges in the wavelength from 400 to 700 nanometers. Now light is also depicted as a particle that is photon which is the minimum unit of light. Phototransduction is the process by which energy of a photon is converted to electrical energy by the photoreceptors that is rods and cones. Now there are certain questions which we should think about before we proceed. Like a photon from which part of the spectrum is converted to electrical energy and how many photons from each end of the spectrum are we talking about? Then what is perceived as light intensity and what is perceived as the quality of light or colour? Well basically there are two things. Light wavelength which describes the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation and is responsible for colour and light intensity or brightness at a particular wavelength which depends on the number of photons. So how do photoreceptors that is rods and cones respond to these different aspects of light? Rods and cones structurally have three functional segments. An outer segment which is responsible for phototransduction then an inner segment which houses the nucleus and hence the biosynthetic machinery and finally there is the synaptic terminal which makes contact with other cells of the retina and releases neurotransmitters. Let's zoom this outer segment. This outer segment which is responsible for photodransduction consists of stacked membranous disks which have photopigments on their membrane. The stacking of membranous disks basically increases the surface area tremendously and that's why they can have a large number of photopigments on them. Secondly this outer segment also has ligand gated sodium channels which are dependent on the presence of CGMP. The concentration of CGMP is dependent on two things. One is synthesis from GTP by the enzyme guanyl cyclase and the other is degradation into 5-GMP by the enzyme phosphodiesterase. Now normally in dark or in absence of photons the concentration of CGMP is high since the enzyme guanyl cyclase is continuously active. This keeps the sodium channels open causing entry of sodium ions and the cell remains in depolarized state in dark. And just like any other neuron depolarization causes release of the neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminal. So basically in dark this neurotransmitters are continuously being released just since the channels are open. In presence of light as photons strike the photopigment the enzyme phosphodiesterase is activated decreasing the concentration of CGMP in the cells. Let's go bit into the micro details of how this happens. The photopigment is known as rhodopsin in rods and photopsin in cones. Fundamentally they function similarly except for some differences. So let's see how rhodopsin works then we'll see how photopsin differs from rhodopsin. Rhodopsin is a combination of G protein coupled receptor that is opsin and its ligand which is an aldehyde derivative of vitamin A that is retinal. In dark this retinal is in 11 cis retinal form and it remains bound to its T protein coupled receptors that is opsin. When the photon strikes this rhodopsin photon is absorbed by 11 cis retinal which then gets converted into all trans retinal. Now with the conversion of 11 cis retinal to 11 trans retinal it detaches from GPCR opsin and due to this opsin also changes conformation and there is activation of trimeric G proteins known as transducin. The G-alpha part of transducin activates the enzyme phosphodiesterase which breaks down CGMP to 5-GMP. Thus reducing the concentration of CGMP inside the cell this leads to closure of CGMP dependent sodium channels. Thus decreasing sodium entry into cells and causing hyperpolarization this decreases the neurotransmitter release. So in light the cell is hyperpolarized and the release of neurotransmitters is less. In the meantime this all trans retinal gets converted to 11 cis retinal by the enzyme isomerase and goes and binds with opsin again ready for the next stimulus. Now this is the basics of photo transduction in the photoreceptors but some questions remain here. One, do rods and cones respond to photons from the entire visual spectrum equally or differently? Secondly, how do they respond to different intensities of light? Now see rods and cones have different forms of opsin. The binding of retinal to different forms of opsin actually tubes this retinal molecule to a particular region of the spectrum. Tuning means just by the virtue of binding to different forms of opsin they respond to photons from different wavelengths of the spectrum. So this diagram is showing the response of the rods and different types of cones to photons from different ranges of the spectrum. X axis shows the wavelength to which they respond while the Y axis shows their relative responses. So basically photoreceptors respond to a wide range of wavelength but their relative responses vary across the range. Let's focus on rods. See that they respond maximally to photons from a particular wavelength here at the peak of this curve. Only one photon may be sufficient to excite the receptor but at other wavelengths of this curve see their relative responses are less. So more photons may be required for this particular wavelength. Similar is the case with the different types of cones. The different types of cones respond to photons from different wavelengths you see and this signal from the cones is processed by further visual pathways and it is interpreted as colours. In actuality in real world there are no colours as such. It is we who construct these wavelengths as colours. Secondly rods and cones work maximally under different conditions of illumination. Rods have a low threshold to light that is they are very sensitive while cones have a higher threshold. This happens because in rods there is so much amplification of the signal that excitation by a single photon can cause degradation of as many as 1000 CGMP molecules causing closure of approximately 200 sodium channels and hence hyperpolarization of the receptors. Cones on the other hand require at least 100 photons since amplification of the signal is not much in cones. Thus a single photon cannot cause closure of the channels hence cones are not responsible for dark vision. Also rods are slow to respond so basically it's a slow but amplified activation in rods. So due to this slow response they kind of sum up the responses from a large number of photons. So this makes them suitable for dark or scatopic vision. But also note that because of this fusion of the responses they will become ineffective for detecting flicker. Since for detecting flicker it is required that they should detect each light signal separately rather than sum the response. But cones on the other hand are quick to respond so they can't sum up the responses and that is why they are good at detecting the flicker. This we also call as cones having a better temporal resolution that is they are better at detecting quick successive light signals separately. Now given the rate of response of the photoreceptors that is even a single photon in rods causes closure of 200 ion channels you can imagine how fast all the channels will be closed with only few photons. That means the photoreceptors will not be able to detect light over and above those number of photons since no more channels are there which can be closed. So since rods respond even to a single photon they will saturate fast and are not useful any further. So that's why they are responsible only for scatopic vision while cones start their response only with a higher intensity of light. So they have a higher threshold right? Nonetheless even with that they will saturate very fast. That means our photoreceptors will saturate only within a narrow band of light intensity. But does this happen in reality? See in actuality we can appreciate light intensity is ranging from absolute dark to as bright as broad day sunlight. Now this is possible due to a phenomena known as light adaptation. Basically the retina doesn't encode absolute light intensity. Now focus here little bit. So it's not that one photon causes closure of 200 ion channels and two photon causes closure of 400 ion channels and so on. Instead as light intensity increases this closure of sodium channels becomes less and less. So maybe like two photons will cause closure of 100 more channels and maybe one more photon if it comes it will cause closure of additional 50 channels only. Point is that the relationship is not linear. This happens because these sodium channels also allow entry of calcium ions. When the channels close in response to light calcium entry also decreases. This leads to decrease in intracellular calcium levels. Now normally calcium has many roles inside the photoreceptors. It inhibits the activity of guanyl cyclase. So with decrease in calcium what will happen? Background guanyl cyclase activity will increase causing increase in CGMP. Also the affinity of channels to CGMP increases. So channels are kept open with a lower CGMP concentration. So basically this decrease in intracellular calcium is offsetting the action of the photon. So as light intensity increases the magnitude of amplification decreases due to decrease in intracellular calcium ions. This allows us to appreciate wide ranges of light intensity. This is known as wide dynamic range. In short we don't appreciate absolute light intensities but relative light intensities. Now this adaptation mechanism is more effective for cones. I hope now you will appreciate rods and cones not only as a phototransduction apparatus but also as something which helps us in detecting features of light ranging from colours, varied light intensities and also flicker. Thanks for watching the video. If you liked it do share and like the video and subscribe to the channel Physiology Open. Thank you.


I found the careers with the highest IQ, that's right somebody did a study on the average IQ of common professions. So today we're going to be figuring out which professions are big brain and which ones are easy. That's right some egos are about to get crushed. Now not only is this interesting but it can also be a pretty good tool for you to pick your own profession because it's probably a good idea to go for a profession that's within your IQ bracket. That way you'll be in the sweet zone where you're not too bored but you're also not too stressed out either. Now just to explain this a little bit if you look at a graph of the IQ of everybody in society you're going to see that most people fall within 85 to 115 IQ about 68 percent of people to be exact. Now if you're above 130 IQ you are literally in the 98th percentile you're in the top 2 percent of intelligence and if you're above 145 IQ you're literally in the 99.9th percentile the top 0.1 percent. Now if you go to the actual study the way that they define different levels of IQ is 115 to 124 is above average, 125 to 134 is gifted, 135 to 144 is highly gifted, 145 to 154 is genius, 155 to 164 is also genius, and then 165 to 179 is high genius, 180 to 200 is highest genius, and then an IQ over 200 is unmeasurable genius aka Shane Hummus subscribers. With all joking aside let's get into this list so some common careers that are within the IQ range of 90 to 100 are going to be laborers, gardeners, miners, factory packers, and sorters. So these are basically tasks that are incredibly simple but sometimes they take a lot of patience and in many cases these are extremely repetitive tasks. So gardening is actually a lot of fun but it is repetitive and it takes a ton of patience and it doesn't take much in the way of intelligence to do these types of jobs. So a laborer for instance they might tell you to go and dig a hole. You know it's a very repetitive task, it's pretty labor intensive, but it doesn't take high levels of intelligence. So around the IQ level of 100 you have warehousemen, carpenters, cooks, bakers, small farmers, truck and van drivers. So a lot of these tasks are relatively physical as well and they also take a little bit more critical thinking. Right so it definitely takes skill to be a cook even like a lower level type cook and you might not want somebody with a very low IQ or somebody who doesn't have good critical thinking skills driving a farm tractor or a truck. But these are a lot of careers that still do take a good amount of patience and a lot of them are relatively physical as well. I have very little patience for stupidity. At 100 to 110 IQ you've got machine operators, shopkeepers, butchers, welders and sheet metal workers. Right so this is where you're getting into the skilled trades. These are still relatively physical but you do have to be pretty skilled. Something like machine operation or sheet metal work takes a lot of critical thinking and if you're a shopkeeper you're having to keep inventory and you're also leading people. So obviously you're going to have more responsibility, you're probably also going to make more money, but it is going to require more intelligence or critical thinking at least that's what the study says. Now at 110 to 120 IQ you get into foremen, clerks, telephone operators, salesmen, policemen and electricians. Now here you have some of the most skilled of the skilled trades. Some of the hardest ones to do for instance electrician is quite difficult and then you also have the people who are the managers of other people that are in the trades such as foremen. And then of course something like being a policeman or a salesman definitely takes higher levels of critical thinking. Right if you're trying to convince somebody to buy a product or if you are trying to catch a criminal after they committed a crime that is going to take higher levels of executive function. Now from 120 to 130 you've got some careers like school teachers, pharmacists, accountants, nurses, stenographers and managers. So now we're getting into more of the white collar work. Most of the other professions were sort of blue collar type jobs and white collar typically means that there's less physical labor. And for pharmacists, as an example I'm a pharmacist myself, you probably want the pharmacist who is in some cases prescribing, diagnosing or at the very least dispensing medications for yourself or your family members to be relatively smart. Right you want them to have really good reasoning skills. You probably want them to be relatively detailed and have a good memory and you just want them to be pretty sharp in general. Now same thing for accountants not only do they need to be really smart when it comes to the numbers but they also need to know how to interpret the law. Right and that's actually probably the more important part out of the two. And then of course you have managers. Typically managers are going to be smarter than the people that they're managing although there are many many exceptions to that as we all know. At the 130 plus IQ level you've got physicians, surgeons, lawyers, engineers, top civil servants, professors, and research scientists. So these are all major white collar positions and in many cases by definition you have to be a leader and a manager in these positions.   And these are typically positions that require you to have a pretty good memory. You have to have really good reasoning skills and in some cases you have to have some pretty high level math skills as well.  Just kidding the study didn't even go over 150 plus IQ but there's other studies that have been done and it does show that the higher the IQ very generally speaking the more money you make. For instance billionaires on average do have a higher IQ than millionaires and millionaires do have a higher IQ than non-millionaires. But some of the studies suggest that there is a point of diminishing return when it comes to IQs. So for instance what that basically means is somebody with maybe 130 to 150 IQ is just as likely to become a billionaire as somebody with 180 plus IQ. So there does seem to be a point of diminishing returns where the higher your IQ the less it matters when it comes to making more money. And I mostly focused on financial stuff but I also talked about work-life balance and things like that and you can check that video out by clicking right here.