The neural layer ends at a margin of the radina called the aura serratum. The pigmented layer continues on the surface of the serratum body and it continues on the surface of the iris. Let's apply of the radina. You can enlarge these pictures to see. I put them very very small, but you can enlarge them. The two most important circulations are of plexus of blood vessels on the outer surface, which is called the coreocabularis. They supply the outer one third of the region. The neural layer is supplied by the central retinal artery, which is a branch of the ophthalmic artery. This is the branch of the ophthalmic artery. The ophthalmic artery gives us to the central retinal artery. I'm going to tell more about it. I'm just naming it. Here's drainage. The central retinal vein drains into the superior and inferior ophthalmic vein. Which drains into the cavernous sinus. So these are the few nuts and bolts. Layers of the radina. If you look up your board review book, it will tell you 10 layers. You'll say, oh my god, I have to memorize these 10 layers? No, you don't have to. We will make it simple. Basically, we will condense them into three most important layers. What are the three most important layers? Going from outer to inner. This is the radina. This is the vitreous humor. That means the light is coming from here. The cornea is here. Are we clear? The retina. The coroid is here. And the sclerida is outside. So this is the outer surface. This is the posterior and that's the anterior. Are we clear about the orientation? So going from outer to inner. We have three layers of neurons. I'm just condensing all the layers. An outer nuclear layer. An inner nuclear layer. And a ganglion excel layer. Ganglion layer. These are the three most important layers for us. Outer nuclear layer is composed of, the layer is also called the layer of rods and corns. Actually it's called outer nuclear layer because of the nuclei of the rods and corns. The inner nuclear layer is composed of bipolar neurons. And the ganglion layer is the final layer with axons of which constitute the optic neuron. Are we clear? And the inner nuclear layer synapse. This layer is called, this layer of synapse is called the outer plexiform layer. The word plexiform means layer of synapse. And where the inner nuclear layer synapses with the ganglion cell layer. That is called the inner plexiform layer. Now I need you to know something. There are many things which are in this picture. In fact one picture can tell more stories than a thousand words like they say. The retina starts, the pigment, the neural layer of the retina starts from here onwards. But this is also a part of the retina. Remember I told you the retina has got two layers. A neural layer and a pigmented layer. This is the pigmented layer of the retina. Can you see? This pigmented layer of the retina gets pigment from the coroid layer. This interface between the pigmented layer and the neural layer. This interface, I am saying interface because in actual life there is no layer of separation. However, you will see it in any other issue. I am going to tell you. The pigmented layer is derived from a different source and the neural layer is derived from a different source. So there is a potential space between these two layers. And what is the significance of that potential space? If you get a blunt trauma, retinal detachment occurs. It occurs between the neural layer and the pigmented layer. Contrary to what we may think, retinal detachment does not mean the retina is not getting detached from the coroid. Retinal detachment means the neural layer separates from the pigmented layer. The pigmented layer remains stuck to the coroid, the neural layer separates. And I have seen a case like that. This happened. This guy, he was participating in a rally. Going on the street and shouting slogans and all the rest of it. So the police fired water cannon to disperse the crowd. And the water cannon is, you know, the water has got a very strong blast. So the blast of water hit him in the eye. It so happened that he was in the front. Next day he came to the clinic, seeing the difficulty of vision. And when we did not thalmoscope, we found that he had undergone retinal detachment. So retinal detachment can occur from a blunt trauma on the coroid. And it occurs between these two layers, between the pigmented layers. You continue. A few quick words about the cells. Rods and corns. These are the first of the neurons in the outer nuclear layer. Rods are called rods because they are triangular. Rectangular shaped corns are called corns because they are, these are the ones which are the photosensitive receptors. They contain the photo receptors. They are the ones which respond to electromagnetic radiation, the physical part of the spectrum. They use glutamate as a neurotransmitter. Next. The bipolar neurons. Now the special, I told you that all the special senses have bipolar neurons. Remember? So they are called a pitfall process and a central process. The pitfall process synapses with the layer of rods and corns. The central process synapses with the ganglion cell layer. They also use glutamate as a neurotransmitter. Next. The ganglion cell layer. They also use glutamate. And their central, their pitfall process synapses with the central process of the rod. The bipolar neurons and the central process continues, collects together and forms the optic nerve which we shall see in the next slide. Next slide. There are two, three other types of cells which are briefly mentioned. Connecting adjacent layers of rods and corns, situated on the outer plexiform layer are small, small cells. They are small, small neurons. They are called horizontal cells. They use, and their job is to prevent excessive stimulus from coming through the rods and corns. So they exert natural inhibition to the rods and corns. So that excessive impulses do not reach the ganglion cell layer. Are these different from the K-troll, for example, K-troll? Yeah. Yeah, it's totally different. These are just called horizontal cells because they exert lateral inhibition. There's another similar type of cell which are located in the inner plexiform layer. What do these do? They receive impulses from the inner nuclear layer, layer of bipolar neurons. And they, in turn, send inhibitory impulses to the ganglion cells. And they also use GABA and LICEN as their neurotransmitter. They also prevent excessive impulses from reaching the ganglion cells. So these are the two in-between the natural neurons which are located in the region of the horizontal cells. And finally, there is a non-neural cell which is called the radial cells of Mueller. These red ones that you see here. These are something similar to glia. They are called the radial cells of Mueller, or radial Mueller cells, which go the full thickness of the retina. And they produce what is known as the outer limiting membrane and an inner limiting membrane. Just like the astrocytes give full processes and form an outer limiting membrane of the brain and an inner limiting membrane of the brain. Similarly, the glial cells here also produce an outer limiting membrane and an inner limiting membrane. And non-neural cells, their job is more supported. So these are some few other cells of the retina. There are a few special words. I'll just quickly summarize them. The optic nerve gets myelinated by oligodendrocytes after it is penetrated through the sclerar. So long as it is within the sclerar, it does not undergo myelination. Once it is penetrated through the sclerar, then it undergoes myelination. Why is oligodendrocyte involved in the myelination? Why not one cell? Because it is the central nervous system, right? Exactly. So that's an important point to remember. Oligodendrocyte is the one which is responsible for myelination. So you already guessed something. Can you tell me what you guessed? Remember when we talked about multiple sclerosis? We said it is a demyelination of central nervous system. That optic nerve is one of the structures which is predominantly affecting multiple sclerosis, the point I was going to remember. Because oligodendrocyte myelination is destroyed in multiple sclerosis. And because this is the central nervous system, this is the prime site of demyelination in multiple sclerosis also. Tight jumps etc. A few quick words about the rods and cones. Rods outnumber cones by several times. It's not written here, but I have written in my slide. Location. Rods are more common in the particular parts of the retina. Cones are more frequent in the macular region and the phobia centralis. Rods are more sensitive, so therefore they respond to dim light. They are called scotopic vision. Cones are more for acute vision and they work better in right light.  Cones are for color vision. That's why it's also called photopic vision. Cones are for scotopic vision or dim light vision. Roads are played around, they have a pigment called rhodopsin. Cones have a pigment called photopsin and hyalopsin. You don't have to know the details, these are already complex. All derived from red. Rods require to be derived from A for their regeneration and they are responsible for dark adaptation. Let me give you an example. When you enter a cinema hall, late, when the movie has already started, what happens? You cannot see your way, isn't it? Because you are from outside, you came from outside your eyes already. The bright light has photo-bleached the rhodopsin. It takes about 20 minutes for the rhodopsin to regenerate. So that is the period of what is known as dark adaptation. Let me give you a story, an interesting story. During the Second World War, the Royal Air Force phallics, they had to take off at a moment's notice, even in the night or any time. And those days they didn't have all those laser sights and all those things like we had today, laser guided missiles. They had to do everything by vision and everything is dark. So even the few minutes it takes for them to be dark adapted was very dangerous. They can be shot down, especially when they are on a bombing raid in Germany or something. In order to keep their eyes dark adapted throughout, they used to be asked to wear red glasses. So if you wear red glasses, your eyes will be dark adapted. So therefore they would have to wait for the eyes to get adapted. So this is the practical example of dark adaptation. And we will see later on that the rods are responsible for the vision, which we had mentioned earlier in the cortex chapter, the magnocellular slices. And the cones are responsible for the phallic cellular loss system. Remember what was the function of the bar ocular loss system? Colour.  The magnocellular stress system was responsible for motion, depth and spatial perception. So rods and cones will play a role now, yes. Is that what that is? Okay. Excess pigmentation, pigments of the rods is very strong. Is it commonly adapted from the eyes? Yes. I think they shave him cartilage in the endowel. Maybe he's got some special level of logistics, cones. There are three types of cones. LM and SN are not going to be details. L cones for red, M cones for green and S cones are for blue, but those are not required for you. Maybe he's got some special level cones, yes. Is there a reason you're using the red glasses at the post time? Yeah, so what happens is it keeps your eye constantly dark adapted. Why don't you wear sunglasses? No, they found that it works better. Dark adapted. Sun glasses actually just filter out the ultraviolet radiation and they filter out the intensity of the light. But it does not really keep your eyes dark adapted. But red glasses was too used to keep them dark. Especially if you read a book called The Dampusters, there's a movie also. Dampusters. They were specially trained pilots who were supposed to fly very low and actually blow out the dam in Germany. And they had to do it by vision. They had to fly just 60 feet above. And they were especially kept dark adapted throughout during the training courses and they had to do it in the night. So all these things are mentioned there. They didn't blow out the dam in Germany. Okay, so a few clinical correlations I mentioned here. Night blindness is due to vitamin A deficiency. Deficiency of that is called mentalopia. It can be due to many other conditions also. And there are some situations. Genetic conditions where there is genetic deficiency of the bones. And that is called day blindness or hemorrhobia. Okay. Rental physiology can be done on your own. Just the point to remember is the brighter the light, less will be the neurotransmitter released. Contrary to what we may think. The brighter the light, less will be the light. Because bright light causes hyperpolarization. It closes the sodium channels. So therefore constant efflux of potassium will lead to hyperpolarization. So less light, more neurotransmitter and vice versa. The mechanism is very complex. We are not expected to go into the details. In fact, if you were to read up, it's very complex how vitamin A is used. But the net result is less light, more neurotransmitter and vice versa. And the process of conversion of electromagnetic energy to the chemical energy is called retinal transduction. And this also requires vitamin A, retinol. Now let's come to a few important points about the retina itself. The word fundus means the ophthalmoscopic appearance of the retina. In your anatomy you have heard the word fundus, isn't it? How many fundus do you know? I'm trying to remember the point. How many fundus do you know? These should be able to tell me at least three fundus from your anatomy. Yes, good. Stomach. Fundus of the stomach. Second?  Oh, thank you. Kidney. Kidney fundus. Kidney fundus. Really, really, I'm just thinking about it. What about the fundus of the uterus? What about the fundus of the gallbladder? You are supposed to teach me all these things. I'm not supposed to teach you all that thing. Okay, why are they called fundus? That means there must be common meaning for the word fundus? Yes or no? No, fundus actually means the most distal or the dependent part when you approach it from one particular direction. So in the uterus, you approach it from the cervix elliptic. The most distal is the fundus. Stomach, when they first examined it, they saw it from the pyloric end. So the most distal part was the fundus which is under the dome of the reactor. Gallbladder, you see it from the cystic gut side. So therefore, the prediction below the liver is the fundus of the gallbladder. Here also, why is this called the fundus? Because you are looking at the eye from the eye disc or from the pupil. The most distal dependent part is the retina. That's why this is called the fundus. Fundus of the eye. Fundoscopic appearance. Optaloscopic appearance. Okay, so this is the meaning of the word just so that you understand why it is called the fundus. What are the landmarks? These are the ones you want to know. Because we are going to mention all these things again in our FCM, but we are going to be asked these questions. Normal appearance. Nobody is going to ask you the abnormalities of the fundus in this basic sciences. But you will be asked the normal. What are the landmarks? The first landmark that you see here, here, here and here is the macula. Macula is the most central, absolute geometric center of the eye. Geometric center. Approximate eyeballs, eyes 24 millimeters. Exactly the posterior pole is the macula. It used to be called macula lutea. Lutea means yellow because the first appearance of the macula was seen in a special type of light which was green from red. And therefore it appeared yellow. But nowadays the word lutea is dropped. Nowadays we just say macula. So this is the central part of the eye. Absolute geometric center. What is the appearance of the macula? First, it is brighter red in color than the rest of the antenna. Why is it brighter red? Because here the macula is in. Therefore the capillary vessels shine through. So this is the appearance of the macula. Brighter red. In the center of the macula, you have got an area which is called the obiac centralis which is the center of the highest visual activity. The center of the macula, absolute center of the macula is called the obiac centralis. Next landmark. For the eye, we don't use the word medial or lateral. We use the word nasal or temporal. We use the word nasal. That means medial or temporal means lateral. Please note very carefully. The macula is this absolute geometric center. A little nasal to that. You have the optic disc. You have the optic disc. The optic disc is approximately 2 to 2.5 disc diameter. 3 to 4 millimeters nasal to the macula. Or 3 to 4 millimeters nasal to the macula. This is the side which is creamy or yellowish in color. Point number 1. 2. It is called a shallow depression. Which is referred to as the physiological cup. It is called shallow depression which occupies less than half the diameter of the disc. Point number 3. This is the area where all the axons of the ganglion cells converge and form the optic nerve. So this area does not have any rods and bolts. This is the area of blind spot, the physiological blind spot. Are we clear? Next, it is called fine blood vessels which are known as the disc vessels. It is not shown here. Next point. The temporal margin of the disc. That is the lateral margin of the disc. Is more clearly demarcated than the nasal margin. This is how you will determine which eye it is. The temporal margin is more clearly demarcated than the nasal margin. And the final point. From the center of the disc, you will see 4 pairs of blood vessels emerging. 2 superior to inferior pairs. They are respectively the superior and inferior temporal and nasal retinal artery and retinal veins. So these are all the sadient points about the optic disc. Next. The appearance of the retina in general. The appearance of retina in general. Again, it is pale pink in color. But it is lighter than the macular. Why is it pale pink in color? Why is the macular red in color? Again, remember I told you the outer surface of the retina is supplied by the coriocardial plexus. It is the plexus of blood vessels which shines through. That is why when you take pictures of each other. And if the light happens to catch you right in the pupil at that moment of time, do you get that red eye? Can you see the red eye here? I put a picture here. Can you see the red eyes? This has been taken from one of you. I mean not you. Some free magic. This is because of the coriocardial plexus. And it is this which gives the red appearance to the retina and the macular. The coriocardial plexus. That is why now we have the red eye reduction, red eye flash and all those things. Okay. And finally a few words about the retinal plexus. I told you there are four pairs. From superior to inferior. How do we distinguish the artery from the vein? The artery is always thinner than the vein. The artery has got a brighter light reflex because of the horoscopic light. It reflects more. So these are the two important differences between the artery. The artery is thinner than the vein. It has got a brighter light reflex and it is less red than the vein. It appears less red, lighter red than the vein. So these are some important differences. So whichever is the thinner one is the artery, whichever is the thicker one which is the vein. Yes, the vein is thicker. The artery is thinner. In the retina. So I am talking about the retina. Okay. So by looking at this, can you tell me which eye it is? Eye. Four is written there. How do you say it is left eye? So always look for the temporal margin. Whichever is the part that is more sharply demarcated that is the temporal side. So if this is the temporal side that means this is lateral, right? So the person is looking at you, this is lateral. So it is a left eye. So that is how you relate. Another way to determine which side is this or which side is this. The temporal blood vessels will be, because remember this is nasal. So the temporal blood vessels will be longer. That is another way to determine. Because optic disc is situated more nasal. So the temporal blood vessels will be more curvy. Temporal blood vessels will be more curvy. There is also another way to determine which side it is. But you will be asked the normal findings. You will not be expected to do different diatoms in your biology, and you will be expected to see this during your FCM also, but in the examples you will be asked. That's why I mentioned all these things. So these are the some points about the retina itself. I told you about the retina histology, the types of cells, a few quick words about the rods and cones, the retina physiology, and the fundus opiates. Now let's start with the visual pathway as a whole. And every step of the way, just like you have to know every step of the way of the lateral endothelium and just by the thalamic tract. Similarly here also, you have to know every step of the way. So let's first give you a quick overview. I'll give you first overview. It's a four layer, four order neuron change. First point. Three of those neurons are already in the retina itself. Yes? The layer of rods and cones, the inner nuclear layer that we have bipolar cells, the ganglia cells. The fourth layer of neuron will be the thalamus. So it's a four neuron change. First point. So here is the retina, which is already going to three layers we mentioned. And we said that the axons of the ganglia cells constitute optic nerve. So this is optic nerve. What are they? They have nothing but the axons of the ganglia cells. Optic nerve. I'm just first nailing the structure, then we will go into the details of each. Optic hyacinth. Optic tract. Optic tract. LGV. Lactogenic lead body. Thalamus. Now you will see the details of LGV. Optic radiation. Oxopilipornix. Cuneous gyrus lingui gyrus. You will see the importance of why we were hammering our heads over. Cuneous and lingui. Cuneous and lingui. They will have lots and lots of things to say for us. So this is the full pathway. Now let's take them step by step. This is another picture to show you quickly, just a part of the optic tract and then what happens later on. This gives you a diagrammatic representation right up to the cortex. We will be using this similar picture again and again. Okay, let's start with optic nerve. We have already seen optic nerve is formed by the union of all the axons of the ganglia cells. Location of the optic nerve. Location of the optic nerve. It passes through the optic for M. Where? Here. This is where optic nerve emerges. So after it passes through the orbit, the optic nerve emerges through the optic for M. This is an MRI picture to show you the location of the optic nerve inside the orbit. Incidentally, this is also a picture of the left CN6 palsy, but we will not bother about that. I put this picture. This is also the location of the optic nerve within the optic in the orbit. That will do. This is a diagrammatic representation of the same thing. Some special features about the optic nerve. Because it's a central nervous system tract, it has got all the three layers of the dura. I want you to note that point. That means it's got three layers of the meningitis, dura, arachnoid, pyramid. It has also got a covering of CSF. This is an important point. It has got lots of clinical significance. One of the features of meningitis is optic otophobia. The patient has got difficulty in looking at light. Why? Because these meninges get inflamed, and therefore they really adopt a nerve. Why do you get papillodema when there's increased intracranial pressure? Now think and answer. It's mentioned in this slide here. Why do you get papillodema when there's increased intracranial pressure? I'm going to talk about it in the clinical part, but I want you to understand why now itself. Because, yes, because the central retinal artery and central retinal vein, they pierce through the layers of dura, they go through the subacnoid space, they enter the optic nerve, and then they come out on the retinal surface. So when there's increased intracranial pressure, it compresses the central retinal vein first. Yes? Because veins is thin, won't it? Artery is coughing blood, vein is not draining the blood, so there is eating of it. Makes sense? That is why. Similarly, I told you just now, the optic nerve, when it is passing through the optic foremen, here it's a complete amount of pulmonary artery. It is situated very close to the ethoid and the spinoid sinuses. And the bone here is very thin, ethoidal bone is very thin. So when a person gets ethoidal or spinoidal sinusitis, it produces information of the optic nerve causing infective optic neuritis. I'm using the word infective optic neuritis. Why? Because there is something called demyelinating optic neuritis. Infective optic neuritis. Well, there's information of the optic nerve because of ethoidal and spinoidal sinusitis, as opposed to demyelinating. Now, I mentioned the compression of optic nerve produces optic atrophy, and we just now saw osteotelitis improve. And finally, blood supply is supplied by the central rectal artery. Next structure is optic hyacinth. Location of the optic hyacinth. This is the location of the optic hyacinth. There's a shallow sulcus. This is called the chiasmatic sulcus. This is where the optic hyacinth is located. Important relationships of the optic hyacinth. You have to know important relationships. This is a sedetal view to show you. Anteriorly, it is related to the lamina terminalis. Posteriorly, it is related to the infundibilum and the pediatric restock. I need you to note this relationship down. It's very important. The optic hyacinth is located exactly at the junction between the anterior wall and the floor of the third ventricle. Optic hyacinth is located at the junction between the floor and the anterior wall of the third ventricle. Optic hyacinth has got a small recess of the third ventricle which is known as the hyacinthic recess. Optic hyacinth is made by CSF from outside also. This is called the chiasmatic cistern. So optic hyacinth is made by CSF from inside as well as outside. Chiasmatic recess inside and chiasmatic cistern outside. Laterally, the optic hyacinth is related to... Please take a good look at this picture because these are all clinically important. Laterally, the optic hyacinth is related to a curved portion of the internal carotid artery. And that is called the carotid siphon. The carotid siphon is not shown in this picture. It will be located here. It is shown in that picture. Laterally, the optic hyacinth is related to the carotid siphon. Just note these relationships. Antiretriminal is posterior. In fundibilum, the beauty stock. Laterally, internal carotid artery. Next, what happens in the optic hyacinth? In the optic hyacinth, take a good look. Look at the blue and the pink fibres. Very important. 60% of the fibres coming from the optic nerve, they cross the optic hyacinth. Which fibres? The menial fibres. The nasal fibres. Sorry, I should use the word nasal. So take a look at this pale blue here. It is crossing over to the opposite side. Yes? Look at the pink here. It is crossing over to the opposite side. Nasal fibres. They cross over. Temporal fibres remain on the same side. I need you to understand that point. Temporal fibres remain on the same side. Nasal fibres cross. So once they have crossed, I need you to notice something. Look at the color coding. This color coding is not random. It has been done with a purpose. This pale blue is the nasal fibres from the region. Yes? And on this side, he has shown the pink fibres. Again, the nasal fibres. So this nasal fibres has crossed over to this side. And this nasal fibres crossed over to this side. So in the optic tract, what happens? The color coding becomes same. Yes or no? In the optic tract, the color coding has become same. Pink, pink, pink and blue. It has done the significance. And I'll tell you about the significance just now. So important point, nasal fibres cross. Temporal fibres do not cross. We will see an important clinical correlation because of the arteries which are sitting on either side. I told you the crowded side. I'll tell you it's written there, but I won't talk about it now. Optic tract. Optic tract starts from the posterior lateral aspect of the chiasma. Optic tract starts from the posterior lateral aspect of the optic chiasma. And ends in the lateral chain. The types of fibres in each optic tract. Now please follow me very closely. Each optic tract, again, each optic tract receives fibres from that side retina. Did you understand my point? So this is the left optic tract, yes? It receives fibres from the left, left retina. Are we clear? I need you to understand this point. Each optic tract receives fibres from that side of retina. I didn't say nasal or temporal. Nasal or temporal. I said that side. So right optic tract receives fibres from the right, right retina. Clear? The left optic tract receives fibres from the left, left retina. Are we clear with this much point? So what have you guessed? Each optic tract serves the opposite half of the binocular visual field. Yes or no? This is the most important point to be carried for. Because each optic tract receives fibres from that half of each retina. Each optic tract receives fibres from that half of each retina. Each optic tract serves the opposite half of the binocular visual field. I need you to get this point absolutely clear. Because the entire crux of the visual pathway lesions will be dependent on this single point. So this optic tract serves this half and this half of the binocular visual field advisers. Did everybody understand this? Who has not understood this survey? I want this to be absolutely clear. Okay. Some more important relationships of the optic tract. The optic tract, as you can see, this is a cut section of which part of the brain? Can anybody hazard a guess? Which part of the brain? Which part of the brain? Brain stem. Wonderful. So this is a section of the midbrain, right? So these two things that you see here, these are the crux cerebri, the cerebral peduncles. That is what is shown here in another view here. The optic tract winds around the cerebral peduncle of the midbrain. Yes, you want to ask something? Yeah, about what you said for each optic tract serves for the opposite half of the binocular visual field. Because it receives fibers from that side of retina. I'm going to go into it again, just after I finish the pathway. But right now itself, I wanted to be with me and follow what I'm saying. Look at the color coding. Pink, pink, yes? But they're from two different... That's why I use the word from the same half of each retina, did I use that word? Each optic tract receives fibers from the same half of each retina. What is the meaning of this phrase? The left optic tract receives fibers from the left half of the left eye and the left half of the right eye. Makes sense or no? The right optic tract receives fibers from the right half of the right eye and the right half of the left eye. That's what I meant by it receives fibers from the same side of each retina. I spelled it out okay much more elaborately, but I need you to understand that point. That is the reason why he has given the color coding. The optic tract then winds around the central pinhole. When it is winding around the central pinhole, take a good look. It is closely related to this artery here, which is called the anterior coroidal artery. It is a branch of the internal carotid. It is an anterior carotid artery, which is a branch of the internal carotid. And this internal carotid artery supplies the optic tract. And again, there's a very important clinical correlation, which we shall see later on on Monaco's syndrome, but I won't talk about it now. It is related to the anterior carotid artery. This optic tract, it projects to the lateral geniculate body. Optic tract projects to the lateral geniculate body. And if you remember, when we were talking in talk one, we talked about something called transneuronal degeneration. Remember, can you define it for me? What is the meaning of the phrase transneuronal degeneration? Exactly. And I use this example. If I were to do a transaction or some injury to the optic tract, there is transneuronal degeneration of the lateral geniculate. This is an example I use on Instagram. Okay. Next point. Optic tract, I told you, ends in the lateral geniculate body. It is shown here. Let me use this picture. Optic tract ends in the lateral geniculate body. 90% of the fibres sent to the lateral geniculate body percentage of fibres do not go to the lateral geniculate body. They go to four other places. What are those four other places? Can you see this picture here? Some fibres are branching away. Some fibres are branching away from the optic tract. Now, some set of fibres go to the pre-tectal nucleus. Do we remember the pre-tectal nucleus? They are situated just into the superior colliculus nucleus in the membrane. What do they serve? They serve the buprenerial nitric acid. I'm going to tell you the pathway of the nitric acid at the end of this chapter. Second, some set of fibres go to the superior colliculus acid. What do they serve? The visual body reflex. Which also I'm going to tell you at the end of this chapter. Third, some set of fibres go to a special nucleus in the hypothalamus which we have not seen yet. That is called the suprachiasmatic nucleus. And what does it serve? It serves the circadian rhythm, menial-medical institution. A and L, circadian rhythm. And fourth, some set of fibres go to the medial geniculate body in the thalamus. We will see the medial geniculate body in the auditory pathway. And it serves the audio-visual reflex. So you see the auditory acid, some fibres do not go to the lateral geniculate body. They go to four other places. What are they? Pre-tectal nucleus or buprenerial nitric reflex. Superior colliculus for the visual body reflex. Suprachiasmatic nucleus for circadian rhythm metatonic. And medial geniculate body for audio-visual reflex. So these set of fibres which are branching away from the optic tract, they are serving various visual reflexes. The reason I put this picture here is just to remind you, we talked of something called the brachium of the superior colliculus or the superior brachium and brachium of the inferior colliculus, the inferior brachium. The fibres which go to the pre-tectal nucleus and the superior colliculus, they go through the superior brachium. They go through the superior brachium. That's why I put this picture here just to remind you and correlate with what you have seen in the brainstem. So this is the optic tract. And finally the optic, the lateral geniculate body. This is the picture of the thalamus. You will see the details of thalamus in the chapter at the end of this vlog. At the posterior end of the thalamus, where you see this green color here, this is the posterior enlarged end of the thalamus and I think I did mention it during the lab session, this posterior end of the thalamus is called the pulvinar of the thalamus. I'm not talking of the thalamus now, I'm just going to give you the relationship. If you look under the pulvinar of the thalamus, you'll find two bent swellings. The medial one is called the medial geniculate body and the lateral one is called the lateral geniculate body. The medial geniculate body is concerned with visual, the auditory pathway, the lateral geniculate body is the place where the optic tract synapses. Why is it called the geniculate body? Because I told you genomics are bent. These structures, they are bent like the knee, that's why they are called the geniculate body. This is again another picture to show you, the thalamus, and you can see the medial and the lateral geniculate body. This is the lateral geniculate body. The lateral geniculate body is the place where 90% of the optic tract synapses. The structure of the lateral geniculate body. The lateral geniculate body is shaped, this whole thing is the lateral geniculate body. Can you see its curve? This is the ventral part, this is the torso part. The lateral geniculate body has got six layers of cells, numbered from below our, from ventral to torso, as layer 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There's one and two. They are phylogenetically the older cells, the older cells. They are called the magnocellular layers. Layers 3, 4, 5, 6 are phylogenetically recent and more advanced. They are called the parbocellular layers. So you're wondering, yes or no? One and two serve the magnocellular stripes. 3, 4, 5, 6 serve the parbocellular blots. In between each of these layers of cells, there's a little bit of white matter, which is called the neuropil. Neuropil by definition is the white matter, in between gray matter. And these neuropil layers also contain a few scattered smaller cells, which are known as the corneocellular layers, but they are not important worlds. Most important are the magnocellular and the parbocellular. Layers 2, 3, and 5 receive impulses from the same eye. Layers 1, 4, and 6 receive impulses from the opposite eye. Layers 2, 3, and 5 receive impulses from the same eye, and 1, 4, 6 from the opposite eye. The magnocellular layer and the parbocellular layer, they all project to layer 4 of the visual cortex. And this projection constitutes what is known as the stria of Gennari.  The parbocellular blots layer is responsible for color vision, visual equity, and background recognition. The magnocellular stripe system is concerned with motion, depth, and spatial perception. I'm repeating again. You don't have to know the details of all the pathways. Just know this much, which I told you. So these are few selling points about the primary and the lateral geniculate body. Let's apply the lateral geniculate body. It is supplied by the anterior coroidal artery and the posterior cerebral artery. The lateral geniculate body is supplied by the anterior coroidal artery and the posterior cerebral artery.  So we will stop here.


He has now missed every game in Denver, dating all the way back to 2019, Chandler. What is the deal with that? This is my guy. I love him. This is a weird situation where I think the NBA is going to look into this and not let him do this anymore. You can't do this. This is the definition of load management. It just so happens to be against the other best big man in the league, which makes it worse, almost like he's ducking Jokic. I don't think he's ducking it. But he just played him in the end of the game. What he kind of is. I don't think he's ducking Jokic. He can't breathe in Denver. So it's the opposite. He doesn't want to play in Denver. That's what I was just looking up. I was just looking up when it was the last time that he played in Denver because I don't think in 2019, I don't think this is a Jokic thing. He just showed what he could do against him. I don't think he likes to play in Denver.


India's capital New Delhi is in the final stages of preparation for the G20 summit that concludes, of course, India's presidency of the grouping. We ask NewsClicks editor-in-chief Praveer Pukhaistha what the context of the G20 really is and whether this is the right platform to even potentially address the economic realities of the world today. And the ASEAN summit begins in Jakarta on Tuesday. Most notable so far is the absence of U.S. President Joe Biden, China's Xi Jinping and even Thailand's new prime minister. What then is on the agenda at the ASEAN summit and are we likely to see any real resolutions on the key issues facing the region? This is Daily Debrief coming to you as always from the People's Dispatch Studios here in New Delhi. A New Delhi among the largest cities in the world is gearing up to come to an almost complete halt as world leaders, particularly those from the West, arrive for the head of state summit that will conclude India's year in the chair of the global economic club that is the G20. We go over now to NewsClick editor-in-chief Praveer Pukhaistha for a bit of a curtain razor on what to expect over these two days. Hi Praveer, good to have you back with us on Daily Debrief. New Delhi is shaping up or gearing up rather for the jamboree that is the summit of the G20 grouping of nations and of course the population 30 also million including migrant workers who come in and out of India's capital set to face a significant set of difficulties, particularly the poorest section among Delhi's population. But before we get into some of that, set the context for us Praveer. What exactly is the G20 and where does it stand amid all of the various organizations and multilateral multi-national platforms that exists in the world today? You know, G20 really came out of the 2008 financial crisis when G7 countries realized that they were not in a position by themselves to overcome the crisis. Needed countries like China, like India, who had sufficient foreign exchange reserves and a banking system, we should help them get out of the crisis of their sinking banks. If you remember, it started with what is called the mortgage crisis, but it soon engulfed the banking system, both the United States and in Europe. So they needed financially to be bailed out by countries which had sufficient reserves upon the exchange and to show up some of these banks. So that was the limited remit of G20. And if you remember, G7 itself was not supposed to be a political platform. In fact, it included Russia before that and then become G8. Russia was kicked out soon enough for various reasons which we won't get into. But it again became G7. But G7 has been a club even as G20 is a club. Because they were the European countries and the United States, essentially, and Canada. So they were what new statesmen called the White Boys Club. This is what I would call Excolonial Pass and the Neocolonial Pass, getting together. And that's really the United States and these European allies along with Australia, Canada and its other countries like that. So when G20 is to be seen, we have to see it in the context of what G7 represented. And it represented a club which would then call say, and it has been saying now for some time, that we have what would be called the global rules, the rule-based order. And the rule-based order is not done by an international body like the United Nations or international law, which is something you negotiate and say, OK, this is the legal framework that all of us agree. But it's a set of rules which are never stated. But the rule-based order means we make the rules and you have to follow it. It's like the Constitution, I guess, of the United Kingdom, where there is no Constitution. But in this case, at least the courts would define the law. Here, the United States and its allies really determine what is the rule-based order, who makes the rules and who violates the rules. If the US intervenes in various countries, it's not a violation of the rules. But if Russia, for instance, has got into Ukraine war, then of course it's a violation of the rules. But that's only a small part. Much bigger part is the rule-based order by which the United States today has probably sanctioned about one-third of the world.  And therefore, G20 is still something which can work with consensus. Otherwise, it cannot work. That's a basic understanding. But the rules of the game are not defined. So this is really a set of intentions. And in that sense, it's no different, for instance, from the BRICS game, which meet and decide what it agrees on, what it doesn't agree on. And that's the kind of the platform that G20 is to be. But this has become, as we saw in Bali, a platform by which to mobilize countries against Russia. This seems to be the limited objective of at least the United States and European Union. And of course, there are a number of countries against India, including Brazil, who would say a war should be stopped. That is one part of it. But does it mean that therefore you say, OK, now you, Russia, stop the war. But Ukraine has no responsibility for it, unlike what you did in the Minsk Accords, when there was a decision to bring together Ukraine and Russia. Now we understand both France and Germany to say it is only to buy time to arm and military, you know, help the military in Ukraine. So if we take all of that out, this is not the platform in which you will decide the Ukraine war. It has to be something which has to be decided at the level of the United Nations, all between NATO countries, Ukraine and Russia. And that's not something other countries have too much of a role to play. I think that's a background of what the expectations of each side is. And I think India is trying to get a good agreed draft. In fact, we agreed with the Bali draft, which was proposed. China did not and Russia did not. That's where the things still probably lie. And we will not know what the agreement and disagreements are. But behind the scenes, I'm sure the various sherpas are working to get a certain kind of draft, which it could then come out as India's statesmanship, having got a unified draft, if such a draft does come through. But the portents of that, because neither Putin nor Xi Jinping is here, doesn't seem to be that bright that we will get a complete unanimity. We may get something like the Bali draft with exceptions, which some countries will not agree to. Which brings us to what is likely to be the central theme. You have, of course, talked already of the war in Ukraine, Praveer. And despite it not being the platform to discuss that sort of international politics, it is likely to be the sticking point. And India is sort of diplomatic prowess and also maneuvering over the past year, as it's assumed this sort of rotational presidency of this grouping. Perhaps we'll be highlighted in already commentators pointing out just as you have, that perhaps lack of consensus will be looked at as a bit of a failure on that front. Well, given the world situation today, a consensus cannot be reached easily. Not as far as the Ukraine war is concerned. As long as the United States and the European Union or NATO countries think, they can lead Russia out. And that will be a defeat of Russia. And the costs are being borrowed by Ukraine, as some of the US leaders have said. Well, for us, the cost is much less. After all, we are only spending about 3% of our budget or GDP. Now that's a small cost for destroying Russia. Now that is the framing of it. Then the expectation is the war will continue. And there is no, in that sense, there is no meeting ground between the two sides. Now, if that is the understanding, then of course, irrespective of what the other 18 countries may want, we're not going to get a resolution on this issue. The question is, are there any other issues? Now, here is the issue. Any other issue are not the ones that the West is interested in. And the Western parts, in fact, are a very important section of the G20. You can see the African Union has one seat. If you take European Union, well, it's there as European Union, as well as various European countries. So they get a number of seats at the table. Then, of course, you have the United States, the Big Brother, all by himself, and you also have Canada. So given all of that, it does not reflect the economic strength of the countries. And if G20, as well as G7, were economic platforms, then the current world doesn't look like what it did 20 years back. Now, that is a significant part of what is being missed out. If you see, for instance, simply the economic weight of G7, or G7 plus the European Union countries, it would take that and look at it via the Asian countries today, that's China, India, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia. You will see that the world has changed significantly from that age, which at that time G7 was about 41% of the global economy. It's much less. And it's also true, the BRICS countries, the economic weight is today, bigger than that of G7. Even if you leave out the expanded BRICS, original BRICS itself, in PPP terms. So given all of that, if this is to be wielded economic agenda, then the economic power of the countries are very different today. And the fact that Africa, the whole of African continent, represented by South Africa, itself makes a huge statement. And European Union is there, but African Union is not. And that's why I think India has put forward the idea that African Union should be part of G20. So these are some of the issues which are very glaring. And they really hit you in the face. That is the neocolonial vision of the world. Is that to continue? Is there going to be a different way of looking at the world? Unfortunately, if you're looking at Europe and you're looking at the United States, it doesn't seem to be so.  The rest of the world is a jungle, who are trying to enter the garden. But that is the framing, if that is the framing. Then you know, the jungle has something to say on that. And I think that is the problem that the European countries and the United States, and Canada, Australia, its various allies have to face. But this is not the world that a large number of countries in the world would like to continue. And some rebalancing of economic forces have to take place within such loopings. And I would say G7, G20 really represents the past. And the fact that India has put a lot of stake into it is, in fact, not going to lead it to the kind of results it's looking for. Because this is a platform which really does not today represent what's happening in the world. In the world. Which maybe brings us to a concluding point from you, Kabir, on the expanding BRICS as well as other regional cooperation organizations. We've talked about the Shanghai Cooperation Organization in the past. There's an ASEAN summit happening in Southeast Asia as well. And all of these groupings are more than just clubs. They are based on some sort of understanding of international law that is based on years of negotiation and understanding and debate around issues involving multiple nations. How do you then look at the tightrope that, in a way, India is trying to walk by balancing, of course, its existing relationships with Russia and also, of course, its trade with China, but trying to keep the United States and Western democracies also on its side and sort of batting for both teams as it were? That's the argument that has been made by the Indian Foreign Minister that we are involved in multiple alignments, not non-alignment, but multiple alignments. And that means certain issues will go with certain countries or certain other issues will go with other countries. So, OK, I do think that what came out of the national movement was non-alignment and still the reworking of the global relations, particularly with respect to Africa, still remains on the agenda. And that's why you have, right now, against the Neocolonial regime that France introduced in its former colonies, you are saying the world takes place and it does seem the United States doesn't know which way to go. It cannot abandon France. At the same time, it cannot go. So it's sort of caught in a kind of bind over there. So this is the kind of colonial baggage a lot of the countries carry, not India. And I would say the Soviet Union, in that sense, had a huge role to play in African national liberation struggles. And a lot of the credit still goes to Russia, how much they can claim or not claim is a different issue. But they do look upon Russia, therefore, favorably because of their anti-colonial past. So I do not think this multiple alignment part is something which is, in the long term, sustainable. Because at the end of it, the real issues today, economic terms, it's not just the India's economy. India is a continental sized economy. It can do a lot of things by itself, just like China could do. And Russia has shown that it can do. But ASEAN countries, you have mentioned, if you have a look at the map, you will see there are all island nations except Malaysia. And Malaysia is actually projection into the Indian Ocean. So they are really a part of that grouping, which is for a long time believed that trade is the answer to their identities. And there have been trading nations for a long time. And they therefore wanted to also have trading relationship with the United States, as well as China. And if you remember, it was the United States who pulled out of that. So ASEAN is going to be economic terms very important. And ASEAN means that they're also with China economically, just as Japan is, just as South Korea is. So that is one part. Look at the other part. We've already talked about West Asia's economic importance. We're talking today about Africa's economic importance. Look at Central Asia's economic importance. So all these are going to play much more important roles in the future, economically. And the question is, what is European Union countries going to do? What is the United States going to do? What is Australia, Canada, the outliers going to do? It's still an issue. But it is an issue which they have to face up to much more than the rest of the world has to face up to. Because the rest of the world really knows where to go. They want independent economies. They do not want to be dominated. They don't want to be sanctioned beyond based on which side of the Ukraine war you are or not. So that is, I think, the issue that's going to increasingly confront. And these are the issues also coming up in G20 in different ways. An African Union inclusion being one of those issues which are more or less, I would call the weatherway, which way the wind will blow. I think that you will have to see. All right, thanks very much, Prabir. And we will, of course, be covering the G20 summit over the next few days on daily debrief and People's Dispatch at large. Prabir, do you want to add something? I just wanted to add. The fact that the Chinese Prime Minister and the Russian President is not coming means that there is not going to be a resolution, for instance, of the Ukrainian issue. And we are going to get something like a Bali resolution state. Yeah, but probably even that watered down from the language that was used in Bali itself. They said that this paragraph is not agreed to by all. So that kind of, what shall we say, manoeuvre. To say, we agree to disagree kind of manoeuvre. And India probably will agree to what the Bali paragraph was with China and Russia did not agree. Did not agree. All right, thanks very much, Prabir. We'll leave it there for today. And it's a busy week for diplomatic sherpas working behind the scenes to build consensus on key issues in Southeast Asia, including, of course, the lack of moves towards peace in Myanmar and ongoing concerns regarding the South China Sea, a subject on which there has been some positive movement in the recent past, but plenty of negotiations still remain. Anish covers the region for people's dispatch. Let's go over to him now for a bit of a curtain raiser on the Jakarta summit. Anish, we were talking to a news click editor-in-chief, Prabir Pulkaias, a little while earlier about the upcoming G20 summit in the Indian capital, New Delhi. And in that conversation, of course, regional groupings came up and formed a major part of, you know, how some of these clubs operate versus actual multilateral organizations. The ASEAN summit kicking off on Tuesday in the Indonesian capital, Jakarta. And Biden not attending, Anish, how much of an impact is it likely to have on the idea of unity and sort of at least the photo ops that this 10 member nation might have wanted to put out before the summit goes ahead? Yeah, I mean, it's a very interesting kind of set of conditions that the ASEAN meeting is happening right now. Obviously, Biden's absence is one thing. There's also Xi's absence. Xi Jinping is not going to be part of the meeting either. So what you'll have is the only other major countries probably will be India, obviously. And this definitely, there's most likely to be Japan involvement as well. Participation in the meetings. But like these countries are not the main issue. Like the member nations are the ones who pretty much decide the agenda, what is going to be set in the, like what kind of post-paction they will be taking for the next year or so. And the current agenda, definitely the two issues obviously come to mind for and is something that is overshadowing the discussions right now. One is obviously Myanmar, where the ASEAN grouping has failed to actually bring out any kind of peace or stability or any action plan that could be workable. And also bring the military regime and the militant opposition together in some ways for a peace that can have some level of resolution in the near future. And despite the five point consensus that they've created, we have seen absolutely no movement on that part. And it is quite interesting also to note how there is definitely the consensus broke immediately after it was agreed upon. We've seen Thailand actually closing up to the military generals, taking a more or less equalist position on the matter as well in many ways, especially in the international forum. And obviously the new Thai prime minister is not attending the meeting either. And then you also have other similar kind of discussions about how much you can actually impose a sort of action plan on a country that is not willing to take off whatever you are proposing to do. And that is something where you obviously have the limitations of clustering of groups coming in. And definitely the other is the South China Sea, which is not necessarily an ASEAN problem. Like there is a handful of nations within ASEAN who have a war part of the set of disputes on the South China Sea, but it's not something that ASEAN as a whole can really come up with. Like Indonesia, for instance, has no standing on the matter either and does not want to be involved or dragged into the matter. But this is definitely something where you see like more pro-US governments like the Philippines wanting an ASEAN block to come up as a unified front against China. Obviously coming with the sort of geopolitical necessities of that government at the current moment. Right, so what we have reported on sort of some forward movement on negotiations on the South China Sea. Anish, is that likely to sort of continue? And you did point out that ASEAN may not be the right forum for it, but definitely it'll be one of the major topics of discussion. How do you see things proceeding? Yes, a previous, earlier this year, actually we talked about a couple of months ago, we talked about this progress that actually did happen with China and several other countries, including Philippines, Vietnam and Malaysia. But the issue is Philippines kind of the, where we saw recent tensions with Philippines and China, kind of derailing the entire problem altogether. Now there is this kind of, on multiple issues, there are like, we do not need to delve into which side was right or which side was wrong, but there is a definite need for both sides to actually agree upon the fact that they cannot resolve this conflict. This dissolve is dispute with an armed conflict or any kind of armed confrontation or military confrontation. They have to actually deal with it in a diplomatic manner, with other stakeholders involved, other people who are actually taking claims on these islands as well. And these, and this is something that we are not seeing especially with Philippines, there is no intention or no willingness to go for that option. Rather they want to internationalize this issue more and more. So ASEAN is the latest forum. They have already dragged in Australia recently and on top of that, Japan and the United States as well. So this is Philippines part is basically to derail the matters even further by bringing in foreign powers who have no say in the matter, who only have this quote unquote free and open Indo-Pacific agenda, which is pretty much them saying that they do not want sovereign rights of any countries to be recognized as long as it conflicts with their interests as well. So this is something that Philippines and like other countries as well need to recognize that they cannot really have that kind of, any kind of lasting resolution they're not willing to talk and are more willing to drag in other people who are not necessarily either willing or who are not somebody who should who are right to be in that situation either in this dispute either. So this is something that we are seeing as kind of deadlock on right now. And obviously nothing is going to move forward on the ASEAN front. Earlier we had the same kind of voices being raised but nothing happened. But in the case and this clearly shows like a severe set of limitations within us and because we're talking about a diverse range of countries with diverse political systems and each of them having their own national and geopolitical interests. And there is something like there are certain things that they can definitely agree on but when it comes to some very pressing matters they might find themselves better off doing it on different forums of different multilateral negotiations rather than use this as sort of a political block. All right, thanks very much Anish. Looks like a week ahead of diplomatic wrangling and also diplomatic probably stalemates that we'll be seeing from Indonesia to India as the week progresses. We'll of course keep you updated on developments on daily debrief and on the other shows and the other work we do on People's Dispatch. Thanks for joining us Anish today. And that's a wrap on this episode of the daily debrief. As always, we urge you to head to our website peoplesdispatch.org for more details on these stories and all of the other work we do. Don't also forget to give us a follow on the social media platforms of your choice. We'll be back with another episode of your favorite news and analysis show same time, same place tomorrow. Until then, stay safe. Thank you for watching. Goodbye.


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Today we are going to see amplitude modulation in this unit. So in this unit the learning outcomes will be first the students can be able to derive an equation for AM that is amplitude wave equation. Next we can compare different levels of modulation. Here we are going to see what are the different levels of modulation and thirdly we can compute the power current and modulation index of an AM signal that is amplitude modulated signal. So these are the learning outcomes which we are going to go through in this unit. So basically what is amplitude modulation? It is defined as it is generally a process of it is a process in which amplitude of carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of amplitude of the information signal or it is also known as the modulating signal. This is the basic definition of amplitude modulation. Next in this as a carrier is used here the carrier is having a high frequency then that of the modulating signal or the main information signal. Here in other words here the modulating signal is superimposed on the carrier signal then it is transmitted. So what are the amplitude modulation basic definitions? We are going to see these basic definitions in terms of the equation. So as you can see here this is the modulating signal, this is the carrier signal and here it is the amplitude modulated wave. Here you will see the envelope and here is the later part. Here generally this acts as the Vmax and here it is the V minimum. So what are the respective equations for these waveforms? So these are the respective equations for these waveforms. The AM wave that is amplitude modulated wave is given by this equation AC1 plus K MT cos omega CT where AC cos omega CT is nothing but it is the equation of a carrier wave. MT is the equation or it is generally the representation of a modulating signal in time domain and whereas the K generally this denotes the modulation index of that particular amplitude modulated wave. So these are the equations and the respective waveforms. Next we are going to see what is the envelope and how a AM signal is represented. So basically now here as you can see the envelope. This part is the envelope part where it is nothing but AC1 plus KM of T. Here the envelope generally means the Vmax of that particular AM modulated signal or here this equation generally represents the side bands of the two side bands of the AM modulated signal and the total AM signal as we have seen in the previous slide it is given by this equation. Next the AM spectrum generally we are going to see the AM spectrum that is amplitude modulated wave spectrum in time domain and frequency domain. First we are going to see it in terms of time domain. So this is the waveform which generally shows the AM spectrum in time domain. Here as you can see this is the upper envelope this is the lower envelope. This generally denotes the Vmax and it is given by AC plus AM cos 2 pi FM T and here as it is the negative going envelope it is just represented in terms of a negative sign whereas the equation remains the same. Here as you can see the highest part of the envelope is denoted by AM or Vmax and the lowest part is denoted by AM or Vmin. As we know that the amplitude corresponds to the respective voltage of that particular frequency or that particular signal. Now we are going to see the AM spectrum in terms of frequency domain. Here M of T generally represents the modulating signal and S of T is the modulated signal. As you can see the M of T here it is represented by a single frequency band and the S of T that is the modulated signal is represented in terms of the two side bands and a carrier signal. So this one is the carrier signal and these two are the two side bands. Similarly now we are going to see what is meant by modulation index. So modulation index it is generally the measure of the extent to which carrier voltage is varied by the modulating signal. That means the carrier voltage is varied in accordance with the voltage of the modulating signal. Hence it is denoted by generally the modulation index is denoted by small M. It is given by the equation as M is equal to EM upon EC where EM is the maximum voltage of the modulating signal and EC is the maximum voltage of the carrier signal. Similarly it is given in terms of E max and E minimum also. So now we are going to see the cases the three different cases of the modulation index. First is the perfect one, second one is the over and third one is the under. So these are the three cases where the modulation index here we are considering the modulation index to be less than or equal to zero. In the second case we are considering the modulation index to be one where the percentage of modulation index is a hundred percent and in case three where the modulation index is greater than one. As we all know that modulation for getting a perfect modulation the modulation index should be of a value unity that is one. We are going to see the respective waveforms for such three cases. So here first as you can see we are getting such kind of the waveforms for the modulation index where modulation index is one or unity. Next when the value is greater than one here we are taking the value as two and the maximum amplitude of this waveform is two volt and one volt is added. This case is generally known as over modulation and you are seeing the respective waveforms in this. Next the modulation index here the modulation index value lies below one. Here we are taking the value as 0.05 where only 40 volt is added into the main waveform. Here we are seeing the respective waveform for the modulation index less than one such is called as the under modulation. So friends discuss the modulation index as we have studied in the later or the previous parts or the previous slides. Next we are going to see the different levels of the AM modulation or AM modulator transmitters. These are basically divided into low level and high level transmitters. So this is the basic block diagram for the low level AM transmitter which generally consists of RF carrier, buffer amplifier, modulator, RF power amplifier and then antenna. Voltage amplifier is also shown which gives whose output is given to the modulator. Here generally the RF carrier gives the output in these are the oscillations which are given to the buffer amplifier for the amplification purpose. The modulator will receive the two inputs that is carrier and the modulating signal through the mic and then the modulation takes place and then it is given to the power amplifier for the antenna coupling and then it is transmitted. Here in the high level as you can see here the RF carrier are there same blocks are used but here AF voltage amplifier and AF power amplifier used are used in the first stage and then later the modulation takes place. So what is the basic difference between low level and high level transmitters? So in the low level as you can see here the low in low level amplification takes place at the first stage and then modulation and in the high level initially the modulation takes place and then the amplification. So we will see the summary for this the lower level transmitter this can produce any kind of modulation that is AM, FM and PM. What is the disadvantage? It requires a linear RF power amplifier which reduces DC efficiency and the production cost due to this the production cost increases. The high level transmitter generally this have better DC efficiency than the lower transmitter and these are operated by using the battery. Next these high level transmitters are having some restrictions to generate AM modulation only. So students discuss types of AM modulation transmitters. So these are the references. Thank you for


What's good Josh Bull rocks back again with another video So we're gonna check out Cody versus Brock three the supposed date for that match spoiler for Roman Reigns bad news for Lacey Evans WWE and a W collab and wrestling news man This is my wrestling lame in as I already know so appreciate our love and support you guys are showing on the channel If my voice sounds a little bit different.  So if I sound a little bit different, man I wouldn't like to throw this Jolly Rancher out. It's it's it's here to stay So we're gonna get right into this one. I don't even have my headphones on man I'm on it right now. All right, let's get right into this one man. Appreciate our love and support and Actually before we start the video comment down below. What's your favorite candy to eat? Doesn't matter. It's no right or wrong answer. Just let me know what's your favorite candy to eat? Mine's Jolly Ranchers and Starbursts As it is WrestleMania here back with some more news join us now as we look at the wildest new stories and rumors You need to know me so long when Cody versus Brock part 3 is happening WWE turned down a big request from Cody Rhodes Spoiler on Roman Reigns's plans Sergeant Slaughter's daughter blast Lacey Evans also some bad news for Lacey Evans as Drew McIntyre become a US citizen and much more Be sure to subscribe and hit that notification bell for daily Exclusive list also check out our new channel WrestleMania short and now let's hit the intro and get straight into our first story The first three looks at the summer showdown in the works With some are almost here both AEW and WWE are getting ready for some major matches to headline its upcoming pay-per-views and PLE's First a big update on Cody versus Brock part 3 It's time for a major update on the Cody Rhodes versus Brock Lesnar feud and when the two will throw down again Dave Meltzer recently reported on the Wrestling Observer radio that the WWE intends to book the rematch for Summer Slam This makes sense as Summer Slam is one of the biggest shows of the year and while money in the bank Would be a good venue they seem to see more value in having it at a stadium show well I mean they're going with the storyline that he broke his arm So it would only have to be Summer Slam You're not gonna have Cody come out there with a semi-broke semi-heeled arm to wrestle Brock again Money in bank is I believe at the end of this month or is it at the beginning? Yeah, I think it's at the beginning of July. I believe so So actually I can check. I don't know why I be it's like Google is a thing. I'm gonna check this right now In the bank 2023 That oh, yeah, yeah, it's at the beginning of just like I thought so so storyline wise it would have to be Summer Slam to have Cody healed up and that way you can face Brock which means Romans holding the title till next year's WrestleMania. Good God There's gonna be some interesting stories. Maybe cuz I'm sure they're gonna play up some stuff with the bloodline situation, but Jesus He's not losing that title to the WrestleMania next year. That's crazy Next up WWE 10 down Cody Rhodes. That's crazy Speaking of the American nightmare big-time wrestling is reporting that WWE nicks Cody's request for a bullrope match It's unknown who Cody wanted to work the match against the Texas bullrope match was Dusty Rhodes's speciality matching He's carried on the tradition and other promotions a bullrope match against Lesnar could be a good way to end the Cody versus Brock program As it doesn't require a pinfall thus saving Brock from having to count the lights twice in three matches This is true. It also has plenty of potential for violence Next up the hot I'm all for that. That would be something cool. I would be down for that But since like they they nixed it maybe Brock's not wanting to do that type of match I don't know but whatever match the third one is gonna be it's gonna be stipulated like they're gonna be a stipulation involved The question is which stipulation will it be others working champion in WWE? Looks like recently crowned world heavyweight champion Seth Rollins is living up to his promise to be an active champion The visionary defended the belt at last Saturday's WWE live event in Westchester County Center in White Plains, New York Wrestling news is Andrew Ravens noted that Rollins defeated the Miz Rollins is scheduled to put the belt on the line tonight on Raw against the Judgement Day's Damian Priest They seem to be all in on using Rollins to provide the WWE universe with frequent title defenses on TV and at live events What do you guys think of Seth's reign so far? Thanks. Here's the thing about that. I don't I Don't have a problem with the title being defended especially Main title like that, but at the same time It still comes off as the secondary main title. It doesn't come off like the top title it doesn't and They're doing this old was being defended. So this automatically makes it, you know that much better than Roman Reigns Universal undisputed championship. It doesn't it doesn't So the question becomes Depending I don't want him to be defending the title every week or even every other week I think it should be special moments selective moments I don't have a problem with him defending it on a Monday night Raw You know, if it's built up, right? I'm okay with that but it should be special moments when it's defended because You can overdo it. You can oversaturate your champion So I think just having it happen in certain special situations I'm all for it. You know, maybe have someone become a number one contender and then you have them face Rollins on like on a Built-up Monday night Raw. So those are things you can do, but I am looking forward To what they do with Damian Priest here I think this is gonna be a very interesting matchup Damian Priest has really started to come into his own in judgment day So Damian Priest versus Seth Rollins for the title could be a very good interest in matchup Has the WWE selected Roman Reigns his next opponent and one of Roman Reigns the WWE superstar Who's undisputed championship defenses seem to have gone from once a month to once every season We talked that Reigns is gonna team with Solis Akoba to battle the Uso's at money in the bank It looks like Reigns will go another PLE without defending the belt Okay, however Dave Meltzer recently speculated that the WWE is dropping hints about Roman's next opponent Someone very close to him and right now the only family member supporting him Meltzer speculated on the Wrestling Observer Radio that Roman versus Solo is imminent You know, that's happening down the line too. It's unknown when the WWE wants to go with Solo versus Roman But it's possible that Solo could turn a Roman as early as money in the bank Especially if a hypothetical Uso's versus Solo Roman match leads to another defeat for Solo and Roman The WWE reportedly wants to book a Roman Reigns title defense at SummerSlam But whether Roman battles Solo or someone else is just one question in the ongoing Roman Reigns and Bloodline saga We talked that Reigns could head into WrestleMania 40 as undisputed champion There's just no telling what direction the WWE intends to go with the bloodline Some fans think the bloodline is gonna continue crumbling while other fans believe Roman will reforge it with new members into an even greater group Next I don't think he needs to add new members because that just kind of defeats the purpose Every story has to have his ending and we're getting to the end of this bloodline saga That is very interesting because it really comes down to spacing out these feuds all the way the next year's WrestleMania Would Solo be a good match? Match up? I wouldn't have a problem with it, but I think that's a little bit too soon. I Think that's a little bit too soon. I think you do that Maybe right before WrestleMania season, you know, and maybe you can do that then I just think it's a little bit too soon but This all depends on what's happening that money in the bank Which is looking like it's gonna be the Usos versus Roman and solo Which I think that's gonna be a fun match very story driven looking forward to that But whatever happens in that match is gonna be the catalyst for SummerSlam. So if they are going with Solo Would I trip? No, I think that would be interesting I think it's gonna be very entertaining and I am really looking forward to seeing if that does happen The question is if you do that match so soon, where do you go? Do you have J do it? Do you have Jimmy do it? I don't know, but it's very interesting to see But we I don't have a problem with them having a match at some point for the title I think I think a lot of people are expecting that so a major match sign for forbidden door to Fans of Kenny Omega New Japan Pro Wrestling star will all spray will likely be happy to know that the two are now officially booked to battle at forbidden door To on 25th June Wrestling news is Andrew Ravens was reporting that all spray will challenge Omega for the New Japan's IWGP United States Championship as Sunday's New Japan Pro Wrestling Dominion will all spray defeated Lance Archer in the finals of the IWGP US title Number one contenders tournament to earn a shot at Omega's title at the upcoming event on June 25th This is in the first time a mega most sprayer faced off But it's only to look forward to as both men are considered two of the top workers in the world The two tumblers last battle at Russell Kingdom last January and this could be a marquee match Except who is CM Punk working within a lot of people are gonna be very excited about that EW now that AEW's confirmed CM Punk's return for the 17th June debut of its new show collision Fans are curious who Punk will work with initial reports suggested AEW was trying to patch things up between Punk and Chris Jericho to work a program However, several sources have hinted at AEW revisiting the legendary Ring of Honor program between Punk and Samoa Joe This also talked about punk is considering our feud with J White with white's Bullet Club gold teammate being involved as well except sergeant slaughter's daughter blast Lacey I Definitely prefer some oil Joe man, cuz I just feel like some old Joe It's not being it's not being utilized as often as he you know should be in AEW So yeah, I'm going with some old Joe Put him with a few CM Punk some old Joe There we go I'm good. I'm I'm set. I'm ready to go The Evans have you seen Smackdown superstar Lacey Evans's new look Lacey a retired Marine Corps military police officer It's playing homage to WWE Hall of Famous sergeant slaughter by wearing a marine cover and camouflage outfit However, one person isn't digging Lacey Evans new look sergeant slaughter's daughter tweeted. No, this is not okay Tagging in WWE who left as Lacey Evans thinks she is there's only one sergeant slaughter There's only one slaughter daughter, and she's just a poser Evans fire back saying your daddy's biggest fan The United States Marine and a ban MF. Oh, you know who I am and you know where to find me I slaughter himself waiting on things a warning Evans look out Lacey Evans. You've got sergeant slaughter's daughter pierced She's one tough MF. Oh, I know Jarhead. I trained her like me She takes no prisoners. There's only two ways out of the camp slaughter You're on your feet or you're in a ditty bag an itty-bitty ditty bag Lacey replied that she's ready between your hips and her ability the chances of only one in your bloodline to put me in A bag is zero when you burst someone who you can carry on your legacy or take me out Call me yeah, and it's a loop me like the real Marine. I am Now for the rest of votes adding to the Lacey Evans sergeant slaughter story back in January WWE asked Sarge to appear in the Lacey return vignette where we teach him pass down the cobra clutch a slaughter Adamately denied any involvement. Oh, wow. It's like the daughter's comments kind of makes him sense now Evans is actually an ex-Marine. So should she be allowed to use a gimmick? Let us know in the comments down That's a very interesting thing. So maybe the behind the scenes obviously there was some things that Sergeant slaughter wouldn't trying to do for Lacey Evans and She still would went with the kind of the tribute But his daughter was not feeling it or what not we don't really know how good Their relationship WWE and sergeant slaughter's relationship is now. So I don't know But at the same time, I mean, she is a former Marine. So it's like, I don't I wouldn't have gotten this mad at it I'm just being honest with you. I wouldn't have gotten as mad at it. You know, and I think she's just paying homage But once again, I don't really know how well WWE's relationship with sergeant slaughter is so there may be some other stuff in the reason why his daughter was like Hey, yo, what is this? This is on my screen below Next up WWE and AEW wrestlers collab and while it's highly unlikely that WWE and AEW fans will ever see the two promotions work together Wrestling fans will be able to see Roman Reigns and Malachi black working together in the near future Inside news reports. It was recently pointed out on Twitter that Roman Reigns and former WWE superstar Malachi black are said to appear together in the Movie named action force the divide the movie's IMDb page revealed that the film is currently in pre-production The room is circulating earlier this year that Roman would be taking time off after the summer to appear in the film with a film in Pre-production there's no telling when it'll be begin shooting But wrestling fans will likely enjoy seeing both men on the silver screen, especially if they interact. Oh, well Well, that's how they're gonna extend the few because Roman's gonna be gone for a while We're not gonna see the title. Oh, wow unless they pulled the biggest swerve and One of the biggest version WWE history Have solo win if they were to have a match Roman and solo for the title Have solo win That's SummerSlam Mine would be blown Next up bad news for Lacey Evans Sadly Lacey Evans current online spat with sergeant slaughter his daughter Maybe the most publicity she'll have as Dave Meltzer is reporting that WWE doesn't seem to have much planned for her Meltzer commented on the Wrestling Observer Radio that Evans is still not getting a push in WWE Evans recently dropped a money in the bank qualifier match to Selena Vega on SmackDown They've repackaged her several times But as anyone who's followed her career will tell you the WWE hasn't given Evans any type of push or even given her much TV time to try and get it over with her new gimmicks. Next step too I think one of her bigger pushes was I think she was like I Don't know if she was like Trying to like she was like flirting with Rick flair So I think she was feuding with Charlotte at a time So she was like flirting with Rick flair or something like that. You guys remember what I'm talking about I think that was one of her bigger pushes, but I'm sorry that I don't know what you do with Lacey Evans. I really don't I Don't know That's a that's a very interesting one. I don't know how you get her over on television Becoming a US citizen a PW insider reports that Drew McIntyre completed the process to become a naturalized American citizen Okay, Drew reportedly has been working on this while he's been out of action on WWE TV His current future in WWE remains unknown as he's believed he and WWE have not reached an agreement about extending his current deal with the company Rumour has it that McIntyre's deal extends to the end of the year and that WWE will likely add time on due to Drew being unable to wrestle due to an injury Finally the daughter of a wrestling legend working in Ring of Honor Last but not least is daughter of legendary wrestler Rowdy Roddy Piper working in Ring of Honor All wrestling news noted a tweet from fan Jacob Cohen who attended the recent 4th June Ring of Honor taping The tweet reports that Roddy's daughter Teal was at the event There's no word on what's next for Teal Piper in Ring of Honor and whether there's any plans for her to work in AEW They have it folks the world is new stories very interesting very interesting a lot of interesting news and reports and speculation I Think the most noticeable one is what's gonna happen With Roman Reigns at this year's Summer Slam who is gonna face also was gonna be the third stipulation match For Brock and Cody We know it's gonna be some type of stipulations not gonna be a regular wrestling match Question is what it's gonna be So y'all comment down below. Let me know Who you guys think who do you guys think Roman will face at this year's Summer Slam? What will be that third potential? Match between Brock and Cody. Who do you guys think Sam punk should work with? When he returns to AEW television on their new show AEW collision Let me know who y'all think should be his first feud, but I appreciate all of them support you guys shown on channel roll 250k I am still y'all speaking to the rest of the world