Preface of Discoverers and Explorers The practice of beginning the study of geography with the locality in which the pupil lives in order that his first ideas of geographical conceptions may be gained from observation directed upon the real conditions existing about him has been steadily gaining adherence during the past few years as a rational method of entering upon the study of geography. After the pupil has finished an elementary study of the locality, he is ready to pass to an elementary consideration of the world as a whole to get his first conception of the planet on which he lives. His knowledge of the forms of land and water, his knowledge of rain and wind, of heat and cold, as agents, and of the easily traced effects resulting from the interaction of these agents have been acquired by the observation and inference upon conditions actually at hand. In other words, his knowledge has been gained in a presentative manner. The study of the world, however, must differ largely from this and must be affected principally by representation. The globe in relief, therefore, presents to him his basic idea and all his future study of the world will but expand and modify this idea until at length, if the study is properly continued, the idea becomes exceedingly complex. In passing from the geography of the locality to that of the world as a whole, the pupil is to deal broadly with the land masses and their general characteristics. The continents and oceans, their relative situations, form, and size are then to be treated, but the treatment is always to be kept easily within the pupil's capabilities, the end being merely an elementary world view. During the time the pupil is acquiring this elementary knowledge of the world as a whole, certain facts of history may be interrelated with the geographical study. According to the plan already suggested, it will be seen that the pupil is carried out from a study of the limited area of land and water about him to an idea of the world as a sphere, with its great distribution of land and water. In this transference he soon comes to perceive how small a part his hitherto known world forms of the great earth sphere itself. Something analogous to this transition on the part of the pupil to a larger view seems to be found in the history of the western nations of Europe. It is the gradual change in the conception of the world held during the 14th and 15th centuries to the enlarged conception of the world as a sphere, which the remarkable discoveries and explorations of the 15th and 16th centuries brought about. The analogy serves pedagogically to point out an interesting and valuable interrelation of certain facts of history with certain phases of geographical study. This book has been prepared for the purpose of affording material for such an interrelation. The plan of interrelation is simple. As the study of the world as a whole, in the manner already sketched, progresses, the appropriate chapters are read, discussed, and reproduced, and the roots of the various discoverers and explorers traced. No further word seems to the writer necessary in regard to the interrelation. Dresden, July 15, 1899 End of Preface Chapter 1 of Discoverers and Explorers This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 1 Beliefs As to the World 400 Years Ago 400 years ago most of the people who lived in Europe thought the earth was flat. They knew only that the land was near them. They knew the continent of Europe, a small part of Asia, and a strip along the northern shore of Africa. They thought this known land was surrounded by a vast body of water that was like a broad river. Sailors were afraid to venture far upon this water, for they feared they would fall over the edge of the earth. Other seafaring men believed that if they should sail too far out upon this water their vessels would be lost in a fog, or that they would suddenly begin to slide downhill and would never be able to return. Wind gods and storm gods, too, were supposed to dwell upon this mysterious sea. Men believed that these wind and storm gods would be very angry with anyone who dared to enter their domain, and that in their wrath they would hurl the ships over the edge of the earth, or keep them wandering round and round in a circle, in the mist and fog. It is no wonder that the name Sea of Darkness was given to this great body of water, which we now know to be the Atlantic Ocean, nor is it surprising that the sailors feared to venture far out upon it. These sailors had no dread at all of a sea called the Mediterranean, upon which they made voyages without fear of danger. This sea was named the Mediterranean because it was supposed to be in the middle of the land that was then known. On this body of water the sailors were very bold, fighting, robbing, and plundering strangers and foes, without any thought of fear. They sailed through this sea eastward to Constantinople, their ships being loaded with metals, woods, and pitch. These they traded for silks, cashmere, dyewoods, spices, perfumes, precious stones, ivory, and pearls. All of these things were brought by caravan from the far eastern countries, as India, China, and Japan, to the cities on the east coast of the Mediterranean. This caravan journey was a very long and tiresome one. Worse than this, the Turks, through whose country the caravans passed, began to see how valuable this trade was, and they sent bands of robbers to prevent the caravans from reaching the coast. As time went on, these land journeys grew more difficult and more dangerous until the traders saw that the day would soon come when they would be entirely cut off from traffic with India and the rich eastern countries. The Turks would secure all their profitable business, so the men of that time tried to think of some other way of reaching the east. Among those who wished to find a short route to India was Prince Henry of Portugal, a bold navigator, as well as a studious and thoughtful man. He was desirous of securing the rich Indian trade for his own country, so he established a school for navigators at Lisbon, and gathered around him many men who wanted to study about the sea. Here they made maps and charts and talked with one another about the strange lands which they thought might be found far out in that mysterious body of water which they so dreaded and feared. It is probable that they had heard some accounts of the voyages of other navigators on this wonderful sea and the beliefs about land beyond. There was Eric the Red, a bold navigator of Iceland, who had sailed west to Greenland and planted there a colony that grew and thrived. There was also Eric Sun Leif, a venturesome young Viking who had made a voyage south from Greenland and reached a strange country with wooded shores and fragrant vines. This country he called Vinland because of the abundance of wild grapes. When he returned to Greenland he took a load of timber back with him. Some of the people of Greenland had tried to make a settlement along this shore which Leif discovered, but it is thought that the Indians drove them away. It may now be said of this settlement that no trace of it has ever been found, although the report that the Norseman paid many visits to the shore of North America is undoubtedly true. Another bold sea-river of Portugal sailed 400 miles from land where he picked up a strangely carved paddle and several pieces of wood of a sort not to be found in Europe. St. Brandon, an Irish priest, was driven in a storm far, far to the west and landed upon the shore of a strange country inhabited by a race of people different from any he had ever seen. All this time the bold Portuguese sailors were venturing farther and farther down the coast of Africa. They hoped to be able to sail around that continent and up the other side to India. But they dared not go beyond the equator because they did not know the stars in the southern hemisphere and therefore had no guide. They also believed that beyond the equator there was a frightful region of intense heat where the sun scorched the earth and where the waters boiled. Many marvelous stories were told about the islands which the sailors said they saw in the distance. Scarcely a vessel returned from a voyage without some new story of signs of land seen by the crew. The people who lived on the Canary Islands said that an island with high mountains on it could be seen to the west on clear days but no one ever found it. Some thought these islands existed only in the imagination of the sailors. Others thought they were floating islands as they were seen in many different places. Everyone was anxious to find them for they were said to be rich in gold and spices. You can easily understand how excited many people were in regard to new lands and how they wished to find out whether the earth was round or not. There was but one way to find out and that was to try to sail around it. For a long time no one was brave enough to venture to do so. To start out and sail away from land on this unknown water was to the people of that day as dangerous and foolhardy a journey as to try to cross the ocean in a balloon is to us at the present time. End of Chapter 1 Chapter 2 of Discoverers and Explorers In the middle of the 13th century about 200 years before the time of Columbus a boy named Marco Polo lived in the city of Venice. Marco Polo belonged to a rich and noble family and had all the advantages of study that the city afforded. He studied at one of the finest schools in the city of Venice. This city was then famous for its schools and was the seat of culture and learning for the known world. When Marco Polo started for school in the morning he did not step out into a street as you do. Instead he stepped from his front doorstep into a boat called a gondola for Venice is built upon a cluster of small islands and the streets are waterways and are called canals. The gondolier as the man who rose the gondola is called took Marco wherever he wished to go. Sometimes as they glided along the gondolier would sing old Venetian songs and as Marco Polo lay back against the soft cushions and listened and looked about him he wondered if anywhere else on earth there was so beautiful a city as Venice. For the sky was very blue and often its color was reflected in the water. The buildings were graceful and beautiful, the sun was warm and bright and the air was balmy. In this delightful city Marco Polo lived until he was seventeen years of age. About this time his father who owned a large commercial house in Constantinople told Marco that he might go with him on a long journey to eastern countries. The boy was very glad to go and set out with his father and his uncle who were anxious to trade and gain more wealth in the east. This was in the year 1271. The three Polos traveled across Persia into China and across the desert of Gobi to the northwest where they found the great ruler Kubla Khan. This monarch was a kind-hearted and able man. He wanted to help his subjects to become civilized and learned as the Europeans were. So Kubla Khan assisted the two elder Polos in their business of trading and took Marco into his service. Soon Marco learned the languages of Asia and then he was sent by the Khan on errands of state to different parts of the country. He visited all the great cities in China and traveled into the interior of Asia to places almost unknown at the present time. At length the three Polos expressed a desire to return to Venice. The great Khan did not wish to part with them, but he at last consented, for he found that by going they could do him a service. The service required was their escort for a beautiful young princess who was to be taken from Peking to Tabriz where she was to marry the Khan of Persia. It was difficult to find anyone trustworthy enough to take charge of so important a person on so long and dangerous a journey. But Kubla Khan had faith in the Polos. They had traveled more than anyone else he knew and were cautious and brave. So he gave them permission to return to their home and requested them to take the princess to Tabriz on the way. It was decided that the journey should be made by sea as the land route was so beset by robbers as to be unsafe. Besides, the Polos were fine sailors. They started from the eastern coast of China and continued their voyage for three years around the peninsula of Kochen, China, and through the Indian Ocean to the Persian Gulf. Here they went ashore and then proceeded by land across Persia to Tabriz. They left the princess in that city and resumed their journey by way of the Bosporus to Venice. When they reached Venice they found that they had been forgotten by their friends. They had been away twenty-four years and in that time everything had changed very much. They themselves had grown older and their clothes differed from those worn by the Venetians. For fashions changed even in the thirteenth century, although not so often as they change at the present time. It is no wonder that the Polos were not known until they recalled themselves to the memory of their friends. One evening they invited a few of their old friends to dinner and during the evening they brought out three old coats. These coats they proceeded to rip apart and out from the linings dropped all kinds of precious stones— diamonds, sapphires, emeralds, and rubies. In this way these wary travelers had hidden their wealth and treasure while on their perilous journey. The visitors were astonished at the sight of so great riches and listened eagerly to the accounts of the countries from which they came. Soon after the return of Marco Polo to Venice he took part with his countrymen in a battle against the Genoese. The city of Genoa, like the city of Venice, had a large trade with the East. These two cities were rivals in trade and were very jealous of each other. Whenever Venetian ships and those of the Genoese met on the Mediterranean Sea the sailors found some way of starting a quarrel. The quarrel quickly led to a sea-fight and it was in one of these combats that Marco Polo engaged. The Venetians were defeated and Marco Polo was taken prisoner and cast into a dungeon. Here he spent his time in writing the wonderful book in which he described his travels. The descriptions Polo gave of the East were as wonderful as fairy tales. He told of countries rich in gold, silver and precious stones and of islands where diamonds sparkled on the shore. The rulers of these countries wore garments of rich silk covered with glittering gems and dwelt in palaces, the roofs of which were made of gold. He described Golden Cathay with its vast cities rich in manufacturers and also Sipango, Hindustan and Indochina. He knew of the Indies islands rich in spices and he described Siberia and told of the sledges drawn by dogs and of the polar bears. The fact that an ocean washed the eastern coast of Asia was proved by him and this put at rest for ever the theory that there was an impassable swamp east of Asia. This book by Marco Polo was eagerly read and the facts that it stated were so remarkable that many people refused to believe him. It stirred others with a desire to travel and see those lands for themselves. Traveling by land, however, was very dangerous because of the bands of robbers by which the country was occupied. These outlaws robbed everyone whom they suspected of having any money and often murdered travelers in order to gain their possessions. Sea travel, too, was just as dangerous but in a different way. You will remember why sailors dared not venture far out upon the ocean and search for a water route to the eastern countries and islands. The time was soon coming, however, when they would dare to do so and two wonderful inventions helped navigators very much. One came from the finding of the lodestone, a natural magnet. This is a stone which has the power of attracting iron. A still needle rubbed on it becomes magnetized as we say, and when suspended by the center and allowed to move freely always swings around until it points north and south. Hung on a pivot and enclosed in a box this instrument is called the Mariner's Compass. It was of great importance to the sailors because it always told them which way was north. On cloudy days and during dark, stormy nights when the sun and stars could not be seen the sailors could now keep on their way far from land and still know in which direction they were going. The other invention was that of the Astrolabe. This was an instrument by means of which sailors measured the height of the sun above the horizon at noon and could thus tell the distance of the ship from the equator. It is in use on all ships at the present time but it has been greatly improved and is now called the Quadrant. The compass and the Astrolabe together with improved maps and charts made it possible for navigators to tell where their ship was when out of sight of land or in the midst of storm and darkness. This made them more courageous and they ventured a little farther from the coast but still no one dared to sell far out upon the sea of darkness. End of Chapter 2 Chapter 3 of Discoverers and Explorers This LibriVox recording is in the public domain Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 3 Columbus One day a man appeared in Portugal who said he was certain that the earth was round and that he could reach India by sailing westward. Everyone laughed at him and asked him how he would like to try. He answered that he would sail round the earth if anyone would provide him with ships. People jeered and scoffed. If the earth is a sphere, they said, in order to sail round it you must sail uphill. Who ever heard of a ship sailing uphill? But this man, whose name was Christopher Columbus, remained firm in his belief. When a boy, Columbus had listened eagerly to the stories the sailors told about strange lands and wonderful islands beyond the water. He was in the habit of sitting on the wharfs and watching the ships. Often he would say, I wish, oh, how I wish I could be a sailor.  Columbus was delighted at this and told his father that he would study diligently. He was sent to the University of Pavia where he learned all the geography that was then known, as well as how to draw maps and charts. He became a skillful penman and also studied astronomy, geometry, and Latin. But he did not spend a long time at his studies, for at the age of fourteen he was sent to sea. What he had learned, however, gave him an excellent groundwork and from this time forward he made use of every opportunity to inform himself and to become a scholarly man. His first voyage was made with a distant relative who was an adventurous and daring man and who was ever ready to fight with anyone with whom he could pick a quarrel. In course of time Columbus commanded a ship of his own and became known as a bold and daring navigator. He made a voyage along the coast of Africa, as far south as Guinea and afterwards sailed northward to Iceland. At an early day he became familiar with the wildest kind of adventure, for at this time sea life on the Mediterranean was little more than a series of fights with pirates. Some say that during one of these conflicts Columbus's ship caught fire. In order to save his life he jumped into the water and swam six miles to shore, reaching the coast of Portugal. Others say that he was attracted to that country by the great school of navigation which Prince Henry had established. However that may be he appeared at Lisbon at the age of thirty-five filled with the idea of sailing westward to reach those rich eastern countries in which everyone was so much interested. He was laughed at for expressing such an idea. It is not pleasant to be laughed at, but Columbus was courageous and never wavered in his belief. The earth is a sphere, he said. Those foolish stories of its being flat and supported on a turtle's back cannot be true. But those persons to whom he talked only laughed the more. Is there anything more foolish, they asked, than to believe that there are people who walk with their heels up and with their heads hanging down?  Everybody thought him an idle dreamer. Columbus tried to persuade King John to furnish him with ships and allow him to test his belief. But King John cruelly deceived Columbus. For after obtaining his maps and charts he sent off on an expedition of his own. He hoped in this way to gain the glory of the discovery. The sailors whom he sent, however, were not brave enough to continue the voyage and returned, frightened by a severe storm. Columbus was so disgusted by the treachery of King John that he made up his mind to leave Portugal and go to Spain. So, taking his little son Diego with him, he started on his journey. He traveled from place to place, trying to find some person who would help him make his ideas known to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. He thought that if he could talk with them he could persuade them to furnish him with ships. One day he came to a convent called La Robita. Here Diego, who was weary and thirsty, begged his father to stop and ask for a drink of water. Columbus knocked at the big iron gate and while he was conversing with the attendant a priest approached. This priest was attracted to the noble bearing and refined speech of Columbus and saw at once that he was not a beggar. He asked him what he wished and Columbus related his story. The good priest believed in him and said he would try to influence the king and queen to furnish him with ships. The priest brought the matter before the king, but at this time Spain was at war with the Moors and King Ferdinand had no time to attend to anything else. Columbus was patient and waited. But as year after year passed and brought no prospect of obtaining the ships he wished, his hopes fell. After seven long, weary years of waiting he was about to leave Spain in despair. Just as he was leaving, however, a message was brought to him from the queen, asking him to relate his plans to her once more. Columbus did so and the queen was so fully convinced that she exclaimed, I will provide ships and men for you if I have to pledge my jewels in order to do so. Three ships were fitted out for the voyage. These ships were very different from those we see today. They were light, frail barks called caravals, and two of them, the penta and nina, had no decks. The third, the Santa Maria, had a deck. It was upon this largest caravale that Columbus placed his flag. On the 3rd of August, 1492, the little fleet set sail from Palos, entering upon the most daring expedition ever undertaken by man. The people of the town gathered on the wharf to see the departure of the vessels. Many of them had friends or relatives on board whom they expected never to look upon again. Sad indeed was the sight as the little caravales sailed out of the harbor and faded from view. After sailing a few days the penta broke her rudder. This accident the sailors took to be a sign of misfortune. They tried to persuade Columbus to put back to Palos but he would not listen to such a suggestion. Instead of sailing back he pushed on to the Canary Islands. Here his ships were delayed three weeks after which they continued the voyage into the unknown waters. After they had sailed westward for many days the sailors began to show signs of alarm and they implored Columbus to return. He tried to calm their fears. He described the rich lands he hoped to find and reminded them of the wealth and fame this voyage would bring to them. So they agreed to venture a little farther. At last the compass began to point in a different direction and the sailors became almost panic-stricken. They thought they were sailing straight to destruction and when they found that Columbus would not listen to their entreaties they planned a mutiny. Though Columbus knew what the sailors were plotting he kept steadily on his course. Fortunately signs of land soon began to appear. A branch with berries on it floated past and a rudely carved paddle was picked up and land-birds were seen flying over the ships. A prize had been offered to the sailor who first saw land and all eagerly watched for it night and day. At last, early one morning, a gun was fired from the penta and all knew that land had been sited. The sailors were filled with the wildest joy and crowded around Columbus with expressions of gratitude and admiration in contrast to the distrustful manner in which they had treated him a few days before. The land they were approaching was very beautiful. It was a green, sunny island with pleasant groves in which birds were singing. Beautiful flowers were blooming all around and the trees were laden with fruit. The island was inhabited, too, for groups of strange-looking men were seen running to the shore. At length the ships cast anchor, the boats were lowered, and Columbus, clad in rich scarlet and carrying in his hand the royal banner of Spain, was taken ashore. As soon as he stepped on the beach, Columbus knelt down and gave thanks to God. He then planted the banner of Spain in the ground and took possession of the country in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella. This island he called San Salvador because he and his crew had been saved from a watery grave and also because October 12th was so named in the Spanish calendar. Columbus supposed San Salvador to be one of the islands near the coast of Asia, but it is one of the Bahamas. Thus was America discovered on the 12th of October, 1492. The natives of this land were different from any people the Spaniards had ever seen.  They were entirely naked and their bodies were greased and painted. Their hair was decorated with feathers and many of them were adorned with curious ornaments. They were at first very much afraid of the white men and kept far away, but gradually they lost their fear and brought the Spaniards presence of bananas and oranges. Some of them gathered courage enough for the Spaniards and passed their hands over them as if to make certain that they were real beings. These men, whose skin was so white, they thought to be gods who had come down from the sky. When Columbus asked them where they found the gold of which many of their ornaments were made, they pointed toward the south. Then Columbus took some of them with him to search for the land of gold. The next land he reached was the island of Cuba, thinking that this was a part of India, he called the natives Indians. He then set sail to Haiti, which he called Hispaniola, or Little Spain. For more than three months Columbus cruised among these islands where the air was always bomby, the sky clear, and the land beautiful. The sailors believed these new lands were paradise and wanted to live there always. At length, however, they thought of returning to their home and friends. So taking several Indians with them and making curious baskets and ornaments, they set out on their return voyage. This voyage proved to be very stormy, and at one time it seemed certain that the ships would go down. But after a time the sea grew quiet, and on the 15th of March they sailed again into the little harbor of Palos. You can imagine the excitement. What? Has Columbus returned? asked the people. Has he really found the east by sailing westward? Yes he has, was the answer. He has found India. Columbus was given a royal welcome. The king and queen held a great celebration in his honour at Barcelona, and when the Indians marched into court the astonishment of every person was great. The Indians were half naked, their dark bodies were painted, their heads were adorned with feathers. They carried baskets of seed pearls and wore strange ornaments of gold. Some carried the skins of wild animals, and others carried beautiful birds of brilliant plumage. Every inhabitant of Barcelona rejoiced, and the bells were rung in honour of the great discoverer. It was a happy time for Columbus. He felt repaid for all his suffering and trouble. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella now wished Columbus to go again to these newly discovered islands and search for the gold that was thought to be there. You may be sure Columbus was willing to go, so they fitted out seventeen vessels, manned by fifteen hundred men, and placed Columbus in command of this fleet. It was no trouble to find men who were willing to go on this voyage. All wanted to see the new world that had been found. During this second voyage, it was made in 1493, Columbus discovered Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and some small islands in the Caribbean Sea. On the island of Jamaica the Spaniards came upon the footprints of some strange animal, which they thought to be a dragon. This dragon, they believed, was guarding the gold, which they supposed was on the island. So they ran back to their ships in fear. Later on they became used to seeing these footprints and found that they were those of alligators. At Puerto Rico they suffered from a savage attack made by the natives, who shot poisoned arrows and threw javelins at them. But in most other places the natives were very friendly. Columbus thought this land was a part of the East Coast of Asia and he could not understand why he did not find cities such as Marco Polo had described. Columbus then sailed to Hispaniola, where he planted a colony of which he was made governor. It was not an easy matter to govern this island because of the jealousies and quarrels of the Spaniards. At length Columbus returned to Spain, ill and discouraged. Columbus made a third voyage in 1498, during which he sailed along the coast of Brazil and discovered Trinidad Island. Here his ships encountered currents of fresh water which flowed with great force into the ocean. This led Columbus to think that so large a river must flow across a great continent and strengthened his opinion that the land was a part of the great continent of Asia. After sailing farther north along the Pearl Coast, which was so called because of the pearls found there, he returned to Hispaniola. Here he found the Spaniards engaged in an Indian war and quarreling among themselves. Some officials became jealous of him, bound him with chains and sent him back to Spain as a prisoner. Ferdinand and Isabella were much displeased at this treatment of Columbus and set him free. A fourth journey was made by Columbus in 1502 during which he explored the coast of Honduras in search of a strait leading to the Indian Ocean. In this venture he was unsuccessful. On his return to Spain he found his friend Queen Isabella very ill and in 19 days after his arrival she died. After Isabella's death the king treated Columbus cruelly and ungratefully. The people had become jealous of him and his last days were spent in poverty and distress. He never knew that he had discovered a new continent but supposed that he had found India. Seven years after his death the king repented of his ingratitude and caused the remains of Columbus to be removed from the little monastery in Val de Lid to a monastery in Seville where a magnificent monument was erected in his memory. In 1536 his bones were removed to the Cathedral of San Domingo in Hispaniola and later they were taken to the Cathedral in Havana. When the United States took possession of Cuba the Spanish disinterred the bones of Columbus again and carried them to Spain placing them in the Cathedral of Seville where they now are. End of Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Of Discoverers and Explorers This Librivox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 4 Vasco de Gama Both the Spaniards and the Portuguese were cut off from the trade with the East because the Turks had taken possession of Constantinople Consequence of this the navigators of both countries were making earnest efforts to find a water route to India. Spain, as you know, had faith in Columbus and helped him in his plan of trying to reach India by sailing westward but the Portuguese had a different idea. They spent their time and money in trying to sail around the African coast in the belief that India could be reached by means of a southeast passage. This southeast passage could be found only by crossing the burning zone as the part of the earth near the equator was called and all sailors feared to make the attempt. It was thought almost impossible to cross this burning zone and the few navigators who had ventured as far as the equator had turned back in fear of steaming whirlpools and a fiery belts of heat. In 1486, six years before Columbus discovered America the king of Portugal sent Bartholomew Diaz a bold and daring navigator to find the end of the African coast. Bartholomew Diaz sailed through the fiery zone without meeting any of the dreadful misfortunes which the sailors so feared. When he had sailed beyond the Tropic of Capricorn a severe storm arose. The wind blew his three vessels directly south for thirteen days during which time he lost sight of land. When the sun shone again Diaz headed his vessels eastward but as no land appeared he again changed the direction this time heading them toward the north. After sailing northward a short time land was reached about two hundred miles east of the Cape of Good Hope. Diaz now pushed on four hundred miles farther along the coast of Africa and saw the wide expanse of the Indian Ocean before him. Here the sailors refused to go any farther and Diaz although he wanted very much to go ahead and try to reach India was obliged to return. On the way home the vessels passed close to the Cape which projects from the south coast of Africa and Diaz named it Stormy Cape in memory of the frightful storm which hid it from the view on the way down. When they reached Lisbon however King John said that it should be called the Cape of Good Hope because they now had hope that the southern route to India was found. Diaz won much praise for his bravery and patience in making this voyage. He had proved that the stories about the fiery zone were thoughts and that the African coast had an end. It remained however for Vasco Dagama then a young man of about twenty years of age to prove that India could be reached in this way. In 1497 Dagama sailed from Lisbon to the Cape of Good Hope doubled the Cape and proceeded to cross the Indian Ocean to Hindustan. He returned to Lisbon in 1499. His ships loaded with the rich products of the East including cloves, spices, pepper, ginger and nutmeg. He also brought with him rich robes of silk and satin, costly gems and many articles made of carved ivory or of gold and of silver. The King of Portugal was greatly pleased with what Dagama had accomplished and his successful voyage was the wonder of the day. The same year that Dagama returned from India by a route around the south end of Africa with his ships loaded with rich produce, Sebastian Cabot returned from a fruitless voyage to the strange barren coast of North America. It was no wonder that the voyages of Columbus and the Cabots were thought unsuccessful as compared with the voyage Dagama had just finished. No one then dreamed of a new world all researching for the Orient for Golden Cathay. End of Chapter 4 Chapter 5 of Discoverers and Explorers This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 5 John and Sebastian Cabot's Voyages John Cabot was a Venetian merchant and a bold seafaring man. For purposes of trade he had taken up his home in Bristol, England. Bristol at that time was the most important seaport of England and carried on a large fishing trade with Iceland. When the news of the voyage of Columbus reached Bristol, Cabot begged the English King, Henry VII, to let him go and see if he could find a shorter route to the Indies. The King gave his consent to Cabot to take possession of any land he might discover for England. Cabot fitted out his vessel and taking his son Sebastian and a crew of eighteen men with him set sail in 1497. He headed his ship westward, hoping to reach the Spice Islands and that part of Asia which was so rich in gold and which Columbus had failed to find. At last, one sunny morning in June, the land was sited in the distance. This land, which was probably a part of Nova Scotia, proved to be a lonely shore with dense forests. Cabot called it Land First Seen. It was entirely deserted, not a human being nor a hut of any kind being in sight. Here Cabot and his son Sebastian and some of his crew went ashore and were the first white men, accepting the Norsemen to step upon the mainland of America. Up to this time Columbus had discovered only islands of the West Indies. A year later than this he discovered the continent of South America. Cabot and his companions erected a large cross on the shore and planted two flag poles in the ground, from which they unfurled the English and Venetian flags. Then they returned to their ships and after sailing about the Gulf of St. Lawrence went back to England. King Henry and the people received John Cabot with great honour. Everybody thought that Cabot had reached Asia and he also believed that he had. He was called the Great Admiral and the people of Bristol ran after him on the street, shouting his name and trying in every way to show him how much they admired and honoured him. King gave him $50 in money, which seems to us in these days a small sum for so long and dangerous a voyage. Besides this the King urged him to undertake another voyage. About a year later Sebastian Cabot made the second voyage and this time the gloomy shore of Labrador was reached. Sebastian on his voyage sailed far north, passing many icebergs and seeing many strange and wonderful sites. On great blocks of ice that floated past the ship he saw immense white bears. These bears were fine swimmers and would often leap into the water and bring out fish, which they would devour greedily. The waters were filled with fish and as the ship neared the shore they grew so numerous as almost to retard the sailing of the vessel. Now, said Cabot, the English will not have to go to Iceland any more for fish. But Cabot knew that the lands he was seeking were warm lands, so he turned his vessel south hoping to reach some opening which would lead to them. To his great surprise he found the coast very long and without any opening and he sailed on and on as far as Maryland, taking possession of the land for England. At places along this shore were seen Indians, clad in skins and furs of wild animals, fishing from little canoes. Stags much larger than any in England were seen in great numbers and wild turkeys and game of all sorts abounded. Then Sebastian Cabot began to think that this was a part of Asia never known before and he set sail for home to tell the wonderful news. When he reached Bristol he found everybody still interested in India. It was a water route to India that was wanted and not a new country. People cared more about reaching Golden Cathay than about finding new barren lands. So although King Henry was proud to know that the new land belonged to England, it was eleven years before he made any further attempt to send ships there to take possession. America Vespucci America Vespucci was a native of Florence, Italy and a friend of Columbus. He was an educated man and very fond of study. At the time in which he lived it was difficult to find the latitude and longitude of places and few people were able to calculate either correctly. Vespucci was skillful in the work of computing longitude and he was also well versed in the history of all the voyages that had been made. He was familiar with the facts of astronomy and geography then known and was well able to conduct the sailing of a ship into strange waters. It is believed that Vespucci made six voyages. He did not command his own vessels as Columbus did but he went with the expedition as assistant or advisor to the captain, keeping records of the voyage and making maps and charts. In his first voyage made in 1497, Vespucci reached the coast of Honduras and sailed into the Gulf of Mexico. Here he found, probably on the coast of Yucatan, a queer little sea village which reminded him of the great city of Venice near his home. The houses in this little village were made of wood and were built on piles running out into the water. These houses were connected with the shore by bridges which were constructed in such a manner that they could be drawn up, thus cutting off all connection with the land. In one house Vespucci found six hundred people. A very large family, was it not? Continuing the voyage around the Gulf of Mexico, Vespucci saw many strange and wonderful things. The natives roasted and ate frightful animals which from the description given us we now know to have been alligators. They also made cakes or patties out of fish and baked them on red hot coals. The Spaniards were invited to taste these dainties and those of the sailors who did so found the strange food very palatable. After sailing round the coast of Florida the ships headed northeast landing every now and then for the purpose of trading with the Indians. The Spaniards finding but little gold and none of the rich spices for which they were looking at last decided to return home. Just before sailing some friendly Indians helped the Spaniards to make an attack upon a cannibal island. The attack was successful and about two hundred cannibals were taken prisoners and carried to Spain where they were sold as slaves. Vespucci made a second voyage in 1499 in which he sailed down the African coast to the Cape Verde Islands and then headed his ship almost directly west. He sighted land at Cape St. Roque and then sailed northwest exploring the north coast of South America then called the Pearl Coast. After this he returned to Spain. Shortly after the return of Vespucci to Spain he accepted an offer to take service under the Portuguese flag. In 1501 he set sail from Lisbon with three caravans under this flag. He reached the coast of South America near Cape St. Roque and sailed south as far as the South Georgia Islands. As he proceeded southward he found the country was inhabited by fierce Indians who ate their fellow creatures. He did not like the natives as you may suppose but he thought the country was beautiful verger and foliage of the tropics and the queer animals and bright colored birds. Great was the joy of Vespucci when he discovered in the forest large quantities of a sort of red dyewood which was prized very highly by Europeans. This wood which had hitherto been found only in eastern countries was called Brazilwood and because of its abundance there he gave the name Brazil to that part of the country. The expedition sailed slowly on and at length lost sight of land. It is thought that Vespucci headed the ships southeast because he wished to find out whether there was land or not in the Antarctic Ocean. As they sailed farther and farther south the climate became very disagreeable. The winds grew cold and forbidding. Fields of floating ice hindered the progress of the vessel and the nights became very long. The sailors grew frightened fearing that they were entering a land of constant darkness. Their fear became greater when a terrific storm arose. The sea grew rough and the fog and sleet prevented the sailors from seeing whether land was near or not. The land which they had hoped to find now became an added danger. One day through the sleet and snow the sailors saw with terror a rocky, jagged coast in front of them. This land proved to be the South Georgia Islands and was a wretched and forlorn country composed of rocks and glaciers and entirely deserted. For a day and a half they sailed inside of this frightful shore fearing each moment that their ship would be cast on the rocks and that they would all perish. As soon as the weather permitted therefore Vespucci signaled his fleet and the ships were headed for home reaching Portugal in 1502. This voyage secured Brazil for Portugal and added greatly to the geographical knowledge of the day. The ancients had said that no continent existed south of the equator but the great length of coast along which Vespucci had sailed proved that the land was not an island. It was plainly a continent and south of the equator. Vespucci called the land he found the New World. For a time it was also called the fourth part of the earth the three other parts being Europe Asia and Africa. In 1507 a German writer published an account of the discovery in which he called the new country America in honor of America's Vespucius the Discoverer. This land was not connected in any way with the discovery of Columbus for he was supposed to have found Asia. The name America was at first applied only to that part of the country which we now call Brazil but little by little the name was extended until it included the whole of the western continent. You would be glad to know that Vespucci in the time of his success did not forget his old friend Columbus who was then poor and in disgrace. Vespucci visited him and did all he could to assist him. After Vespucci had made three other voyages to the new world he was given an important government position in Spain which he held during the remainder of his life. You have heard many surprising things which the people of the 15th century believed. It seems almost impossible for us to think that those people really had faith in a fountain of youth. Yet such is the case. This fountain was supposed to exist somewhere in the new world and it was thought that if anyone should bathe in its waters he would become young and would never grow old again. In 1513 Ponce de Leon who was then governor of Puerto Rico, sailed from that island in search of this fountain of youth. De Leon was an old man and he felt that his life was nearly over unless he should succeed in finding this fountain. At the same time De Leon wished to gain gold for though he had already made a fortune in Puerto Rico he was still very greedy. The expedition under his guidance sailed among the Bahamas and other islands near them and at length reached a land beautiful with flowers, balmy with warm breezes and cheerful with the song of birds. Partly because this discovery was made on Easter Sunday which the Spaniards called Pasqua Florida and partly because of the abundance of flowers De Leon called the land Florida. He took possession of this delightful country for Spain and then spent many weeks exploring its coast. North as far as St. Augustine and finding neither gold nor the fabled fountain of youth De Leon turned his vessels and proceeded south, doubling the Florida Cape. Shortly afterwards he became discouraged and returned to Puerto Rico. In 1521 De Leon went again to Florida this time for the purpose of planting a colony. The Indians were very angry that the white men should try and they made a fierce attack upon De Leon and his party. In this attack De Leon received a severe wound which compelled him to go to Cuba for care and rest. There he died after much suffering. De Leon never found the fountain of youth nor were the fabled waters discovered afterwards. End of Chapter 7 Chapter 8 of Discoverers and Explorers. The Spanish colonists on the island of Hispaniola made frequent visits to the mainland searching for the rich cities of which Marco Polo had written. Word reached the colonists that some of these gold-hunters were starving at a place called Darien and a ship was immediately sent to their relief. The cargo of the ship consisted of two ships and two ships and two ships The cargo of the ship consisted of barrels of provisions and ammunition. Imagine, if you can, the amazement of the commander of the expedition when after his ships were under sail a young and handsome man stepped out of one of the barrels. This young man was Vasco Nunez Balboa. He had chosen this way to escape from Cuba where he owed large sums of money which he could not pay. The commander was angry and threatened to leave Balboa on a desert island. But at length he took pity on the young man and allowed him to remain on board the ship. When the mainland was reached the Spaniards who were already there having heard of the cruelty of the commander refused to let him land. He therefore put off to sea and was never heard of again. Balboa then took command of the men and began immediately to explore the country. He made a friendly alliance with the Indian chief who presented him with gold and slaves. The Spaniards were delighted at the sight of so much riches. They began to melt and weigh the gold and at last fell to quarrelling desperately about the division of it. This the Indians could not understand. They knew nothing of money and valued the metal only because it could be made into beautiful ornaments. An Indian boy who had heard the dispute told the Indians that if they cared so much about that yellow stuff it would be wise for them to go to a country where there was enough of it for all. The Spaniards eagerly questioned him regarding this place. The boy then described a country across the mountains and to the south on the shores of a great sea where the metal was so plentiful that the natives used it for their ordinary drinking cups and bowls. Balboa immediately started southward across the mountain in search of this rich country. On his way he came upon a tribe of hostile Indians who attacked him but who fled an alarm from the guns of the Spaniards. Taking some Indians as guides Balboa pushed on through the mountains and on September 25, 1513 from one of the highest peaks looked down upon the Pacific Ocean. With his Spaniards he descended the mountain and in four days reached the shore of that magnificent body of water. Balboa waited out into it with his sword in his hand and formally took possession of it for the King of Spain. He called it the South Sea because he was looking toward the south when he first saw it and the Pacific Ocean was known by this name for many years afterward.  Balboa then made up his mind to find this country. Accordingly he returned to Darien and sent word to the Spanish King of his great discovery of the South Sea. He then began to take his ships apart and to send them piece by piece across the mountains to the Pacific coast. This was an enormous undertaking. The journey was a very difficult one and hundreds of the poor Indians who carried the burdens dropped dead from exhaustion. At length, after long months of labor, four ships were thus carried across the mountains and rebuilt on the Pacific coast. These were the first European vessels ever launched on the Great South Sea. Three hundred men were in readiness to go with Balboa on his voyage in search of the rich country of the South. A little iron and a little pitch were still needed for the ships and Balboa delayed his departure in order to get these articles. The delay gave his enemies who were jealous because of his success time to carry out a plot against him. They accused him of plotting to set up an independent government of his own and caused him to be arrested in less than twenty-four hours. This brave and high-spirited leader was tried, found guilty and beheaded. So ended all his ambitious plans. End of Chapter 8 Chapter 9 of Discoverers and Explorers Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 9 Magellan One of the boldest and most determined of all the early explorers was Ferdinand Magellan, a young Portuguese nobleman. He felt sure that somewhere on that long coast which so many explorers had reached he would find a straight through which he would be able to pass and which would lead into the Indian Ocean. And so Magellan formed the idea of circumnavigating the globe. He applied to the King of Portugal for aid, but as the Portuguese King was not willing to help him he went to Spain where his plan found favor. The Spanish King gave him a fleet of five vessels and on September 20th, 1519 he set sail for the Canary Islands. Continuing the voyage toward Sierra Leone the vessels were becalmed and for a period of three weeks they advanced only nine miles. Then a terrific storm arose and the sailors who had grumbled and found fought with everything during the entire voyage broke into open mutiny. This mutiny Magellan quickly quelled by causing the principal offender to be arrested and put in irons. The voyage was then continued and land was at last sighted on the Brazilian coast near Pernambuco. The fleet then proceeded down the coast as far as Patagonia where the weather grew so very cold that it was decided to seek winter quarters and postpone the remainder of the journey until spring. This was done. Magellan finding a sheltered spot at Port St. Julian where plenty of fish could be obtained and where the natives were friendly. These native Patagonians Magellan described as being very tall like giants with long flowing hair and dressed scantily in skins. Great hardships had been endured by the crew. Food and water scarce, the storms had been severe and suffering from cold was intense. The sailors did not believe there was any straight and they begged Magellan to sell for home. It was useless to try to influence this determined man. Danger made him only the more firm. Magellan told them that he would not return until he had found the opening for which he was looking. Then mutiny broke out anew Magellan by his prompt and decisive action put it down in twenty-four hours. One offender was killed and two others were put in irons and left their fate on the shore when the ship sailed away. As soon as the weather grew warmer the ship started again southward. After nearly two months of sailing most of the time through violent storms a narrow channel was found in which the water was soft. The sailors knew, must be the entrance to a straight.  So the ships entered and sailed through the winding passage which sometimes broadened out into a bay and then became narrow again. Among the twists and windings of this perilous straight one of the vessels being in charge of a mutinous commander escaped and turned back. On both sides of the shore there were high mountains the tops of which were covered with snow and which cast gloomy shadows upon the water below them. Think of the feelings of the crew when after sailing five weeks through this winding channel they came out into a calm expanse of water. They went by the site and shed tears of joy. He named the vast waters before him Pacific which means peaceful because of their contrast to the violent and stormy Atlantic. The fleet now sailed northwest into a warmer climate and over a tranquil ocean and as week after week passed and no land was seen the sailors lost all hope. They began to think that the land and that they might sell on and on forever. These poor men suffered very much from lack of food and water and many died of famine. The boastful remark of Magellan was recalled when the sailors did really begin to eat the leather from the ship's yards first soaking it in the water. Anxiously these worn and haggard men looked about for signs of land and at length they were rewarded. These worn islands were reached and supplies of fresh vegetables, meats and fruits were obtained. From the Isle de la Drón or Isle of Robbers the fleet proceeded to the Philippines. Here Magellan knew that he was near the Indian Ocean and realized that if he kept on his course he would circumnavigate the globe. It was on one of the Philippine islands that this Prince of Navigators lost his life with the natives. He was as usual in the thickest of the fight and while trying to shield one of his men was struck down by the spear of a native. One of his ships, the Victoria, continued the voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and on September 6, 1522 with eighteen weary and half-starved men on board succeeded in reaching Spain. Great hardships had been endured but the wonderful news they brought made up in some measure for their suffering. This was the greatest voyage since the first voyage of Columbus and the strait still bears the name of the remarkable man whose courage and strength of purpose led to the accomplishment of one of the greatest undertakings ever recorded in history. This wonderful voyage of Magellans proved beyond doubt that the earth is round. It proved that South America is a continent and that there is no short south-west passage. After this voyage all the navigators turned their attention to the discovery of a north-west passage. End of Chapter 9 Chapter 10 of Discoverers and Explorers This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Hernando Cortes The Spaniards who lived on the island of Hispaniola sent frequent expeditions to the mainland in the hope of finding gold. Hernando Cortes, a dashing young Spaniard with a love of nature and a reckless daring seldom seen, was given command of one of these expeditions. In March 1519 he landed on the coast of Central America with about 600 men, 10 heavy guns, 10 horses. Here Cortes found the natives in large numbers arrayed against him. A fierce battle was fought, but the firearms of the Spaniards frightened the barbarians and when the cavalry arrived the Indians fled in terror. The Indians, who had never seen horses before, thought the men riding the horse was a part of the animal and that these strange creatures were sent by the gods. Fear made the Indians helpless and it was easy for Cortes to gain a victory over them. After this victory Cortes sailed northward along the coast of San Juan de Olgoa. The natives of that region had heard of the wonderful white-skinned and bearded men who bore charmed lives and they thought that these men were gods. They therefore treated the Spaniards in a friendly manner and brought gifts of flowers fruits and vegetables and also ornaments of gold and silver to Cortes. Here Cortes landed and founded the city of Veracruz, which is today an important seaport of Mexico. The native Indians in this place were called Aztecs. Some of their chiefs who paid a visit to Cortes told him of the great emperor Montezuma, who was rich and powerful and who lived inland in a wonderful city built in a lake. By these chiefs Cortes had a presence of collars, bracelets and ornaments of glass, an armchair richly carved and an embroidered crimson cap. In return Montezuma sent shields, helmets and plates of pure gold, sandals, fans, gold ornaments of exquisite workmanship. Together with robes of fine cotton interwoven with feather work so skillfully done that it resembled painting. The cap which Cortes had sent turned filled with gold dust. The great Montezuma also sent a message to Cortes saying that he would be glad to meet so brave a general, but that the road to the Mexican capital was too dangerous for an army to pass over. He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to the Spanish king if Cortes and his followers would depart and leave him in peace. The Spaniards were jubilant when they saw the superb gifts. They felt certain that this great emperor must have enormous wealth at his command, and in spite of the warning message most of them wished to start immediately for the Mexican capital. Some, however, thought such a course very unwise.  But Cortes had his own ideas on the subject, so he secretly ordered his ships to be sunk. And then, all chance of retreat being cut off, the entire force proceeded toward Mexico, August 16th, 1519. After a long march, the Spaniards began to ascend the plateau on which the city of Mexico is situated, and finally reached the top of it, 7000 feet high. They found the climate on this plateau temperate and balmy. The fields were cultivated, and beautiful flowers grew wild in profusion. During the march, the Spaniards passed many towns containing queer houses and temples. They entered many of the temples, threw down the idols, and took possession of ornaments of value. At length they saw in the distance a city which was built in a salt lake. Three avenues, built of stone, these avenues which were four or five miles in length were guarded on both sides by Indians and canoes. The avenues continued through the city, meeting in the center where the great temple was situated. The temple was enclosed by a huge stone wall and contained twenty pyramids each a hundred feet in height. Nearly all of the houses were two stories high and were built of red stone. The roofs were flat, with towers at the corners, and on top of the roofs there were beautiful flower gardens. Into this remarkable town Cortez and his followers marched. Montezuma received his unwelcome guests with every mark of friendship and with much pomp and ceremony. The great emperor was carried on a litter which was richly decorated with gold and silver. The nobles of his court surrounded hundreds of his retainers were drawn up in line behind him. The first thing when Cortez and Montezuma met was the customary exchange of presents. Cortez presented Montezuma with a chain of colored glass beads, and in return the Aztec ruler gave Cortez a house which was large enough to accommodate all of the Spaniards. For ten days these two men met with each other and exchanged gifts. Cortez pretending to be paying a friendly visit, and Montezuma feeling puzzled and uncertain. At length Cortez induced Montezuma to go to the house where the Spaniards were living, and then when he got him there refused to allow him to leave, thus keeping him a prisoner in his own city. This daring act aroused the suspicions of the Aztecs, these simple-hearted people, and to make them continue to think that the Spaniards were gods. Still the Aztecs were beginning to feel very bitter toward Cortez and his followers, because of the disrespect with which they treated the Aztec temples and gods. The Spaniards were constantly throwing these gods out of the temples. Even their great god of war was not safe. Cortez openly derided this image, calling it trash, causing to erect the emblems of the Spanish religion in its place in the Aztec temples. Now the Aztec god of war was a frightful image with golden serpents entwined about the body. The face was hideous and in its hands was carried a plate upon which were placed human hearts as sacrifices. But to the Aztecs the image was sacred, and this insult, together with many others which had been offered their gods, made the natives very angry. One day the Aztecs discovered that some of the Spaniards had died. This knowledge dispelled the fear that their unbidden visitors were gods and they attacked the Spaniards with great fury. The Aztec warriors were quilted cotton doublets and headdresses adorned with feathers. They carried leather shields and fought fiercely with bows and arrows, copper-pointed lances, and slings. Though by comparison few in numbers the Spaniards, who were protected by coats of mail, made great havoc with their guns and horses. The battle between these unequal forces raged with great fury and for a time the result was uncertain. Cortes compelled Montezuma, his prisoner, to show himself on the roof of his house and try to persuade the Aztecs to stop fighting. The Spaniards, however, no longer feared their Emperor and instead of obeying him they made him a target for their arrows and stones. In the midst of the fight the great Montezuma was finally knocked down and killed by one of his former subjects. After a desperate struggle the Spaniards were forced to retreat. While making their escape over the bridge of the city they were attacked by Indian warriors in canoes and were killed. Notwithstanding this defeat and the loss of so many men Cortes did not give up his design of conquering Mexico. He made an alliance with hostile tribes of Indians and again attacked the city. The Aztecs had now a new king named Guatemala who was as brave and determined as Cortes himself. Guatemala made preparations to oppose Cortes during the terrible siege which followed never once thought of surrendering or of asking for peace. The Spaniards made attack after attack and terrible battles were fought in which the loss on both sides was very great. During one of these battles Cortes was nearly captured and it seemed as though the war god was to be avenged upon the man who had so insulted him. But a young Spaniard rushed to the assistance of Cortes and with one blow of his sword cut off the arms of the Indian who had dared to seize the Spanish leader. After a time the Aztecs found themselves prisoners within their own city. The Spaniards had cut off all means of escape and the Indians were starving to death. Their sufferings were terrible and hundreds dropped down daily in the streets. Yet the proud king, Guatemala refused to submit the final attack. After furious fighting Guatemala was captured and the Aztecs surrendered. Their cruel religion with its strange gods and human sacrifices was now overthrown. Cortes with his new followers never more than one thousand trained soldiers had succeeded in conquering a country larger than Spain. Over a million Mexicans had perished and those that remained in the city and fled to the mountains. In this way the magnificent civilization of the ancient Mexicans was destroyed. Shiploads of treasure were sent by Cortes to the Spanish king Charles V who rejoiced at the victory gained for his country. End of Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Of Discoverers and Explorers This Looper Fox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward Arshaw Chapter 11 Francisco Pizarro Among the men who had been with Balboa and who had heard of the wonderful country of the Incas was Francisco Pizarro. He determined to find this rich country and to conquer it. Securing a band of about two hundred men well armed and mounted on strong horses he led them in spite of terrible hardships through mountains, through valleys and across plateaus to Cajamarca the city where the Inca or king was then staying. The natives gazed at the Spaniards in wonder and dread. These simple people thought that the white-faced bearded strangers who carried thunderbolts in their hands and who rode such frightful licking animals were gods. In spite of their fear the Indians received the strangers kindly and gave them food and shelter. That evening Pizarro and De Soto taking with them thirty-five horsemen visited the Inca and arranged with him for a meeting next day in the open square. It was a strange visit. The Inca was surrounded by his slaves and chieftains and was very polite to the strangers. But the Spaniards began to feel very uneasy. An army composed of thousands of Indians was encamped only two miles away and compared with it the two hundred men of Pizarro appeared powerless. The situation of the Spaniards should the Inca decide to oppose them seemed without hope. Pizarro scarcely slept that night. He lay awake planning how he might take the Inca prisoner. The next day about noon the Indian procession approached the marketplace. First came attendants who cleared the way and followed nobles and men of high rank richly dressed and covered with ornaments of gold and gems. Last came the Inca carried on a throne of solid gold which was gorgeously trimmed with the plumes of tropical birds. The Indian Monarch wore rich garments adorned with gold ornaments and around his neck was a collar of superb emeralds of great size and brilliancy. He took his position near the center of the square and his escort, numbering several thousand, gathered around him. Looking about the Inca fell to see any of the Spaniards. Where are the strangers? He asked. Just then Pizarro's chaplain with his Bible in his hand approached the Inca. The chaplain said that he and his people had been sent by a mighty prince to beg the Inca to accept the true religion and consent to be tributary to the great emperor Charles V. who would then protect them. The Inca grew very angry at this and declared that he would not change his faith nor be any man's tributary. He then indignantly threw the sacred book upon the ground and demanded satisfaction from the Spaniards for this insult to him. At this the priest gave the signal and the Spaniards rushed from their hiding places and attacked the panic-stricken Indians. The Inca and his attendants were wholly unprepared, being unarmed and utterly defenseless. The Spaniards charged through them showing no mercy, their swords slashing right and left, and their prancing horses trampling the natives under foot. The guns and firearms of the Spaniards made such havoc and confusion that the terrified Indians offered no resistance. Indeed, they could not offer any. In the vicinity of the Inca the struggle was fierce. The Indians, faithful to the last to their beloved monarch, threw themselves before him, shielded him with their naked bodies from the swords of the Spaniards. At last, as night drew near, the Spaniards, fearing that the Inca might escape, attempted to kill him. But Pizarro desired that he should be taken alive, and an allowed voice ordered his followers as they valued their own lives not to strike the Inca.  This was the only wound received by a Spaniard during the attack. At length the Inca was cast from his throne, and falling to the ground was caught by Pizarro. He was then imprisoned and placed under a strong guard. As soon as the news of the capture spread, all resistance ceased. Many of the Indians fled to the mountains, leaving untold wealth at the disposal of their conquerors, while others remained, hoping to be able to assist their fallen ruler. As soon as the Inca had an opportunity, he tried to think of some way of obtaining his freedom. The room in which he was confined was twenty-two feet in length by seventeen feet in width, raising his hand as high as he could, the Inca made a mark upon the wall, and told Pizarro that gold enough to fill the room to that mark would be given as a ransom for his release. Pizarro agreed to this bargain, and the natives began to send gold to the Inca to secure his release. Some of the treasures in the temples were buried and hidden by the priests. But ornaments of all kinds, vases, and plates were collected, and in a few months, gold amounting to fifteen millions of dollars in our money was divided among the Spaniards. Millions of dollars' worth of gold and silver were shipped to Spain, and the Spanish nation grew very wealthy. Pizarro himself returned to Spain to take Charles V, his share of the plunder. During Pizarro's absence, the Spaniards caused the Inca to be killed, notwithstanding the large ransom which they had accepted. The richer the Spanish people grew, the more careless they became in their treatment of other nations and of those under their rule. They grew more cruel and more merciless and more greedy for gold. They flocked in great numbers to South America, a reckless, adventurous, unprincipled hoard ready to commit any crime in order to secure gold. End of Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Of Discoverers and Explorers This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 12 Ferdinand de Soto Among the men who had been with Pizarro in Peru was Ferdinand de Soto, a bold and dashing Spanish Cavalier. De Soto was appointed Governor of Cuba in 1537 and at the same time received permission from the Spanish King to conquer Florida. This permission to conquer Florida was received by De Soto with great delight. He felt certain that in the interior of Florida there were cities as large and as wealthy as those of Peru. To conquer these cities, obtain their treasure and win for himself riches and fame was the dream of De Soto. Strange as it may seem to you, De Soto was also anxious to convert the natives to his own religion. He intended to take from them all their possessions, but he meant to save their souls if possible. So leaving his young and beautiful wife Isabella to rule over Cuba in his absence, De Soto in May 1539 started from Havana with nine vessels, about six hundred men and 223 horses. After a safe voyage the expedition landed on the coast of Florida at Tampa Bay. Before starting on the march to the interior of the country, De Soto sent all the vessels back to Cuba. In this way he cut off all hope of retreat in case the men should become discouraged. But no one thought of wanting to return now. Everybody was in high spirits. The soldiers were brilliant uniforms, their caps were adorned with waving plumes and their polished armor glistened and sparkled in the sunshine. In the company were twelve priests who were expected to convert the prisoners which De Soto meant to capture. The Spaniards carried with them chains to secure these prisoners and bloodhounds to track them in case any escaped. It was a gay company which marched off into the interior of Florida with prancing horses, waving flags and banners and beating drums. At first De Soto marched directly north plunging into a wilderness which proved to be almost impassable. The country was full of swamps through which the horses could scarcely travel. The large trees were bound together by tangled vines and their roots which protruded from the earth were like traps catching the feet of the travelers and bringing them to the ground. Besides all this, the heavy baggage which the men and horses carried weighed them down and made the journey almost impossible. De Soto, however, kept bravely on, encouraging his men as best he could and at last reached the Savannah River. Here he changed his course to westward hoping to find gold in that direction. Week after week, month after month the Spaniards traveled on through a dense wilderness, enduring great hardships and finding nothing but tribes of hostile Indians. De Soto asked one of these Indian chiefs to give him slaves enough to carry his baggage through the forest. The chief refused, whereupon De Soto and his men attacked the tribe and took many prisoners. These prisoners De Soto caused to be chained together and placed in front of the expedition and were made to act as guides as well as slaves. Then De Soto asked the Indians where the great cities with gold and silver treasures were. One Indian said he did not know of any. At this reply De Soto caused the Indian to be put to death with frightful torture. This made the Indians untruthful and they told De Soto many different stories of places where they thought gold might be found. So the expedition wandered on, searching for the gold which they never found and the men grew discouraged and heart-sick and longed for home. The Indian tribes angry at the cruel treatment of the Spaniards attacked them frequently and De Soto and his men scarcely ever enjoyed a peaceful rest at night. The Spaniards were unused to Indian warfare and were no match for the quick, nimble savages who glided through the forest slowly and swiftly. These Indians never came to open battle but hid themselves behind rocks and trees and were scarcely ever seen. Two or three would suddenly appear, send a shower of arrows at the Spaniards and then dart away again into the woods. The Indians scarcely ever missed their aim and the Spaniards never knew when they were near. One day De Soto captured some Indians who said that they knew where gold was to be found and that they would show the way to the place. De Soto only half trusted them but he allowed them to lead the way. The cunning savages led the Spaniards into an ambush where other Indians attacked them fiercely killing their horses and many of their men. As punishment for this act De Soto ordered that these Indians should be torn to pieces by the bloodhounds. Sometimes the Spaniards in their wanderings passed camps where the Indians were gathered round huge bonfires singing, dancing, yelling and shouting the terrible Indian war-whoop. Under the shelter of this noise the Spaniards would still quietly away and avoid the Indians for a time. At length, after wandering for two years De Soto came in 1541 to the shore of a large river. This river was wide and muddy and had a strong current which carried much driftwood along with it. De Soto learned from the Indians that it was called Mississippi or the Father of Waters. He had reached it near the spot where the city of Memphis now stands and here his company halted and camped. At this place the Spaniards built rafts striking the fetters from their captives in order to use the iron for nails and so crossed the river. They hoped in this way to escape from their savage foes but on the other side of the river they found Indians who were just as fierce. So the Indians traveled south hoping by following the course of the river to reach the sea. This De Soto soon found to be impossible as the country was a wilderness of tangled vines and roots and his followers could not cross the lakes and small rivers which flowed into the Mississippi. The horses traveled through this country with difficulty, often being up to their girths in water. Each day saw the little band grow less in numbers. At length they returned to the banks of the river being guided back by their horses. The men lost their way in the dreadful forest but the instinct of the noble animals directed them a right. De Soto was growing scarce and De Soto himself was taken ill. He knew that unless something should be done soon to make the Indians help them all would perish. So he sent word to an Indian chief saying that he was the child of the son and that all men obeyed him. He then declared that he wanted the chief's friendship and ordered him to bring him food. The chief sent back word to dry up he would believe him. This of course De Soto could not do. He was disappointed and discouraged at not being able to get food. The illness from which he was suffering grew worse and he died soon afterwards. His followers were anxious to hide his death from the natives who were very much afraid of him so they placed his body in the hollow of a scooped out tree and sunk it at midnight in the water. Those of his followers who were left decided to try to reach home by following the river to its mouth. These men were in a wretched condition. Their clothing was nearly all gone. Few of them had shoes and many had only the skins of animals and mats made of wild vines to keep them warm. They built seven frail barks and sailed down the Mississippi avoiding Indians all the way and in seventeen days they came to the Gulf of Mexico. In fifty days more they succeeded in reaching a Spanish settlement on the coast of Mexico where they were received with much joy. Of the gay company of six hundred and twenty who had set out with such high hopes only three hundred and eleven men returned. End of Chapter 12 Chapter 13 The Great River Amazon and El Dorado As you may imagine there were great excitement and curiosity in Spain after the voyages of Columbus about the new lands beyond the western ocean. Several of the men who had sailed with Columbus were ready to undertake new voyages of discovery. They were ready to explore the great river Amazon and El Dorado. One of the new voyages of discovery among them was Yanez Pinzon. You will remember that when Columbus made his first voyage he set out with three vessels. One of these was the Niña. It was commanded by Yanez Pinzon. After Columbus had returned from his second voyage Yanez Pinzon succeeded in fitting out a fleet to go to the New World. In 1499 he sailed with four caravans from Palos, the same port from which Columbus had sailed. Pinzon took with him some of the sailors who had been with Columbus and also his three principal pilots. These pilots were men who understood how to use the astrolabe and to tell the course of the ship at sea. Pinzon's fleet sailed toward the Canary and Cape Verde Islands and after passing them its course was southwest across the Atlantic. At length the fleet crossed the equator and Pinzon was the first explorer to cross the line in the western Atlantic. The fleet sailed on for nearly 500 miles to the southward. Here Pinzon met a terrific storm which came very near sending his whole fleet to the bottom. He was now not far from the coast and after the storm was over he discovered land. The land proved to be the most eastern point of South America. This was in the month of January in the year 1500. Pinzon and a company of his men went ashore. They did not remain long however as they found the Indians very hostile. The Indians attacked the Spaniards and killed several of their number. They were so furious that after chasing the Spaniards to their boats they waded into the sea and fought to get the oars. The Indians captured one of the row boats but the Spaniards at last got off to their vessels. Pinzon then set sail and steered northward along the coast. When his fleet came near the equator he noticed that the water was very fresh. Accordingly he gave orders to fill the water casks of his fleet. The freshness of the water of the sea led him to sail in toward the shore. At length he discovered such volume of fresh water came. It flowed out of the mouth of a great river. It was the mouth of the river Amazon and so great is the volume of water which it pours into the sea that its current is noticed in the ocean 200 miles from the shore. This fact is not so surprising when we learn that the main mouth of this great river is 50 miles wide. That the river is 4000 miles long including its windings and that besides many smaller branches it has 5 tributaries each over a thousand miles long and one over 2000 miles long flowing into it. Pinzon anchored in the mouth of the river and found the natives peaceful. In this respect they were unlike those he had met farther south. They came out to his ships in a friendly way in their canoes but when Pinzon a short time later left the river he cruelly carried off 36 of the Indians who had been friendly to him. While Pinzon's fleet was in the mouth of the river it came a second time near being wrecked. Pinzon was of course in strange waters. He did not know that twice each month the tide does not rise in the usual way but rushes up the mouth of the Amazon with great force. The tide as a rule is about 15 feet in rising and 6 hours in falling. In the mouth of the Amazon however at new moon and at full moon the tide swells to its limit in two or three minutes. It comes as a wall of water 12 or 15 feet high followed by another wall of the same height. Often there is a third wall of water and at some seasons of the year there is a fourth wall. This peculiar rising of the tide is the fourth. The noise of this rushing flood can be heard 5 or 6 miles off. It comes with tremendous force and sometimes uproots great trees along the banks. During the few days when the tide rushes up the river in this way vessels do not remain in the main channel that anchor in coves and protected places. Pinzon as we have said did not know about the sudden rising of the tide. Pinzon was anchored in the main channel when the bore came and it dashed his vessels about like toy boats and almost wrecked them. After repairing the damage done to his fleet he made up his mind that there was little gold to be found in those parts and so he sailed out of the mouth of the great river and then turned northward along the coast. It may be of interest to know what befell Pinzon after he left the mouth of the Amazon. Let me tell you briefly. He sailed along the coast to the northwest and passed the mouth of the Orinoco another large river of South America. About 150 miles beyond the Orinoco he entered a gulf and landed. Here he cut a large quantity of Brazilwood to take back to Spain. Then he sailed for the island of Hispaniola now called Haiti. From this island he sailed to the Burma Islands. It was July when he reached the Bahamas. Misfortune again came to his fleet. While anchored in the Bahamas a hurricane came up and two of his vessels were sunk. A third was blown out to sea. The fourth vessel rode out the storm but the crew, thinking all the while she would sink took to their small boats and at length reached the shore. The Indians came to them and landed and proved friendly. After the hurricane was over the vessel that had been carried out to sea drifted back. As soon as the sea was smooth enough, Pinzón and his men went on board the two remaining vessels and set sail for Hispaniola. At Hispaniola he repaired his vessels and then sailed back to Spain. He reached Palos in September. About three months after Pinzón sailed away from the mouth of the Amazon it was visited by a Portuguese navigator named Cabral. Although the Portuguese were not so fortunate as to discover America, yet they had been very active in making discoveries for seventy years and more before Columbus' first voyage. In 1420 they discovered the Madeira Islands. In 1432 they discovered the Azur Islands which lie 800 miles west of Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean. Their vessels from time to time had been pushing farther and farther down the west coast of Africa. In the middle of the century as many as fifty-one of their caravals had been to the Guinea Coast or the Gold Coast as it was more often called. In 1484, eight years before Columbus discovered America they had discovered the mouth of the Congo River on the African Coast. It is not surprising then that their navigators were pushing out across the Atlantic soon after Columbus had led the way. But though Cabral sailed across the whole coast of Brazil and took possession of it in name of the King of Portugal he did not learn any more about the great river at the mouth of which he anchored than did Pinzón. Had he waited a few months or had he returned to the river he might easily have explored its course. For from July to December of each year the east wind blows steadily up the Amazon and Cabral could have spread his sails and kept them spread as he sailed up the river for two thousand miles or more to the eastern foot of the great mountains of South America, the Andes. The exploration of the Amazon, however, fell to the lot of another man Francisco Orlana by name. Orlana did not sell up the river from its mouth that came down it from one of its sources. This was in fifteen forty many years as you see after Pinzón and Cabral had anchored at the mouth. Orlana was one of Pizarro's men and had been with him when the Inca of Peru was taken and afterwards put to death. It was Francisco Pizarro as you well know who conquered Peru after Francisco Pizarro had conquered the country. He made his brother Gonzalo Pizarro, Governor of Quito. This brother while at Quito made up his mind to cross the Andes mountains and explore the country beyond. So he got ready an expedition and made Orlana his lieutenant. Orlana was therefore second in command of the expedition. The army was made up of three hundred and fifty Spaniards four thousand Indians and one thousand bloodhounds for hunting down the natives. They had a hard march over the Andes and suffered very much in crossing. When they were over the mountains they discovered a river flowing toward the southeast. This was the river Noppo. Pizarro had had so hard a march across the Andes that he felt his men could not stand it to go back by the same way. He therefore encamped the Noppo River and spent seven months in building a vessel to hold his baggage and those of his men who were ill. He put Orlana in charge of the vessel and ordered him to float slowly down the river while the other part of the army marched along the shore. The march was very slow and toilsome and after a few weeks the food began to get low. At this time Pizarro heard of a rich country farther down the stream and the Noppo flowed into a larger river. This country he wished to reach so he sent Orlana in the vessel with fifty soldiers down the Noppo to the larger river. There Orlana was to get food and supplies for the army and then return. Pizarro waited and waited in vain for Orlana to return and at last he and his men had to find their way back across the Andes with scanty food and undergo great hardships. Orlana and the soldiers with him were carried by the current swiftly down the Noppo and in three days they came into the great river. It was indeed a great river for the Amazon at the place where the Noppo flows into it is a mile in width. Orlana expected to find here many people and plenty of food. He found however only a wilderness. It was about like the country where Pizarro and his army were encamped. Orlana could barely get food for himself and the men with him much less enough for Pizarro and his army. To return against the swift current would be a heavy task. After thinking the matter over he decided to follow the great river to the sea that he must first win the soldiers who were with him in his plan. This he soon succeeded in doing and they started down the Amazon. It was no easy journey. He and the soldiers suffered greatly but in August 1541 after seven months of hardships they reached the ocean and a short time after this they sailed to Spain. When Orlana reached Spain he gave a glowing account of a wonderful country through which he had passed. According to his story it was far richer in gold than Peru. The name El Dorado the golden was given to this fabled country and for a score and more of years after Orlana had told his story efforts were made to find it. Expedition after expedition set out in search of El Dorado an explorer named Philip Von Hutton from the party southward into the country from the northern part of South America believed he caught sight of a city whose golden walls glistened far away in the distance but he never reached the shining city which he thought he saw nor was the fabled El Dorado ever found. End of Chapter 13 Chapter 14 of Discoverers and Explorers This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Discoverers and Explorers by Edward R. Shaw Chapter 14 Verrazano Verrazano was a native of Florence, Italy and a pirate like many other sailors of that time. Being known as a daring seaman he was asked by Francis I King of France to take command of a fleet of four vessels and try to find a western passage to rich Cathay. For Francis had become very jealous of the Spaniards and felt that his country ought to have a share in the riches of the New World. Verrazano sailed from France full of hope and joy that he had gone only a short distance when a severe storm arose and two of his vessels were lost sight of forever. The two remaining vessels were obliged to return to France. After some delay Verrazano started again with one vessel called the Dauphin. In this vessel he reached the island of Madeira and from this island he sailed January 17, 1524 for the unknown world. The voyage lasted 49 days after which time a long low coast was sighted in the distance. This coast which was probably North Carolina afforded no landing place and for some time Verrazano sailed north and then south searching for one. The search proved unsuccessful and as the crew were in need of fresh water Verrazano decided to send a boat ashore. So a small boat was manned and the sailors tried very hard to reach the shore but the surf was so high that they were unable to do this. At last one brave sailor jumped from the boat into the foaming breakers and swam toward the shore. He carried in one hand presents for the Indians standing at the water's edge watching the strange sight. At length the sailor succeeded in swimming so close to the shore that he was able to throw the presents to the Indians. His courage then deserted him and in terror he tried to swim back to the vessel. The surf however dashed him on the sandy beach and he would have been drowned had not some of the Indians waited in and dragged him ashore. The Indians quickly stripped him of all his clothing and began to build an immense bonfire. The poor sailor thought his end had come and his former companions looked on from their ship in horror at the preparations. All of them thought that the Indians meant to burn him alive or else to cook and eat him. To their great relief the Indians treated him very gently and kindly. They dried his clothes by the fire and began to wash him. These kind Indians looked very savage. Their skin was copper-colored, their long straight hair was tied and worn in a braid and their faces were very stern. For you know an Indian never laughs or smiles. In spite of their fierce looks however they were very good to the pale-faced stranger and when he was strong again they led him back to the shore and he swam out to his ship. Verrazano was glad to see his sailor return in safety from this dangerous trip. The man had risked his life but no water had been obtained for the crew. So Verrazano started northward and along the coast of Maryland he made a landing and secured the much needed fresh water. At this place the Frenchman had an opportunity to return the kindness that the Indians had shown their companion. But I am sorry to have to tell you that they did not do so. While searching for the water Verrazano and his followers came suddenly upon a little Indian boy whom they seized and carried off to their ship. The mother of the boy came quickly from the bushes to rescue her son and they would also have stolen her but she made so much noise that they were obliged to run in order to escape from the rest of the tribe who came to help her. The Frenchman reached their ship in safety with the poor little Indian boy and quickly set sail. Verrazano proceeded northward following the shore and at length came to a very narrow neck of water with rising land on both sides. Through this straight Verrazano sailed and to his surprise came out into a broad and beautiful bay which was surrounded on all sides and was dotted here and there with the canoes of Indians who were coming out from the land to meet him. You have, of course, guessed that this straight was the narrows which separates Staten Island from Long Island and that the bay was the beautiful New York Bay. Verrazano followed the shore of Long Island to a small island which was likely Block Island. From this island he sailed into a harbor on the mainland probably Newport where he remained fifteen days. Here the Indians received their pale-faced visitors with great dignity and pomp. Two of the Indian chiefs arrayed in painted deer skins and raccoon and lynx skins and decorated with copper ornaments paid Verrazano a visit of state. Soon after this Verrazano sailed away again northward. The climate grew cooler and the country more rugged and the vegetation changed. Instead of the sweet-scented cypress and bay-trees which the sailors had admired along the Carolina coast there were dark forests of stately pines which were grand but gloomy. Great cliffs of rock extended along the shores and from these heights the natives looked down upon the lonely little ship in fear, anger and amazement. At length they consented trade with the pale-faces but they lowered a cord from the rocks and drew up the knives, fish-hooks and pieces of steel which they demanded in exchange for furs and skins. Once Verrazano and a few of his men tried to land but the Indians fiercely attacked them and a shower of arrows and the sound of the dreaded war-whoop caused the Europeans to fly to their ship for safety. So Verrazano gave up the plan of landing among these fierce Indians and continued his voyage northward as far as Newfoundland. Here provisions grew scarce and Verrazano decided to sell for home. The return voyage was a safe one and Verrazano was greeted with joy when he arrived in France. Upon his discoveries the French based their claim to all the country of the New World between Carolina and Newfoundland extending westward as far as land continued. Verrazano wished very much to go again to this new land and try to plan a colony and to convert the Indians to the Christian religion but France at this time was plunged into war at home and all trace of Verrazano is lost. Some say that he made a second voyage and that while exploring a wild country he was taken prisoner and killed by a savage tribe of Indians. The story that is most likely true is that he did return to the New World and that while there he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards and hanged as a pirate. End of chapter 14


You may recall from our video on the Higgs boson that empty space is not actually empty. It is filled with matter and energy fields. We model the waves in these fields as quantum harmonic oscillators. And given the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the zero point energy for any wave in the field must be greater than zero. In the 1940s, a physicist named Hendrik Kazemir proposed that this zero point energy was real and for the electromagnetic field it could be measured. If you place two parallel low mass conducting surfaces close to each other, the fluctuations in the quantum field will be limited in between the surfaces but not outside the surfaces. This will create a negative pressure on the surfaces and push them together. Negative pressure is called tension. This effect is called the Kazemir effect. It wasn't until the 1990s that instruments sensitive enough to register the very small amount of force involved were available. Here we see that the force on one square centimeter plates placed one micron apart is equivalent to one one hundredths the weight of an average mosquito. The Kazemir effect shows that the vacuum energy is real, it's small, and it has negative pressure. But this is only for the electromagnetic force field. It's only one of a number of fields filling empty space. We do not know how many there are, so we can't predict the total amount of vacuum energy.