Russia fighter jets attacked a British spy plane. A Russian fighter jet nearly shot down a British spy plane last year. The near miss was more dangerous than previously portrayed, particularly given the potential ramifications of a hypothetical Russian strike against a NATO member. As the Washington Post reports referring to a leaked Pentagon paper circulating on social media, a Russian fighter jet came dangerously close to shooting down an unarmed British spy plane over the Black Sea last year. On the 29th of September, the near miss happened when the British surveillance jet flew off the Crimean coast. Ben Wallace, UK Defence Secretary, briefed the House of Commons about the incident in October saying two Russian Su-27 fighter jets had intercepted the RC-135 in international airspace over the Black Sea, flying recklessly with one plane coming within five metres of the British aircraft. According to him, one of the Russian jets released a missile at a distance, but he did not call the occurrence a near missile launch and termed the missile firing as technical malfunction. He talked about it with high-ranking Russian officials from the Ministry of Defence. On the 14th of March, a Russian Su-27 fighter jet damaged a US MQ-9 Reaper reconnaissance and attack drone while trying to intercept it over the Black Sea. The drone was forced down into the sea.


Welcome to the back story on water in Longmont one of the one of the topics and issues near and dear to every Longmont resident. This is your opportunity as a listener to the back story to learn what you might not otherwise have a chance to learn by reading the local newspaper or just listening to city council meetings. What's coming on potentially on the on the November ballot. That is part of the city of Longmont's long term plan to ensure high quality and high reliability in terms of our water resources. So what does that mean. What it means is this every time you turn on a faucet or a spigot. If you count 100% of the time you're going to get high quality fresh drinking water out of that faucet or spigot and the three people who are in this program with me today are the people who bring that reliability and quality to the citizens of Longmont. So I'm joined in this program by three of the city's experts. Dale Rattamaker, who is our deputy city manager now with oversight for public works and natural resources. Longmont public communications and next slide. Bob Allen, who's director of operations in our Department of Public Works and Natural Resources with responsibility for oversight of all of our. facilities having to do with water treatment and delivery. And all the infrastructure that goes along with that Becky Doyle is assistant director for business services and public work to natural resources so thanks to the three of you for joining me in this program. Before we before we get into the, the substance of what we're going to talk about today. It would be good to learn a little bit more about the three of you. And given the three old men in this, Becky, I'm going to ask you to start. Tell us a little bit more about you, right, your background and a little more detail of what you do for the city than just the title I just read. That's not extremely clear. I've worked for the city for almost eight years now. And before coming to the city I worked in the software industry in pricing and in finance and my educational background is in economics so I was very intrigued with the idea that I could work for a government and really have access to a lot of excellent data. And do some analysis that would be helpful for the community. So in my role now. You know I spent several years as an analyst really digging into that cost of service component for all the services that we provide out of our public works and natural resources department, which include water sewer storm drainage streets, waste services and parks and open space. And primarily on the budgeting capital planning and rate setting for those services. And now in my role as the director of business services. I received that financial aspect as well as our technology and customer service components. Well congratulations on a promotion. And, and I've said in these programs, a number of occasions. I do this as a volunteer for a long month public media city of Longmont public access television service provider. But from time to time I also acknowledge that I wear city council hat once in a while. And, and I will say with my city council hat on, everybody knows if they have a hard question to ask to which they want to really clear answer, when it comes to data or financial analyses they know the aspect. So, thanks for being here Bob Allen, tell us about you. Tim thanks for having us. I am Bob Allen I'm director of operations. As you mentioned, I have oversight responsibility for the portable water system, the day to day operations of that system are wastewater treatment and collection systems transportation and trash. I have been in the water utility business dating back to 1980 and have worked in various roles over the years from consulting to research to different utilities and water districts and here at Longmont now for 17 years. My, my job is my passion, which is really making sure that we're delivering daily, really good services right to the homes of our residents. After all these years I am still fired up by that. DL Radamaker, pick it up from there, tell us about you. Well thanks Tim. First of all, for me I think I have one of the easiest jobs in the city because I've got great people like Becky and Bob to work with every day. So Dale he's he's been here at the city for about going on 38 years. Resident of Longmont, or I should say a native of Longmont not a resident today but a native and really sort of had an incredibly fortunate career to have been able to work in my hometown all these years and and much like Bob be able to do work that passionate about that's important to us every day and and really doing everything we can to improve people's lives on a very basic level. You know we're not that we're not the sexiest department in the city but I've always said if something goes wrong here people are going to know it pretty quick and it does take really excellent staff and dedicated staff along with really sound infrastructure in order to be able to sort of ensure that that day in and day out delivery of high quality service. And certainly that's the case in our in our water utility. You know it's interesting Dale and I'm and I'm going to that kind of sets up where we want to get into the substance of this but just reflecting on your comments about if something goes wrong today in any in any of the things of the functions or services for which public works and natural resources is responsible or LPC or next slide. You hear about it pretty quickly. So that those day to day services and routines become critically important. But today we're going to talk about not just the day to day stuff and what could go on. Certainly, if we don't get it right, what we're going to talk about could go wrong and we all know about it. But you also have fairly significant responsibilities not just for day to day but for visioning and anticipating what comes down the road. And that's really what we're going to get into. Right. So, I want to we're going to share the backstory on a ballot initiative that's on the November election ballot that that's asking voters to approve the sale of bonds to spend a fair amount of money we're going to get into the amount of money but to create to update facilities to replace infrastructure and I'm certain to create some new structures or infrastructure or services to go along with this but before we get into what it's going to cost and and what it will pay for it would be useful to have kind of the big picture on on where what what's important here in terms of water rights, storage access, what it means to a place to a municipality like Longmont, where we will find ourselves in relationship to other municipalities in the range because so much of what you're going to bring to the public is is part of a bigger picture every every municipality is scrambling for more water more storage more water rights to ensure the future of these municipalities Longmont's in a pretty good position. We got to know what that big pictures of why we are positioned where we are. Well, Tim I think, first of all, and most important is that we're all the stewards of the system in this water. We're really here to continue the, the work of the folks that came before us. And Longmont is very fortunate to have had many visionary leaders in the past dating all the way back to the mid 1960s. Longmont Water Board was formed. It really was a foundational time for Longmont. Some of the early work that that folks did decades ago were completion of things like Ralph Price Reservoir and Button Rock Dam. It was a monumental task for a city the size of Longmont in the late 1960s to undertake the construction of a reservoir that is still to this day, our primary water supply for a city that now is approaching 100,000 people. And so really throughout the entire history of Longmont, you know, certainly in the 1960s it was important and going forward, but you can really look all the way back to the 1880s. You know, the water department was one of the first departments of the city, formed back in 1882, following a catastrophic fire on Main Street. And, you know, those the founders of the town back then realized the value of the importance of having a sound water system. And so thereafter, they started construction of things like the South, the pipeline coming out of the South St. Brain. So, it's really, you know, approaching 140 years of history of this community, diligently working and planning for the future. And that's not simply looking at today, as you mentioned, but really looking into the future. The reason that's so important is that you cannot wake up one day and decide, you know what, I think we need a new, we need a new reservoir. We need that in about a month. And on top of that, we may need to expand our water plan. We're probably going to need that about two months. It doesn't work that way. And so it really does take extensive and focus planning. The planning that we do, though, is in support of the Longmont Comprehensive Plan, which is really that larger vision of what the folks of Longmont want for their community going forward. And so, every plan that we do in the public works and natural resources sector is in support of that. And in the water utility, we do everything from long term master plans that again look all the way to the future, the future build out the condition of the city. And we look at it in all the different sectors. So we look at it from the treatment perspective, we look at it from the water supply perspective, we look at it from the distribution perspective. We look at it for the long term planning, and that plan effort is not a one time shot either. You have to continually look at it and update it as you go forward using better technology using better information than what you know the folks before us had. I think you also have to couple that together now though, with very strong asset management plans. And because it's critical that we maintain the, the infrastructure which is extensive to provide the water day in and day out. We can't simply focus on building the next new element. We have to do it collectively and comprehensively in the context of the overall system. And, you know, folks like Bob Alan are really experts at that kind of work. And we, we have really advanced I think as a utility. I think it's that I dare say, not every utility is where long one is with regards to our ability to maintain the assets and understand the value of doing that. I'm going to switch right to Bob issues of water rights, you know, big picture, but storage access delivery. I've been a lot in the, in the public discourse, local news in front of city council in the last few years. Why is it such a recurring topic. And what is it long modders should know that they might not, you know, otherwise read the newspaper or during a council meeting about about why this becomes so important. Where we store how we store, how we treat how we deliver and what we deliver. That's a, that's a good question, Tim. And I know it is one that's on everyone's mind long month. Dale talked about planning talked about planning and the discipline it takes to run a good utility organization. The one thing we've learned in the past years is that the future is a lot less predictable than what we thought it was going to be certainly when I entered this industry. And that requires a different level of planning and different thoughts about how we create a resilient utility resilient infrastructure, you know, a resilient source, and a resilient operation of all that, or all those assets to deliver clean, safe, potable water to residents. And that has become a lot more complicated. And I think that the, the analysis of how we used to develop, you know, water rights, water storage, the resource side of it has changed a lot over the years. And climate change has certainly driven a lot of our thinking on that. How are we going to be resilient in the future. And I think today, the question really centers around not just having a good water supply and the proper rights but, but the ability to retrieve those and under very different circumstances than in the past and for different types of demands than what we have originally anticipated. So the games changed a lot and, and none of us are experts on on the future so a lot of what we're looking at is looking at different scenarios and different outcomes, some which could be more dire than others and and we really have no choice to do that if you want to sustain a viable community like Longmont. Becky, a lot of the discussion in the last few years has been about water rates. What, what consumers are paying with the city of Longmont is charging. So, the question comes up from time to time. What, what, how do our rates compare. Are there how elastic is the, is the economy or, you know, the ability of, of individuals to pay. How do we compare to other other front range municipalities when it comes to the cost of fresh clean, safe water. Definitely like to say that we provide a good value with that, you know, clean, safe and reliable water, but also just on a straight basis where our costs are low. There have been significant rate increases in the past, you know, five to six years that have brought us from lowest among the cohort of you know northern front range municipalities to somewhere, you know, in the, in the low of those and but you know that's something that we keep track of not only where the water rates fall in that continuum but also the utility bills in total and those remain competitive with comparable cities. I'm going to say that we maintained a Longmont, maintained a position of lowest among or one of the lowest among the front range. At times when, when decision makers might have been gradually increasing rates to avoid the kind of decisions or rate increases that have had to occur in the last couple of years. I suppose you could say that I mean it's hard to have that kind of analysis. Yes, but you know if if we had raised rates a little more and then you know instead of the bottom of that pack. Again, still more in the middle then price increases might have been might have been less drastic but you know there are a lot of factors that they go into rates. So we're going to, we're going to get into the specifics of what a bond at the sale bonds and get into but I think before we do that, it'll be useful to talk to talk a little bit or learn about the planning project. Dale you mentioned vision Longmont. Bob you mentioned, you know, the future is not quite as predictable as it might have once been. You're bringing to the public. A request to approve the sale bonds. When did you start considering bringing this question or the work that would be for which the sale bonds with fun. If this is approved by the voters what what does that look like. Where does it start it come it culminates in a question what's behind the question. I'll take a stab at that I honestly the work started at some level decades ago. In the master planning and utility rates analysis analysis work that we do on an ongoing basis. Recently, it was our integrated tree of water master plan that identified again the the long term needs for this community, all the way through what we anticipate to be the build out population of the city. That process was, it seems to me that was in four or five years ago of sort of detailed work that then gets further analyzed to look at all the different scenarios, because what a what a treated water plan comes forward with is any number of options. So you have to analyze each of those options and understand the pros and cons and the consequences of each of them to arrive at what you believe to be the optimum approach to recommend and move forward. So that work has been done both on an engineering side, as well as on a rate and financial analysis side. The city works. We work with several different consultants over the years. We work with a rate analyst experts and of course Becky ranks right up there with with the best of them in my opinion. And we also work with our bond council. And so it is a package effort of work in order to bring forward the the overall plan to move forward with on issuing debt, which you know in Longmont as in any other city. That's always a can be a difficult issue. Frankly, most people don't like going into debt. Most people like to be able to pay every bill on the day that it's due. Unfortunately, that's that's really not realistic. It's not realistic for me and and buying my home as I recall. I wish I could. But, you know, really coming forward with a well thought out well prepared plan is really what the people deserve. It's our job to do that and and to not do that in my estimation would be failing would not be delivering the type of quality work that frankly people in Longmont have come to expect and rightly so. And we have been incredibly fortunate in Longmont to have maintained the trust of our community. Throughout the years. I don't believe we have ever had a, you know, a bond issue, not be favorably voted on and seen by the overall public. That's a that's a that's a great track record. It's also one that we hope to continue. But you know you continue it by doing good work. So by using your head and bring fruit and not spending money where you don't need to, but spending it where you need to, and when you need to do it. And so, I think that all goes into the package. You didn't wake up on a Monday morning and say, gosh, you need to get a bond issue. Question in the ballot. You woke up on a Monday morning, a couple of decades ago. All right. But if the voters approve this, this question that will be on the November 3rd ballot. What are they going to get for their money we'll talk in a minute about how much, but what's it going to pay for. What are they going to buy. Well, it's going to pay for a lot of really important and boring stuff, Tim. It's by and large going to expand a an existing water treatment plant to replace a failing water treatment plant one that really won't operate effectively and meet the standards that we need to meet in treatment in the future years. That one was an easy one. That was standing there before us and we knew that was coming and our master plan gave us good dates and estimates for that. But we have another part of the system that most people don't see and that's the buried part of the system, the pipes that run through the streets and the tanks that sit up on hillside they often don't see. And unfortunately, those age as well and they sit there for a long time kind of out of sight and out of mind and and not out of our site and out of our mind because we we know when they need to be replaced and we have a lot of that do now and in particular storage tanks that need replacement here in the near future. So those are the really important but boring assets and I should say just to add to the conversation about rates.  In this business, we call that mining capital from those buried assets just ignoring them until they really start to fail and Longmont has been very good about since I've been here paying attention to those and Becky has been very good about working with me to develop, you know, 10 and 20 year funding plans instead of the, you know, the one to five year plans that Council typically sees and proves to make sure that we had, you know, the savings for these projects and the rate structures that we needed in place. So did we be specific now we're going to talk about spending $80 million. Right. To do the kinds of things described. Thank you. That's a lot of money. Where does it come from comes from a variety of sources. So Dale talked about, you know, the master plan that we put into place several years ago, I'm going to say was 2013 maybe when we presented that to Council and that contemplated about $200 million worth of capital work. You know, when we put together a long term financial plan to support that it included it included rates included development fees. So when when new connections come into the system. It includes cash and loo of water rights. So, again, when a raw water requirement sometimes has payments of cash and loo. That's another funding source. And that's as well as the proceeds from bonds and when we put together the plan in 2013 2014 we contemplated of that 200 million, maybe about 100 million when at some level need to be debt financed. And we're pretty much in line with that between the windy gap bonds that have been approved and then this, this new ask of 80 million. Between all of those sources coming together, you know, we have, we have different funding sources that pay for specific types of improvements or replacements in the city. So those, you know, development fees can only be used for expanding capacity or meeting new regulatory requirements, for example. And the rates and bond proceeds are more flexible and can be used for different parts of the infrastructure. Obviously, over time rate revenue will also have to pay back those bonds and the interest on the bonds. So there's there's that component to take into account. And the other thing that I wanted to say about that was we have, because we had this long term plan we've also built up fund balances over the last several years. And we have significant fund balances in both our operating fund, which is funded by rates and our construction fund, which is funded from development fees. And we will spend all of those fund balances in the course of making these infrastructure improvements.  So how much are taxes going to go up to service the debt on that $80 million with the bonds. So the water utility is an enterprise under Tabor, which means that it's completely funded by rates and fees that are associated with providing that service. So there is no tax increase associated with this or any other water utility bond. So this is a, this is a question that goes on about asking for authorization, the cell bonds and create the debt with no tax increase associated with it. That's right. And that's a little bit unique for for Longmont because most municipalities their water utility enterprises can issue debt under Tabor without going to the public because there is no tax implication. Longmont asks the public for any time we issue debt and that's that's a requirement of our charter that does not indicate that there's a tax associated with that. So I think that's a pretty significant distinction to make. Number one, what the charter requires and what it empowered empowers Longmonters, unlike other municipalities. But the other part is that you're able to pull this off without a tax increase, which is the other part that Longmonters ought to be understanding. Now this is for any one of you. I, as, as Dale mentioned earlier, we'd all like to pay as we go cash and care. Right. Going into debt is not there's some discomfort that goes on with that. What's the rationale for doing this with debt financing as opposed to pay as you go. Who wants to Becky is that your question or would that be a deal. I don't have any answers to that, but I'll let someone else talk first. So I'll start first, but I'm sure Becky will have a far more eloquent answer. You know, I also want to add on that issue of how we're going to pay for the, the debt service. So I think that's one of the things that's been calculated into the, the rate structure that the city council has adopted last year. That does anticipate rate increases for the next several years, but it does not require any rate increases greater than what the council has already approved. And so the council won't be asked. I think that's one of the things that's been really approved. And then with regards to, you know, why do it with a debt service option as opposed to pay as you go. Well, pay as you sound go sounds good. And until you start to realize that you have to accumulate all those funds before you can start the project. And then you have to pay for contract at the city of Longmont until we have all the funds in hands to do the work. And so what that ends up with is that you end up delaying the construction and bringing online of these critical facilities, whether it's a treatment plant or a storage tank. It has to be the cascade or has the potential to cascade directly to the customer directly to the user in the form of increased outages, less reliable service, both in quality and then in time and delivery. And I don't believe most people want that. I believe most people like to get up in the morning and not have to really think too hard about whether or not the shower is going to come on, and whether or not they're going to be able to get their coffee and water going and so I think that's a reasonable expectation and we like to be sort of out of sight now the mind so that people can go about their day to day life and do what they need to. And so that's why it's important to do it with a debt service that you bring these facilities online when you need them. It also importantly allows for these facilities to be paid not just by today's customers but also by the new customers as they come on and join our community in the coming years. Everyone then has a share of that responsibility to buy into and be part of the larger community and certainly it's water utility but Becky you can probably expand on that in a more technical way. That is one of my favorite features is intergenerational equity. Those are all really good reasons why we use debt finance. Some others include that, you know, with along with the timing aspect of making sure that we can undertake a project when it's required. The other thing to know is that if we were to cash finance all of those things you know $50 million for the plant here and then $30 million for this year. You know that starts to look kind of spiky and that's not something that you want to do with your rates. You want to make sure that rates are predictable and that people understand you know how how they're going to increase over time. And using debt as a tool helps us do that by having those predictable payments over you know a 20 or 30 year time period. So I think that's that's another important thing. It all makes sense, having spent a part of my career in the business of schooling. That was the rationale for but for debt funded construction of schools right that generations get a chance to use them and do their share. So, Bob $80 million is a lot of money. And it begs the question, if we decide not to spend that money, if the public were to say, not we want to do that. What would you anticipate costs, long term to the community for not spending the money we need to spend today to upgrade our infrastructure and in update or replace a water treatment. That's a, that's an important point in asset management and that is that you renew assets in time, and before they fail. And the cost of the failure down the road can be to community like ours, it could be catastrophic you're talking about the possibly not being able to fight a fire or, you know, provide water to a new business that wants to come into the community or even to households have have significant outages. Of course, you want to avoid that.  The reason is that they fail to perform the functions they intended to perform and, and in this case, they have to meet regulatory standards that they may no longer meet. And that means that the water is not safe for the community as it once was. So, and then we're shut down from providing that we see that all the time. An example of that is, is it you know an old playground in your community may have been safe when it was built but now it may have all kinds of pinch hazards or fall hazards or things like that we just don't accept anymore and for those reasons we renew assets of all types as a they fail to perform the functions we expected them in society. You know a lot of money. You only think that might cost more is to not do what you're asking the public authorize you. We absolutely. Yeah, absolutely in a catastrophic sense that would cost a lot more consequence of failure. Even to a single business. You know, loss of production for a day for a week for any sort of time period can be substantial. And, you know, we are always focused on on on our residents and we're also focused on our business community. The reliable high quality water utility is really an essential element for the, the financial prosperity of community, and to be able to attract great employers into our community thanks like our recent success with the smugglers plant. And I certainly know when years ago when Xilinx and Seagate and Amgen we're all coming into Longmont. A lot of the reason that they were coming here was because we had a reliable water supply here in the West and predictability and reliability are essential to any business in their planning, and they rely on that. So, the other thing I'll say is a public utility is also one that is accessible to everybody in the community. It's sort of like your parks. You know the, the difficulty is, of course, there's a cost associated with it. There are programs though that we would be remiss if we didn't talk about the Longmont carers program and other programs and we have to try to assist those in our community who are struggling financially and and who need assistance and to encourage anybody who's who finds themselves in those kinds of situations to please give us a call, call your councilman or certainly call your city staff, and we'll be more than happy to, to try to get you connected with the services that can help you. You know, we're, we are recording this backstory in the, in the context of a pandemic. By the time viewers have a chance to watch this, unlikely, we're going to be in the post pandemic world will be still in the middle of a pandemic. So, folks might wonder, you know, why is this the right time and I think you've all answered that question, even with the uncertainties associated with this pandemic and the economic consequences or fallout that you could wait a year or you know, you could wait till sometime in the future, but the longer you wait, the greater the risk of catastrophic failure and in systems that require high reliability. Any failure is catastrophic. We know that and there's any aspects of this project that are more nuanced than we touch on that you'd like to include as part of this backstory. I would go ahead Becky. I would just also add about, you know, is the time right, you know, knowing what we know about municipal bond markets, the cost of capital right now for this kind of project is as low as it's ever been. And we think that it's, you know, the fiscally responsible thing to do to take advantage of market conditions. And I think to add to that, whenever there is an economic downturn in the economy, we also are very fortunate to receive incredibly competitive bids for public infrastructure and for construction work to happen. You know, the other thing I'll say, even though we are certainly in the middle of a pandemic. As I look back, again, to those that came before us, when we stop and think about when the South Water Treatment Plant was built, which frankly when we retired it back in 2005, it was one of the oldest treatment plants on the range. It was built and brought online in 1934 in the middle of the depression. And so, you know, communities come together at times when it's challenging. And I think this is our time. Well, that's been long months history and part of one month story is coming together key times. Any, any final thoughts any of you want to share before we wrap this up. I just like to thank you, Tim, for the opportunity. And I hope people take the time to listen to this, this backstory, I think it provides important information of course if it, if it brings more questions folks, you know, feel free to give us a call. If you want to talk to us, ask us questions. And that's really why we're here to respond. And they can connect with you, any one of you through the city website. Absolutely. All right, long monitors. That is your backstory on the water bond question that's going to be on your November ballot. And I think that's three very competent, highly trained and experienced city staff members to help share that story. Thanks to each of you. Stay safe and healthy. And the best to you and to the city with the outcome of this election. Thanks. Thank you, Tim.


These treatments have the advantage of being minimally invasive, highly efficient, and low toxicity. However, traditional phototherapeutic agents face challenges such as poor tumor targeting, susceptibility to passive immune clearance, and suboptimal biocompatibility. Recent research has shown that cell membrane biomemetic technology has enabled phototherapeutic agents to acquire unique biological functions, such as promoted immune escape, prolonged in vivo circulation time, improved biocompatibility, and enhanced anti-tumor efficacy. Additionally, phototherapy mediated by cancer cell membranes, CCM, or immune cell membrane modified phototherapeutic agents can promote broad anti-tumor immunity. In this review, we explore the mechanisms of PTT and PDT, discuss the synthesis strategies and biological functions of cell membrane biomemetic nanomaterials, and focus on the progress of phototherapy based on bi. This article was authored by Min Chen, Yun Sun, and Hui Lu. We are article.tv, links in the description below.


Well guys, we had some breaking news happen, you know, tonight, early morning, I don't know, whenever you're watching this video, I usually don't release late night videos, but every now and then, something happens and we're trying to be on top of it, and this actually happened during our live stream.  You guys remember Jeff Grubb, famous for talking about Metro Prime Remaster having to shave his head because it didn't come out in 2022, although Nintendo released it two months, less than two months into 2023. So he clearly knew what he was talking about with Metro Prime Remaster. He just didn't have an exact release date, but he was very confident. It was coming out in 2022, obviously plans changed. They dropped it as a shadow drop this year, back in February, but here's the crazy thing. He also is somewhat disliked by Nintendo fans because of the Wind Waker, Twilight Princess HD. He's been really singing its phrases for like a year and a half. Well, here's the thing, he's added again, and he hasn't been added again with Nintendo rumors in a bit. He talks about a lot of other rumors and other things that he's actually been right.  He had a show and look, I'm just gonna straight up tell you guys right now, the man is telling us that we are about to get Metro Prime to remaster soon, probably September, and something Zelda related, but you don't have to believe me. No, no, no, we can just hear it from the man himself. Let's see what he had to say on Last with the Nintendo Dogs is Nintendo podcast. Uh-huh, yeah, it's fine. There's some other stuff like Microsoft is also expecting us a new Switch next year. Doesn't seem like that's really informed on much, except for the very strong- They're just listening to Last with the Nintendo Dogs like everyone else. Do you think that all this quietness? Do you think that is like the calm before the storm? Do you think some kind of announcement on stuff is imminent? Or do you think that's coming later in the year?   Oh, Jeff, I want to. We can make some news. Oh, look, yeah, let's do that. Okay, so. Not a question, I wanna go. I'm scared. I'm not scared. Don't be too scared. You're not supposed to, you're not, you're not technically here, Christian. Go ahead, Jeff. Metroid Prime 2 Remaster probably is coming out relatively soonish. Like that, that is happening. Let me just say, let me check and say if any hair's falling out. All right, no, we're good. That probably is happening relatively soonish. This is the next phrase I'm afraid to say. So I might not actually say. Listen, I don't know what it means. Like this is, I'm gonna tell you what they told me. And then if you take this and you spin it into something else, everybody, it's on you, okay? It's on you. Something not related to Tears of the Kingdom is happening with Zelda later this year. That's what I was told. Oh, no. What? What do we do with that information? What? No, no, I'm sure. Let's do it, why not? I mean, what can we do with that? Can I ask a question? You can ask a question on my, I probably don't have any. I have lots of questions. Do you mean like, do you mean Wind Waker and Twilight Princess?  Okay.  I like that game a lot. That's a good game. Good game. Okay. And then just like last thing, you know, this one's not news because of course, but Nintendo normally does directs in September. We'll probably get a direct in September right around the time of that, of that Nintendo event that's happening in Seattle. Around Max. Nintendo Live 2023. But that's like, of course. Of course we get that. Yes. So yeah, there you go. I mean, it makes sense. You can. All right. So there you have it. I don't, what do we do with that sort of information? Right? Jeff Grubb, he hasn't like stepped in it in a long time when it comes to Nintendo because look, he likes things being double, you know, triple sourced. At this point, I think he's just having some fun, but he's being honest. He heard Metroid Prime 2 remaster dropping soon, probably September direct as another shadow drop. Is it possible to get two Metroid Prime remasters in the same year? Sure. But of course, what a lot of you are probably wondering is Zelda.   Is it the Wind Waker or Twilight Wii? He doesn't want to touch that with a 10-foot pull. Again, Jeff Grubb doesn't seem to know what it is. Just something Zelda is happening later this year. And he does go on to note a little bit later that from his own speculation, it could just be something announced this year to release early next year. Again, when he meant something Zelda, just something Zelda is gonna be announced. He doesn't necessarily mean something Zelda is gonna be released, although something Zelda could be released. The Wind Waker or Twilight Princess is obviously something that jumps to the top of a lot of hard charts, maybe helping some holiday sales, I don't know, but you know, I originally, you know, when I first saw this, I was thinking, oh, maybe the Zelda Lego set. But then that Zelda Lego set that leaked had a Deku Tree from Breath of the Wild. It's the same Deku Tree in Tears of the Kingdom, so you could argue that's Tears of the Kingdom related. So then it probably wouldn't be the Zelda Lego set. So what is it? They were seemingly heavily towards it being something game related, although again, Jeff Grubb just, he said what he heard. Something Zelda that isn't Tears of the Kingdom is happening later this year. What is it? Are we getting more remap? Like Grezzo, Grezzo did Link's Awakening. Are we about to get like a link between worlds? Are we gonna get Oracle of Ages? Oracle of Ages? Is it even gonna be a remaster? What if there's a brand new top-down Zelda game? What if it's a spin-off? What if we're getting another Hyrule Warriors game? You know, like hey, an actual sequel to the original one where CEO was the bad person, right? Like maybe we're gonna get a sequel to that. Maybe there's a, is there gonna be an Age of Calamity sequel? I don't know. Is it another cadence of Hyrule? Are we getting a cadence of Hyrule II? I don't, like there's so many avenues this could be because when you say something Zelda, that is, it's unlimited possibilities. So here's what I want you guys to do. I want you guys to go down into the comments below and just make your blind guesses at whatever supposed Zelda thing's gonna at least be announced if not released later this year, highly likely to be announced in that September direct, especially if it's coming this year. What I will note is Nintendo, at least during this whole COVID period from 2020 on, has had this sort of tendency to announce things in September that still come out this year. Things like Age of Calamity and Super Mario 3D All-Star. So like there still could be that September announcement of something coming this year.  I want it to be Wind Waker HD, but I have no idea what this is gonna be. And then we can't forget about the Metroid Prime 2 stuff. Look, the Metroid Prime 1 remake is the second highest reviewed game of the year behind Tears of the Kingdom. If they got Metroid Prime 2 remake, remaster, HD, whatever they're calling it ready to go and they're dropping that this year, well here's what I think's gonna happen. You know that February direct next year, Metroid Prime 3 remaster will drop then because we'll get Metroid Prime 4 next holiday season or next October, right? Like that's, if this happens, I'm just gonna feel like they're just gonna shadow drop it at the ends of the years and then give us Metroid Prime 4. Look, I don't know. My mind is racing. This is breaking news. We haven't had breaking news like this in a while. Again, this is a rumor though. So take this with the appropriate levels of salt. They always say take it with a pinch of salt, whatever. Sometimes I say truckloads. Do with this what you will.  He's gotten a lot right as well. You guys do with this what you will.


Now, another strategy in the toolkit for the innate immune system is nonspecific phagocytosis, just by the name of it. The fact that we're calling it nonspecific probably gives you an idea that there must also therefore be specific phagocytosis. And that's part of, again, very specific, only this antigen. It's the only one that I will phagocytize or yumptialize the endocytose, and so that's a process that's a different form of phagocytosis that will occur. Nonspecific, notice that we should probably think about who does this? Who would eat just anything that comes along? Well, the men do. The monocytes or macrophages when the macmonocytes, white blood cells move out of the bloodstream and into the tissues. Phagocinophils, another form of phagocytotic, phagocytic, white blood cell, and the neutrophils, who are also capable of nonspecific phagocytosis. So the men do this. Now, how do they know? How do they know what to eat? Well, this is a hugely important question.  This is some bacteria, whatever, it's a pathogen. It's a bad guy. And we're cool. They're covered with antigens. They're covered. Any invading thing is going to be covered with markers, its own self-markers and its cell membrane, and some of those might stimulate an immune response and some of them might not. Nonspecific phagocytosis responds to specific markers on a pathogen and they're called PAMPs. But of course they are. And a patient, associated, molecular. Now think about this for a minute. It's a pattern of whatever protein, amino acids stuck together, carbohydrates hanging off the side, whatever it is, we know it's associated with pathogens. So if you come across something like this, if you come across a PAMP, if the men come across the PAMP, they're going to know, hey, that's most likely a bad guy, I'm just going to yumpsha-lize it right now. Game out, like why even bother calling in the troops? I'm just going to eat this thing, like let's get rid of it. Because I recognize this molecule. My analogy for this, if you saw an animal, you don't know what kind of animal it is, but it's wearing earrings. That would be like some kind of marker and its earrings are associated with humans.  So that would be all humans have earrings. So not all pathogens are going to have these markers. But if you see this marker, you're pretty well sure, whatever I just said, that it is a human, a pathogen, so eat it. Now, how do the nonspecific phagocytes, the men, how do they know that, I mean, go ahead and think about this. What's the next piece? What's necessary in my men in order to respond?  So this is a amen, one of them, amen. And guess what this thing is called? Because of course it has a name. This type of receptor, all it is is a receptor. It's just another protein that's found in the cell membrane of the men. And this one is called a pattern, okay, it's called a PRR, PRR, pattern recognition receptor. Okay, I'm cool. It's a receptor, that one I'll remember. The pattern, I will remember that it recognizes the pattern. It recognizes, look, pattern here, pattern here. Here's my pattern, that thing's my pattern. This is my pattern recognition receptor. That's recognizing the pattern. And it's like having earring receptor recognizers.  And if you don't have earrings, nobody knows what you are, but we're not going to yumpshelize you. And hopefully, if you have earrings, you're not going to get yumpshelized either. Okay, do you follow that? Little process, that's just the mechanism. Yeah, that's one mechanism. The next mechanism is a little bit easier. There are all sorts of things that can initiate phagocytosis. A chemical that says, hey, over here, phagocytize this man. A chemical that initiates phagocytosis. And guess what? Guess who can act as an opsonin? Antibodies.  It's a bad guy. And then along comes an antibody that binds to that. So I'm going to make my little, okay, look at how, please tell me you're like, oh yeah, I totally get that, because look at what, it's tiny, really, whatever. There's an antibody with a little matching piece to that specific antigen. If a pathogen gets covered with antibodies, that's another way that non-specific phagocytosis can be initiated. So any chemical that initiates phagocytosis can be an opsonin, and antibodies can act as opsonins. Did you follow that whole thing? All right, so those are two ways that we can strategize to get things eaten. Now we're going to talk about our friends, the natural killers. They've got a whole other strategy, and I'm telling you right now, don't mess with the natural killers.


Hopefully, you're all done with 3.1. Today, we're going to start with 3.2. And just to have a quick review on what we've already done. So we've covered in a 3.1 the physical memory management. We said that you should implement core map. And we said that the core map is data structure that keeps track of the physical pages. And that you should initialize your core map before you start calling the K-Malloc. So you can keep track of all the physical pages and the physical memory. And we've said that the first K-Malloc call comes into the PROC bootstrap. And this is where you should, before that, you should initialize your core map and have it ready. And this is how your memory should look like. So there should not be any kind of memory leak or stolen memory. And we've presented you with the core map structure. So the core map structure basically part of your physical memory. But it maps the whole physical memory in it. And the information that you need in your core map, you need the page state. You also need, whether it is fixed or free, you need the chunk size. And for later on, you're going to need the owner information. We've also talked about the maps in MU. That's not required, but it's a good idea to have a general view of how the virtual memory maps into the physical memory. So we have four segments. We have user segment and three kernel segments. We said that the user segment is a TLB map cached. And for the SIG-0 and SIG-1, and SIG-2, which are kernel segments, SIG-0 and SIG-1, these are directly mapped memories. And for SIG-2 is, again, TLB map. But that's not using your OS161. What you really should care about is the KSIG-0. And as you can see for the kernel segments, these are basically half a gig. The size of these segments are half a gig. And that's why, since it's a direct map, that means you need a half gig into your physical memory. So if your physical memory is not a half gig, it's less than that. If we map a virtual address that is more than the, let's say you have a 4MB memory, then you're going to get an undefined error for that. So today, we're going to overview, again, the assignment three. We're going to cover the page table, user address space, and TLB. So it's going to be either space management or TLB management. So we should all be done with the first checkpoint, which is the core map. And your next checkpoint going to be, not this Friday, the one next. And so to start with the page table to give you a general idea, some general information you need before you start really getting into the page table. We know that the page size is 4K and that the virtual address size is 32 bit. We refer to the portion that virtual address identifies the page as the virtual page number, the VPN, and the remainder of the virtual address going to be the offset. And typically, every virtual page should map to have a physical page. And also, all addresses within a single virtual page should map to the same physical page. So you're going to have a starting address, whatever between within the page and a single virtual page goes to the same physical page in your memory. And for 4K pages, this is how we're going to divide the virtual address. We have a 32 bit virtual address. We're going to take the first 20 bit, the top 20 bit, as the VPN. And we're going to use the bottom 12 bit as the offset. And things going to, so this is going to be fixed. But for the part where you identify your VPN, things are going to change based on your implementation of the page table. So for the physical address, how should we get a physical address after we get the virtual page number? And then we translate it through the page table. We're going to get the physical page number. And then we're going to add the 12 bits, which is the offset to that. This will give us, identify us with the, or return to us the physical address, the 32-bit physical address. So what is a page table? A page table is a data structure that maps the VPN to the PTE, which is a page table entry. The VPN is the virtual page number, as we said. And each process should have a separate page table. Why do we need that? Because for every process, we know that different parts of the memory maps to different parts on the physical memory. So the page table is going to be private to every process. And we've used similar data structures before. So we've used the file table. We've used a process table. For file table, we've said that it is a data structure that maps file descriptors to file handles. We said for the process table, maps PID to process structure. The same goes here, but you're going to map VPN to PTEs, which is virtual page number to page table entry. What are the requirements for implementing a page table? So for page table, it will get a virtual address and an operation. The page table should be able to check if that virtual address is valid, just like it falls within a defined segment on the address space. And then it should check if the operation on that segment is valid. So you need to check for every region, you are going to have some permission set for that region. So you need to check if the permission that you received matches the permission for that region that is defined on the address space. If these two are fine, then you're going to get to retrieve the physical. The page table should be able to return to you the physical address or the, let's say, physical page number. And then you're going to add the offset. You're going to get the physical address. So every entry in a page table refers to a virtual page used by a single process. And comparing page table to core map, so we said that the core map is a data structure that manages the physical pages, while the page table is a data structure that manages the virtual pages. So every entry in the page table handles a virtual page, while every entry in the core map handles a physical page. So pretty much similar data structures, but each one is handling the virtual pages, and one is handling the physical pages. However, that doesn't mean the structure, just like whatever you have in the core map will be the same in the page table. No, the structures will be different. So what are some of the information that you need to maintain in a PTE structure? You need the virtual page number, and you need the physical page number, which is the translation of that virtual page number. And then you need whatever permissions for that page. You need the permission. You need the state that tells you if that page is now in memory or it's on disk location. And you might need some other fields while you implement or move on to the 3.3 checkpoint. So any questions on the page table before we move on onto the different design options that you have for a page table? So there are different design options that you can use for a page table. One of them you obviously cannot use. So the first one is the flat page table. Flat page table is an array that holds PTEs for each process, and it should have entry for all pages in your physical memory. So let's say if you have a 4MB memory with a 4K page, that means 1,000. So no, no, sorry. So you're going to, virtual addresses are 32-bit, and then you have the 20-bit of the first 32-bit of the physical address that will identify the virtual page number. That means 2 to the power of a 20 will give you around 1,048,000. So if you use a flat page table, you need around 1,000,000, and for all S161, you're going to run out of memory, most likely. And most entries, it's going to be a waste of space because most entries are going to be unused. And, but yeah, it has the advantage of O1 retrieval, since it's an array. So you have the flat page table that this is the simplest thing, but again, for OS161, you cannot use that. You will most likely run out of memory. The options that we really recommend is using a link list page table. And that means you only allocate an entry whenever you allocate physical memory or physical page for that virtual page. So it's via link list, list of PTEs for each process, search on translation, what's not good about a link list. We all know that it's O1 retrieval. If you want to search, then we have to go through all of the whole list for every translation. But we're going to save a lot on the space because whatever entry we have in the link list is used. We know that it is used. We don't have any unused entry in the link list. The third option is a two-level page table. That's a more advanced option if you want to use it. And you're going to build just like a tree-like structure mapping VPNs to PTE. Now, for a two-level page table, you have, as we said that you all, for example, with a flat page table, you're going to use the VPN, which is a 20-bit. That's going to be an index into your array. But with a two-level page table, you need to break down this 20 bits into 10 bits. And then you're going to have two-level page tables. The first level, you're going to identify it through the top 10 bits. And then the second 10 bits you're going to use for your second level page table. So to make things easier, this is how it should look like if you want to use a two-level page table. So this is the virtual address that we will get. And this is a 32-bit, the size of that's 32 bits. As we can see, the VPN is the 20 bits, the first 20 bits. And for two-level page table, we said we divide those into two 10-bits fields. And then each 10-bit is going to be the index into each level that you have. So for a two-level page table, for the first level, this is you always need to allocate. And since you have a 10-bit addresses, that means around 1,024 entries, so not so much space. So for that structure, the first level, basically, what it will include is a pointer to the next level. So you're going to get the index of the first level using the first 10 bits. And then once, then you're going to get the pointer to the second level, to the starting point of the second-level page table. And then you're going to use the second 10-bits as an index into that second-level page table. Now, for the second-level page table, these should be allocated once there is a hit happen on that field. So for example, let's say you have a hit on the third index and that index is basically null. Then you need to, at that point, you need to allocate the second-level page table. We, for multi-levels page table, we always keep stuff at the leafs. So as we said, for starting from the first level up until 1 minus n, let's say if you have n levels, it's going to basically be pointers. And the last level is where you put your PTE which is your physical page entry. So this is as of the 10-bits, the first 10-bits and the second 10-bits. Then you have 12-bits remaining for you. So in the PTE, you're going to retrieve the physical page number. And that's the starting point of your physical page. You're going to add the physical page number to the offset, which is the 12-bits offset. And you will get the physical address. So this is how the two-level page table should work. So as we said, break VVN in two parts, each used as an index at the separate level of the tree. A valid entry in the first level page table should contain a pointer to the second level while a valid entry in the second level should contain a PTE structure. It will give us a constant time retrieval. But for the space, it depends on how sparse is your address space. But obviously, it's much better than the flat table but worse than the linked list. So one change for this year we have is that if you're going to use two-level page tables, that's going to put pressure on you the memory. So if you want to really head into such implementation, we do recommend using four-level page tables. Because as much as you increase the levels, you're going to use less memory. But the recommended design option for you is the link list. And if I were you, I would go with the link list, get things working. Maybe then you need. If you want to improve your performance, you can just change it to four levels. Because with two-levels page table, your 3.2 test will pass, but not the 3.3. Most likely you will not pass the tests because it will put a lot of pressure on the memory. So keep that in mind if you want to go with multi-level page tables. It would be a good option if you consider using four-level page tables and instead of two-level page tables. So any questions on the page table design? So going into the address space, we should be familiar now with the address space. You have several regions, code, data, heap, and stack. And it's basically the address space is a range of virtual addresses that the operating system makes available for the user process. And now this is the time where you need to implement your address space interface. And you need to complete the address space structure that you already have. So what are the information that you need to maintain in an address space structure? So first of all, you need to keep track of the region information. So you need to have an idea on where does every region starts. You should have the region size. You should have the region permissions. So we have different permissions for different regions. For example, the code region is on read-only region. It's not a read-write region, so the permission for that is different than, for example, the data region. You should also keep track of stack and heap region information. Why do we keep these regions separated from the other regions? Because other regions are basically of a fixed size while the stack and heap region are a valuable size. So you need a little bit more information about these regions other than what you have, which is in common with other regions. One important note is that make sure that you set your heap region correctly. And that means this should be after all regions. So whatever region defined should be before the heap. Why is that? Because let's say code and data regions, these are fixed regions. The size of it doesn't change while the heap does change. So if you don't keep, just like so, we know where the stack starts. It's at 0x80 million growing downward. The heap region should be after all regions and growing upward toward the stack. If you keep it somewhere else between regions, between fixed regions, then at some point you run out of memory or overwrite the other regions. So make sure that you set your stack correctly, your heap, your stack and heap regions correctly. And then you do need a pointer to the page table. For example, as we said here, this is the page table base is a pointer. You need to keep track of that pointer. And depending, for example, if it's a link list, you need to keep track of the head of that link list. So this is where you keep it. You keep it into your address space structure. So any questions about address space structure? Yes. Why would you want a link list for multiple segments? So I think this is a design implementation option. So you should find a way to keep track of all the regions that you have. Not necessarily, your VM subsystems should support multiple regions. So I could define as much as I want.  But with your VM, you do need multiple regions. You need to support multiple regions. So using a link list, I think that would be one of the options that you could use. If I give you more than four regions, your VM should still be able to handle it. You could have a variable number of regions. Your VM shouldn't support a fixed number of regions. Actually, that was one of the limitations of the dumb VM because it was supporting only fixed number of regions. As I remember, it's only two regions. But with your VM, you should support a variable number of regions. So I think that would answer your question. And that's why you need a link list. Adder space interface. So we've been through that several times. These are all defined in your address space dot edge. So AS Create will create a new address space, an empty address space. AS Destroy will destroy an existing address space. Keep in mind that you need to free each and every page when you destroy an address space. AS Copy will create an exact copy of the past address space. And here you need to copy the pages. You can also, as an advanced option, if you want, you can implement copy and write. But you're not required now to do that, which basically means you create an exact copy of the address space copying every page. AS Activate will make the current process address space the one currently seen by the processor. That means invalidating the TLB entries. Deactivate, unloading, define stack, set up the stack region. Define region will set up an un-stack region of memory. And whenever after you define a region, you want to load the content into it, you need to use or call as prepare load, which should be called before loading an executable. And then as complete load. You have more information on these in address space.h and you can see an actual example given to you in load elf.c. So I think other than the structure of the address space, there is no much to discuss here. But do you have any questions for the address space management? So for a TLB, we know that a TLB is basically a translation like a side buffer. It's a cache that is used by the MMU, Memory Management Unit. That is part of the CPU to just like improve the virtual to physical address translation. And the TLB entries, the TLB stores only 64 entries. And that's fixed. The size of every TLB entry is 64 bits. And we need to understand the breakdown of a TLB entry. So let's say you have 32 bits, two 32 bits. And every 32 bits is assigned to either for virtual or physical number. So the first 32 bits, this is what's going to handle the physical address. So the first 20 bits of the first 32 bits will be representing the virtual page number. And then you're going to be left with 12 bits that are unused. Then going into the second 32 bit of 64 bit TLB entry, you're going to have the first 20 bits again going to represent the translation of that virtual page number, which is the physical page number. And then you're going to have some other bits that some of them are unused. For example, TLB low, no cache. That's not used in OS 161. TLB low, dirty. That will tell you if that page is a read-only or read-write. So if it's set to 1, then that means it's writable. That page is writable. If it's set to 0, that means it's read-only page. For the TLB low, valid. That would tell you if that translation invalid, valid or invalid. So let's say when you invalidate the TLB entries, this is the bit that will tell which invalidate an entry in the TLB if you need to flip that bit. So this is the breakdown of a TLB entry. Any questions on the TLB entry format? OK. Now, we have different kinds of a TLB false. Of a VM fault, we have a TLB fault, we have a page fault. We know that the TLB fault happens when there is no valid translation of a virtual page number in the TLB, but a page fault means that the content of that virtual page is not present in the memory. So every page fault is preceded by a TLB fault because if the content of a virtual page is not present in the memory, that means there should not be any translation present for it in the TLB, but not the other way around. Not every TLB fault will generate a page fault. So if the page is in memory, then you should have translation for it in the TLB. If the page is not in memory, then you shouldn't have a translation for it in the TLB. So you need to differentiate these two kind of faults. And also, keep in mind that you need to support on-demand allocation. That means if an entry into your page table is not yet allocated, you do not allocate it at a time where you initialize your page table. You allocate it whenever there is a VM fault on that entry, on that address. So we're going to go through that in the last slide. We have some helper functions used with TLB management. So for TLB fault, if you check that header file VM.h, you will have three types of TLB fault that will be passed to you. You have VM fault read. That means a read attempt was done on a virtual address that is not present in the TLB. VM fault write, there's another way around, which is a write attempt was tried on a virtual address that's not in the TLB, while if you get a VM fault read only, that means there is problem with the permission. So if you're trying to write into a virtual address that is present in the TLB, but the permission of that address is read only. And how we would know that, this is from the TLB low, dirty bit that you have in the TLB format. You have also some MIPS-specific TLB access functions defined for you in the TLB.h file. You have TLB random, write, read, prop. These are the functions that you can use to manipulate the TLB. So any questions on the TLB management? So this is the general flow of your VM fault. This is what should happen when you get into a VM fault. You will get an address, a fault address. And then the first thing you should do is to check that address is valid. What does that mean? You need to check if that address falls into one of the defined segments that you are already defined in your address space. If this is the case, then you need to check if the operation on that page is valid. So you need to check that region permission through the address space. So in your address space structure, you have the region's information. And one of the information, we said that it's the permissions that you need to keep track of. So you need to check the operation you received and cross check it with the permission you have in your address space structure for that region. If it does match, then you move on. One thing to mention, so if the fault address is not valid, that means the fault address doesn't fall within one of the regions that you are already defined. That is a segmentation fault. This is what generates a segmentation fault. So if the first two steps go through, then you need to check what kind of fault you have. Is it a TLB fault? Is it a translation that does not present in your TLB table? Or is it a page fault, which means the content of that virtual page is not in memory? Then so if it's a TLB fault or if it's a page fault, you need to make sure that allocate physical page if needed. So not with on-demand allocation. So with on-demand allocation, you need to allocate the virtual and the physical page at the same time. There are some designs options that were used by some other students previously, which is just like you have a virtual entry, but you don't have a physical memory allocated for that virtual page. And this is where we were saying allocate physical page if needed. But with the on-demand allocation, that means whenever you get a hit on an address that is within one of the defined segments, but in the page table entry, you don't have an entry for that address, then you need to allocate the virtual page and the physical page fault. Once you do that, then you need to update the TLB entry with the addresses for the virtual page number. And it's corresponding physical page number. So that's all for 3.2. This is basically what we need to do for 3.2. Next week, Carl's going to give more overview. This is a complete overview of the 3.2, but he's going to go again over the same concepts with maybe some more tips if he has. And so next week we're going to do a review on 3.2. The week after, we're going to start with the 3.3. So any questions up until this point? Page aligned? OK. Virtual address? No, virtual address, 32-bit. So you're going to get the first 20 bits out of that 32-bit. You pass it into the TLB. The TLB will give you the PPN for it, with the physical page number for that. And then you're going to add that to the offset, which is the last or the low 12-bit of the virtual address that you've got. This will get you the physical address, the 32-bit physical address. Any other questions? OK. That's all I have for today. Thanks for coming. Please come through the office hours if you have any questions. Thanks.


Hello and welcome to the Grand Line review or source for everything one piece and today we have a discussion that I've been thinking of doing for quite some time and it centers on the structure of the Wano arc and what I think we can comfortably expect for the future. And this isn't an entirely new discussion at all, I feel like I bring it up a fair bit in my chapter reviews, but ever since we were introduced to Wano's act system, the challenge has been on to decipher exactly how many acts this arc is going to be. And in the very early days there were thoughts of a traditional western three-act story or perhaps even a more operatic four-axe and on the table was always the most daunting option of five-act story, which I've personally been rooting for and at this stage I have very little doubt that Wano will consist of five acts and that might sound a bit strange given that we are currently in act three and it looks like the climax stage of an arc, but if I were you I really would settle in and prepare for the remainder of the lengthy journey to come. And one way of doing this is just by pressing the subscribe button for the Grand Line review which is scientifically proven to lower your stress levels, make you more physically attractive and even result in regular one-piece content uploaded straight into your YouTube feed. But back to Wano, my thoughts of a five-act structure spawn almost entirely from one word and that word is kabuki. Wano is very obviously adopting the structure of a kabuki play albeit in its own weird and funky one-piece style and in case you're unaware of kabuki it is a hyper stylized form of Japanese theater which is actually listed by UNESCO as an intangible heritage, allegedly possessing outstanding universal value. Pretty big words there UNESCO. Although fun fact one piece itself has actually been adapted into a kabuki play or more accurately a super kabuki play, which attempts to modernize and make the art form relevant again to younger audiences. Kind of like what we do with Shakespeare in the West or at least kind of what we try to do with Shakespeare. In any case that one piece kabuki play was an incredible hit and it focused on the Paramount War saga which is ambitious to say the least, but that is a lot of what kabuki tends to be. Taking on legendary historical accounts would larger than life figures. So I think it's quite cool that we're now experiencing the inverse, seeing the kabuki art form directly adapted into one piece not the other way around. And you can see this quite clearly everywhere on Wano. Whether it be the traditional curtain opening and closing with each act, the music used even in the manga, the music is very apparent and especially when you look at costumes. Many of the vassals in particular take direct inspiration from famed kabuki characters. In fact many of the vassals names come directly from famous lines of kabuki actors and this even extends to smaller character aspects like Kiku for example. She's biologically male but identifies as a woman which is very in keeping with the kabuki style given that to this very day all roles are performed exclusively by men. And furthermore the names of said famous characters have even made their way onto Wano. For example Zoro and Sanji's Wano names come from a famous play called Kotobuki Sougan or Taiman and it features two brothers named Juro and Goro. Hence why we have Zoro Juro and San Goro and every step we take on Wano brings a new kabuki feature into the mix but why is all of this relevant? Well that's because almost all kabuki plays follow a very common five-act structure and to break things down slightly more or break things up these acts also follow a common flow known as Johakyu and this in a very very I mean very simplistic sense I suppose you could consider to be the equivalent of a beginning middle and an end but also not really. Basically the rundown goes a little something like this we begin with Joe which in a kabuki play encompasses act one. The purpose of this is entirely to introduce the characters in the plot nothing more nothing less maybe sometimes more actually in Wano's case definitely more then we move to Ha which is by far the longest part of the story and spans acts two to four which are vaguely characterized by big battles commonly occurring in acts two and four whilst act three is where a particularly tragic event or events happen it's the emotional low of the piece or I suppose emotional high depending on how you view it and then finally we have Q by far the shortest aspect which is a swift conclusion with act five and I should say that Johakyu is not a formula exclusively applied to kabuki plays or in fact theater in general. Johakyu is also applied to anything and everything in Japan such as music martial arts yoga painting tea ceremony anything give me anything and you can Johakyu it it is incredibly versatile but also before we dive into laying out the floor plan of the Wanoak I also think it's very important to note that a five act structure is nothing new to one piece and to look at this we can go back to dress Rosa act one we arrive on the island of love passion and toys we're introduced to all of the major characters such as the Don Quixote family Fujitora and the strange citizens of dress Rosa we're also given the general premise and call to action with the ultimate goal of beating Doflamingo but we're also introducing stuff like ace's devil fruit to entice Luffy and act one essentially ends with Luffy deciding to compete in the corridor Colosseum and that setup paves the way for act two which is characterized in the traditional manner via battles the most obvious being the Colosseum tournament but this is also where the rest of our protagonists kick into gear such as the law facing off against Fujitora and Doflamingo and it ultimately ends with Usopp's quote unquote defeat of sugar which reverts all of the toys to their regular forms which gives us act three beginning with an uprising on dress Rosa as all of our key characters come together in a combined effort to take down Doflamingo which sees an all out war begin in the country and leads into Trafalgar Law's flashback the tragic conclusion of which triggers the end of act three then moving into act four this is where all the serious action plays out the members of the Don Quixote family fall one by one and we have the climactic battle between Luffy and Doflamingo along with all of the birdcage related drama and act four rather predictably ends with Doflamingo's defeat Yats proclaiming that Luffy was the winner and a wave of rejoicing spreading across dress Rosa which leaves us with act five where we have a swift conclusion to the arc stuff like Rebecca reuniting with Kuros Fujitora's apology to King Riku the formation of the straw hat grand fleet and just every thread in the arc is tied together it's all concluded here in a nice snappy way and that is a five act story it's not as clear to identify as Wano and to be honest it is arguable where the act specifically break down I just went by the major beads but it is all there and you can do the same thing to Holcake Island as well but I won't because I really won't talk about Wano but you can because that's how Oda writes these mega rocks so let's go ahead and do the same thing with Wano only slightly trickier because obviously it isn't finished yet but we have act one the Joe this introduces us to the samurai-esque landscape of Wano the premise behind the plight of the nation as well as most of our major players definitely not all but we end on a profoundly dramatic note with Luffy's defeat and subsequent imprisonment which sets up act two in much the same way that Luffy entering the corridor Colosseum sets up act two of Dressrosa very similar situation actually with Luffy being sequestered to a combat focused era and act one of Wano took 16 chapters to complete which is quite a lot for Oda in comparison you could argue that act one of Dressrosa was complete within three to five chapters but then again Wano is a much longer story quite reflective of Kabuki players which generally take a whole day to complete the program although with that said rather fittingly that is more true for the core fabric of Dressrosa since the whole arc essentially took place over the course of a single day in any case after act one we are then introduced to the concept of interludes which I personally believe are the most brilliant idea that Oda has incorporated into this Kabuki play scheme during those day-long features the audience does take a break to digest and reconnect with the outside world briefly and I think that these have been a much needed feature of Wano because it almost makes every act feel like an entirely new arc whereas with Dressrosa and Hulkic Island for example the acts blend together and the feeling of fatigue becomes very very problematic it's sort of like trying to sit through the entire five acts worth of a day long Kabuki play without a break at all and here's the fun thing we've been on Wano for over two years now this arc began in July of 2018 so actually it's getting close to the two and a half year mark and it really doesn't feel like it's been that long at least not to me whereas approaching the two year mark with Dressrosa and Hulkic Island I was feeling very very tired with the general setting and I was quite anxious to move on and speaking of moving on let's begin act two of Wano which actually appears to have been signified during the chapter that ended act one which was 924 entitled Ha and if you've been paying attention you will know that this is incredibly significant considering that it paves the way for the beginning of the half portion of the Johaku model I will say that the official English chapter is titled Ha as in H U H which is a reference to the noises the straw hats make after seeing the news of Luffy's capture and in Japanese this Ha likely has a double meaning referring to both the straw hat reactions and the meta structure of Wano being Johaku but stuff like that is impossible to convey in an English translation however act two follows traditional Kabuki standards being characterised by battles and once again we have Luffy at the centre of all of the action in the Udon prison but outside all of the straw hats are also engaged in action like Zoro versus killer Sanji versus page one both them coming together to protect Toko and of course all of the big mom related incidents it's incredibly similar to act two of Dressrosa in that regard lots of minor skirmishes building up to a revelation and preparation for an all-out assault in act three which speaking of from here on out we will be dealing with spoilers for Wano so if you're an anime only watcher just not caught up and don't want spoilers then sorry but it does need to be done so act three of Wano commences startlingly similar to act three of Dressrosa without forces uniting to launch one key attack however it would appear to flip the Kabuki model by having the act three moment of tragedy right at the beginning of the piece rather than at the end so in this case that profound tragedy would be Odin's flashback which does satisfy the Kabuki criteria however I must stress that generally the events of act three are meant to lead up to and culminating great tragedy and the door is well and truly still open for exactly that to happen with our current vassals versus kaito situation and at this stage I think we've already seen the beginnings of it but I suspect that act three is going to end with their complete defeat and potentially even a death and that's going to happen probably very soon bringing the curtain down on the darkest chapter of this Wano play and that would then pave the way for act four which is going to be where all of the traditional battles take place basically doing the standard thing of going from our lowest moment then the momentum shifting and the tides well and truly beginning to turn seeing the defeat of the beast pirates one by one and culminating in however kaito himself gets taken down and this could take quite a while going by previous examples I mean act four of whole cake island was the whole running away from big mama deal and that was like 30 chapters long so this will probably be quite an impressive chunk of action but that doesn't mean it's all it would be for example you might even see a kaito flashback thrown in there so we have the full scope of his character prior to his defeat but that is most assuredly how act four ends with an emperor of the sea or even two being taken down and then we move to act five which will be wrapping up all of the loose story threads on Wano such as reinstalling the kozuki family and resolving relationships and parts forward for the worst generation members having a party for jinbei joining the crew and so on and so forth there is quite a lot to resolve on Wano but it will be done in a swift manner worthy of a queue and I imagine it would be by far the shortest of the five acts and with all of that in mind at the time of recording this video I can't help it feel like we still have at least one whole year left on Wano in modern times we tend to average around 40 chapters of one piece per year usually just below actually like 39 or 38 and even with act three's imminent ending it is so hard to see act four and five being told in less than 30 chapters especially when you consider that things like luffy versus kata curry took almost 20 chapters to play out and I don't think that kaito will be given a lesser treatment than that but that is our path forward with Wano right now we are smack bang in the darkest hour and I would prepare for some grand tragedy but followed by glorious victory with act four although one interesting thought I do have as well is this whole kabuki model being taken a step further a sort of kabuki seption if you will and this is unlikely to happen during the sake but just a thought for the future I have this incredible inkling that at some stage whether it be during a cover story about Wano or near the end of the series that this whole conflict we're seeing play out right now is going to be turned into an in-world kabuki play and we'll see actors on stage in exaggerated makeup representing luffy the straw hats kaito the vassals the worst generation etc and even if it's only a single panel of a cover story I would bet quite a bit that this in-world historical event is going to be turned into a kabuki play furthermore in the real world I think there's also a very strong chance of the wanuak becoming another super kabuki performance I mean they tackled marine food in kabuki play form already and the wanuak is perfectly catered to the format so really I don't see why not but yeah just like the patient audience of any good piece of kabuki theater I suggest that we all sit back relax and enjoy the rest of the program because we still have a long day ahead of us but what do you guys think please do leave your thoughts in the comments below or even join my discord server and if you'd like to see more videos like this then please do go and check out some of my other content or even subscribe to the channel for more glorious one piece business uploaded straight into your youtube feeds but for now this has been the ground line review and I'll see you next time