Hello, and welcome to the session. This is Professor Farhad in which we would look at a bound problem that could appear on the CPA exam as a simulation, or you might see in your intermediate accounting course. Now, why these problems are challenging or difficult for students? Three reasons. One, these type of problems would require you to understand and use the time value of money. And many students hate the time value of money. Two, you will need to understand the various accounts and how to do journal entries. Three, you need to understand how bonds work. So you need to understand all those three concepts in order to understand how to journalize and compute the price of the bond. The good news is, on my website, farhadlectures.com, if you're a CPA candidate or an accounting student, you can see detailed lessons about the bond topic. And you can master this topic, whether you are studying for your accounting course or taking your CPA exam. Also, if you just want to check your university, where does your university rank in terms of CPA exam performance? Before we start, just please connect with me on LinkedIn. If you haven't done so, subscribe to my YouTube channel, connect with me on Instagram and Facebook. Let's go ahead and get started. The Adam company issued a 12% bond dated January 1st with a face value of 90 million on January 1st, 2021. Let's explain everything. The company wanted to raise money. They decided to borrow money. They're willing to pay 12%, that's how much they're willing and able to pay, and the bond will be issued January 1st, so far so good. The bond mature on December 31st, 2030, so the life of the bond is 10 years. For bonds of similar risk and maturity, the market yields 14%. Now this is important. Why is this important? Well, they're telling us right here that you are not paying as much as the market. The market for similar bonds is paying 14%. You're paying 12, immediately. Immediately in your mind, if this was a multiple choice questions, you will need to choose the price of the bond. So the price of the bond, it's gonna be less than 90 million. So this bond will sell at a discount. So before you even do anything, you need to know that this is a discounted bond. It's gonna sell at a discount. Interest is paid semi-annually. This is important. It means rather than 10 years, we're gonna have N equal to 20. We have 20 periods because twice a year for 10 years is 20 periods. And the market rate rather than 14%, when we go to the table, you always use the market rate. We're gonna be using 7% to find the price of the bond. Okay? First, they want us to determine the price of the bond. And this is where your knowledge of the time, value of money comes into place. Do you know how to do this? Do you know how to compute the price of the bond? Well, the bond is composed of two things. When you find the price of the bond, I'm gonna give you the formula first. The price of the bond equal to the present value of payments, which is because they are the same, they're called annuity, plus the present value of face value, how much you're gonna get at the end of the life of the bond. Those two together, the present value of the payment, the present value of the face value. Now it's easy.   So this is the face value. Now the payments, you have to know how to compute the payments. Now this is where you need to know the various formulas that deals with bonds. Well, the payment, how do you find the payment on the bond? The payment equal to the face value of the bond 90 million times the stated rate. So you have to be careful, because notice you have 12% and 14%. And you need to understand that your payment is based on what you issued the bond for. You issued the bond to pay 12%. This is the contract rate, 12%. However, this bond pays semi-annually, you multiply by half. So it's either annually or semi-annually. They don't give you quarterly. So be careful of it semi-annually to multiply by half. So the payment is 5.4 million every six month. So this is your payment. So this is your payment. Good. So I have the payment. I have the payment for 20 times. I'm gonna get the payment for 20 times and I equal to 7% because I'm gonna discount it. However, buys the bond from you, they want to earn 14%, which is 7% every six month. So therefore they will discount this, they will discount the bond based on that. So let's discount the payment first. So I'm gonna change colors here. So we're gonna take 5.4 million and we're gonna multiply it by the present value annuity factor. Well, we have to go to the tables. This is the present value of ordinary annuity. This is the present value of a dollar. You need to go because this is an annuity and this is an ordinary annuity. The first payment is due six month from now. We're gonna go to N equal to 20 right here. Let me change colors, make it red, it's better. N equal to 20, make it red right there. N equal to 20 and I equal to 7% and we're gonna come across and we're gonna find that the factor is 10.59401. So we're gonna take a 5.4 million times the present value annuity factor, 10.59401, okay? And this amount by itself, if we do this, it's gonna be 57 million, 57 million, 207,654. Now we have to do the same thing for the 90 million, same thing, but little differently. This is, we're gonna have to pay the 90 million only one time. Therefore, we're gonna go, again, use the same N, N equal to 20, I equal to 7. We'll use the same factor. When you go to the tables, you're always using the market rate. When you go to the table, you're always using the market rate. So now we're gonna do the same thing. N equal to 20, I equal to 7, and we're gonna come with this to this factor, 0.25842. So we're gonna multiply the 90,000, this 90,000 by, 90 million, not 90,000, by 0.25842, 0.25842. Oops, 0.25842. And that's gonna give us, for the face value, 23,257,800 dollars, okay? Now what we do is we add the present value for the payments, the present value of the single payment. And when we add them up, they will add up to 80,465,454. So this is the price of the bond. The price of the bond is composed of the present value of the payments, plus the present value of the face value. That's really good. Now we found the price of the bond and we answered the first question. And this could be a multiple choice questions. This could be a, basically, this could be a simulation by itself or a part of a simulation. So the price is 80,465,454. And I already told you, this bond will sell at a discount even before I did my computation. And what do I mean by discount? It means it's less than 90 million. You're not gonna get the 90 million. The company will never get the 90 million selling the bond, paying 12% because other bonds are paying 14. No one will pay you 90 million because they can go somewhere else and earn 14%. Why will they give you the 90 million to earn 6% because you're paying 6% every six months? Now we need to journalize the entry. Well, you always, if you know the amount of cash, you'll start with cash. So the company would receive cash 80,465,454. The next thing you do is you credit the bond. The bond is always credited for the face value. You are responsible for paying 90 million dollars. Although you received only 80 million today, well, the reason you received 80 million, 80.5 almost rounding is because you were not competitive. Your interest rate was not competitive. It's not competitive as the market. The difference between them is a discount on notes payable. Now you have to understand what the discount is. The discount is a contra liability. So let me make a T account called the discount. Let me call it just not note discount. My pen is not working properly. Give me one second, please. So this is the discount on bonds payable, BP bonds payable. Okay, now this account has 9,534,546. Okay, now the first thing you want to understand is what type of an account is a discount on bonds payable? What type of an account? This account is a contra liability. Okay, it means it reduces your liability. It's a contra liability. That's why it has a debit balance. Now also you have bonds payable, which is 90 million. So simply put, if I ask you today, what is the book value or the carrying value of the bond? The carrying value of the bond, and this is important, equal to 90 million, have enough zeros? Yes, enough zeros, minus 9,534,546. So the carrying value of the bond is 80,465,454. So this is the carrying value or the book value of the bond as of today, today is January 1st. So the carrying value of a discount bond, and this is an important number to know, because you will need this when you compute your interest. You will need this when you retire the bond early. So this is an important number. The carrying value of a discounted bond is the face value of the bond, which is 90 million, minus any un-amortized premium. We haven't amortized anything. Therefore, the book value is 80,465,454.  Well, first start with your cash payment, even especially on the CPA exam, because you should know what your cash payment is. We already computed the cash payment equal to 5.4 million, credit cash 5.4 million. After you compute your cash payment, you compute your interest payment. Now be careful whether they're asking you to compute the interest based on the straight line or the effective rate. Most likely on the CPA exam, they would use the effective rate. Now how do you compute your interest using the effective rate? This is an important thing to know. How do you, how to compute this? So what you do is you take your beginning of the period book value, which is 80,465,004. Let me put it down here. You will take your beginning of the period book value, 80,465,454 times the market rate semi-annually, because everything is semi-annually times 7%. And this is gonna be your interest expense.  That's your interest expense, 5,632,582. Hold on a second. I paid in cash 5.4 million. Why am I recording expense of 5.6 million, 5.6 million, 5.632 to be more specific, 582. Why? The reason why you are paying more interest, you are recording more interest expense is because when you issued this bond, you issued this bond at a discount. So this discount technically is interest expense, but what you do, you are gonna be amortizing, amortizing the interest expense over the life of the bond. How do you find out how much you're gonna amortize? You will take the difference between your cash. This is why I told you first to compute your cash, then compute your interest expense. The difference between them is the amount that you're gonna be amortizing. Simply put, you are going to amortize 232,582. Now what happened to your discount? Your discount went down. Your discount went down. It means you simply put your book, your carrying value or your book value went down, but let's compute the new amount of the discount. So let me give me one second here. Let me do this on my calculator, 9,534,546, minus 232,582, and that's gonna give you an amortized discount of 9,301,964. I hope my computation is right. Now we're done with the first payment. Now we're gonna do the second payment six months later, six months from June. Again, the first thing is your cash. Your cash is 5.4 million. Your cash payment would always be the same for the bond. Then we have to compute the interest expense, and here you have to be very careful. You have to compute your carrying value. What happened to your carrying value? Actually, your carrying value went up. Why did your carrying value went up? Because your discount went down. Now what's your new carrying value? Again, how do you compute the carrying value? It's the 90 million minus any un-amortized discount. Now you only have 9,301,964. So let's compute your new book value because based on your book value, you will compute your interest expense. So we're gonna take 90 million minus 9,301,964, and that's gonna give us a book value of 80 million, 6,98,036. Now we're gonna take 80 million, 6,98,036, times 7%, times 0.07. And that's gonna give us interest expense of 5,648,863 rounding, 863. So this is my interest expense. So this is my interest expense. Notice my interest expense is higher than the previous period. This should make sense because my book value went up and my book value will keep going up until it becomes 90 million. Until basically, it means 90 million. Eventually this will be the zero. All the discount will be gone. Now I'm gonna, again, reduce my discount by the difference between the two. So I'm gonna reduce my discount by 200,000. By 248,863. And I will have a new discount on bond and the process will keep repeating itself. The process will keep repeating itself. Again, my discount will go down. My book value will go up. My interest expense will go up. But my cash payment will always be the same. And eventually, if you do this for 20 periods, if you do this for 20 periods, your discount will go down to zero. And once your discount go down to zero after 20 periods, your bond will go back to its face value of 90 million. So this is how you price the bond. Price the bond means find the price of the bond. Then you journalize the entries. Now also, maybe in another problem or if you wanna go a little bit further, you need to maybe prepare an amortization schedule for this. I do have this on my website. Again, you can go to my website, farhatlectures.com to find additional resources about this topic. I do cover bonds and notes payable and time value of money in details, whether you are an accounting student or studying for your CPA exam. If you are studying for your CPA exam, don't take any shortcuts. My subscription is nominal in the long run. What I'm doing is I'm asking you for $30 to improve your chances substantially to pass your exam. That's gonna open up a wide variety of careers options in front of you for the next 40 years. Don't shortchange yourself. I'm helping you here. Help yourself, steady hard, good luck, and stay safe.


No, no, you just have to draw the button moves up and down so you just have to yeah it's like you're drawing on a paper but don't look there look here because goes to BC B goes to be or epsilon and C goes to see so in this case you want to have because because of the epsilon here you want to be able to have both the B or the C as your first it's in case your B in in case you have a string which uses that epsilon rule you want to be able to go straight to C because then in your a it might go to epsilon and then see little C pretend this is little exactly yes so the idea is the first set wants to capture all possible combinations right so it's saying like if you just added the first set of B right the first set of B is B and epsilon yeah I got that right so but you don't want to have that epsilon because you don't know about the rest of that right-hand side rule and then the idea is okay I want to move on I want to move on because there is some case I know there's an epsilon in the first of B so there's some possible combination of rules where big B is gonna produce nothing which means that the first the first thing is not going to be something from B at all you can kind of I'm getting it if you pick up so on then the first terminal has to be not B but something else right so the fact that the other way to think about it right is the fact that A goes to big B big C and the fact that big B can go to epsilon means there's kind of an implicit rule that A can also go to C A A can go straight to C exactly because because of epsilon because epsilon just shows the space between them it's like a union it's not a union but but it's like a cat concatenation of the strength also right yeah it's going to yeah it's going to be so you have if A if A goes to B C you have two possibilities you can have A I think the result can be like A goes to B C the result can be B comma C or it can be just C the result can be little B comma C the set of B comma C or just the set of you mean the first of A the first of A could be B B little C or it could be just little C right and you put those two together right you can union those two and it's just B and C but the key is it doesn't have epsilon in it that's the key right because you didn't go all the way through those symbols to get to C had epsilon in it then you would include epsilon because all of the terminals of A yeah you know there's some possible combination of rules where both B and C you're going to go to epsilon's so the first of A can be like this B and C is that how you did it or you did a set the set it's always sets okay B and C or it can be just C right no no there's no or right there's one thing for the first set of A what if it's if it goes this route it's B and C if it goes this route the first set is all possible routes all possible combinations okay so then it can be first it could be this or this right so then how do I do two items in one location what are you talking about well then it would be like B or C B or epsilon comma C first of A no no so first sets are only can only be terminals and epsilon right you can't have an or in there okay yeah I know I know or is basically implied by the fact that there are multiple entries in this set I can't I'm struggling with this concept with this this guy right here here I understand it has to be an ending terminal so so I gotta pick one either this one or this one right well what if I pick this guy wait no you do you have to automatically pick this guy right you don't have to but the idea here right is that so the first set of B so what's the first set of B so why don't you you can come on no no that could be like it could be B we're epsilon great and the the first set of C so now how do you use those rules how do you calculate the first set of A because it was there oh but you have to apply the rules right that's the key right you have to apply these rules so applying rule three right when you apply rule three you take the first of so you're trying to apply it to here right capital B is the leftmost symbol so rule three applies right you take the first set of B which is the second thing D and epsilon I got that take out epsilon and you add it that result to the first set of A oh so here you apply rule three and after after you apply rule three you get first of B equals just B no no not the first of B right we're not calculating the first of B we're calculating the first of A first of A here yeah so I have first of A and then I have this and then if I do rule three on this I get rid of that is that what you're saying you calculated this by hand right but that's wrong so you have to start empty so yeah so applying rule three adds B to this set so we can put B in there but we don't add epsilon yet right so then we look at rule four and we say hey okay we've looked at the leftmost symbol of this rule right so rule four says can I go on and add the next symbol the first of big C so how do I know if I can do that just look at what's the condition for rule four yeah if A is B zero beyond the two three B K and epsilon is the first of B zero and epsilon is in the set of B one and epsilon is the set of B two and epsilon is the set of B I then first of the I plus one minus the epsilon is first of A I don't understand the rule I can't read it but I don't understand it I think that what it's saying is first of A first of I don't I don't understand the rule I don't know it's it's I don't know it's trying to kill something but why don't you I have to sleep on it yeah spend some time looking at it and then on Friday you can come back because we're gonna we'll do this a lot we have a lot of examples of this first yeah I just don't want to start on the wrong foot oh it's okay but everybody I think knocked out early yeah I totally understand okay put it back I'll I'll uh well I don't you give me an example on our work right can we do that okay I'll take a picture of that and then I'll work on that and then I guess you have the answers here okay okay so it sounds like super pretentious and whatever but why are we doing Trump's normal form like why don't we even talk about that because it's bottom up and that's just more difficult to code or different we have to just focus on certain things okay I mean really like I don't know because it just seemed really concise and nice and everything they taught it to us well in 355 so interesting um then I don't know I mean the short answer is I don't really know because I didn't design this curriculum from scratch so I'm using what's already been yeah happened before um you know it could be we're trying to be able to diverse things so you look for different types um for me I do really like this because I like like uh actually most parsers so you can use like parser generators like lex and flex and bison or whatever to to generate like parsers but oftentimes in real like compilers or interpreters they're written by hand and they're written with these predictive recursive parsers yeah so and all this stuff you can do this with any grammar like you don't have to convert it which is kind of a thing it's like I like the first sets and the follow sets because they're interesting because they tell you something like very simply you can calculate something about an infinite number of strings right by only applying these rules uh they're complicated but you gotta dig through that and once you've developed that intuition it's like oh yeah these have to be the rules right there's no other possible rules yeah um and then when you actually code this into a real program to do this it becomes even better and you're understanding this skyrockets your programming skills develop because you're actually doing something complicated and interesting with code um we take the concepts from here yeah the applications are going to be different and the syntaxes are always going to look different and different yeah we can also do like vagus normal form programmers uh which is another thing and actually that's a little bit more I don't know because it's one of those things that is used in a lot of the rfcs to define the protocols what's rfc uh request for comment so it's like in the standard definition of what an email address looks like it depicts a grammar it's not exactly in the format we're using they have a little bit of extra things but nothing that makes it unknowable actually one of the examples we're going to go at is doing email addresses so interesting okay thank you any other questions questions material questions you


I wondered if you might describe for a layperson, a non-scientist, this issue of the virus evolving. How would you explain that to somebody without, without a biology A level or similar? RNA viruses change a lot. HIV viruses are RNA viruses. Influenza viruses are RNA viruses. And they mutate. They mutate randomly. There's no thinking behind it. It just happens. And then those mutations which give the virus an advantage, it can more easily go from me to you. It can transmit easier. It can pass to other people. Those viruses will become the dominant strains in a community. We've seen that in the UK, South Africa as well, where a new mutation happened. It gave the virus an advantage. It was easy, more easily to transmit from one person to another, and it became the dominant strain. What is more worrying is that the fact that we now have people that have been infected and we're now starting to vaccinate people. Therefore, the virus that mutates in a way that escapes those vaccines or infections will give also those viruses an advantage, and they will become the dominant strains. The best way of preventing that is to reduce the amount of virus in the world, reduce the chances of mutations happening, and reduce the chance of that variant having an advantage and becoming dominant. And the best way of doing that is to reduce transmission, make the vaccines available globally, and prevent those variants happening. It's much easier to prevent than it is to respond to new variants coming into the population of viruses in the world.


What's up everyone it's your girl Kenzie here from Leighton Sports Guards and I am ripping 21-22 Panini Recon basketball hobby six bucks break number 22 random teams here's a look at the random results you can always find this at leightonsportsguards.com underneath the results tab link is also in chat for you all righty best of luck everybody here we go there we go good luck threw that in the trash like it was the box Spurs rookie Otto Joe Weisskamp Hayward Hollow and Pink Markel Follis Quentin Grimes we've got Kobe White on the blue to 99 bowls maneuver is Chris Paul Hollow Rudy Gay Rock the Rim Miles Bridges we've got bronze at 299 Deandre Hunter future legends Cameron Thomas of Duncan Robinson and Pink and Jimmy Butler Herbert Jones Hollow Al Horford and Bones Highlands on the short print hollow dots nuggets there you go Denver on the SSP who's got on this go around Denver Anthony F nice SSP there good rookie too Bones Highlands we'll mag that one for you have here warriors uh to 25 rick berry call to excellence warriors wood hollow and pink James book knight rookie Sims rookie red to 199 Kade Cunningham a little color match there at the jersey and Herbert Jones rookie recon Lajuan Robinson Clyde DeGlein and a Lajuan 12 school pack there last pack box one Cumminga rookie warriors we've got bronze to 299 AI and maneuvers Tyrese Halliburton Cameron Thomas rookie Caruso Hollow Rock the Rim Yanis onto the combo books got warriors rookie Otto want to scorn Anderson Ray Allen Hollow and Hall hopefuls Russell Westbrook got Rockets Calvin Murphy to 25 claimed a fame pint-sized rocket superstar lived large at charity stripe Lajuan Hollow pink Carl Malone Josh Christopher rookie red to 199 Michael Porter Jr Jalen Green on the rookie recon Hollow Trey Young and top charts youngest in MBA history this is to 10 Devin Booker youngest in MBA history to score 70 points in a game again you can barely see the numbering there that is eight of ten go into the suns next one there Jordan C James book knight rookie Vluda 99 Lonzo ball future legends Jared Jackson Jr Fox Kevin Love Hollow pink blues Manga Rubar rookie Austin Rivas rookie bronze to 299 Talon Horn Tucker Kid Cunningham rookie recon Cameron Thomas rookie bronze to 299 Mo Bamba maneuvers LeBron James let's pack box two Obi-Wan Kenobi Caruso Hollow David Robinson Demia Lillard pink I may not say that I'll give you some flashbacks Bronston Jr bronze to 299 Reggie Jackson maneuvers John Moran Simon Hollow KD Chris Middleton pink Jalen Sums rookie base magic blue to 99 rookie Quentin Grimes and future legends Cole Anthony got Raptors true potential rookie Danylo Banton Donovan Mitchell Hollow and Evan Moley rookie recon bronze Wagner rookie magic red to 199 Jopland all spurs and rock the rim Vince Carter we've got magic Franz Wagner RPA to 75 nice hit Orlando Austin C nice hit Wiggins on the rookie hollow and Jordan Clarkson Moses Moody rookie we've got bronze to 299 Dwayne Wade and Quentin Grimes rookie recon G you've got hollow D Wade and all protein DeMar DeRosin bowls Ken Wadey Toscano Anderson rookie hollow Reggie Jackson and Desmond Bain future legends box five box three and Stevenson Finney Smith hollow and maneuvers Allen Iverson box four Weisskamp rookie hollow Jared Allen and rookie recon Josh Christopher Rockets we've got Portland purple rookie Keon Johnson Blazers Kara Slivert hollow and pink Carly Anthony Towns Josh Gideon rookie thunder purple to 49 Mitchell Robinson maneuvers Dejante Murray Mello Desmond Bain hollow Malik Monk and rock the rim Shaquille O'Neal Luca Garza rookie red subbonus to 199 future legends Steak Bay got Jazz Rodrigo Bair to 75 on the glorified signatures cool one there jazz Mogalesh Billy rookie hollow maneuvers Yolkish Jared Butler rookie red to 199 Steven Adams rock the rim Dominique Wilkins hollow magic Johnson purple Jamal Murray Kade Cunningham rookie base Pistons Van Vleet bronze to 299 SGA on the future legends Lebron B spent Simmons hollow and all systems go Jalen Green nice sit there Rockets like the look of those cards they're definitely shorter print not considered a short print but only see maybe two to three of those per case twitches what what do you mean like the actual stream stream is playing right there online that's weird Aldridge hollow pink clay Thompson let this be you're not signed into the twitch or something on that computer right now primo blue to 99 Lamarcus Aldridge rock the rim Shaquille O'Neal got Nick's a Taj Gibson red to 75 glorified signatures Kimba Walker hollow and Devin Booker youngest in NBA history to score 70 points in a game top of the charts with uh Uthman Garuba rookie ha a bronze to 299 DeMar DeRozan maneuvers Dijonte Murray Barquay hollow rookie Jose Alvarado future legends Steak Bay JT Thor rookie Barton's hollow I'd assume a rookie recon got warriors Jonathan coming up blue to 35 rookie warriors RJ Barrett hollow and Josh getting on the pink hollow Kispert rookie bronze to 299 Brandon Ingram maneuvers Magic Johnson Maxi Cleaver hollow and Carl Anthony towns on the rookie review last five box five we'll get into our last box of case vanton rookie we've got gold one of ten a manual quickly a little second year uh there for the next one of ten rock the rim Jonathan Cumminga okay it's Luca Garza rookie we've got blue to 99 the Cal bridges sons rock the rim Zach Levine play Thompson hollow Yanis onto the Kumpo and pink Tyler hero Robinson Earl rookie hollow Jericho Sims and future legends Deandre Aten and the Walker Trey Young we've got Celtics called the excellence red to 49 Robert Parrish based on their Celtics Gary Payton hollow and closing statements Kevin Durant for the Nets another shorter print there it's the second one we pulled out of this case break around the third bronze to 299 Durknowitzky Jalen Suggs rookie recon Simmons hollow Tyrese Maxi and pink the Angela Russell Trey Murphy the third red to 199 Stephen Adams maneuvers Darius Garland got Nets Darren Sharp gold rookie out of one out of ten nice hit Nets I've been seeing a gold frame yet that's a shark-looking card grads on that Nets implicit and rock the rim Obi-Toppin rado rookie we've got bronze to 299 rookie Moses Moody future legends Jalen Green last pack here then a quick recap so Ant-Man second year and we've got a pink Kurt's cappella what's not I don't know what that looks all right we one second here and we will do a recap just all that like in the corner in my eye too all right recount time we've got the gold Ricky Otto one of ten Darren sharp Nets Robert Parrish Celtics Jonathan Cumminga Warriors Taj Gibson nicks Rudy Gobert jazz Kian Johnson Blazers Franz Wagner on the RPA for the magic then a little Banton Raptors a Calvin Murphy Rockets Toscato Anderson Warriors um Rick Berry Warriors Joe Weisskamp Spurs and then the SSP hollow Dott's Bones Hyland rookie for the Nuggets nice half case there now we'll do it for basketball tonight we're moving on to some football


Welcome back to our MedSmarter Lecture series, where we're taking a smarter approach to preparing future physician. Before we get started, if you'll take just a quick minute and click that like button, and also subscribe and turn the bell on so that you'll be notified when we post new videos. And let's go ahead and finish up with our lymphoid structures, as we discuss the diversity and specificity of antibodies. So antibodies generate diversity through an antigen-independent system. So they have three different ways that they can diversify. The first one is going to be a random recombination of the VJ or the VDJ chains. So the VJ remember is our light chains and our VDJ are the heavy chains. So as you can see here on this particular segment, the L is going to be our light chain and the H in the middle is going to be our heavy chains. So those particular locations have genes that will undergo random recombination and that will help diversify our antibodies. Another way antibodies can diversify is by undergoing random addition of nucleotides in the DNA. All right, so we're going to be adding some nucleotides. And specifically this is done by using the terminal deoxy nucleotidal transferase or TDT. And finally, we can also just have random combination of the heavy chains and the light change. So we can have recombination where the light chain will cross over and become the heavy chain. And so the yellow will cross over, become the pink. The pink crosses back over, becomes the yellow. So there's just your random combination of heavy and light chains. And then antibody specificity, which is antigen-dependent, is going to undercure due to a somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation in the variable region. And remember that variable region of these two tip ends down here. So you have the variable light, variable heavy on both sides. Those are the areas where the somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation will occur. And then finally, we can also see isotype switching in the constant region. And the constant region is the ones that start with the C and that's down here in the base portion of the immunoglobulin. So let's talk about the different isotypes of immunoglobulins. Specifically, the isotypes can all exist as monomers. So a monomer example is over here on the right, the red color. This is mostly going to be seen as IgG, IgE, and IgD. However, all of these can exist as a monomer. So for immunoglobulin isotypes, they start as mature, naive B cells. Then they're activated to express the IgM and IgD on their surfaces. They can differentiate into germinal centers of the lymph nodes by isotype switching in the plasma cells, which will then secrete IgA, IgE, and IgG. And specifically here, the affinity will refer to individual antibody-antigen interaction. So the antibodies, which is the big portions, and then the antigens will come in and interact here, those are going to be the affinity, whereas avidity describes the cumulative binding strength of all antibody-antigen interactions in a multivalent molecule. So that's going to be how strongly these can interact together, not just their actual interactions. So let's talk about IgG. So from that previous picture, it's that red one that's a monomer. It is actually the main antibody in the secondary response to an antigen. It is also the most abundant isotype that we see in the blood serum, and it fixes complement. It opsonizes bacteria, neutralizes bacterial toxins, as well as viruses. This also is the only isotype that will cross the placenta, which gives the ability for it to provide infants with passive immunity that starts to wane after birth. So something to remember here, and this is going to be a little different. We'll talk about when we get to IgA. IgG is the only one that crosses the placenta. Now, you can get confused. IgA goes through breast milk into the babies. However, crossing the placenta is only going to be IgG. So we can remember that for IgG greets the growing fetus, because that's going to be crossing the placenta. So let's talk about IgA. Now, IgA is a dimer. So these are two monomers connected together to form a dimer. These will prevent the attachment of bacteria and viruses to the mucous membranes. So a lot of times you see these function on the mucous membrane areas. So in the lungs and the GI tract, that's where you're mostly going to see the IgA productions and they do not fix complement. So in circulation, like we said a minute ago, you're going to see these as monomers. But when they are secreted, that is where you see them as dimers that are fixed with that J-chain. These do cross through epithelial cells using transcytosis. They're produced in the GI tract. So the pyres patches specifically are producing them in the GI tract and they protect against infections like Giardia. They are the most produced antibody overall. However, their serum concentrations are going to be lower. They are released into secretions and breast milk. So this is where that, like we said earlier, the IgG goes across the placenta. The breast milk infants will get IgA throughout breastfeeding time as an additional immune support from the mother. IgA picks up secretory components from the epithelial cells, which will then protect the FC portion from luminal proteases. Let's continue on and discuss IgM. IgM is the large pentamer that we saw earlier, has five monomers attached. These are produced in the primary or the immediate response to an antigen. So anytime you are exposed to an antigen, the first thing that's going to be produced by the body in terms of immunoglobulins is IgM. IgM also fixes complement and it acts as an antigen receptor on the surface of B cells where that actually will be a monomer. So we said these can all exist as monomers. So you could see just one single one on the surface of a B cell. Or when it has a J chain with it, which we'll see here in the middle, they are secreted with a J chain as a pentamer. And the reason for that pentamer here is it actually enables binding to an antigen while the humoral response will evolve. Moving on to IgD. IgD actually has an unclear function. It only exists as a monomer and it's found on the surface of many B cells and in the serum. If you found this material helpful for your studying, please like and consider subscribing to the channel. Also, share this video so that more people can benefit from it like you have.


we're going to be talking about truth tables. Truth tables give us a way to show the results of an expression for all of the possible inputs it could have. There are lots of different ways of writing a truth table. We'll show one simple way is, have say, all of our propositions on the left hand side. And then we'll have some combinations on the right hand side here. So if I want to do p and q, well, I have two different options for p and for q. So I will write down all of those possible options. So those are all of the four possible combinations of p and q that I can have. For the AND operation, I know that the AND is only going to be true if both p and q are true. So this first case where p and q are true, I will write down true. The second case, p is true but q is false. So this is false. If p is false and q is true, well, that's still false. And if both p and q are false, then AND of both of those is false. I can do this as well for p or q. So p is q and q is true, so p or q is true. p is true but q is false, so p or q will still be true. When p is false and q is true, well, q is still true, so the or of both of those is true. But when both p and q are false, the or is false. So I can build these for any of the obvious expressions that I have. I can also use this when working with more complex expressions. So I can start combining expressions. So here I have p and q or p. So in this case, one of my inputs will be the p and q that I've got over here, and the other input to this or is p. So this expression will be true in any case where either p and q is true or p is true. I've got all the possible values for p as well as all the possible values for p and q. So p is true and p and q is true. Well, that will mean that the or of both of those is true. Here p is true but p and q is false. The or will still be true. For here I've got p is false and p and q is false. So that will be false. Or I've got false or false is false. So I can build these up and make lots of complex propositions and express what their actual outputs are just by finding some building blocks. It can also help me to show when two expressions are equivalent. So two expressions will be logically equivalent when for all of their possible inputs, the outputs match. So in this case, this TTFF turns out it matches our inputs for just p. So this expression is logically equivalent to just p.


Hi everybody, Joe for jaspyscasebreaks.com coming at you with a 2021 Topps Chrome Baseball Hanger Box. Random team break number four, and the final filler to knock out that Chrome Black break. It's a dual case break coming up in another video, the next video. First the break, big thanks to this group for buying into it. Thanks for taking the chance, and the teams right there. So the first dice roll, names and teams. Second dice roll will be for the giveaway, those are the cases right there. For the break, five out of four, nine times. For names and teams, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and ninth and final time. Five out of four, nine times, four of the teams, one, two, three, four. Five, six, seven, eight, and finally, ninth and final time. Do not do trades in these filler breaks, so let's just show you the list really quick. There's the first half of the list. There's the second half of the list right there, sort by team, and let's print and rip. Plastic, because it's a retail product. There's the final printout, hot off the presses. You got Jake Cronenworth and an autograph. Wow, the rare autograph out of the hanger box, that's Taylor Jones. Rookie order for Houston, that's Nick T. Not bad. For a filler break, gonna miss Corey Seeger, there you go. All right, not bad. But wait, there's more. We're gonna give away the final nine spots in that chrome black break, which is coming up in the next video. There's some new dice. There's everybody here in the list. And once again, it'll be the top nine after, after nine. Three and a six, nine times, one, two, three, four, five, six, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and good luck, ninth and final time. So once again, top nine. So from 10 on down, Matthew, very close, no cigar. But from 10 on down, thank you everyone for giving this a shot, appreciate it. Congrats to the top nine, you're in. Brian Peoples, you're in. So is Matthew, Matthew again, Patrick, Emery, Brandon, Jason, Matthew again. And Jaden, there you go, Matthew. I thought you were just gonna miss out, but no, you got a few spots in there. Congrats to the top nine. We'll see you in the next video for that, for that dual case break. Bye-bye.


What is social Wi-Fi marketing? Well when your customer comes into your restaurant they would want to come in and connect to their Wi-Fi either through their phone or their tablet and when they do that you would prompt them to a web page where you collect their email their number or social media in order for them to access your Wi-Fi. Now why do you want to collect these information? It is because now you can start marketing to them now you can share them deals now you can reach them and get connected with them. This is called social Wi-Fi marketing.


Dr. Sanjay Sanyal, Professor, Department Chair. Today, we are going to demonstrate the structures which are inside the heart. So, let's start off with the semilunar valves. So, here in front of us, we can see the semilunar valves of the aortic outflow, the posteriorly, and these are the semilunar valves of the pulmonary outflow. So, let's start with the semilunar valves of the aortic outflow. The aortic outflow of the semilunar valves, we have got two anterior and one posterior. And these are the cusps of the valves. Just above the cusps of the valves, there are small dilatations of the aortic valve, which are referred to as the aortic sinuses. The valve margins are called lunules, and the central portion of the valve is known as a nodule, which is a slightly thickened portion, and this allows a watertight junction. The aortic outflow has got, as I mentioned, an out-right anterior and a left anterior. And at this sinuses, we have the ostium for the right coronary artery and for the left coronary artery. The posterior aortic sinus does not have any coronary vessel, therefore it is referred to as the non-coronary sinus. The same principle applies to the pulmonary semilunar valves. The only thing is that the sinuses do not have any structures coming out of them, but otherwise the structure of the valves are the same, namely a margin called the lunule and the central portion called the nodule. The other difference on the pulmonary side is that there are two posterior, right and left, and one anterior, gusp. So these are the outflow. This is the outflow of the pulmonary, which is called the pulmonary infundibulum or the conus arteriosus, and this is the outflow of the aorta, which is referred to as the aortic vestibule. Having mentioned that, now let's come to the interior of each of the chambers of the heart. So this is the external view of the right atrium. And how do we know this is the right atrium? We can see the opening of the supirevena caver here, and we can see the opening of the infirevena caver here. And there's a shallow sulcus on the outside, which is referred to as the sulcus terminalis. We will reflect the walls of the atrium. These are the structures that we can see inside. First of all, we can see the smooth portion, posteriorly. This is the inflow portion of the right atrium, and this is referred to as the sinus venerian. This is the portion which has been denied from the sinus venousis. And the rough anterior portion, which is being held here by my assistants, this portion and this portion, this is called the pectinate part. And these ridges are referred to as the muscular pectinatei or the pectinate muscles. What separates the smooth portion from the pectinate portion? We can see a ridge here. This is called the crista terminalis. Crista terminalis is the counterpart of the sulcus, which is on the outside, the crista is on the inside. This is one part of the crista terminalis, and if we were to turn this, we will see the other part of the crista terminalis here. The portion anterior to that is the pectinate part, the posterior to that is the sinus venerian. From here, we can see the opening of the supirevina keva and we can see the opening of the inferior vina keva. We can see the opening of the coronary sinus here. This is the opening of the coronary sinus. My probe has gone into the opening of the coronary sinus. Now if you were to look at it from inside, we will see that there is an indistinct valve at the opening of the inferior vina keva and there is a valve at the opening of the coronary sinus. The one at the opening of the coronary sinus is referred to as the Thebesian valve. We can see a depression here in the interatrial septum. This depression is the remnant of the foramanoval and that is referred to as the fossa ovalis. An vitriol node is located at the upper end of the crista terminalis near the opening of the supirevina keva. So it is in this region. The atrioventricular node is located near the opening of the coronary sinus. It is in this region. Finally, if you were to look deep inside, we can see the right atrioventricular valve or the tricuspid valve. Now let me turn the specimen and show the left atrium. These are the pulmonary veins. The two right pulmonary veins and the two left pulmonary veins. So we have split it open here and we can see the interior. The interior of the left atrium is completely smooth. This is the region of the interatrial septum. Here there is no fossa ovalis. Instead, this is the remnant of the septum primum and that is referred to as the valve of the fossa ovalis. And finally, on the left atrium, if you were to look deep inside, we will see the leaflets of the mitral valve and my finger has gone into it. So we have seen the right atrium and we see the left atrium. Now I am going to turn the model. I have made an incision on the anterior surface of the right ventricle. And for that, now we will lift it up here. Straight away we can see the structures related to the right atrioventricular valve. That is the tricuspid valve. Tricuspid valve has got three cusps. This is the anterior cusp. This is the posterior cusp behind and this is the septal cusp which is arising from the septum. The anterior cusp, these fibres that we see, these are the caudate intinane and they are all getting inserted onto the anterior papillary muscle. This is the posterior papillary muscle which also is attached to the caudate intinane of the posterior cusp of the valve. And this is the septal cusp which also is attached to the caudate intinane of the septal cusp of the valve. And I will show you the entry of the valve from the atrial side by putting my finger in. And once I put my finger in, you can see it is coming into the right ventricle. So therefore, the one this is anterior, the one which is towards the septal side is the septum and the one behind my finger is the posterior. We can see one ridge of muscle coming from the septum to the base of the anterior papillary muscle. This is referred to as the moderator band or the septomarginal trapeculae. A special set of conduction fibers travel through the septomarginal trapeculae or the moderator band and they initiate impulses in the anterior papillary muscle. And it is postulated that the function of the septomarginal trapeculae is to modulate and synchronize the contraction of the papillary muscles during contraction of the ventricle. And the function of the papillary muscles is that when the ventricle contracts the papillary muscles also contract so as to prevent prolapse of the leaflets of the valve back into the atrium. This ridge portion of the ventricular wall that we see here, this is referred to as the trapeculae carnea. These are thick muscular portions and which gives the ridge appearance. This is the outflow of the right ventricle which is referred to as the pulmonary infundabilum or the conus artigiasis. And we can see when I put my finger inside it is coming out through the pulmonary outflow. And these are the three cusps of the pulmonary valve, semilunar valves which I had mentioned earlier. We can see that the outflow portion is smooth while the trapeculae carnea is the ridge portion and there is a ridge. And that ridge is referred to as the supraventricular crest which separates the trapeculae carnea from the smooth outflow portion. And finally, where my finger is touching this is the muscular part of the intraventricular septum. So these are the structures that we can see in the right ventricle. Now let me turn the heart a little bit and show you the structures inside the left ventricle. And for that, again, we have made a special incision and this is the interior of it. The left ventricle is approximately three times as thick as the right ventricle because the left ventricle has to supply blood to the entire systemic circulation. It has to supply blood at a pressure of 120 mmHg. What are the structures do we see? We can see again, see the trapeculae carnea which is the thick ridge muscular part of the ventricle. Let's take a look at the valves. For that, I'll put my finger in the left atrium. Again, I put my finger in the left atrium it comes into the left ventricle.  And again, we can see that the tips of the anterior papillary muscles are attached to the corded tendinate which in turn are attached to the cusps of the mitral valve. And behind my finger we can see the posterior papillary muscle. This posterior papillary muscle is very clearly visible but we can see that these are the corded tendinate which are attached to the apex of the papillary muscles which in turn will be attached to the posterior cusp of the mitral valve. So this is the mitral atrium ventricular orifice. I'm going to put my finger in the aortic outflow and my finger is coming out through the aortic outflow. And we can see that when I put my finger in this portion is referred to as the aortic outflow, the aortic vestibule. And it is coming out and these are the three cusps of the semilunar valves of the aorta. Before I conclude, I need to show something significant. The blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle and my finger is pointing in that direction. After it comes then the blood has to flow out through the pulmonary trunk like this. So if you were to look at the direction of my both fingers you see that it makes a 90 degrees bend. The blood enters the ventricle and then it flows out of the ventricle and there's a 90 degree angle between my two fingers. In contrast, when I do the same exercise on the left side I put my finger in the left atrium and then I put my other finger in the aortic vestibule we can see that my finger is making a 180 degrees bend. So in a nutshell, in the left ventricle the blood makes a 180 degrees bend when it comes out of the ventricle. In the right ventricle the blood makes a 90 degrees bend when it comes out of the ventricle. So these are the structures which I wanted to show you inside the chambers of the heart. Thank you very much for watching. If you have any questions or comments, please put them in the comment section below. Dr. Sanjay Sanyal signing out. Have a nice day.


A very good evening aspirants. I would like to begin with a cheerful announcement regarding UPSC civil services preliminary examination. Results for problems 2022 was released and we are proud to let you know that more than 927 candidates of Shankaray's academy have cleared 2022 problems. More than 70 of them have cleared their problems in the first attempt. My hearty congratulations to all these candidates. Put your best efforts in mains preparation and on behalf of Shankaray's academy I wish all of you success in mains 2022 also. With this joyful mood let us get to the Hindi news analysis for the date 2nd of July 2022. These are the news articles that I have taken for discussion today and at the end I also have a quiz question for you. Let us get to the first discussion. Today we are going to start our news article discussion with this news article which talks about the test flight of a new combat technology. This technology is called as the autonomous flying wing technology demonstrator and the DRDO has successfully carried out the maiden test flight of this technology now. So what is this autonomous flying wing technology demonstrator? So it is actually nothing but a new unmanned aerial vehicle in short UAV and it is also officially called as the Swift UAV. Swift stands for stealth wing flying test bed. So this Swift is being developed under India's secretive unmanned combat aerial vehicle program. See this secretive UCAV program is linked to the development of India's fifth generation stealth fighter advanced medium combat aircraft. And now this program has reached a new milestone with the test flight or the maiden flight of this Swift UAV. Actually this Swift is a scaled down version of Ghatak UCAV. What is a UCAV? It stands for unmanned combat air vehicle. It is also known as combat drone which is again an unmanned aerial vehicle only. Now this UCAV is mainly used for intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition and even it is used for reconnaissance and it carries aircrafts ordnance such as missiles and bombs for drone strikes. And note that such UCAVs are generally under real time human control and it provides varying levels of autonomy also. But you should understand the difference between a normal unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle and this UCAV. The difference is that UCAVs are used for both drone strikes as well as for battlefield intelligence. Now since it is a UAV that is unmanned aerial vehicle from that itself we can know that this type of aircraft have no human pilot onboard. Then how it is controlled? It is controlled through an operator who is situated in a vehicle from a remote terminal. Now this also means that the equipment that is necessary for a human pilot is not needed in this type of aircraft. And this helps in aiding the low weight and small size of these aircrafts. And that is why drone strikes and gathering battlefield intelligence is much easier in UCAVs. But I said that Swift UAV is a scaled down version of Guttuk UCAV. So what is this Guttuk? See Guttuk is an autonomous UCAV. It is being developed by Aeronautical Development establishment of the RDO and it is being developed for Indian Air Force. So like the UCAVs this Guttuk will be capable of releasing missiles, bombs and precision guided munitions. In addition to this Guttuk also has stealth features to avoid detection by enemy sensors in contested airspace. And since Swift UAV is a scaled down version of this Guttuk that means Swift will also demonstrate and prove these stealth technology. Along with that it also has high speed landing technology in autonomous mode. But what does this stealth technology mean? Which I am saying again and again. Stealth technology is also known as low observable technology. It is actually a subdiscipline of military tactics. The goal of this stealth technology is to make an airplane invisible to radar. Stealth means being invisible, right? Now there are two different ways to create this invisibility. One way is that the airplane can be shaped in such a way so that any radar signals which is reflected by that airplane are reflected away from the radar equipment. And another way is the airplane can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals. So in both these ways the airplane is made invisible to the radar and thereby it becomes stealth. So this is one of the important features of Swift UAV. Other than that you should also know that Swift is powered by a small turbofan engine. This engine is a Russian TRDD-50 MT and this engine was originally designed for cruise missiles. But here note that the smaller turbofan version of this engine is being developed indigenously for the purpose of Swift UAV. So who is developing this Swift UAV? It is designed and developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment which is situated in Bengaluru. Actually it is a premier research laboratory of DRDO. So from these observations itself you would have known that the maiden flight of Swift UAV marks a major milestone in terms of proving critical technologies towards the development of future unmanned aircraft of India. This also shows a significant step towards self-reliance in strategic defence technologies. So these are few facts that you have to know about the Swift UAV which is also called as autonomous flying wing technology demonstrator. Now let us move on to the next discussion. Now this discussion is going to be based on this news article and this text and context article. This text and context article actually appeared in yesterday's newspaper. See both these articles talk about the depreciation of Indian rupee. Recently Indian rupee hit an all-time low against the US dollar. It is now selling as low as 79.05 rupees against the dollar. And now in the scenario there is an increase in gold imports. So now the news is that Indian government has decided to hike the duty to spare rupee from getting affected from it. So this is what is mentioned in both these news articles. So in this context let us understand about rupee depreciation and the factors that cause rupee depreciation and we will also understand why government has decided to hike the duty for gold imports etc. But before that this is the syllabus that is relevant to the discussion. Now let us begin by seeing what rupee depreciation is. See generally when we say depreciation of currency it refers to a fall in the currency's value in the floating exchange rate system. See this floating exchange rate system works in such a way that the demand and supply determine the value of a currency. And in case of rupee, the rupee depreciation refers to the fall in the value of rupee against dollar. It implies that the rupee has become less valuable and weaker against the dollar. Let us take an example. Assume that the value of one dollar increases from rupee 75 to 80. Then this change will be termed as depreciation of rupee. See here we are talking about the face value of the rupee and not its actual value. And when rupee depreciates it loses its actual value but the face value increases. Here we are calling this change as depreciation because now if a product is mentioned as one dollar that means you will be paying 80 rupees instead of 75 rupees. You are paying more rupees for that same product and that is why we are saying rupee has depreciated. Now on the other hand, appreciation of rupee is opposite of this. For example, if the value of one dollar decreases from rupee 75 to 70 then this is appreciation of rupee. Here the actual value has increased but the face value has decreased. Now this is appreciation because previously you were paying 75 rupees for a one dollar product but now you will be paying only 70 rupees. So this is the basics of rupee depreciation. Now we saw that the demand and supply determines the value of a currency. So now let us understand how this is happening. See the general relationship is in such a way that when the supply of a currency increases its actual value drops. On the other hand, when the demand for a currency increases its actual value rises. This is the general relationship between supply and demand towards a currency. Now note that in a wider economy, central banks determine the supply of currencies. In our case, RBI is responsible for printing money, right? But on the other hand, the demand for currencies depend on the amount of goods and services that is produced in the economy. Now if you take the forex market, this supply of rupee is determined by the demand for imports and various foreign assets in India. See if we want to buy something, then we should have money to pay for it, right? For example, if you take oil, if there is high demand by India to import oil, then it can lead to an increase in the supply of rupee in the forex market. Because you will be paying to import and this causes the rupee's value to drop. This is what happens in the supply side. Now on the demand side, the demand for rupee in the forex market depends on the foreign demand for Indian exports and other domestic assets. For example, when there is a great enthusiasm among foreign investors to invest in India, then it can lead to an increase in the supply of dollars in the forex market. So this in turn causes the rupee's value to rise against the dollar. See this is the same concept that we saw before. If there is more supply of currency, then the actual value decreases. And if there is more demand for a currency, then its value will increase. That means if India is importing more, then it will be giving more money to exchange it for dollars. This is required to pay for the imports. So what is happening here is, the supply of rupee is more and the demand for dollar is more. And as I said in the beginning, the currency whose supply is more, it will lose its value, right? On the other hand, the currency whose demand is more, it will gain value. So by this logic, when India imports more, then the rupee will depreciate. And at the same time, the dollar's value will appreciate. See this might seem like a confusing concept, but it is actually very easy if you revise it again and again. Now similarly, if you take a scenario when India is exporting more, then other countries will exchange their dollars for Indian rupee. Now here what is happening? This supply of dollars is increasing. And at the same time, the demand for rupee is also increasing. So here, rupee's demand is increasing. That means rupee's value will appreciate, but dollar's value will depreciate. So this is the concept based on which the rupee value is determined. Now in today's article, they are talking about gold imports. See the issue was, gold imports have been increasing tremendously. Now the government has decided to curb the gold imports by increasing the import duty. The import duty for gold has been increased from 10.75% to 15%. See when duty for a product increases, its import will automatically decrease. And when import decreases, that means the rupee supply will decrease. And this will lead to rupee appreciation. Or we can say that lower imports will have less effect on the rupee dollar exchange rate. That is why this move has been taken by the government. So with this information, let us move on to see what is causing the rupee to lose its value. Since March of this year, the US Federal Reserve has been raising its benchmark interest rate. See what happens when interest rate is increased is, it will give high returns for the investors. So that means those who are investing in USA, they will be getting higher returns. So automatically the investors will be attracted to the US market. This is what actually happened. Investors who wanted high returns, they pulled the capital away from emerging markets such as India and they invested back into USA. And this has put pressure on the emerging market currencies which have depreciated significantly against the US dollar. Actually, even the developed market currency such as Euro and the N have depreciated against the dollar because of this reason. In fact, some analysts believe that RBI's surprise decision to raise interest rates in the month of May might have been to defend Indian rupee by preventing any rapid outflow of capital from India. In addition to this, India's current account deficit is also a matter of concern here. See, current account deficit measures the gap between the value of imports and exports of goods and services. Now the problem is, India's current account deficit is expected to hit a 10-year high which will be of 3.3% of GDP in the current financial year. This means that India's import demand is going to increase amidst the rising global oil prices. When import demand increases, it will lead to more imports and definitely it will have negative effect on rupee. Now such a kind of situation is generally overcome when foreign investors pour sufficient capital into our country to fund this current account deficit. But as we saw just now, the foreign investors are unlikely to put capital into India because they are going to USA where their investment is getting more yields. So in this way the capital and trade factor affects the rupee value. Other than this, when it comes to rupee, it should also be noted that it has consistently lost value against the US dollar for several decades now. And the major reason for this is the consistently higher domestic price inflation in India. Higher inflation in India suggests that RBI has been creating rupee at a faster rate than the US Federal Reserve has been creating dollars. So while the capital and trade flows gain a lot of attention in discussions on the rupee's value, the another factor which is the difference in the rates at which US Federal Reserve and RBI regulates the supply of their currencies is often left out of discussions. But it should be kept in mind that this difference is important as it plays a much larger role in determining the value of rupee in the longer run. So to sum it up, what are the factors that are responsible for rupee depreciation? First is lower export revenues. Second, a surge in imports. Third, reduced monetary policy interest rates. Fourth, central bank intervention. Fifth, traders and speculators selling currencies on the market. So in this scenario, several steps are taken by the central banks of the country to handle the depreciation of a currency. Let us see these steps briefly. The first one is improving the climate for foreign investors. See when there are more foreign investors investing in India, that means it will not only increase growth of our country, but it will also bring more dollars into the system. So this will be reducing the current account deficit. So how can we improve the climate for foreign investors? It can be done by relaxing norms for foreign institutional investments. Now the next one is making external commercial borrowings easier. See with this move, manufacturing companies who want to borrow up to 50 million dollars can do it with the maturity period of one year. So this will help in bringing dollars quickly into the economy. And the next measure is increasing masala bonds. It helps to reduce the risk from the fluctuations in the exchange rate. And the final and the obvious measure that is taken as increasing exports and decreasing non-essential imports. Now apart from this, the central bank of India, which is RBI, also uses certain instruments to arrest the depreciation. And such measures include curbing the speculative trading and sale of dollars in the forex market. As a measure, it also limits the borrowing. Here RBI makes borrowing by banks costly by capping the borrowing of funds by banks as a part of repurchase agreement. This is what we call as liquidity adjustment facility. Now this attracts more buyers, including the foreign institutions. That means it will be increasing dollar supply. And as you already saw, when there is more supply, it means the value of that currency will decrease. And when dollars value decreases, the depreciation of rupee will either reduce or it will stop. So in this discussion, we saw the common factors that lead to the depreciation of rupee. Then finally we saw what are the measures taken to handle the situation of depreciation of rupee. Now let's get to the next discussion. So our next discussion is going to be based on this news article. It talks about India Pakistan fisherman issue. See according to the news article, India has called Pakistan to release and repatriate 536 Indian fishermen and 3 civilian prisoners who have completed their jail term and whose nationality has been confirmed. In addition to this, Pakistan has also been asked to provide immediate consular access to 105 fishermen and 20 civilian prisoners who have been in Pakistan's custody. This is what is mentioned in the news article. See generally when we talk about fisherman issue, we talk about the India Sri Lanka fisherman issue, right? But today we will see what is this India Pakistan fisherman issue. For this, first we need to know about the maritime boundary of India and Pakistan. See this maritime boundary is an issue. Why? Because it is not properly defined or it is not properly fixed. The main issue arises with respect to the Sir Creek. See the Sir Creek is a small strip of water. But the problem is where this Sir Creek ends is the issue between India and Pakistan. Green line is the boundary claimed by Pakistan and red line is the boundary claimed by India. Now the Sir Creek is important because as you can see in this image itself, it is mentioned that location of the last point on the Sir Creek boundary will be the first point of maritime boundary between India and Pakistan. So this is where the maritime boundary begins. But when the Sir Creek boundary itself is contested, how can you say where is this maritime boundary? So because of that, this line is the one that is claimed by Pakistan as the maritime boundary and this line is claimed by India. So you can see the difference in these areas. So this leads to the possibility of conflicts between India and Pakistan. This is because the Indian fishermen by mistake step over the territorial waters of Pakistan and then they are arrested by the Pakistani officials. The same also happens in the case of India, Sri Lanka fishermen also. Now why normally Indian fishermen are getting into Pakistan territorial waters? See they, you know, while searching for fish, they go deep into the sea. Now in the sea, there is no physical boundary for fishermen. So they do not know when they are stepping over to Pakistan's territory. So this leads to arrest by Pakistani officials. Another reason is that, as you already said, what is the boundary itself is a problem here. So this leads to arrest of innocent fishermen by Pakistani authorities. Now according to the news article, India has asked the Pakistan government to release the 536 Indian fishermen and to provide consular access to 105 fishermen and 20 civilian prisoners. But how did India know how many fishermen were actually captured? See this is known because of the India-Pakistan Agreement on consular access. This was signed in the year 2008. What is the term consular access means? It means the ability of foreign nationals to have access to embassies of their own nation, in the nation which is hosting them. So that means consular access if the foreign nationals, for example, if the Indian nationals are in Pakistan, then in Pakistan they will have the access to Indian embassy. Now according to this agreement, the list of civilian prisoners and fishermen of each country who are lodged in jails of the other country will be exchanged. And this exchange happens two times. One is on 1st January and the other is on 1st July of every year. So this is the first step taken by the Indian government to safeguard Indian fishermen. So this shows the priority of Indian government towards the welfare, safety and security of Indian fishermen. And as a result of these sustained efforts, so far more than 2000 Indian fishermen and 57 fishing boats have been repatriated from Pakistan since the year 2014. So as a part of this agreement of 2018 only, Pakistan has shared with the Indian High Commission a list of 682 Indian prisoners who were detained in Pakistan. And this included some civilians also. The same was done by Indian side also. Now apart from this agreement, there are also several other measures taken by the Indian government. For example, the India Pakistan Judicial Committee on Prisoners was set up in the same year 2008. Now this committee comprises of the retired high court judges from both sides. That is from both India and Pakistan. And the purpose of this committee is to recommend steps for human treatment of prisoners and fishermen and even steps to expedite their release. Then in addition to this, Indian Coast Guard also plays a role because Indian Coast Guard has taken several steps to guide the Indian fishermen so that they do not cross over the perceived international maritime boundary line between India and Pakistan. And they do this through various community interaction programs for the fishing community. This helps the Indian fishing boats to stay clear from the perceived international maritime boundary line. This helps in preventing the arrest by maritime security agencies of neighboring countries. In addition to this, the government of Gujarat also has specified a no fishing zone near the coastline. Along the perceived IMBN, around 5 nautical miles there is a no fishing zone. So these many measures have been taken by the Indian government and the State Government of Gujarat to safeguard the Indian fishermen. I hope you had a wholesome idea about what is the issue. Now let us get to the next discussion. Now let us take up this news article for discussion. It talks about the delisting of tribals in northern Chattisgarh. See the tribals who have converted to other tribes have been delisted. Primarily they convert to Christianity. Now this delisting is done in order to deny the reservation benefits to those converted tribals. And this move has gained momentum nationally. Particularly in the northern Chattisgarh this is creating an issue because in the Jashpur district, 67% of tribal population is from the Uraun tribe. Now the issue here is majority of them have converted to Christianity several generations ago. So it is worried that they will not be getting reservation benefits from now on. This is what is mentioned in the news article. So in this scenario let us know about this Uraun tribe. See it is one of the most culturally vibrant tribe. They constitute a major tribal community of Odisha. They call themselves as Khuruk or Khurung. This Khuruk is actually the name of their mother tongue. The original dialect of this Khuruk is classified as an offshoot of Dravidian language. See even though this is their mother tongue, at present they are also conversant with other languages like Laria, Hindi, Ho, Odia and Sonti. Also it is said that in certain areas Uraun people are called as Dhangar. Dhangar means unmarried young man who works for wage. Another important fact to know is history reveals this tribal community as a daring community who fought against the British. See they fought against the historical injustices done to them through curtailing their rights over natural resources. So where can we find this tribe in India? Their origin is traced back to southern India and it is said that from there they migrated to Chotarnakpur plateau. So they are found in the border districts of Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, Chathisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. Particularly in Odisha they are mostly settled in Sambalpur and Sundargarh district. These are the ornaments and traditional dresses that these tribal people just take note of it. Also know that the Urauns wear once upon a time more conservative. But now due to the impact of modernization they are in a transitional stage. Also they are traditionally animus that is they believe in supernatural beings. But now because of planned change in development, their perception is changing which is resulting in their lifestyle change. Similarly two things have affected their traditional way of life to greater extent. One is the impact of mining and industrialization in their habitat and second is the impact of Christianity which many of them have embraced. Both of these have affected their traditional way of life. Now when we talk about their occupation, primarily they practice settled agriculture. Paddy is their principal crop and these agricultural activities are supplemented by secondary occupation such as wage earning, hunting, fishing, collection of miner for produce etc. Also know that Uraun people are experts in rural arts and crafts like carpentry, tile and brick making and rope making. Even the women in this community weave mats from date palm leaves and prepare broomsticks from the wild grass. And when it comes to the dance and music, the most colorful and popular dance of Urauns is the Karma Dance. This is usually performed in Karma festival that is observed in the month of September to October. In this festival they worship the branches of Karma tree. So these are few facts that you have to know about this Uraun tribe. Now let us move on to the next discussion. So now let us take up this news article for discussion. It talks about a new body called as the Financial Services Institutions Bureau in short FSIB. What is this new body? Actually it is not a new one rather the center has transformed the already existing Banks Board Bureau into this FSIB and for this certain amendments have been introduced by the central government. But why this sudden move? It is based on one of the observations made by Delhi High Court last year. In that observation, Delhi High Court noted that the Banks Board Bureau is not a competent body to select the general managers and directors of state owned general insurers. Therefore to solve this problem, the central government has introduced amendments to transform the Banks Board Bureau into Financial Services Institutions Bureau. That means now the guidelines for selection of general managers and directors of public sector general insurance companies are made part of this FSIB. This is what is mentioned in the news article. In this context you should know about BBB that is Banks Board Bureau. See its constitution was approved by Prime Minister in the year 2016. It was to function as a body of eminent professionals and officials. Its work was to search and select appropriate officials for the Board of Public Sector Banks Public Sector Financial Institutions and Public Sector Insurance Companies also. That is, this Banks Board's Bureau will make recommendations for the appointment of whole time directors as well as non-executive chairpersons to these Public Sector Banks and state owned financial institutions. Along with this it also recommends measures to improve corporate governance in these institutions. This is done by engaging with the Board of Directors of all the Public Sector Banks and this engagement is for the purpose of formulating appropriate strategies for the growth and development of those institutions. But as the name itself suggests it is a Banks Board Bureau. So a case was filed in the Delhi High Court stating that this Bureau was not a competent body to select the general managers and directors of state run general insurance companies. That is they told that this Bureau should only focus on Banks and it should not be focusing on other financial institutions. And in this particular case law there was a complaint that in two occasions people junior to the general manager were selected by the Banks Board's Bureau for the position of directors in Public Sector General Insurance Companies. So taking cognizance of these facts the Delhi High Court set aside relevant circulars that enabled to make such selections and it also noted that this Bureau is not competent enough to make such appointments. And that is why the central government has now made this decision to transform the Banks Board's Bureau into a new entity called as the FSIB. So in this way you should remember that FSIB will be doing the same job as Banks Board's Bureau but it will have a wider mandate. So overall Financial Services Institution Bureau is established as a single entity for making recommendations for the appointments of whole-time directors and non-executive chairman of Banks and financial institutions. This is the point that you have to remember. So the discussion of these news articles now let us get to the next discussion which is based on practice questions. This is the first question. It is a two statement question. First statement is stealth wing flying test bed that is Swift is being developed under India's secretive unmanned combat aerial vehicle program. This is correct and note that Swift is the scaled down version of Guttuck. Second statement, Swift has features to avoid detection by enemy sensors in contested airspace. See if the first statement is right then the second statement is also correct because in the name itself it is stated as stealth. Stealth means being invisible. Now in a combat technology how do you remain invisible? It is by avoiding the detection by sensors. So this statement is also correct. Here the question asked you to choose the correct statements. The correct answer is option C both 1 and 2. Let us take up this question. This was asked in the year 2019. Which one of the following is not the most likely measure the government or RBA takes to stop the slide of Indian rupee? Slide of Indian rupee means rupee depreciation. So which is the unlikely measure? You have to choose the unlikely measure. Option A curbing imports of non-essential goods and promoting exports. This is actually done curbing imports helps you to increase the value of Indian rupee. So one should not be in the answer. Second, encouraging Indian borrowers to issue rupee denominated masala bonds. This is also a measure taken by the Indian government. Third one, easing conditions relating to external commercial borrowings. This is also a measure taken by the government to stop rupee depreciation. Option D following an expansionary monetary policy. This is incorrect because expansionary monetary policy is taken when RBA would use its tools to stimulate the economy. So such kinds of monetary policy increases money supply and in that you know there is lower interest rates and it also increases the aggregate demand. Now when there are lower interest rates it will tend to reduce the value of the currency. We saw this during discussion itself because if the domestic interest rates fall then it becomes less attractive to save money in banks and even the investors will not be interested in investing because they will not be getting profitable returns. Therefore this leads to outflow of foreign currency and therefore it leads to slide of Indian rupee. That is why this is not the measure taken by the Indian government. The correct answer is option D. Now this next question is based on our own tribe. First statement, they are declared as a particularly vulnerable tribal group. This statement is incorrect. They are not considered as a PVTG in any of these states in which we can find this tribal community. Statement 2 they are known for the worship of Banin tree branches. This statement is incorrect because we saw that Karma festival right or Karma dance in that they worship the Karma tree not the Banin tree. So this statement is also incorrect and here the question asks you to choose the correct statements and since both the statements are incorrect the correct answer is option D neither 1 nor 2. So with this practice question let me give you the quiz today. Read both the statements carefully we have discussed these statements during discussions itself. You can write the answer in the comment section and I will tell you whether your answer is right or not and try to give reasons as to why your answer is right. Along with this take this main's question also since main's is approaching those aspirants have cleared problems keep practicing by writing many answers you can write answer to this question posted in the comment section also. So with these loads of information today if you like this video don't forget to like comment and share and also subscribe to Shankar Isaac Academy YouTube channel for receiving more updates regarding civil services preparation. Thank you.