Γεια χ lot my crafty friends and welcome back to another mixed media Tuesday! This is the second our general project that I'm posting today so if you haven't checked the first one make sure to do so on my YouTube channel or on my blog! That's the page that I created using products that I found on the first 14 doors of the advent calendar by Art by Marlene, make sure to check that out! Οπότε για αυτό το προσπέροχο, είμαι σημαντικός στιγμός, είμαι σημαντικός να δημιουργήσω ένα προσπέροχο χρήμα, αλλά είμαι χρησιμοποιώντας προσπέροχες από την Πύγκη Χρήμα-Κολλεκσία από Σταμπερία, ένα καλύτερο χρήμα αυτή. Και θα βρεις 6 x 6 πατρικές, 12 x 12, θα μπορείς να βρεις σχέδια, χρήμα, πολλές και πολλές προσπέροχες στην χρήμα κάθε φορά από Σταμπερία. Όλες τις χρήμα-κολλεκσίες, παρακολουθώ, είναι σε 45% σχέδια σχέδια, οπότε αυτό είναι your chance, αν θέλεις να σημανήσεις κάποιες χρήμα-κολλεκσίες. Λοιπόν, είμαι σημαντικός να δημιουργήσω ένας πατρικός και αυτό είναι ένας πατρικός, όπου έκλειψα ένας από τα σχέδια μου από ένα προσπέροχο χρήμα που είχα κάνει. Δεν υπάρχει προσπέροχο. Είναι σημαντικό να βρεις ένας άλλο λευκό στον προσπέροχο μου. Είμαι σημαντικός να παρακολουθώ με ένας προσπέροχο. Αυτό είναι ένας προσπέροχο από ένας προσπέροχο από Σταμπερία. Είμαι πιστεύω ότι αυτό είναι ένας προσπέροχο στον προσπέροχο Βαγαπών, αλλά όχι άλλο λευκό, για παράδειγμα ή ένας προσπέροχο που δουλειάζει καλύτερα. Θα ήθελα να έχω μία τέξη στο σπίροχο μου. Λοιπόν, είμαι σημαντικός να δημιουργήσω everything down με my matmeduum. Εσύ, my other matmeduum that I usually work with by ranger, είναι έλεγα. Οπότε, τώρα εγώ δημιουργώ με το liquid x1, ο οποίος είναι πολύ χάνοι, επειδή είναι πίσω και είναι πολύ λευκό και πολύ εύκολο να την προσπέροχω. Θα χρησιμοποιώ το matmeduum για να έξυψω το κομμάτι μου, τότε θα έχω αφήσει ότι είναι πολύ σκέψα και θα χρησιμοποιώ με το σπίροχο μου για να παίξω το επίξε. Τώρα, επειδή εγγραφίσαμε να δούμε την πόλη του Σταμπερία, θέλω να έχω ένα πιο σάμπισικο έργο για το σχέδιο μου, αυτό είναι γιατί θα κοβερήσω κάποια από τις περιοχές με αγκρήλικα πλήματα. Αυτό είναι η αγκρήλικα αγκρήλικα πλήματα, γιατί δεν είναι πραγματικά δύσκολα. Και θα κάνω σωστά ότι δεν κοβερήσω τίποτα το σχέδιο μου. Θα χρησιμοποιήσω ένα σχέδιο πλήμα, γιατί μπορώ να still see what's underneath and I didn't apply any water that was dry brushing. Then I'm going to put that inside my spray box and I'm going to mist it with a pink oxide spray. I'm trying to be very soft and lightly here. I don't want to add too much and overwhelm my page. And I think that it matches nicely with the rest of the colors from the collection.  This is acrylic paint and use it with my brayer. I'm going to add a few white areas just randomly there. And of course you can do that step with your gesso, your white gesso as well. I don't know if that shows on camera but all these layers are quite thin. So although I add layers of paint upon layers, I can still see through to the rice paper with all that text. From one of the 12x12 pattern papers I'm going to use this frame. This is going to work as a layer so that I can add even more elements on top of it. And you can add even more interest on this frame if you cut out the inside circle, so that it works as a frame completely. You can change the background, you can even add things inside, tuck inside little elements. I am just going to use my scissors to go around that. I ink up the edges and I'm just using what's left on the blending brush that I use for my browns. And then I need a background for that window so I decided to go with that blueish one. I'm just going to cut out a piece so that I can stick it at the back. If you want you can stick that frame on top of this background by using foam tape to add dimension. However I decided to go completely flat since after all I will have more dimension with the other elements that I'm going to stick on top. Now let's do some stenciling. I have this stencil with the snowflake border. I'm going to use a couple of those snowflakes with a very thick white modeling paste. And I'm going to go all around completely randomly. At this stage I don't know where I'm going to stick my elements. One thing to keep in mind at this stage is that I do have pink oxide spray at the background which isn't permanent and it is going to react to that modeling paste. That means that it's not going to stay completely white in some areas where it touches that ink. But it's not a problem, I like to have that quite muted. If you want to keep those snowflakes bright white then what you could do was to white emboss them. And in the beginning when I used the rice paper I wasn't planning to do any stamping on my background. However I just couldn't stay away from it and since it makes me happy I just had to do it. I grabbed one text stamp that I keep on using again and again. I just like this part of the stamp because it has a very fine, a very small text font. And I'm going to stamp both the frame as well as the background. I'm using black archival ink for that. And for me it's all about the little details that bring all the different elements to life and they kind of bring everything together. So here I'm using the same distress oxide spray and add a little bit of pink on the frame as well. And I'm going to glue that frame on top of my background for this layout I tend to feel the need to darken up the edges of the background which is a step that I usually do. After all I do have a frame on top of my page so I was really happy with how that looked. For my focal point I'm going with this cheaper sticker. This is self adhesive from the same romantic pink Christmas collection by Stamperia. And although it is self adhesive I decided to add extra glue on top just to make sure that it's not going to fall. From the same paper pad I did fuzzy guard, a few flower compositions as well as that ribbon that says Christmas and I'm going to put everything together with my glue. At these dates I need to remind you that if you want to support my channel and help me share even more please hit the like button as well as leave me a comment down below. Interaction is always helpful for us content creators. And of course at these dates you can call the layout done. I was just having fun and I can keep on adding little details here and there.  I'm just going to do that by watercoloring around my elements. Here I'm using a brass with vintage photo. And since these are generally quite small it's just 5 by 7 you can easily recreate these into a card. Now since I have that stamping at the background and at the frame I'm going to do a little bit of that stamping on my elements that I cut out and stuck on top. So just a few touches on the flowers, a few touches on the deer brings everything together. And if you follow my videos you probably know what's coming next.  And I always like to protect the face of my characters from white splashes. I don't want to have any random white splashes on top of their eyes etc. It's going to look kind of funny. And I'm going to cover my layout done. Remember this is the second layout that I made for today in a completely different style. Make sure to check out the other videos that I have posted earlier. Thank you all so much for joining me today. Don't forget to like and comment down below in the description area just like always you will find links to everything I used and keep in mind that everything Christmas by Stamperia is at 45% off at Jogles. Thank you all for watching.


From VOA Learning English, this is the health report. You wake up early one morning to prepare a meal to take to work and then you forget it. Has this ever happened to you? Researchers say they now have proof that self-reported minor memory loss sometimes led to greater mental decline six years later. They reported the findings at a recent conference organized by the Alzheimer's Association. Rebecca Amarilio is a neuropsychologist at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. She found that individuals who worried about their memory were more likely to suffer a loss of mental ability. Her research showed such persons were likely to have a protein called beta amyloid in the brain. Beta amyloid is suspected of being at least partly involved in Alzheimer's disease. Evidence that the disease develops for an unknown period of time before doctors recognize it is leading to a new area of study. It is called subjective cognitive decline. It involves people who sense that their memory and thinking skills are failing before others realize it. Experts want to inform the public that most people who worry about their mental decline do not develop dementia, the most common form of Alzheimer's. What they are experiencing is truly natural and normal aging. Dr. Ronald Peterson is a member of the Alzheimer's Association National Board. He says people should be tested if they fear they might have the disease. He says doctors might ask patients about other issues like any medicines they are taking or whether they suffer from anxiety, depression or stress. He says all those things can cause changes in memory. For VOA Learning English, I'm Alex Villareal.


Hey everybody, Dr. O here. Let's talk about ketones. Ketones are in the media a lot. People are always questions about ketones. What are they? When are they made? What can we do to stop them from being made, etc. So let's go ahead and take a look. Here we see the Krebs cycle. As long as you have enough oxaloacetate, that last step in the Krebs cycle, to meet the needs of the amount of acetyl-CoA that's being produced, the Krebs cycle is going to be responsible for the fuel. But if you get yourself in a situation where you have more acetyl-CoA than the Krebs cycle can handle, that's going to be when ketone bodies are produced. So when would that happen? Primarily if you're on a low carb or ketogenic diet or if you have uncontrolled diabetes, so all the glucose in your body is in your bloodstream instead of in your cells, you're going to bump into this situation. The reason that you would if you're on a low carbohydrate diet is because if you don't have enough glucose to meet all of your needs, then your body is going to be using a lot of beta-oxidation of fatty acids. And that's the process where you take long fatty acid tails and turn them into acetyl-CoAs.  And this cycle is going to not be able to keep up with the demand, and that's going to be when you'll produce ketones. Let's go ahead and look then at how they're produced. If you take these excess acetyl-CoA, they can be converted, I don't care about the individual steps, but they can be converted into your actual ketone bodies. Right there in the middle, though, one of the intermediate steps is HMG-CoA. That's actually a precursor to cholesterol, so I think that's just kind of neat. But the two key ketone bodies are acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Beta-hydroxybutyrate is generally considered the primary ketone in your blood. But you're also going to see acetate. So if we have more ketones than we need to burn for fuel, they can be broken down, and acetone will be the bright product. That's going to be where that fruity breath or breath that smells like paint thinner or nail polish remover is going to be the acetone that's being released into your lungs. All right, so that's how they're produced. Let's go ahead and look at how they're actually oxidized. So beta-hydroxybutyrate can be metabolized down to acetoacetate. Notice that an NADH is created. That's going to be an electron carrier that will earn us some energy once it can run through the electron transport system. And then at the end, we're going to have our acetyl-CoA's back, and they're going to be able to run through the Krebs cycle. So if you think about it, ketones can make some energy now. But they also will, you can use these acetyl-CoA's in the Krebs cycle once there's room for them, once that traffic jam is over. What else about that? As far as how much energy is being produced, if you take that acetoacetate and fully oxidize it, it will yield 2GTP, which can create ATP, of course, and then 22ATP directly. So it's a very good fuel source. Where can this be used? It used to be thought that ketones could only be used in a few locations. We used to think the brain could only rely on glucose. We now know it's not true. I've seen studies that have shown that the heart, muscle, parts of your brain, parts of your intestines can actually run almost better on ketones than they can other fuel sources. So now the heart loves burning fatty acids, but it can certainly use ketones. What I find most interesting is how the astrocytes, one of the neurological cells in your brain, they actually take glucose and convert it into lactate, but the same shuttles that shuttling lactate to use as a fuel source can also use ketones. So that's why a lot of people that are on ketogenic diet say that their focus and their mental energy actually improves. I find that kind of interesting. Now there still are some parts of the brain that have to rely on glucose, but you certainly can use ketones. So ketones are a very viable fuel source. You see that they're generated. If you get in a situation where you're burning a whole lot of fat for fuel and we talked about how much energy they can produce. Now let's talk about the downside then, because some people are afraid of ketogenic diets or they would actually recommend that you increase your carbohydrate intake to prevent ketosis. I think it's a terminology issue more than anything. I think ketosis is actually a really good thing. Ketoacidosis is a terrible thing. So ketosis will be when you have low levels of ketones in your bloodstream because of maybe short-term fasting or you are on a ketogenic diet. That is going to be, generally speaking, someone in ketosis is going to have about five to 10 times less ketones in their bloodstream than someone that's actually at danger of what's called diabetic ketoacidosis, which absolutely can be fatal. Ketoacidosis, because ketones are acidic, can cause metabolic acidosis dropping the pH. But also, ketoacidosis comes with a dangerous level of dehydration. So if a person is going to die because of diabetic ketoacidosis, it is usually the drop in pH but the severe amount of dehydration. So if you want to save their life, getting their glucose levels up and getting the ketone levels to come down is very important. But preventing or treating the dehydration is just as important. Just to give, so I think that we have to be very careful if we mix those two words. Because I don't see anything wrong with ketosis. I do some moderate to long-term fasting. And I might fast for three, four, five, I think six and a half, seven days is the longest I've ever gone. And I monitor my blood ketone levels. And I've never seen them higher than six millimolar. So we're talking about not eating for an entire week. My ketone levels personally, this is not medical advice, have never reached a point higher than six millimolar. Whereas diabetic ketoacidosis, you are looking at ketone levels of 15 to 25 millimolar usually. So I do think that they're very careful if we put down ketogenic diets or diets that put you in ketosis because of concerns of ketoacidosis. Now, if you have an uncontrolled diabetic, I think you need to be extra careful. I wouldn't recommend putting someone that can't control their diabetes on a ketogenic diet or any diet that would generate more ketones. So just kind of worth noting. I think ketosis is actually, can have many, many benefits. Ketoacidosis is dangerous and potentially fatal. So I hope I've been very clear about that. All right, so if we are, if you are trying to generate ketones.  What if you want to produce ketones and you're wondering why you can't or you can't produce enough of them? So long story short, if you want to produce ketones, you have to deplete your body of pyruvate. So getting rid of carbohydrates is the key. If you're consuming enough carbohydrates where the Krebs cycle keeps running, then you're going to have problems. But there are other issues here. And you'll see that's why I chose this picture. You'll see there's lots of different intermediates, especially these amino acids here that can enter the Krebs cycle. So this would be why, I think one of the biggest mistakes is when people compare or think that a low carb diet and a ketogenic diet are the same thing. Low carb diets are low carb, but they can be moderate to even high in protein. Ketogenic diets have to be low carb, but also need to be moderate to lower in protein, not reaching malnutrition. But if you consume too much protein on a quote unquote ketogenic diet, you see right here that the proteins are going to be able to keep creating oxaloacetate. They're going to keep running the Krebs cycle. So you're not going to be producing ketones or at least not producing as many as maybe you're hoping for. So that's why it's very important to monitor protein intake on a ketogenic diet. I've had a lot of students that didn't know that. I think other things, things that are going to increase gluconeogenesis or the creation of glucose in your body would also make this very difficult. I think the two biggest ones here are going to be sleep and stress. So if you're sleep deprived or you're under a lot of stress, then your stress hormone cortisol is going to be trying to prop up your blood glucose in any way it can. And that's going to keep the Krebs cycle running. So that can be a big problem. So if you're on a ketogenic diet, and again, this is not medical advice. If you're on a ketogenic diet, make sure you keep an eye on how changes in protein intake are going to determine whether or not you are in ketosis and that can be monitored from breath tests. And I guess you're into some extent blood tests as well. And then sleep issues and stress are both also going to make it a lot harder for you to produce ketones. So that's ketones. It's what they do. It's the energy we get from them. That's how to stop them from happening if you want to stop ketosis and that's how to make it happen if you're trying to make it. I hope this helps. Have a wonderful day. Be blessed.


Olive oil is widely considered to be healthier than most other oils and fats, but as with most things online, its health benefits are often exaggerated. But it does have some compelling scientific data to back it up, including a new study which found a strong association between olive oil consumption and a reduction in cardiovascular, cancer, and all-cause mortality. This new populational study was conducted by scientists in Spain, where olive oil consumption is part of the prevalent Mediterranean diet. The study had numerous strengths that make it noteworthy, such as a relatively long follow-up period of 18 years. It included over 1500 participants with an average age of 46. The results were quite impressive. During the study's follow-up period, 317 deaths were recorded, including 115 due to cardiovascular diseases and 82 due to cancer. Compared to the baseline level of consuming olive oil less than once a month, the consumption of up to one tablespoon per day was associated with a 9% lower risk of all-cause mortality. The consumption of two or more tablespoons, however, was linked to a much greater reduction in risk of death, 31% for all-cause mortality, 46% for cardiovascular mortality, and 51% for cancer. The researchers controlled for age, sex, educational level, body mass index, tobacco consumption, and total hours of TV watching per day as a proxy for physical activity. They also controlled for the presence of pre-existing chronic conditions such as diabetes and hypertension. There have been previous studies that have failed to find an association between olive oil consumption and mortality, but some of those studies had short follow-up periods. Studies with longer follow-up periods, including one of 13 years that was published in the American Journal of Epidemiology in 2009, found a 26% reduction in all-cause mortality for the highest levels of olive oil consumption, which is fairly close to the 31% reported in this study. This suggests the benefits from olive oil can accumulate over time and can reach fairly significant levels. A Harvard study published earlier this year is especially noteworthy. It was conducted in the U.S. rather than in a Mediterranean country and had a sample size of over 90,000 people in an even longer follow-up period of 28 years. In that study, higher olive oil intake was associated with a reduction in mortality of 19% for cardiovascular, 17% for cancer, 29% for neurodegenerative, and 18% for respiratory. Olive oil contains numerous compounds that could potentially explain its health benefits, such as monoinsaturated fatty acids. It is also rich in phenolic compounds, which have been shown to possess anti-hypertensive, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory qualities. Some studies also suggest that oleic acid, the most abundant monoinsaturated fatty acid in olive oil, may have anti-cancer qualities. While this study shows a strong correlation between olive oil consumption and a reduction in mortality from various causes, it does not directly prove a causal link, and people who consume significant amounts of olive oil may have other healthy habits. But given the body of other research into this topic, it seems as though regular consumption of olive oil may be beneficial for health. When there's more to share, we'll have it for you here, so please subscribe so you don't miss out. I'm Ryan O'Shea and we'll see you next time on Lifespan News.


Hello friends, welcome to today's video, my name's Leigh, hope you're all doing great and in today's episode we're going to go over all the details with how you can guarantee a shiny any time you go into a mass outbreak in Pokemon Legends Arceus. So it's been a little while since our last shiny hunting video on the channel and since then we've had a bunch more information come out, it's going to clarify a bunch of things in regards to the mass outbreaks, how they're spawned, how to interact with them, how seeds are generated and how to advance the seeds in the mass outbreak. It's all kind of confusing but hopefully in this video I'm gonna kind of go over it step by step so you come out of it at the end of the video with a better understanding of how mass outbreaks work and how to better approach mass outbreaks so you always guaranteeing yourself at least one shiny or multiple shiny if you want from the same outbreak. Now the first thing to kind of touch on we've done a bunch of shiny hunting streams since Legends Arceus dropped and a common question that we always get asked is I'm looking for mass outbreaks and they're not appearing on my map. Well one of the things I will say is as long as you have quelled Cleaver early on your playthrough and you're gonna have access to mass outbreaks after this point you're gonna have a mass outbreaks appearing on your map. So from this point as long as you go from Jubilife Village into the map you're gonna have about a 20% chance for a outbreak to appear. Kurt Cophonix over on Twitter tweeted this out last week just to confirm these are the spawn rates of a mass outbreak when you check the map from Jubilife Village. So you can see the baseline that you're gonna want to take away from here is every time you do check the map you've got a 20% chance in each of the areas of an outbreak spawning. Obviously discount the ancient retreat it isn't an area and also returning to Jubilife from any area and also leaving Jubilife has a 20% chance to spawn an area that you are not traveling to. So but the baseline like I say is 20% chance every time you check the map of an area having a mass outbreak. So if you haven't got one and trust me I've had times where I've been going into the map over and over again and there are no mass outbreaks it's just bad RNG you just need to have a bit of patience bit of persistence go into a different area come back to Jubilife check the map again and do that over and over until you get the mass outbreak appear. Now in regards to specific Pokemon mass outbreaks appearing I don't know the specific odds for that I don't know if we know that information yet but the baseline is I would say if I hazarded a guess each Pokemon available in the mass outbreaks probably have about the same chance of appearing as any other this might be something that proved completely wrong in future hopefully we do get some information on it but I would say out of all the Pokemon that can appear in a mass outbreak they've probably all got about the same chance and it's just luck of the draw with which one appears as and when in different areas. As we know the main kind of idea about doing a mass outbreak is when you're in Jubilife Village you come to the gate here and you talk to this NPC character and he'll say that there's an outbreak you've got to be careful when you're visiting different areas you can see here we've got a Sneasel one here if you didn't want Sneasel you just want to come to a different area and we know from the tweet from Kurt that it will hopefully despawn the Sneasel outbreak that we've got in the alabaster Iceland is a 20% chance of a despawning but when we come back to Jubilife Village we're going to have another 20% chance in each of the areas of a mass outbreak appearing in those different areas around the Hesui region so you can see we come back into the map here here in outbreaks again and you can see that the Sneasel one is gone and then we've got a Shinks outbreak here in the Coronet Highlands so we can use this as an example here now every time you leave Jubilife Village here and you come into a mass outbreak basically the idea is you come into the mass outbreak and every single Pokemon that is in this mass outbreak is determined on this trip from Jubilife to Coronet Highlands or whichever area you're going to visit where your mass outbreak is so the first thing to do I would always suggest is drop a pin exactly where the outbreak is just drop a pin so you know exactly where you're going and then the next thing to do is just drop a save now we've been through this in the other guide but we're going to go through a few things in this guide today that shows you the best ways of approaching every single mass outbreak so once you've got your save dropped down what we're going to do is make our way over to the area where the outbreak is you know the outbreak is down here you're going to have all your useful items like your stealth spray your smoke bombs sticky globes and ultra balls and jet balls they're going to be kind of your staples with most hunts and you want to just approach the outbreak here and what we're going to do for the first time is we are going to just catch all the Pokemon that is all we're going to do just catch the Pokemon can we can we jet ball them from here I don't know there might be a little bit too far away let's see this is going to work so one two three four five oh a tie oh and there's a shiny there's a shiny there we go okay so five six and this would make this what spawn seven I guess let me catch it okay so how many other left there one two three and they've stopped spawning after that so let's just catch these and let's just say where about this shiny spawned in regards to how many we've got for this out this particular outbreak because they've stopped spawning once you know they stop spawning you can kind of leave an area but the official kind of message it comes up the report Pokemon have gone from this area so we know this outbreak's finished and we can head back to the camp we'll just we just want to check here we just want to check where the shiny spawn this is great for this example so let's just see we want to check our Pokemon we've got four in our party so we've got one two three four they were the initial four that were there we caught all of them then we had two more and then in that next batch of four we had the shiny spawn so we had it spawned on the seventh the seventh slot here and then we had one two three after that so a total of ten Pokemon ten shinks is what we had okay so we know that the shiny spawns in on around the seventh it's around the seventh Pokemon but it's in that second batch of four and from what we know with how outbreaks work is when you leave jubilife and come to an area where an outbreak is all of the Pokemon in that outbreak are predetermined so when you come to an area that's why it's important to drop a save in the camp now you might be saying you've just called the shiny why are you resetting it doesn't matter because we already have that shiny locked in but we have to kind of progress the game in the same sort of way to get that shiny again now if we go now what we're going to do is just show you an example we'll head to that same area the mountain camp I believe it is and instead of catching the Pokemon this time like we just did we're just going to catch the Pokemon one by one and this is going to prove to you that it doesn't matter if you are catching or battling the Pokemon whether or not it changes how the shiny appears so we've put our stealth spray on let's put smoke bomb down here just to give ourselves a bit of cover because shinks are pretty aggro and no one shinks they will attack us and we don't want to be battling these in a multi battle situation we want to be battling these one at a time so there's one so two so that's two so this is three so this is four so the shiny should really spawn in at any point now in this batch of the next four because it was it's hard to keep track of when you're catching which kind of batch you are catching or which ones you're knocking like which one at the time you're catching because if you just kind of launch and jet balls at them you can kind of determine where about it is but you can't guarantee exactly where it is so there we go okay here we are so as you can see we'll just catch this one what was that six or yeah so this is the sixth spawning so it's definitely in that second batch and there is four more left we can just pick these off these ones just to show you that there'll be the same amount of Pokemon overall and then hopefully that proves to you battling them one by one or catching them one by one doesn't make any difference to the outcome of an outbreak so you can do it both ways right so we should we're obviously gonna have less Pokemon this time so we had 10 last time we've got one two three four five here got our fifth one being up here so we battle five this is spawned in on our sixth one it's spawned in when we were catching them on our seventh one but as they say because we've captured so many at the same time there were many spawning in so we don't know whether it was the sixth or the seventh but it's there there's no difference between catching the Pokemon or battling them one by one now what we're going to do is we know that that shinks is spawned in on this save in this mass outbreak right here so we're going to approach it one more time but this time we're going to approach it by doing multiple battles all at once and see what this does to the mass outbreak and how you do not want to approach a mass outbreak by doing multiple battles all at once because it will change the outcome of an outbreak it will dictate different Pokemon or respawned from the ones that are respawned when you just catch a Pokemon or battle it one at a time so back in game once again we'll travel up to the mountain camp and we'll make our way this time and we're just going to be head on go for these shinks not worry about any items make sure that our Pokemon's at the start of our party enter the outbreak and you can see aggro Pokemon going to come for us they're not going to be spawned they're all going to be aware of us and we'll see if we can battle as many of these as we can see how many pop up we got all four so that's perfect this is like the worst you don't want to battle four at a time it is not the way to approach the outbreak so technically when we battle all these four are going on the logic of if if it doesn't matter how you approach a mass outbreak by battling or catching or whatever then the logic should be the next four Pokemon that's spawning one of those should be a shiny right one of them should be a shiny we've taken two down got two more to go so i'm just going to try and park myself in this bit of grass here we're not too far away from the battle we've got one more to go and the four that's spawning next one of them should be a shiny on the logic that we know that there is a shiny on the sixth or seventh spawning right so one two three oh no shiny no shiny at all which is quite interesting so what we'll do is we'll just try and pick these ones off six that we've caught and that would take us to at ten but we'll go back to the camp now and this proves this proves the point that if you do multi battles you get a different selection of Pokemon so yeah you can see there's the six we battled four we got the same amount of Pokemon in all three different situations but the only difference was in this last one the only one where the shiny didn't pop up is because we did a multi battle which then affects how the seed plays with regenerating the Pokemon don't need to go into too many details about it but that will affect how your shiny is pretty much missed out from doing a multi battle because you're generating four Pokemon under a different seed to what you would have been doing if you were doing it one at a time either catching or battling so this is the point so we'll reset the game again and i'll prove that we haven't lost this shiny and there's no way we've lost this shiny we'll go back to it we'll catch the Pokemon and this is the point i think on our streams we've not been super strict when we've been doing shiny hunting but we've been in the mind where i didn't want to get into battles with any Pokemon ever predominantly because their battles take longer catching Pokemon is a lot easier stealth mode feels a bit more appealing than heading straight on and battling Pokemon and despawn them or whatever so i'd prefer to catch them we've had a really good success on our shiny hunting streams um so in regards to that i would always say just catch the Pokemon it is the simplest method doing this you aren't going to miss a Pokemon either now doing mass multi battling with the Pokemon can obviously affect how your shiny is going to be spawned so knowing this is such good information because there has been occasions where i've been hunting rufflet and we went 64 chained deep in our outbreak just to get the rufflet and that was because we were doing multi battles with them because they're aggressive Pokemon we were doing one-on-one battles with them which then affected after the multi battles and things like that so we did a bunch of different things it was always going to be affecting how the shinies were found and if we'd known that all you need to do is just catch the Pokemon and make sure you catch all of them or make sure you just battle them all one at a time or despawn them one at a time then it's not going to affect how we should get the shiny pop up now should pop up there we are there we go you see we knew it was going to pop up in that second that second lot after the initial four and there we go so we didn't catch it for a second i was like we've got a second shiny what's going on though but this is basically proving that if you just stick to the same method every time you come to a spawn just catch it or defeat them one at a time you're gonna not miss shinies if you start going into multi battles it is going to mean you're going to miss shinies now if a pokemon despawns if it's a skittish pokemon like a heppiny for instance like run away or you can't catch them or one of the starters for instance don't worry despawning a pokemon despawning running away is pretty much exactly like you catching it or battling it it will count in exactly the same way the only thing that's going to deviate your results and give you variations is when you battle and defeat multiple pokemon at once so it's a good idea just to stay clear of doing that but don't be under the illusion the catching is better than battling or battling is better than catching they all do the same thing as long as you're doing it in the same sort of fashion one at a time so then your respawns are spawning in one at a time so if we come to a pokemon professor you can see here i've got a first cohort of four and we may have caught you know the the next cohort of four before getting this shiny but the idea is that the shiny is still spawned we did a sneeze all hunt earlier on in the alabaster ice lands where we came to this area we caught the pokemon and a shiny popped up reset the game came back battled them one by one the shiny still popped up came back again after resetting the game and then we multi-battled we only did two pokemon multi-battled two of them at one time and then caught the rest and no shiny popped up in that specific one we set the game again came back caught the pokemon from the start and the shiny respawned in the spot where it was meant to originally but by doing the multi-battle we skipped over that spawn and generated other spawns randomly from deeper into the kind of seed of this mass outbreak and missed the shiny so by doing that and not understanding how to approach a mass outbreak you could be missing shinies along the way and that's not something you want to do we did it with a chimchaw outbreak as well and what you can do as well to get multiple shinies from an outbreak is as soon as you catch a shiny from an outbreak leave that outbreak and then head back to camp check how many pokemon you've caught and then save your game at camp and then go back to jubilee village and then come back again to that area if the the mass outbreak is there which it should be if it's not just reset your game and then come back to jubilee check them up the same outbreak should be there you can come back to the same outbreak and then repeat the process again there may be fewer pokemon appearing in the initial few outbreaks but as you get deeper into resetting into those chain outbreaks you're going to get more pokemon again the chimchaw outbreak i did it started with the we've got the shiny on pretty much the the the fifth last pokemon so there's four pokemon remaining in the outbreak come back catch the four pokemon and the outbreak would end did that over and over again until the point of that outbreak actually spawning multiple chimchaws once again and then after about 40 minutes of resetting another shiny did spawn in that area did the same with the sneeze all outbreak as well didn't take as long but you can get multiple pokemon from the same outbreak by just chaining the same outbreak over and over again just make sure that you follow the steps of coming from jubilee village to the area where the mass outbreak is drop a save in the camp head to the mass outbreak catch all the pokemon if there's no shiny there reset your game go back to jubilee life come back into the area hopefully it's the same outbreak if it's not just reset your game and then come back to jubilee life again go back into the map head back to the area where the mass outbreak is drop your save hit the camp head back out to the outbreak and then rinse and repeat catch the pokemon and you're going to guarantee yourself for shiny by doing it this way don't deviate away from the process you remember you can catch or defeat pokemon but when you're defeating them you have to do it one at a time you can't go into multi battles that's the rule of thumb but the best advice is just to stick to catching pokemon it's a lot easier it's a lot more streamlined if you make a mistake and the shiny appears and then you you lose it for some reason you need to reset and come back you know the exact steps that you've taken to that point where the shiny spawned so you can get it again so good luck shiny hunting friends hope the guide has been useful today the update with information as soon as we've got more information on the mass outbreak hunting i will do an update on it so make sure if you want to stay up to date with all of that you hit the subscribe button if you've enjoyed the video please leave a like it does really help the video and help spread the word and and get the message out there to help others shiny hunt in their games so thank you again for tuning in friends have a great rest of your day and i will catch you all on another video very soon so until then take care bye bye


This video will cover an introduction to the anatomy of the nervous system. This material mostly comes from chapters 12 and 14 of Open Stax Anatomy and Physiology, which is freely available online. And some additional content comes from Grey's Anatomy, the edition from 1918, which is in the public domain and also freely available online. Some information comes from a review article by Larry Squire published in the journal Neuron. And there's also an image that comes from Wikipedia, and so all of this information is either covered by a Creative Commons license or is in the public domain, and so it's all freely available online. As we go, we will cover the following study objectives, define central and peripheral nervous system, and describe the general functions of each, list the components of a reflex arc, describe the major functional divisions of the peripheral nervous system, describe the structures of a typical multipolar neuron, list examples of where bipolar and unipolar, also known as pseudo-unipolar neurons are found in the human body, describe the functions of the major types of glial, or also known as neuroglial cells, in the central nervous system, the astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and epindymal cells, in the peripheral nervous system, the satellite cells and Schwann cells. Describe how information is transmitted through the nervous system, explain how action potentials are generated and propagated, and describe the structure and function of a synapse. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord, all nervous tissue outside the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system. The major components of the peripheral nervous system are called nerves and ganglia. Ganglia are collections of neurons located outside of the central nervous system, and nerves contain long extensions of neurons, which are called axons, that rapidly transmit information. The function of the peripheral nervous system is to transmit information in and out of the central nervous system. The central nervous system contains control centers that integrate sensory information coming from the peripheral nervous system and sends out motor commands to regulate other organs. Much of our understanding of the functions of the nervous system and the brain in particular has come from the study of unfortunate individuals that have suffered damage such as a trauma to the brain. A famous example is Phineas Gage, shown in the image here, holding a large iron rod that large iron rod impaled Phineas Gage through the skull while he was working on the railroad in 1848. The rod severely damaged a large region of the brain on the anterior known as the prefrontal cortex. Surprisingly, Gage survived, and witnesses reported that his memory and general intelligence seemed unimpaired after the accident. However, it was reported that his personality changed drastically. Friends described him as no longer acting like himself.  Though his life was changed dramatically by this accident, he was able to become a functioning stagecoach driver later in life, suggesting that the brain has the ability to recover even from major trauma such as this. Another famous example is the case of Henry Mollison, best known as patient HM, who suffered from epilepsy, a condition in which the brain becomes overactive causing seizures. Despite high doses of anti-convulsant medication, HM could not work or lead a normal life. Then, a neurosurgeon named William Scoville performed an experimental procedure in an attempt to treat his epilepsy. Scoville removed large portions of the brain on the lateral sides, including a structure known as the hippocampus. You can see the hippocampus in the illustration from Gray's Anatomy on the left here, shown in light blue. The surgery was successful at preventing epilepsy, but the unintended result of this surgery was a profound memory impairment. At first, it seemed that HM was incapable of forming any new memories. After the surgery, he forgot daily events nearly as fast as they occurred. But this memory deficit was in the absence of any general intellectual loss. However, then a neuropsychologist named Brenda Milner carefully studied HM and was able to demonstrate that he was capable of some forms of learning. A famous test that Milner used to demonstrate a distinct type of memory is called the mirror drawing task. In this test, HM was asked to draw between the lines within a star pattern without directly looking at his hand, but instead using a mirror to look at a reflection of his hand drawing on the paper. This task is difficult, but with practice HM was able to improve. While he was able to learn this skill by forming what we now call a procedural memory, he never formed a memory of the event, and he would remark with surprise after performing well on the task having no memory of his practice. And so that was just to give us a little insight into the functions of the brain, a major component of the central nervous system. The spinal cord is also a major component of the central nervous system. Both the brain and the spinal cord can function as control centers for reflexes. So it reflexes a stereotypical response to a stimulus, and there are five components of a reflex arc. The example shown here is a withdrawal reflex in response to a painful stimulus. So the stimulus is something in the external environment. In this example, the stimulus in the external environment is a source of heat. We could also respond to a stimulus that's in our body, an internal stimulus. But for this example, the stimulus is something very hot.  And so the first component of a reflex arc is always a receptor. In this example, the receptor is a thermoreceptor measuring the temperature of the skin and the information will be carried from the receptor through an afferent pathway down a sensory neuron. That afferent pathway carries information from the receptor to the control center in the central nervous system. So in this simple example, the control center is in the spinal cord. And the control center receives sensory information coming from the receptor and then integrates that information and sends out commands. And so commands travel out from the control center through an efferent pathway of a motor neuron. And so the efferent pathway carries commands from the control center out to an organ called an effector. In this case, the organ is a skeletal muscle. And so the skeletal muscle will contract in order to withdraw the hand from the painful stimulus of the heat. And so the effector is the organ or cells that are producing a response to the commands that come down the efferent pathway from the control center. And so the control centers are found within the central nervous system. And there are information coming in from the peripheral nervous system and information that travels out through the peripheral nervous system to reach the effector organs. So the peripheral nervous system can be subdivided into major functional divisions. The efferent fibers of the peripheral nervous system are carrying sensory information from receptors into the control centers of the central nervous system. We have somatic efferent fibers that carry sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints. And so these are detecting the sense of touch as well as the sense of the position of the body. And so somatic comes from the word soma, the Greek word for body. And so the somatic efferent fibers are carrying sensory information from the body. And that would include the sensory information coming from the thermoreceptors in our skin, detecting the temperature of our skin. That information travels from the receptor to the control center on efferent fibers, that is axons within nerves that carry information from the receptors in towards the central nervous system. So those are sensory neurons that have their axons traveling through nerves of the peripheral nervous system. There are also visceral efferent fibers. The visceral fibers are carrying sensory information from our visceral organs, that is the organs in the ventral body cavities, like the heart and the lungs, the organs of the digestive system, the blood vessels. These are all examples of visceral organs and visceral efferent fibers carry information from receptors located in our visceral organs and carries that information into the control centers. So these are also sensory neurons that are carrying the information in from receptors in the ventral body cavities. Now in response to that information the central nervous system will send out commands through efferent fibers of the peripheral nervous system. That is the axons of motor neurons that are traveling through nerves carry commands out from the central nervous system in order to regulate the activity of our efferent organs. If the efferent organs are skeletal muscles then the fibers are somatic efferent fibers. So there are motor neurons that extend their axons out in order to excite the contraction of skeletal muscles. Those axons traveling through nerves in the peripheral nervous system are called somatic efferent fibers. There are also autonomic efferent fibers. So the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. And the autonomic nervous system is under involuntary control. And so while the somatic branch of the peripheral nervous system, the somatic efferent information is under voluntary control. You can consciously decide to move your body and send signals out through somatic efferent fibers. You do not have the ability to consciously send signals out through autonomic efferent fibers. Instead, these fibers are responding to involuntary reflexes where information often coming through visceral efferent fibers is processed by control centers that send out commands automatically without any voluntary control in order to maintain the vital functions of our heart and lungs and digestive organs. And so these autonomic fibers are coordinating the activities of our visceral organs. Many of these reflexes are essential to life. And as we go on to study the peripheral nervous system in more detail, we'll see there's two major divisions within the autonomic nervous system. There are sympathetic efferent pathways and parasympathetic efferent pathways. The sympathetic branch stimulates the mobilization of energy in order to deal with a stressful situation. The sympathetic branch is the fight or flight division of the autonomic nervous system that would increase the activity of the heart and would also decrease the activity of the digestive system. In contrast, the parasympathetic division is commonly known as the rest and digest division of the autonomic nervous system. Its functions are opposed, they're very much opposite to the sympathetic branch. That is, the parasympathetic branch will slow down heart rate in order to decrease the activity of the heart. The parasympathetic branch will stimulate increased activity of the digestive organs in order to help bring nutrients into the body during the rest and digest phase. Now we're going to start going through a little more detail of the structural organization of the nervous system. There is gray matter and white matter within the nervous system. We see here a picture of the brain with a section removed to show the gray matter and white matter within the cerebrum. There is gray matter found superficially in what we call the cerebral cortex. So the cortex of the cerebrum is made of gray matter. Gray matter contains the neurons, contains what we call the cell bodies of neurons, as well as some extensions from those neurons called dendrites that are forming connections with other neurons called synapses. So the gray matter contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses. The white matter contains the axons of neurons, that is the long extensions that carry information rapidly from one part of the nervous system to another. So the white matter in the central nervous system forms what we call tracts. Tracks are bundles of axons that are rapidly transmitting information from one place to another. The gray matter can also be called a nucleus. If it's deep inside the brain or deep inside the spinal cord we will see in the central nervous system collections of gray matter that are called nuclei. And so the word nucleus has several different meanings in anatomy and physiology. In the brain we see a nucleus is a collection of gray matter found deep within the brain or spinal cord. When we studied the anatomy of cells we learned that a nucleus inside of a cell is the region that contains the DNA where the processes of DNA replication for cell division occur and where the processes of transcription where the process of transcription occurs where DNA is read in order to produce messenger RNAs that can then be translated by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. And then at an even smaller level so the nucleus is an organelle at the cellular level the organelle level. If we go even further in down to the chemical level the nucleus of an atom is the region inside of an atom that contains the protons and neutrons. And so an atom contains protons, neutrons, and electrons. The electrons are surrounding the nucleus but in the center of an atom are protons and neutrons forming a nucleus of an atom. And so we won't talk very much about the chemical level of using the term nucleus in this class but as we're studying the nervous system we're going to be focused on the nuclei in the brain and spinal cord and we may also talk somewhat about the nucleus inside cells. For example neurons have a nucleus inside of the cell body and glial cells, neuroglial cells, the other major cell type in the nervous system. These cells also have a nucleus inside of their cytoplasm. Here we see a diagram showing the major components of the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord are the structures of the central nervous system that receive sensory information and process that information and then develop the commands to be sent out to regulate organs throughout our body. The brain is responsible for the conscious perception of sensory information. The brain also forms memories and is important for regulating our decisions, our motor commands, producing what we call our personality and the brain sends out motor responses, motor commands. Some of these are voluntary where we can decide what we want to do. However the brain also performs lots of unconscious processing and can coordinate involuntary responses by regulating the autonomic nervous system. There are many involuntary processes that help keep us alive by regulating our visceral organs like our heart and our lungs and our digestive system. The spinal cord contains some control centers for simple reflexes and the spinal cord also contains the pathways for sensory and motor information to travel in and out of the brain. So we'll see the tracks are the bundles of axons, the fibers that are traveling, carrying information rapidly through the central nervous system and large collections of tracks running up and down the spinal cord form columns. On the posterior we have posterior white columns carrying the sensory information, ascending sensory information up towards the brain and then on the lateral and anterior sides are white columns that contain the descending tracks where motor commands are sent down from the brain through the spinal cord.  These nerves are the white matter of the peripheral nervous system and then there are ganglia in the peripheral nervous system. This is the gray matter of the peripheral nervous system. The dorsal root ganglion contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons and then there are autonomic ganglia that contain the cell bodies of motor neurons that extend their axons out in order to regulate the activities of our visceral organs, our heart, the smooth muscle in our blood vessels, the smooth muscle in our digestive organs and then also glands that are regulated by the autonomic efferents. Then the digestive tract contains an enteric nervous system. The enteric nervous system is a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system because it's not found in the brain or spinal cord. However, it's different than the rest of the peripheral nervous system because the enteric nervous system does contain some control centers making it capable of operating independently. In the central nervous system the bundles of axons that are carrying information rapidly from one place to another are called tracts and in the peripheral nervous system those bundles of axons that rapidly transmit information are instead called nerves. In this diagram here we can see the visual pathway and the example of the optic nerve which is a cranial nerve and the cranial nerves are all numbered one through twelve. This is cranial nerve number two, the optic nerve that carries visual information from the eye and carries that information into the central nervous system. Now in the central nervous system the same axons are instead called the optic tract and the optic tract will carry that information into a region within the brain called the thalamus. And so the bundles of axons that are the extensions of neurons that rapidly transmit information can be called nerves in the peripheral nervous system and tracts in the central nervous system. In this illustration we can see major structures of white and gray matter in the central and peripheral nervous system specifically the spinal cord and spinal nerves. The gray matter of the spinal cord is found deep underneath white matter so the region in the center is the gray matter that forms horns in the spinal cord what we call the posterior gray horn, lateral gray horn and anterior gray horn. Now remember that gray matter contains the cell bodies of neurons as well as the synapses where neurons connect to one another. The anterior gray horn contains the cell bodies of motor neurons that extend out to excite skeletal muscles so these are somatic motor neurons and the axons that extend out travel through the ventral root and are called somatic efferent fibers. The autonomic motor neurons have their cell bodies in the lateral gray horn they also extend their axons out through the ventral root then on the posterior of the spinal cord is the posterior gray horn. Sensory information will travel into the posterior gray horn and inside of the posterior gray horn are some neurons that will relay that information or perform the integration of a control center that will then regulate the efferent motor neurons and so the sensory neurons that carry information into the posterior gray horn have their cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system in the structure known as the dorsal root ganglion. So a ganglion is a collection of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system the ganglion are the gray matter of the peripheral nervous system the axons of the sensory neurons travel through the spinal nerves and then travel into the spinal cord on the dorsal side through a structure known as the dorsal root and so we can see the spinal nerves here are the white matter of the peripheral nervous system the ganglion are the gray matter of the peripheral nervous system then in the central nervous system the spinal cord contains nuclei that are clustered together in large groups known as the gray horns and in the spinal cord surrounding the gray matter is white matter containing tracks bundles of axons that carry information up and down the spinal cord those tracks are bundled together into larger structures known as white columns we have posterior white column that relay sensory information from the posterior gray horn up towards the brain and what we call ascending tracks through the posterior white column then the lateral white columns and anterior white columns contain most of the descending tracks where motor information coming from the brain travels rapidly down the spinal cord and there is there are some sensory tracks some ascending tracks that are also mixed into the lateral and anterior white columns here we see an fmri or functional magnetic resonance image that is measuring activity in the brain the fmri actually measures changes in blood flow in regions of the brain and this blood flow is associated with an increase in the signaling the information processing that's happening in a region of the brain and here we see an increase activity in the regions of the brain that are processing visual information as the subject is being shown a visual stimulus the visual pathway will increase its activity and so more blood will flow to that area of the brain that's processing the visual information here we see an illustration of a neuron this is a typical neuron called a multipolar neuron so the multipolar neuron has many different extensions coming out of the cell body so the cell body also known as the soma is the large region of a neuron that surrounds the nucleus then there are many processes or extensions coming off of the cell body the numerous processes extending from the cell body of a multipolar neuron are called dendrites and the dendrites function as a receptive region forming synapses with the axons of other neurons in order to receive the information coming from the axon the dendrite will have receptors to detect neurotransmitters released from the the axon and so the axon is the large process that comes out of the cell body and the axon can travel a very long distance for example there are axons that extend from your spinal cord all the way down to the tip of your toe and the longest example is a sensory neuron axon that can travel all the way from the tip of your toe up into your spinal cord up through your spinal cord in the the tracts of the dorsal white column or posterior white column all the way up to the brain and so a axon can be about as long as a person is tall however not all axons are that long many axons for much shorter connections in order to perform processing within a region of the brain and so the axon connects to the cell body at a region known as the axon hillock and the axon will carry information rapidly from that connection of the axon hillock all the way down to the end of the axon known as the axon terminals and those axon terminals form synapses where they communicate with other cells and so a synapse is a small space where the axon terminal releases a chemical message called a neurotransmitter in order to send information to another cell and this could be another neuron or it could be a muscle or a gland that's being regulated by this neuron now the axon is coded in some cases by a myelin sheath we see here the myelin sheath is created by an oligodendrocyte an oligodendrocyte is a type of glial cell or supporting cell in nervous tissue the oligodendrocytes are specifically found in the central nervous system where they function to produce the myelin sheath the myelin sheath is important for increasing the speed of action potentials that are electrochemical signals that rapidly travel down the axon because the myelin sheath insulates the axon it can speed up the conduction that is how fast an action potential travels from the axon hillock where it attaches to the cell body to the axon terminal where it forms a synapse with another cell not all neurons are a multipolar neurons the other major types of neurons found in the human body are called bipolar neurons or unipolar neurons and a true unipolar neuron is not found in in the human body instead what we have is called a pseudo unipolar neuron and so while the multipolar neurons are the most numerous the most common type of neuron and most of the neurons in the central nervous system are multipolar as well as most of the motor neurons that extend their axons out through the peripheral nervous system there are some bipolar neurons that are important for carrying sensory information in and these are found in the eye in the retina of the eye is one place you can find bipolar neurons and you can see the shape of a bipolar neuron is a neuron that has only two processes extending out from the cell body one of those processes will be attached to dendrites that carry information in and the other process that extends out would be the axon that carries the information out to another synapse to relay information to another neuron and so one example of a bipolar neuron is the bipolar cells of the retina in the eye that relay information from the photoreceptors in the retina to another type of neuron in the retina called the retinal ganglion cell then there are also bipolar neurons found in the inner ear within a region of the inner ear called the spiral ganglion and these bipolar cells are relaying information important for the sense of hearing there are also bipolar neurons found in the olfactory epithelium that is within the superior nasal cavity these bipolar neurons are important for detecting chemicals that are dissolved in our mucus of the superior nasal cavity that information is what we use in order to detect the sense of smell and so the olfactory neurons the olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons and the the dendrites of those neurons extend down into the nasal cavity whereas the axon will extend up into the central nervous system to form a synapse with neurons inside of the olfactory bulb on the inferior surface of the brain now the pseudo unipolar neuron has its cell body inside of the dorsal root ganglion the most common pseudo unipolar neurons are the sensory neurons that have their cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion that are carrying sensory information in through the afferent fibers either the somatic afferent fibers as well as the visceral afferent fibers travel into the dorsal root ganglion and then their axons will continue through the dorsal root into the spinal cord where they can synapse with other neurons inside of the posterior gray horn or extend up through the ascending pathways the ascending tracks of the white matter in the spinal cord in the white columns like the posterior white column so the pseudo unipolar neuron is found in the dorsal root ganglion and it's a sensory neuron it's the most common sensory neuron has this structure a pseudo unipolar and the structure you can see only one process is extending out of the cell body of a pseudo unipolar or unipolar neuron and that that one process would extend out in a true unipolar neuron and in a pseudo unipolar one process will extend out and then branch in two large branches and that entire structure that we see attached to the cell body of the pseudo unipolar neuron is an axon here we see an illustration showing on the top two examples of pseudo unipolar neurons that are sensory neurons that have their cell bodies found in the peripheral nervous system within ganglia the dorsal root ganglion located very close to the spinal cord but just outside of the spinal cord these neurons have dendrites that directly attached to the axon then the axon travels as an afferent fiber in a spinal nerve all the way to the cell body and then will continue past the cell body in the dorsal root in order to enter the spinal cord on the top we see the dendrites are free nerve endings an example of a receptor like a thermal receptor that detects temperature or the pain receptors that can detect chemical stimuli released from damaged tissues these types of receptors are the free nerve endings or the dendrites of a pseudo unipolar neuron a sensory neuron there are other types of sensory receptors in which a special ending is surrounding the dendrites forming a capsule so an encapsulated nerve ending is present in some of our touch receptors an example would be the pacinian corpuscle found deep in the dermis and hypodermis that detects deep pressure and vibration the pacinian corpuscle has an encapsulated nerve ending surrounding dendrites and then information travels in still through an afferent fiber that then connects to the dorsal root in order to travel into the spinal cord so those are examples of pseudo unipolar neurons that have their cell bodies found in the dorsal root ganglion and are carrying sensory information in just below that we see an example of a specialized receptor cell called a photoreceptor a rod a specific type of photoreceptor cell found in the retina of the eye and so the rod detects light and when it detects light it can then send the signal onto a bipolar cell a neuron that has two extensions coming out of its cell body here we see an illustration showing a little more detail of the structure of the retina inside of the eye where the photoreceptor cells called the rods and cones are detecting light and then sending the information onto bipolar cells the dendrites of bipolar cells receive the information coming from the photoreceptor cells and all come together to form one process attached to the cell body then on the opposite side of the cell body the axon extends out to relay information from the bipolar cell to another neuron called a retinal ganglion cell glial cells are the other major type of cell found in nervous tissue so the neurons are the cells that are responsible for carrying information and performing the calculations inside of the nervous system glial cells support the functions of neurons the astrocytes found in the central nervous system are important for regulating the chemical environment surrounding neurons they can do this by regulating the transport of chemicals from the blood into the central nervous system and they can also perform chemical reactions to break down neurotransmitters and other waste products that come from neurons oligodendrocytes are the glial cells that create the myelin sheath surrounding axons in the central nervous system in order to insulate the axons and increase the speed that an action potential travels down the axon microglial cells are related to the leukocytes of the immune system while leukocytes are not able to cross into the central nervous system the microglial cells replace the functions of leukocytes by performing phagocytosis microglial cells can clean up cellular debris as well as pathogens like bacteria that find their way into the central nervous system epindymal cells are found lining spaces inside of the central nervous system and epindymal cells are important for moving fluid through those spaces the fluid inside the spaces of the central nervous system are called the fluid it's called cerebrospinal fluid and it fills spaces called ventricles inside of the brain and a central canal through the spinal cord epindymal cells have cilia that can beat back and forth in order to help move cerebrospinal fluid epindymal cells are also found lining capillaries inside of the ventricles of the brain and they help to regulate the movement of chemicals from the blood to form cerebrospinal fluid there are also glial cells in the peripheral nervous system here we see satellite cells surrounding the cell body of a pseudo-unipolar neuron inside of a ganglion like the dorsal root ganglion so the satellite cells have functions similar to astrocytes in the peripheral nervous system the satellite cells regulate the chemical environment surrounding the cell bodies of neurons inside of ganglia then Schwann cells are found in nerves where they create a protective layer surrounding fibers inside of the nerve and these Schwann cells are responsible for creating the myelin sheath on axons that are myelinated in nerves although not all of the axons will be myelinated there will be Schwann cells surrounding axons even if they are not myelinated and so what is the difference between being myelinated and just being supported and protected by a Schwann cell well myelin involves the Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte wrapping its plasma membrane around the axon many times so here we can see the process of myelination where a glial cell surrounds an axon and at first just having that glial cell surrounding the axon provides some protection to the axon and an unmyelinated axon within a nerve can be surrounded by a Schwann cell in that fashion however in order to increase the speed of the action potential the glial cell can wrap its plasma membrane around the axon many times squeezing all the cytoplasm out of the inner region and this is what we call myelin the inner sheath formed by a glial cell having wrapped the plasma membrane around the axon many times leaving only the numerous layers of plasma membrane and the plasma membrane is formed from phospholipids and so this phospholipid layer creates an insulating barrier surrounding the axon that helps speed up the movement of the action potential the increases the conduction velocity of the action potential this diagram summarizes the functions of the peripheral and central nervous system working together to coordinate a simple task so here we have the sensory receptors found in the skin thermal receptors that are detecting the temperature of the water in the shower as you put your hand into the shower and detect that that water is very hot the sensory receptors respond by sending information in through an afferent fiber that afferent fiber travels through a nerve in the peripheral nervous system and the cell body of this sensory neuron is found in the dorsal root ganglia then the afferent fiber continues in through the dorsal root into the spinal cord and then travels up the spinal cord through the posterior white column through tracks in the central nervous system and there can be several different neurons in the central nervous system that relay information up and perform the processing function of the control center to detect how intense is the stimulus is it very hot or is it just warm and then calculate the appropriate response and so the brain will interpret the sensory information and if it interprets that the water is too hot then commands will be sent out through a descending pathway where motor neuron found in the brain in the cerebral cortex of the brain extends its axon down through tracks in the brain that then connect to tracks in the spinal cord and these tracks would be on the anterior in the anterior white columns and then traveling down the anterior white columns to form a synapse with a motor neuron a lower motor neuron that has its cell body in the anterior gray horn then that neuron will send the signal out with its axon traveling through the ventral root into the spinal nerve then out to excite the skeletal muscles that are needed in order to contract and withdraw your hand from the water and so this process can occur very rapidly and it needs to be very rapid in order for us to withdraw our hand for its severely burnt from the hot water the way that information travels rapidly through the nervous system is in what we call action potentials so an action potential is a brief reversal of the membrane potential of an axon this is an electrochemical signal that travels down the axon now we're going to zoom in and focus on the electrochemical basis of the action potential so to start off with we'll have to discuss the trans membrane proteins that allow chemicals to move across the plasma membrane the chemicals that we're going to be focused on are chemicals that have an electrical charge called ions ions that have a negative charge are called anions but we're going to focus on sodium and potassium for understanding the action potential sodium and potassium both have a positive charge so they are called cat ions there is a transmembrane protein called the sodium potassium pump that moves sodium out of the cell and potassium inside the cell uses ATP as an energy source in order to do this because sodium is being concentrated outside the cell and potassium is being concentrated inside the cell they are both moving against the force of diffusion from their concentration gradients now there are also ion channels that allow sodium and potassium to move across the plasma membrane and when sodium moves into the cell it's bringing a positive charge into the cell with it when potassium moves out of the cell it's moving a positive charge out of the cell the membrane potential is the separation of charges across the plasma membrane of a cell the forces that govern the movement of an ion are both the force of diffusion from the concentration gradient as well as an electrical force if the electrical force is opposite to the concentration gradient then it's possible for the electrical force and the concentration gradient force to balance out the membrane potential at which the electrical force balances with the force of diffusion is called the equilibrium potential for an ion for sodium because there's a high concentration of sodium outside of the cell and diffusion forces sodium into the cell the equilibrium potential is a positive charge that the value is around positive 60 millivolts the equilibrium potential for potassium is a negative value because there's a high concentration of potassium inside the cell the cell has to have a negative charge in order to oppose the force of diffusion and have the balance of the equilibrium potential now the membrane potential of the cell at any moment results from a combined effect of all of the equilibrium potentials of all of the ions that are inside and outside of the cell however sodium and potassium have the largest influence on the membrane potential and the resting membrane potential when a neuron is not processing information is not firing an action potential the resting membrane potential is approximately negative 70 millivolts and so negative 70 is much closer to the equilibrium potential of potassium than it is to the equilibrium potential of sodium because at rest there's a greater permeability of the membrane to potassium than to sodium the resting membrane potential is the electrochemical potential across the plasma membrane when the neuron is inactive at rest the inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside of the cell this charge can be measured with electrodes and millivolts are the unit most commonly used to quantify the membrane potential the membrane potential is the charge within the cell relative to the charge outside this potential can change as the neuron receives and transmits information the membrane potential at rest or the resting membrane potential is around negative 70 millivolts resulting from a higher concentration of negatively charged chemicals called anions inside of the cytosol relative to the concentration of charged chemicals outside of the cell and so there's a higher concentration of negative charges in the cell than there are outside of the cell or there's less positive charges inside the cell than there are outside of the cell creating a separation of charge or membrane potential at rest that is negative 70 millivolts. If we place an electrode inside the cell and another electrode outside the cell to compare we can measure this voltage and as you can see in the illustration here with measuring the membrane potential at rest the value is approximately negative 70 millivolts. Now there are channels that can be regulated by chemical signals in order to open and change the membrane potential. Ligand gated channels are ion channels that can be opened by a chemical stimulus like a neurotransmitter. The example shown here is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor this is the type of receptor that detects the neurotransmitter acetylcholine which is released from motor neurons to excite skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction. In the resting state when acetylcholine is not bound the channel is closed however when acetylcholine binds to the receptor the channel opens increasing the permeability of the membrane to sodium ions and sodium will rush into the cell bringing positive charges into the cell. As positive charges come into the cell the membrane potential will become less negative what we call depolarizing or depolarization of the membrane potential. In contrast if we were to have an ion channel open that would allow potassium to move out of the cell then that would have an effect of making the membrane potential more negative and making the membrane more negative is called hyperpolarization. Another type of ion channel is called a voltage gated ion channel which is open in response to a change in the membrane potential. When the membrane potential becomes depolarized this can lead to opening of a voltage gated channel and that voltage gated channel can then cause further depolarization of the membrane potential and this is how the action potential works. When voltage gated sodium channels open sodium will be allowed to rush into the cell. That sodium rushes into the cell depolarizing the plasma membrane potential which opens more voltage gated sodium channels causing more sodium to rush in and this process will continue triggering more and more voltage gated sodium channels along the axon so that the action potential will spread down the axon. There are also voltage gated potassium channels that are triggered by depolarization. They're triggered a little bit later than the voltage gated sodium channels and so the threshold for voltage gated sodium channels is around negative 60 millivolts whereas it takes a positive membrane potential around positive 30 millivolts to open the voltage gated potassium channels. When a voltage gated potassium channel opens then potassium will rush out of the cell and that will cause the membrane potential to become more negative. An action potential begins with the opening of voltage gated sodium channels producing depolarization. This occurs until the voltage gated sodium channels close. When they're triggered they open for about a millisecond and then they close and they open long enough to reach the threshold to open voltage gated potassium channels. When the voltage gated potassium channels open potassium rushes out of the cell causing repolarization back to the resting membrane potential of negative 70 and then further hyperpolarization making the membrane potential even more negative than when at rest. Eventually those voltage gated potassium channels close and the membrane potential will return to the resting membrane potential around negative 70 millivolts. When sodium channels like the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor open increasing the permeability of the membrane to sodium the membrane potential changes from the resting membrane potential becomes closer to the equilibrium potential for sodium. In other words when the sodium channel opens sodium rushes into the cytoplasm causing the membrane potential to become less negative. This change in membrane potential is called depolarization and when there's a change in the membrane potential caused by a neurotransmitter at a synapse we call it a postsynaptic potential because depolarization brings the membrane potential closer to threshold for voltage gated sodium channels to open causing an action potential. We call this type of potential an excitatory postsynaptic potential or EPSP. One EPSP may not be enough to bring the membrane potential to threshold but multiple EPSPs can add together in a process called summation. Some neurotransmitters open ion channels that cause the membrane to become more negative producing potentials known as inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Both EPSPs and IPSPs are also known as graded potentials because they get weaker as they spread out over time and space. Multiple graded potentials overlap in summation and if there are enough EPSPs overlapping to reach threshold for voltage gated sodium channels to open then an action potential is triggered and in contrast to a graded potential that becomes weaker over time and space an action potential is an all or nothing response. The action potential doesn't get weaker it's always the same size there's not large or small action potentials all action potentials are the same size there. We'll have a depolarization from threshold of negative 55 or negative 60 all the way up to a positive membrane potential around 30 or 40 millivolts and then repolarize back hyperpolarization until the potassium channels close and we return to resting membrane potential. These action potentials are initiated at the axon hillock because the voltage gated channels are concentrated on the axon. If voltage gated sodium channels are triggered at the axon hillock an action potential will spread from the axon hillock down to the axon terminal. At the axon terminals the action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse. The synapse is a specialized structure where the axon terminal of a neuron releases neurotransmitter for communication with another cell. The presynaptic neuron is the neuron that's releasing neurotransmitters from its axon terminals. The synaptic cleft is the small space in between the axon terminal and the cell that is receiving the neurotransmitter known as the postsynaptic cell. Neurons can form synapses with other neurons so the postsynaptic cell could be a postsynaptic neuron. There are other types of synapses for example a neuron can form a synapse with a muscle cell as we call a neuromuscular junction or a synapse can form between a neuron and a gland forming a neuro glandular junction.