Chapter 69 of a Book of Discovery. A Book of Discovery by M. B. Singh, Chapter 69. Nordenskjold accomplishes the North-East passage. The Northwest passage, for the accomplishment of which so many brave lives had been laid down, had been discovered. It now remained for some explorer to sail round the North-East passage, which was known to exist, but which up to this time no man had done. Nordenskjold, this feed, was to have this owner. Born in 1832 in Finland, he had taken part in the Arctic Expedition in 1861, which attempted to reach the North Pole by means of dog sledges from the North Coast of Spitzbergen. Three years later he was appointed to lead an expedition to Spitzbergen, which succeeded in reaching the highest northern latitude which any ship had yet attained. In 1870 his famous journey to Greenland took place, and two years later he left Sweden on another polar expedition. But misfortunes beset the expedition, and finally the ships were wrecked. The following year he commanded a reconnoitering expedition. He passed Nova Zemlya and reached the mouth of the Yenisei. This was the first time that the ship had accomplished a voyage from the Atlantic Ocean. Thus Nordenskjold had gained considerable knowledge of the northern seas, and he was now in a position to lay a plan of his schemes before King Oscar, who had always interested himself in Arctic Discovery. His suggestions to the king are of singular interest. It is my intention, he says, to leave Sweden in July 1878 in a steamer specially built for navigation among ice, which will be provisioned for two years at most. The course will be shaped for Nova Zemlya, where a favorable opportunity will be awaited for the passage of the Kara Sea. The voyage will be continued to the mouth of the Yenisei, which I hope to reach in the first half of August. As soon as circumstances permit, the expedition will continue its voyage along the coast of Cape Chelyuskin, where the expedition will reach the only part of the proposed route, which has not been traversed by some small vessel, and is rightly considered as that, which it will be most difficult for a vessel to double during the whole northeast passage. But our vessel, equipped with all modern appliances, ought not to find insuperable difficulties in doubling this point, and if that can be accomplished, we will probably have pretty open water towards Bering Straits, which ought to be reached before the end of September. From Bering Strait the course will be shaped for them as the Attic port, and then onwards round Asia to Suets. King Oscar and others offered to pay the expenses of the expedition, and preparations were urged forward. The Vega of 800 tons, formerly used in Lauras hunting in northern waters, was purchased, and further strengthened to withstand ice. On twenty-second of June all was ready, and with the Swedish flag, which a crowned o in the middle, the little Vega, which was to accomplish such great things, was peacefully rocking on the swell of the Baltic, as if impatient to be again her struggle against waves and ice. She carried food for thirty people for two years, which included over three thousand pounds of bacon, nine thousand pounds of coffee, nine thousand pounds of biscuits. There were pemmican from England, potatoes from the Mediterranean, cranberry juice from Finland. Fresh bread was made during the whole expedition. A few days later the Vega reached Copenhagen, and steamed north in the finest weather. Where are you bound for, signalled a passing ship. To Bering Sea was the return signal, and the Swedish crew waved their caps, shouting their joyful news. At Gothenburg they took on eight sledges, tents, and cooking utensils, also two scotch sheep dogs, and a little coal-black kitten, which lived in the captain's berth till it grew accustomed to the sea, when it slept in the forecastle by day and ran about stealing the food of the sleeping sailors by night. On sixteenths July they crossed the polar circle. All on board feel they are entering upon a momentous period of their life, says the explorer. Where were they to be the fortunate ones to reach this goal, which navigators for centuries had striven to reach? The south-west coast of Nova Zimlia was reached on twenty-eighth of July, but the weather being calm and the sea completely free of ice, nor the skewed sail onwards through the Kara Strait or iron gates, which during the winter was usually one sheet of ice, until they anchored outside the village of Khabarov. The village consisted of a few huts and tents of Russian and Samoyedis, pasturing their reindeer on the Weigetz Island. On the bleak northern shore stood a little wooden church, which the explorers visited with much interest. It seemed strange to find here brass bath-reliefs representing the Christ, St. Nicholas, Elia, St. George and the Dragon, and the resurrection. In front of each hang a little oil lamp. The people were dressed entirely in reindeer's skin, from head to foot, and they had a great collection of vorous tusks and skins, such as Osirah had brought centuries before to King Alfred. Northern Skewed's account of a short drive in a reindeer's sledge is amusing. Four reindeer were put side by side to each sledge, he says. Ivan, my driver, requested me to hold tight. He held the reins of all four reindeer in one hand, and away we went over the plain. His request to keep myself tight to the sledge was not unnecessary. At one moment the sledge jumped over a big torso, the next it went down into a pit. It was anything but a comfortable drive, for the pace at which we went was very great. On first of August the vega was off again, and soon she had entered the courtesy, known in the days of the Dutch explorers as the Ice Seller. Then passed White Island and the estuary of the Great Obby River, passed the mouth of the Yenisei to Dixon Island. Lately discovered she sailed. Here in this best-known haven on the whole north coast of Asia they anchored and spent time in bear and reindeer hunting. In consequence of the successful sport we lived very extravagantly during these days our table groaned with joints of venison and beer hams. They now sailed north, close bound in fog, to on twentieth of August we reached the Great Gaul, which for centuries had been the object of unsuccessful struggles. For the first time a vessel lay at anchor of the northernmost cape of the old world, with colors flying on every mast and saluting the venerable north point of the old world with the Swedish salute of five guns, we came to an anchor. The folk lifting for a moment they saw a white polar bear standing regarding the unexpected guests with surprise. When afterwards a member of the expedition was asked, which moment was the proudest of the whole voyage, he answered without hesitation, and doubtedly the moment when we anchored off Cape Chelyuskin. It had been named thus by the Great Northern Expedition in 1742 after Leutnant Chelyuskin, one of the Russian explorers under Laptiv, who had reached this northern point by a land journey which had entailed terrible hardships and suffering. Next morning relates Nordenskeld, we erected a cairn on the shore, and in the middle of it laid a tin box with the following document written in Swedish. The Swedish Arctic Expedition arrived here yesterday, the 19th of August, and proceeds in a few hours eastward. The sea has been tolerably free from ice, sufficient supply of coals, all well on board. And below in English and Russian were the wards. Please forward this document as soon as possible to His Majesty the King of Sweden. Nordenskeld now attempted to steam eastwards towards the new Siberian islands, but the fog was thick and they fell in with large ice flows, which soon gave place to ice fields. Violent snowstorms soon set in, and aloft everything was covered with a crust of ice, and the position in the crow's nest was anything but pleasant. They reached Katanga Bay, however, and on 27th August the Vega was at the mouth of the Lena. We were now in hopes that we should be in Japan in a couple of months. We had accomplished two-thirds of our way through the Polar Sea, and the remaining third had been often navigated at different distances. So the Vega sailed on eastwards, with an ice-free sea to the new Siberian islands, where lie embedded enormous masses of the bones and tusks of the mammoth, mixed with the horns and skulls of some kind of ox and with the horns of rhinoceros. All was still clear of snow, and the new Siberian islands laying long and low in the Polar Seas were safely passed. It was not till the 1st of September that the first snows fell. The decks of the Vega were wide with snow when the Bear Island were reached. Fog-null hindered the expedition once more, and ice was sighted. Ice right ahead suddenly shouted the watch on the forecastle, and only by a hair's breath was the Vega saved. On 3rd of September a thick snowstorm came on. The Bear Islands were covered with newly fallen snow, and though the ice was growing more closely packed than any yet encountered, they could still make their way along a narrow ice-free channel near the coast. Snowstorms, fog, and drifting ice compelled careful navigation, but the pleasant change occurred early in September by a visit from the natives. We have already heard of the Chokchis from Bering, the Chokchis whom no man had yet vanguished. For when Siberia was conquered by a Cossack chief in 1579, the Chokchis in this outlaying northeastern corner of the Old World, savage, courageous, resolute, kept the conquerors at bay. For the last six weeks the explorers had not seen a human being on that wild and desolate stretch of coast, so they were glad enough to see the little Chokchis with their cold black hair and eyes, their large mouths, and flat noses. Although it was only five o'clock in the morning, we all jumped out of our berth and hurried on deck to see these people of whom so little was known. The boats were of skin, fully laden with laughing and chattering natives, men, women, and children, who indicated by cries and gesticulations that they wished to come on board. The engine was stopped, the boats lay too, and a large number of skin-clad, bare-headed beings climbed up over the gunwale, and a lively talk began. Great gladness prevailed when tobacco and dutch clay pipes were distributed among them. One of them could speak a word of Russian. They had come in closer contact with American whalers than with Russian traders. The Chokchis were all very short and dressed in reindeer skins, with tight-fitting trousers of seal-skin, shoes of reindeer-skin, with seal-skin boots and walrus-skin soles. In very cold weather they wore hoods of wolf fur with the head of the wolf at the back. But Nordenskjold could not wait long. Amid snow and ice and fog he pushed on, hoping against hope to get through to the Pacific before the sea was completely frozen over. But the ice was beginning to close. Large blocks were constantly hurled against the ship with great violence, and she had many a narrow escape of destruction. At last it was twenty-eighth of September the little Vega was finally and hopelessly frozen into the ice, and they made her fast to a large ice-block. Sadly we find the entry. Only one hundred and twenty miles distant from our goal, which we had been approaching during the last two months, and after having accomplished two thousand four hundred miles, it took some time before we could accustom ourselves to the thought that we were so near and yet so far from our destination. Fortunately they were near the shore and the little settlement of Pitlekei, where in eight tenths, dwelt a party of chukches. These little people helped them to pass the long monotonous winter, and many an expedition inland was made in chukch sledges, drawn by eight or ten wolf-like dogs. Snowstorms soon burst upon the little party of Swedish explorers, who had made the Vega their winter home. During November we have scarcely had any daylight, bright snorred and skilled. The storm was generally howling in our rigging, which was now ensured in a strict coat of snow. The deck was full of large snow drifts, and snow penetrated into every corner of the ship, where it was possible for the wind to find an opening. If we put our heads outside the door, we were blinded by the drifting snow. Christmas came, and was celebrated by a Christmas tree, made of willows tied to a flagstaff, and the traditional rice porridge. By April, large flocks of keys, either ducks, gulls, and little songbirds began to arrive, the latter perching on the rigging of the Vega, but May and June found her still ice-bound in her winter quarters. It was not till eighteenths of July, 1879, that the hour of deliverance came at last, and we cast loose from our faithful ice-block, which for two hundred and ninety-four days had protected us so well against the pressure of the ice, and stood westwards in the open channel, now about a mile wide. On the shore stood our old friends, probably on the point of crying, which they had often told us they would do when the ship left them. For long the chukchi stood on the shore, men, women, children, watching till the fire-dog, as they called the Vega, was out of sight, carrying their white friends forever away from their bleak, inhospitable shores. Passing through closely packed ice, the Vega now rounded the east cape, of which we now and then caught a glimpse through the fog. As soon as we came out of the ice south of the east cape, we noticed the heavy swell of the Pacific Ocean, the completion of the northeast passage was celebrated the same day with a grand dinner, and the Vega greeted the old and new worlds by a display of flags and the firing of a Swedish salute. Now for the first time after the lapse of three hundred and thirty-six years was the northeast passage at last achieved. Sailing through the Bering Strait, they anchored near Bering Island on fourteenths of August. As they came to anchor, a boat shot alongside, and a voice cried out in Swedish, is it Nordenskjold? A Finland carpenter soon stood in their midst, and they eagerly questioned him about the news from the civilized world. There is no time to tell how the Vega sailed on to Japan, where Nordenskjold was presented to the Mikado, and an imperial medal was struck commemorating the voyage of the Vega, how she sailed right round Asia through the Swedes Canal and reached Sweden in safety. It was on the 24th of April, 1880, that the little weather-beaten Vega, accompanied by flag-decked steamers, literally laden with friends, sailed into the Stockholm harbour, while the hiss of fireworks under roar of cannon mingled with the shouts of thousands. The royal palace was ablaze with light, when King Oscar received and honoured the successful explorer Nordenskjold. CHAPTER 70 THE EXPLORATION OF TEBET Perhaps no land in the world has in modern times exercised a greater influence over the imagination of men than the mysterious country of Tibet. From the days of Herodotus to those of young husband, travelers of all times and nations, have tried to explore this unknown country, so jealously guarded from Europeans. Surrounded by a great wilderness of stony and inhospitable altitudes, lay the capital, Ulhasa, the seat of the guards, the home of the Grand Lama, founded in 639 A.D., mysterious, secluded, sacred. Kublai Khan of Marco Polo fame had annexed Tibet to his vast empire, and in 1720 the mysterious land was finally conquered by the Chinese. The history of the exploration of Tibet and the adjoining country, and of the various attempts to penetrate to Ulhasa, is one of the most thrilling in the annals of discovery. We remember that Benjamin of Tudela in the 12th century, Carpini and William de Rubrucchis in the 13th, all assert that they passed through Tibet, but we have no certain records, till several Italian capuchin friars succeeded in reaching Ulhasa. There they lived and taught for some 38 years, when they were withdrawn, and the little Tibetan mission, as it was called, came to an end. It was yet early in the 18th century, England was taking up her great position in India, and Warren Hastings was anxious to open up friendly relations with Tibet beyond the great Himalaya ranges. To this end he sent an Englishman, George Bogel, with these instructions. I desire you will proceed to Ulhasa. The design of your mission is to open a mutual and equal communication of trade between the inhabitants of Tibet and Bengal. You will take with you samples for a trial of such articles of commerce, as may be sent from this country. And you will diligently inform yourself of the manufacturers, productions and goods, which are to be procured in Tibet. The following will also be proper subjects for your inquiry, the nature of the roads between the borders of Bengal and Ulhasa, and the neighboring countries. I wish you to remain a sufficient time to obtain a complete knowledge of the country. The period of your stay must be left to your discretion. Bogel was young, he knew nothing of the country, but in May 1774 his little expedition set off from Calcutta to do the bidding of war on Hastings. By way of Bhutan, planting potatoes at intervals according to his orders, Bogel proceeded across the eastern Himalayas, towards the Tibetan frontier, reaching Phaari, the first town in Tibet, at the end of October. Then they reached Gyangse, a great trade centre now open to foreigners, crossed the Brahmaputra, which they found was about the size of Thames at Putni, and reached the residence of the Tashi Lama, the second great potentate of Tibet. This great dignitary and the young Englishman made great friends. On a carved and gilt throne amid cushions sat the Lama cross-legged. He was dressed in a meter-shaped cap of yellow brood clothes, with long bars lined with red satin, a yellow clothes jacket without sleeves, and a satin mantle of the same colour, thrown over his shoulders. On one side of him stood his physician with a bundle of perfumed sandalwood rods burning in his hand, on the other stood his cupbearer. Such was this remarkable man, as first seen by the English, venerated as God's vice-regent through all the eastern countries of Asia. He had heard much of the power of the phyringes, as he called the English. As my business is to pray to God, he said to Bogul, I was afraid to admit any phyringes into this country, but I have since learned that they are a fair and just people. Bogul would have proceeded to Ulhassa, the home of the Grand Lama, but this permission was refused, and he had to return to India with the information he had collected. The next Englishman to enter Tibet was Thomas Manning, the first to reach the sacred city of Ulhassa. He was a private adventurer, who had lived in China and learned the language. Attended by a Chinese servant and wearing a flowing bird of singular length, he left Calcutta, crossed into the Bhutan, and arrived at the Tibetan border in October 1811. Then he crossed the Brahmaputra in a large ferry boat and arrived within seven miles of Ulhassa. On 9th December the first European entered the sacred city since the expulsion of the Capuchin Friars. The view of the famous Potala, the lofty towering palace, filled him with admiration. But the city of which Europe, knowing nothing, had exalted into a magnificent place was very disappointing. We passed under a large gateway, says Manning, whose gilded ornaments were so ill-fixed that some leaned one way and some another. The road as it winds round the palace is royally broad. It's warmed with monks and beggars were basking in the sun. There is nothing striking in its appearance. The habitations are begramed with smut and dirt.  In short, everything seems mean and gloomy. Having provided himself with a proper head, Manning went to the Potala to salute Grand Lama, taking with him a pair of brass candlesticks, with two wax candles, some genuine smith lavender water, and a good store of Nankinti, which is a rare delicacy at Ulhassa. Ushered into the presence of the Grand Lama, a child of seven, he touched his head three times on the floor, after the custom of the country, and taking off his head, kneeled to be blessed by his little monarch. He had the simple and unaffected manners of a well-educated princely child. His face was effectingly beautiful, his beautiful mouth was perpetually unbending into graceful smile, which illuminated his whole countenance. Here Manning spent four months, at the end of each time he was recalled from Pekin, and reluctantly he was obliged to return the way he came. The next man to reach the Forbidden City was a Jesuit missionary, the Abbe Huuk, who reached Ulhassa in 1846 from China. He had adopted the dress of the Tibetan Lama, the yellow cap and gown, and he piloted his little caravan across the wide steps on horseback, while his fellow missionary, Gabet, rode a camel, and their one-torter retainer rode a black mule. It took them a year and a half to reach the sacred city of Ulhassa, for many and great were the difficulties on the way. The first difficulty lay in crossing the Yellow River, which was in flood. It is quite impossible to cross the Yellow River, they were told. Eight days ago the river overflowed its banks, and the plains are completely flooded. The Tartars only told us the truth, remarked Huuk sadly. The Yellow River had become a vast sea, the limits of which were scarcely visible, houses and villages looked as though they were floating upon the waves. What were we to do, to turn back without the question? We had vowed that, God willing, we would go to Ulhassa whatever obstacles impeded. And so they did. The camels were soon up to their knees in a thick, slimy compost of mud and water, over which the poor animals slid on their painful way. Their courage was rewarded, native ferry boats came to their rescue, and they reached the other side in safety. They were now on the main caravan route to the Tibetan frontier and the Kokonor. Immense caravans were met, with strings of camels extending four miles in length. Three times between the Yellow River and the Kokonor, Lake, did they pass the Great Wall, built in 214 AD. After over four months of travel, Huuk arrived at the Monastery of Kunkum on the borderland of Tibet. This was the home of 4,000 Lamas, all closed in red dresses and yellow miters, and with the resort is the worshippers of Buddha, from all parts of Tartary and Tibet. The site is one of enchanting beauty, says Huuk. Imagine in a mountain side, a deep, broad ravine adorned with fine trees and alive, with the caving of rooks and yellow-beaked crows, and the amusing chatter of magpies. On the two sides of the ravine and on the slopes of the mountain, rise the white dwellings of the Lamas. I made the dazzling whiteness of these modest habitations, rise numerous Buddhist temples, with gilt roofs, sparkling with a thousand brilliant colors. Here the travellers stayed for three months, after which they made their way on to the Kokonor Lake. As we advanced, says Huuk, the country became more fertile, until we reached the vast and magnificent pasturage of Kokonor. Here vegetation is so vigorous, that the grass rose up to the stomachs of our camels. Soon we discovered far before us what seemed a broad silver ribbon. Our leader informed us that this was the Blue Sea. We urged on our animals, and the sun had not set when we planted our tent within a hundred paces of the waters of the great Blue Lake. This immense reservoir of waters seems to merit the title of sea, rather than merely of a lake. To say nothing of its vast extent, its waters are bitter and salt, like those of the ocean. After a month spent on the shores of the Blue Lake, an opportunity offered for the advance. Towards the end of October they found that an embassy from Alhasa to Pekin was returning in great force. This would afford Huuk and his companion, safe traveling, from the hordes of brigands that infested the route through Tibet. The caravan was immense. There were 1500 oxen, 1200 horses, and as many camels and about 2,000 men. The ambassador was carried in a litter. Such was the multitude, which now started for the thousand miles across Tibet to Alhasa. After crossing the great Burkhun Buddha Range, the caravan came to the Shuka Pass, about 17,000 feet high, and here their troubles began. When the huge caravan first set itself in motion, says Huuk, the sky was clear, and the brilliant moon lit up the great carpet of snow, with which the whole country was covered. We were able to attain the summit by sunrise. Then the sky became sickly overcast with clouds, and the wind began to blow, with the violence which became more and more intense. Snow fell heavily, and several animals perished. They marched in the teeth of an icy wind, which almost choked them, whirlwinds of snow blinded them, and when they reached the foot of the mountain at last, Mr. Gabbet found that his nose and ears were frostbitten. As they proceeded the cold became more intense. The demons of snow, wind and cold, were set loose on the caravan with a fury which seemed to increase from day to day. One cannot imagine a more terrible country, says poor Huuk. Not only were the animals dying from cold and exposure, but men were beginning to drop out and die. Forty of the party died before the plateau of Tangla had been crossed, a proceeding which lasted twelve days. The track, some 16,000 feet above the sea, was bordered by the skeletons of mules and camels, and monstrous eagles followed the caravan. The scenery was magnificent, line upon line of snow-white pinnacles, stretched southward and westward, under a bright sun. The descent was long, brass can wrap it, like the descent of a gigantic ladder. At the lower altitude snow and ice disappeared. It was the end of January 1846, when it lost our two travelers, found themselves approaching the long-toward city of Lhasa. The sun was nearly setting, says Huuk, when we found ourselves in a vast plain, and saw on our right Lhasa, the famous metropolis of the Buddhist world. After eighteen months' struggle with sufferings and obstacles of infinite number and variety, we were at length arrived at the termination of our journey, though not at the close of our miseries. Huuk's account of the city agrees well with that of Manning. The palace of the Dalai Lama, he says, merits the celebrity which it enjoys throughout the world. Upon a rugged mountain, the mountain of Buddha, the adorers of the Lama have raised the magnificent palace, wherein their living divinity resides in the flesh.  That which occupies the center is four stories high. It terminates in a dome entirely covered with plates of gold. It is here the Dalai Lama has set up his abode. From the summit of his lofty sanctuary, he can contemplate his innumerable adorers, prostrate at the foot of the divine mountain. But in the town, all was different. All are engaged in the grand business of buying and selling. All is noise, pushing, excitement, confusion. Here Huuk and his companion resided for two and a half months, opening an oratory in their house, and even making a few Christian converts. But soon they were ordered to leave, and reluctantly they traveled back to China, though by a somewhat different route. After this the Tibetans guarded their capital more zealously than before. Przevalstki, that grand explorer of Russian nationality, spent years in exploring Tibet. But when within a hundred and sixty miles of Alhasa, he was stopped, and never reached the forbidden city. Others followed. Prince Henry of Orleans got to within one hundred miles of Alhasa, Little Dale and his wife, to within fifty miles. Sven Heddin, the prince of Swedish explorers, who had made so many famous journeys around and about Tibet, was making a dash for the capital, disguised as a Mongolian pilgrim, when he too was stopped. A long black line of Tibetan horsemen rode towards us at full gallop, he relates. It was not raining just at that moment, though there was nothing to prevent us from witnessing, what was in truth, a very magnificent spectacle. It was as though a living avalanche were sweeping down upon us. A moment more and we should be annihilated. We held our weapons ready. All on came the Tibetans in a one long line, stretching across the plain. We counted close upon seventy in all. In the middle rode the chief on a big handsome mule, his staff of officers all dressed in their finest holiday attire. The wings consisted of soldiers armed to the teeth with gun, sword and lance. The great man, Kamba Bombo, pulled up in front of our tent. After removing a red Spanish cloak and hood, he stood forth arrayed in a suit of yellow silk, with wide arms and a little blue Chinese school cap. His feet were incised in Mongolian boots of green velvet. He was magnificent. You will not go another step towards Lhasa, he said. If you do, you will lose your heads. It doesn't the least matter who you are or where you come from.  So an escort was provided and sorrowfully Sven Hedin turned his back to the jealously guarded town he had striven so hard to reach. The expedition or rather mission under Colonel Young Husband in 1904 brings to an end our history of the exploration of Tibet. He made his way to Lhasa from India. He stood in the sacred city, and except for the potala, he found it a sorry affair. He succeeded in getting a trade treaty signed, and he rode hastily back to India and travelled thence to England. The importance of the mission was accentuated by the fact that the flag, a Union jack bearing the motto, Heaven's light our guide, carried by the expedition, and placed on the table when the treaty was signed in Lhasa, hangs today in the central hall at Windsor, over the statue of Queen Victoria. The whale so long drawn over the capital of Tibet had been at last torn aside, and the naked city had been revealed in all its weird barbarity. Plans of the scattered and ill-regulated city are now familiar. The potala has been photographed, the grand lama has been drawn, and if, with the departure of young husband, the gates of Lhasa were once more closed, voices from beyond the snowy Himalayas must be heard again ear-long. Nansen Reaches Farthest North No names are better known in the history of Arctic exploration than those of Nansen and the Fram, and although others have done work just as fine, the name of Nansen cannot be omitted from our book of discovery. Sven Hedin had not long returned from his great travels through eastern Turkestan and Tibet when Nansen was preparing for his great journey northwards. He had already crossed Greenland from east to west, a brilliant achievement only excelled by Piri, who a few years later crossed it at higher latitude and proved it to be an island. Now the movement of ice drift in the Arctic seas was occupying the attention of explorers at this time. A ship, the Jeanette, had been wrecked in 1881 off the coast of Siberia, and three years later the debris of the wreck had been washed up on the southwest coast of Greenland, so it occurred to Nansen that a current must flow across the north pole from Bering Sea on one side to the Atlantic Ocean on the other. His idea was therefore to build a ship as strong as possible to enable it to withstand the pressure of the ice, to allow it to become frozen in, and then to drift as the articles from the Jeanette had drifted. He reckoned that it would take three years for the drift of ice to carry him to the north pole. Full hardy and impossible as the scheme seemed to some, King Oscar came forward with one thousand pounds toward expenses. The frum was then designed. The whole success of the expedition lay in her strength to withstand the pressure of the ice. At last she was ready, even fitted with electric light. A library scientifically prepared food and instruments of the most modern type were on board. The members of the expedition numbered thirteen and on mid-summer day, 1893, in calm summer weather, while the setting sun shed his beams over the land, the frum stood out towards the blue sea to get its first roll in the long heaving swell. Along the coast of Norway, past Bergen, past Trondheim, past Tromsø, they steamed until in a northwesterly gale and driving snow they lost sight of land. It was 25th of July when they sighted Nova Zemlja, plunged in a world of fog. They landed at Habarova and visited the little old church seen fifteen years before by Nordenskeld, anxiously inquiring about the state of the ice in the Kara Sea. Here amid the greatest noise and confusion some 34 dogs were brought on board for the sledges. On 5th August the explorers successfully passed through the yugor straight into the Kara Sea, which was fairly free from ice, and five weeks later sailed past Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of the old world. The land was low and desolate, says Nansen. The sun had long since gone down behind the sea. Only one star was to be seen. It stood straight above Cape Chelyuskin, shining clearly and sadly in the pale sky. Exactly at four o'clock our flags were hoisted, and our last three cartridges sent out a thundering salute over the sea. The fron was then turned north to the west of the new Siberian islands. It was a strange thing to be sailing away north, says Nansen, to unknown lands over an open rolling sea where no ship had been before. On to the north, steadily north with a good wind, as fast as steam and sail can take us through unknown regions. They had almost reached seventy-eight degrees north when they saw ice shining through the fog, and a few days later the from was frozen in. Autumn was well advanced, the long night of winter was approaching. There was nothing to be done except prepare ourselves for it, and we converted our ship, as well as we could, into comfortable winter quarters. By October the ice was pressing round the from with a noise like thunder. It is piling itself up into long walls and heaps, high enough to reach a good way up the from's rigging. In fact, it is trying its very utmost to grind the from into powder. Christmas came and went, the new year of 1894 dawned, with the thermometer thirty-six degrees below zero. By February the from had drifted to the 18th degree of latitude. High festival in order of the 18th degree writes Nansen. Hurrah! Well sailed! The wind is whistling among the hammocks, the snow flies rustling through the air, ice and sky are melted into one, but we are going north at full speed, and are in the wildest of gay spirits. If we go on at this rate we shall be at the pole in fifty months. On 17th of May the 81st degree of latitude was reached. Five months passed away. By 31st of October they had drifted to the 82nd. A grand banquet today, says Nansen, to celebrate the 82nd degree of latitude. We are progressing merrily towards our goal. We are already halfway between the new Siberian islands and Franciosa land, and there is not the soul on board who doubts that we shall accomplish what we came to do, so long live merriment. Now Nansen's land is a great sledge journey, which has been called the most daring ever undertaken. The winter was passed in peaceful preparation for a start in the spring. When the new year of 1895 dawned, the frame had been firmly frozen in for fifteen months. A few days later the ship was nearly crushed by a fresh ice pressure, and all prepared to abandon her if necessary. But after an anxious day of ice roaring and crackling, a nice pressure with a vengeance, as if doomsday had come, remarked Nansen. It quieted down. They had now beaten all records, for they had reached 83 degrees latitude. And now preparations for the great sledge journey were complete. They had built kayaks or light boats to sail in open water, and these were placed on the sledges and drawn by dogs. Nansen decided only to take one companion, Johansen, and to leave the others with the frame. At last the great day had arrived. The chief aim of the expedition is to push through the unknown polar sea from the region around the new Siberian islands, north of Franciosefland, and onward to the Atlantic Ocean near Spitzbergen or Greenland. For wells were set, and then the two men bravely started off over the unknown desert sea with their sledges and twenty-eight dogs. For the first week they traveled well and soon reached 85 degrees latitude. The only disagreeable thing to face now is the cold, says Nansen. Our clothes are transformed more and more into complete suits of ice armor. The sleeve of my coat actually rubbed deep sores in my wrists, one of which got frostbitten. The wound grew deeper and deeper, and nearly reached the bone. At night we packed ourselves into our sleeping bags, and lay with our teeth chattering for an hour before we could become aware of the little worms in our bodies. Steadily, with faces to the north they pressed on over the blocks of rough ice, stretching as far as the horizon, till on eighths of April further progress became impossible. Nansen strode on ahead and mounted one of the highest hammocks to look around. He saw a veritable chaos of ice blocks, ridge after ridge, and nothing but rubble to travel over. He therefore determined to turn and make for France the other land, some 450 miles distant. They had already reached 86 degrees of latitude, farther north than any expedition had reached before. As they traveled south they rejoiced in the arms of the sun, but their food was growing scarce.  Till by May they had only 13 dogs left. June found them having experienced tremendous snowstorms with only seven dogs left. Although they were in the latitude of France Joseph land, no welcome shores appeared. It was now three months since they had left the frame. The food for the dogs was quite finished, and the poor creatures were beginning to eat their harness of sail-clothes. Mercifully before the months ended they managed to shoot a seal which provided them with food for a month. It's a pleasing change, says Nansen, to be able to eat as much and as often as we like. Blubber is excellent, both raw and fried. For dinner I've fried a highly successful steak. For supper I made blood pancakes fried in blubber with sugar, unsurpassed in flavor. And here we lie up in the far north, two grim, black, soot-stained barbarians, stirring a mess of soup in a kettle, surrounded on all sides by ice, ice covered with impossible snow. A bear and two cubs were shot, and the explorers stayed on at Longing camp, as they named this dreary spot, unable to go on, but humbly fed. On 24th of July we get the first cheerful entry for many a long day. Land, land, after nearly two years we again see something rising above, that never ending white line of the horizon yonder. A new life is beginning for us. Only two dogs were now left to drag the sledges, so the two explorers were obliged to help with the dragging. For thirteen days they proceeded in the direction of land, dragging and pushing their burdens over the ridges of ice, with snow. At last on 7th of August they stood at the edge of the ice. Behind lies the troubles, before was the waterway home. Then they launched their little kayaks, which danced over the open waters, the little waves splashing against their sides. When the mist cleared they found themselves on the west coast of France-Joseph land, discovered by an Austro-Hungarian expedition in 1874.  They had landed and were camping on the shore, when a great storm arose, and the wind blew the drift ice down till it lay packed along the coast. The little ships were frozen in, and there was no hope of reaching home that winter. Here they were doomed to stay. Fortunately there were bears and walrus, so they could not starve, and with a magnificent pluck they set to work to prepare for the winter. For many a long day they toiled, at the necessary task of skinning and cutting up walrus, till they were saturated with the blood. But soon they had two great heaps of blubber and meat on shore, well covered over with walrus hides. September was occupied in building a hut amidst the frost and snow, with walrus hides and tusks, warmed inside with train oil lamps. Here and their bare skin they slept, and passed the long months of winter. In October the sun disappeared, the days grew darker, life grew very monotonous, for it was the third polar winter the explorers had been called on to spend. They celebrated Christmas Day. Nansen by washing himself in the quarter of a cup of a warm water, Johansen by turning his shirt. The weather outside was stormy and almost took their breath away with its icy coldness. They longed for a book, but they wiled away the hours by trying to calculate how far the Fram could have drifted, and when she was likely to reach home. They were distressed at the dirt of their clothes, and longed to be able to throw away the heavy oily rags that seemed glued to their bodies. They had no soap, and water had no effect on the horrible grease. It was May before the weather allowed them to leave the hut at last. Hopefully they dragged their kayaks over the snow, the sledge runners fastened on to their feet, and so made their way southwards down Franz Joseph land. Once Nansen was very nearly drowned. The explorers had reached the south of the islands, and having moored their little boats together, they ascended a hammock close by. When to their horror they saw the kayaks were adrift. Nansen rushed down, threw off some clothes, and sprang into the water after them. He was none too soon, for already the boats were drifting rapidly away. The water was icy cold, but it was a case of life or death. Without the boats they were lost men. All they possessed was on board, says Nansen, so I exerted myself to the utmost. I redoubled my exertions, though I felt my limbs gradually stiffening. At last I was able to stretch out my hand to the edge of the kayak. I tried to pull myself up, but the whole of my body was stiff as cold. After a time I managed to swing one leg up onto the edge and to tumble up. Nor was it easy to paddle in the double vessel. The gust of wind seemed to go right through me, as I stood there in my wet woolen shirt. I shivered, my teeth chattered, and I was numb all over. At last I managed to reach the edge of the ice. I shook and trembled all over, while Johansson pulled off the wet things and packed me into a sleeping bag. The critical situation was saved. And now came one of those rare historic days in the history of exploration. It was 17 June 1896. Nansen was surveying the lonely line of coast, when suddenly the barking of a dog fell on his ear, and soon in front he saw the fresh tracks of some animal. It was with a strange mixture of feelings, he says, that I made my way among the numerous hammocks towards land. Suddenly I thought I heard a human voice, the first for three years.  Soon I heard another shout, and saw a dark form moving among the hammocks. It was a man. We approached one another quickly. I waved my head, he did the same. As I drew near, I thought I recognized Mr. Jackson, whom I remembered once to have seen. I raised my head. We extended a hand to one another with a hearty. How do you do? Above us a roof of mist, beneath our feet, the rugged packed drift eyes. Aren't you, Nansen? he said. Yes, I am, was the answer. And seizing the grimly hand of the arctic explorer, he shook it warmly, congratulating him on his successful trip. Jackson and his companions had wintered at Cape Flora, the southern point of Francia of the Fland, and they were expecting a ship, the Windward, to take them home. On 26 July the Windward steamed slowly in, and by thirteenth of August she reached Norway, and the news of Nansen's safe arrival was made known to the whole world. A week later the little Fran, strong and broad and weather-beaten, also returned in safety. And on 9 September 1896 Nansen and his brave companions on board the Fran sailed up Christiania Fjord in triumph. He had reached a point farthest north, and been nearer to the North Pole than had any explorer before. End of Chapter 71 Chapter 72 of a Book of Discovery. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. A Book of Discovery by M. B. Singh, Chapter 72. Peary Reaches the North Pole, 1909 The 6 April 1909 is a marked day in the annals of exploration, for on that day Peary succeeded in reaching the North Pole, which for centuries had defied the efforts of man, on that day he attained the goal for which the greatest nations of the world had struggled for over four hundred years. Indeed, he had spent twenty-three years of his own life laboring towards this end. He was mainly inspired by reading Nordiskjöld's exploration of Greenland, when Aloitnand in the United States Navy. In 1886 he got leave to join an expedition to Greenland, and returned with the arctic fever in his veins, and a scheme for crossing that continent as far north as possible. This after many hardships he accomplished, being the first explorer to discover that Greenland was an island. Peary was now stamped as a successful arctic explorer. The idea of reaching the North Pole began to take shape, and in order to raise funds the enthusiastic explorer delivered no less than one hundred and sixty-eight lectures in ninety-six days. With the proceeds he chartered the Falcon and left the shores of Philadelphia in June 1893 for Greenland. His wife, who accompanied him before, accompanied him again, and with sledges and dogs on board, they made their way up the western coast of Greenland. Arrived at Melville Bay, Peary built a little hut. Here a little daughter was born, who was soon bundled in soft warm arctic furs, and wrapped in the stars and stripes. No European child had ever been born so far north as this. The Eskimos traveled for long distances. To satisfy themselves she was not made of snow, and for the first six months of her life the baby lived in continuous lamplight. But we cannot follow Peary through his many polar expeditions. His toes had been frozen off in one, his leg broken in another, but he was enthusiastic enough when all preparations were complete for the last and greatest expedition of all. The Roosevelt, named after the President of the United States, had carried him safely to the north of Greenland in his last expedition, so she was again chosen, and in July 1908 Peary hoisted the stars and stripes and steamed from New York. As the ship backed out into the river, a cheer went up from the thousands who had gathered on the pier to see us off. It was an interesting coincidence that the day on which we started for the coldest spot on earth was about the hottest which New York had known for years. As we steamed up the river, the din grew louder and louder. We passed President Roosevelt's naval yacht, the Mayflower, and her small gun roared out in parting salute. Surely no ship ever started for the ends of the earth with more heart-stirring farewells. President Roosevelt had himself inspected the ship and shaken hands with each member of the expedition. I believe in you, Peary, he had said, and I believe in your success if it is within the possibility of man. So the little Roosevelt steamed away. On 26 July the Arctic Circle was crossed by Peary for the twentieth time, and on 1st of August, Cape York, the most northerly home of human beings in the world, was reached. This was the dividing line between the civilized world on one hand and the Arctic world on the other. Picking up several Eskimo families and about two hundred and fifty dogs, they steamed on northwards. Imagine, says Peary, imagine about three hundred and fifty miles of almost solid ice, ice of all shapes and sizes, mountainous ice, flat ice, racked and tortured ice.  The usual course was taken across Smith Sound and past the desolate wine-swept rocks of Cape Sabine, where in 1884 Greeley's ill-fated party slowly starved to death, only seven surviving, out of twenty-four. Fog on ice now beset the ship, and on 5th September they were compelled to seek winter quarters, for which they chose Cape Suridan, where Peary had wintered before in 1905. Here they unloaded the Roosevelt and two hundred and forty-six Eskimo dogs, where at once let loose to run about in the snow. A little village soon grew up and the Eskimos, both men and women, went hunting as of your. Peary had decided to start as before from Cape Columbia, some ninety miles away, the most northerly point of Grandland, for his dash to the pole. On 12th October the sun disappeared, and they entered cheerfully into the great dark. Imagine us in our winter home, says Peary. Four hundred and fifty miles from the north pole, the ship held tight in her icy berth, one hundred and fifty yards from the shore, ship and the surrounding world covered with snow, the wind creaking in the rigging, whistling and shrieking around the corners of the deck houses, the temperature ranking from zero to sixty below, the ice pack in the channel outside as groaning and complaining with the movement of the tides. Christmas passed with its usual festivities. There were races for the Eskimos, one for the children, one for the men, and one for the Eskimo mothers, who carried babies in their fur hoods. These lost, looking like animated walruses, took their race at the walking pace. At last on 15th February 1909 the first sledge party left the ship for Cape Columbia, and a week later Peary himself left the Roosevelt with lost loads. The party assembled at Cape Columbia was a great journey north, which consisted of seven men of Peary's party, 59 Eskimos, 140 dogs and 28 sledges. Each sledge was complete in itself, each had its cooking utensils, its foremen, its dogs and provisions for fifty or sixty days. The weather was clear, calm and cold. On first of March the cavalcade started off from Cape Columbia in a freezing east wind, and soon men and dogs became invisible amid drifting snow. Day by day they went forward, and downed by the difficulties and hardships of the way, now sending back small parties to the depot at Cape Columbia. Now dispatching to the home camp, some reluctant explorer with a frostbitten heel or foot, now delayed by open water, but on, on, till they had broken all records, passed all tracks even of the polar bear, passed the 87th parallel into the region of perpetual daylight for half the year. It was here apparently, within reach of his girl, that Peary had to turn back three years before for one of food. Thus they marched for a month, party after party had been sent back, till the last supporting party had gone, and Peary was left with his black servant, Henson, and four Eskimos. He had five sledges, forty picked dogs and supplies, for forty days, when he started off alone, to dash the last hundred and thirty three miles to the pole itself. Every event in the next week is of thrilling interest. After a few hours of sleep, the little party started off, shortly after midnight, on 2 April 1909, Peary was leading. I felt the keenest exhilaration, as I climbed over the ridge and breathed the keen air, sweeping over the mighty ice, pure and straight, from the pole itself. They might yet be stopped by open water, from reaching the goal. On they went, twenty five miles in ten hours, then a little sleep, and so on again. Then a few hours rest and another twenty miles, till they had reached latitude eighty nine degrees. Still breathlessly they hurried forward, till on the fifth they were but thirty five miles from the pole. The sky overhead was a colorless pole, gradually deepening to almost black at the horizon, and the ice was a ghastly and chalky white. On 6 April the pole was reached. The pole at last, brought Peary in his diary, the price of three centuries, my dream and goal for twenty years, mine at last, I cannot bring myself to realize it. It all seems so simple and commonplace. Flags were coisted at once, on ice-lenses, and the successful explorer watched them proudly, waving in the bright arctic sunlight at the pole. Through all his perilous expeditions to the arctic regions, Peary had worn a silken flag, worked by his wife, wrapped round his body. He now flew it on this historic spot, which knows no north nor west nor east.  They could not stay long, for provisions would run short, and the ice might melt before their return journey was accomplished. So after a brief rest they started off for Cape Columbia, which they reached after a wild rush of sixteen days. It had taken them thirty-seven days to cover the four hundred and seventy-five miles from Cape Columbia to the pole, from which they had returned at the rate of thirty miles a day. The whole party then started for the Roosevelt, and on 18th July she was taken from her winter quarters and turned towards home. Then came the day when wireless telegraphy flashed the news through the whole of the civilised world. Stars and stripes nailed to the north pole. The record of four hundred years of splendid self-sacrifice and heroism, unrivalled in the history of exploration, had been crowned at last. A book of discovery by M. B. Singh, Chapter 73 The Quest for the South Pole An American had placed the stars and stripes on the north pole in 1909. It was a Norwegian who succeeded in reaching the south pole in 1911. But the spadework which contributed so largely to the final success had been done so enthusiastically by two Englishmen, that the expeditions of Scott and Shackleton must find a place here before we conclude this book of discovery, with Amundsen's final and brilliant dash. The crossing of the Antarctic Circle by the famous Challenger expedition in 1874 revived interest in the far south. The practical outcome of much discussion was the design of the discovery, a ship built expressly for scientific exploration, and the appointment of Captain Scott to command an Antarctic expedition. In August 1901 Scott left the shores of England, and by way of New Zealand, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 3rd of January 1902. Three weeks later he reached the grazed ice barrier which had stopped Ross in 1840. For a week Scott steamed along the barrier. Mounts Erebus and Terror were plainly visible, and though he could nowhere discover Perry Mountains, yet he found distant land rising high above the sea, which he named King Edward VII's land. Scott had brought with him a captive balloon, in which he now rose a height of 800 feet, from which he saw an unbroken glacier stream of vast extent stretching to the south. It was now time to seek for winter quarters, and Scott, returning to M Mordeaux Bay, named by Ross, found that it was not a bay at all, but a strait leading southward. Here they landed their stores, set up their hut, and spent the winter, till on 2nd of November 1902 all was ready for a sledge journey to the south. For 59 days Scott led his little land party of three, with four sledges and 19 dogs south. But the heavy snow was too much for the dogs, and one by one died, until not one was left, and the men had to drag and push the sledges themselves. Failing provisions at last compelled them to stop. Great mountains summits were seen beyond the farthest point reached. We have decided at last we have found something which is fitting to be or the name of him, whom we most delight to honour, says Scott, and Mount Markham it shall be called in memory of the father of the expedition. It was thirties December when a tremendous blizzard stayed their last advance.  With only provisions for a fortnight they at last reluctantly turned home, staggering as far as their depot in thirty days. Shackleton was smitten with scurvy, he was growing worse every day, and it was a relief, but on 2nd February they all reached a ship, alive, as near spent as three persons can well be. But they had done well, they had made the first long land journey ever mained in the Antarctic. They had reached a point which was farthest south, they had tested new methods of travel, they had covered nine hundred and sixty miles in ninety three days. Shackleton was now invalid at home, but it was not till nineteen oh four that the discovery escaped from the frozen harbour to make her way home. Shackleton had returned to England in nineteen oh three, but the mysterious south pole amid its wastage of ice and snow still called him back, and in command of the Nimrod he started forth in August nineteen oh seven on the next British Antarctic expedition, carrying a union jack presented by the Queen to plant on the spot farthest south. He actually placed it within ninety seven miles of the pole itself. With a petrol motor car on board, Eskimo dogs, and manjurian ponies, he left New Zealand on 1st January 1908, watched and cheered by some 30 thousand of his fellow countrymen. Three weeks later they were in sight of the Great Ice Barrier, and a few days later the huge mountains of Erebus and Terror came into sight. Shackleton had hoped to reach King Edward VII's land for in winter quarters, but a formidable ice pack prevented this, and they selected a place some twenty miles north of the discovery's old winter quarters. Getting the wild little manjurian ponies ashore with no light job, the poor little creatures were stiff after a month's constant buffeting, for the Nimrod's passage had been stormy. One after another they were now led out of their stalls into a horse-box and slung over the ice. Once on terra firma they seemed more at home, for they immediately began powing the snow as they were wont to do in their far away manjurian home. The spacious hut brought out by Shackleton was soon erected. Never was such a luxurious house set up on the bleak shores of the polar seas. There was a dark room for developing, acetylene gas for lighting, a good stove for warming, and comfortable cubicles decorated with pictures. The dark room was excellent and never was a book of travels more beautifully illustrated than Shackleton's heart of the Antarctic. True, during some of the winter storms and blizzards, the hut shook and trembled, so that every moment its occupants sought it would be carried bodily away, but it stood its ground all right. The long winter was spent, as usual, in preparing for the spring expedition to the south, but it was 29th of October 1908, before the weather made it possible to make a start. The party consisted of Shackleton, Adams, Marshall and Wilde, each leading a pony which dragged a sledge with food for 91 days. A glorious day for our start brought Shackleton in his diary, brilliant sunshine and a cloudless sky. As we left the hut, where we had spent so many months in comfort, we had a feeling of real regret that never again would we all be together there. A clasp of the hands means more than many words, and as we turned to acknowledge the man's cheer and saw them standing on the ice by the familiar cliffs, I felt we must try to do well for the sake of everyone concerned in the expedition. New land in the shape of ice-clad mountains greeted the explorers on 22nd November. It is a wonderful place we are in, all new to the world, says Shackleton. There is an impression of limitless solitude about it that makes us feel so small as we trudge along, a few dark specks on the snowy plain. The know had to quit the barrier in order to travel south. Fortunately they found a gap called the Southern Gateway, which afforded a direct line to the pole, but their ponies had suffered badly during the march. They had already been obliged to shoot three of them, and on 7th December the last pony fell down a crevasse and was killed. They had now reached a great plateau, some 7000 feet above the sea. It rose steadily towards the south, and Christmas Day found them lying in a little tent, isolated high on the roof of the world, far from the way strung by man. With forty-eight degrees of frost, drifting snow and a biting wind, they spent the next few days hauling their sledges up a steep incline. They had now only a month's food left, pressing on with reduced rations.  It was the 6th of January, and they were in latitude 88 degrees, when a blinding, shrieking blizzard made all further advance impossible. For 60 hours the four hungry explorers lay in their sleeping bags, nearly perished with cold. The most trying day we have yet spent, writes Shackleton, our fingers and faces being continually frost-bitten. Tomorrow we will rush south with the flag. It is our last outward march. The gale-breaking they marched on till 9th of January, when they stopped within 97 miles of the pole, where they hoisted the junior jag, and took possession of the great plateau in the king's name. We could see nothing, but the dead white snow plain. There was no break in the plateau, as it extended towards the pole. I am confident that the pole lies on the great plateau we have discovered, miles and miles from any outstanding land. And so the four men turned homewards. Whatever our regret may be, we have done our best, said the leader somewhat sadly. Blinding blizzards followed them, as they made their way slowly back. On 28th of January they reached the great ice barrier. Their food was well-nice spent. Their daily rations consisted of six biscuits and some horse meat, in the shape of the manjurian ponies they had shot and left the November before. But it is agreed with most of them, and it was four very weak and ailing men who staggered back to the Nimrod towards the end of February 1909. Shackleton reached England in the autumn of 1909 to find that another Antarctic expedition was to leave our shores in the following summer under the command of Scott in the Terra Nova. It was one of the best equipped expeditions that ever started. Motor sledges had been specially constructed to go over the deep snow, which was fatal to the motor car carried by Shackleton. There were 15 ponies and 30 dogs. Leaving England in July 1910, Scott was established in winter quarters in M. M. Mordeaux Sound by 26th January 1911. It was November before he could start on the Southern expedition. We left Hutt Point on the evening of 2nd November. For 60 miles we followed the track of the motors, sent on five days before. The ponies are going very steadily. We found the motor party awaiting us in latitude 80 and a half degrees south. The motors had proved entirely satisfactory, and the machines dragged heavy loads over the worst part of the barrier surface, crossing several crevices. The sole cause of abandonment was the overheating of the air-cooled engines. We are building snow currents at intervals of four miles to guide homeward parties on living a week's provisions at every degree of latitude. As we proceeded the weather grew worse and snowstorms were frequent. The sky was continually overcast, and the land was rarely visible. The ponies, however, continued to pull splendidly. As they proceeded south, they encountered terrific storms of wind and snow after which they had constantly to dig the ponies. Christmas passed and the new year of 1912 dawned. On 3rd January, when 150 miles from the pearl, I am going forward, says Scott, with a party of five men with a month's provisions, and the prospect of success seems good, provided that the weather holds and no unforeseen obstacles arise. Scott and his companions successfully attained the object of their journey. They reached the South Pole on 17th January, only to find that they had been forestalled by others. And it is remarkable to note that so correct were their observations, that two parties located the pole within a half a mile of one another. Scott's return journey ended disastrously, blinding blizzards prevented rapid progress, food and fuel run short, till the weakened men struggled bravely forward, till within a few miles of a depot of supplies death overtook them. Scott's last message can never be forgotten. I do not regret this journey, which has shown that Englishmen can endure hardship, help one another, and meet death with as great fortitude as ever in the past. Had we lived, I should have had a tale to tell of the hardehood, endurance and courage of my companions, which would have stirred the heart of every Englishman. These rough notes and our dead bodies must tell the tale, but surely, surely, a great rich country like ours will see that those who are dependent upon us are properly provided for. It was on 14th December, 1911, that Captain Amundsen had reached the pole, on a region fired by the example of his fellow countrymen, Nansen. Amundsen had long been interested in both Arctic and Antarctic exploration. In a ship of only forty-eight tons, he had, with six others, made a survey of the North Magnetic Pole, sailed through the Bering Strait and accomplished the Northwest Passage, for which he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Geographical Society. On his return he planned an expedition to the North Pole. He had made known his scheme, and newly equipped for North Polar Expedition in Nansen's Little Fram, Amundsen started. Suddenly the world rang with the news that Piri had discovered the North Pole, and that Amundsen had turned his prose southwards, and was determined to make a dash for the South Pole. Landing in Wales Bay, some four hundred miles to the east of Scott's Winters' Quarters, his first visitors were the Englishmen on board the Taranova, who were taking their ship to New Zealand for the winter. Making a hut on the shore, Amundsen had actually started on his journey to the pole before Scott heard of his arrival. I am fully alive to the complication in the situation, arising out of Amundsen's presence in the Antarctic, wrote the English explorer. But as any attempt at a race might have been fatal to our chance of getting to the pole at all, I decided to do exactly as I should have done had not Amundsen been here. If he gets to the pole he will be bound to do it rapidly with dogs, and one foresees that success will justify him. Although the Norwegian explorer left his winter quarters on 8th of September for his dash to the pole, he started too early, three of his party had their feet thrust bitten, and the dogs suffered severely, so he turned back, and it was not till 20th of October, just a week before Scott's start, that he began in real earnest his historic journey. He was well off for food, for whales were plentiful on the shores of the bay, and seals, penguins, and gulls abounded. The expedition was well equipped, with eight explorers, four sledges, and 13 dogs attached to each. Amundsen is a splendid leader, supreme in organization, and the essential in Antarctic travel is to think out the difficulties before they arise. So said those who worked with him on his most successful journey. Through dense fog and blinding blizzards, the Norwegians now made their way south, their Norwegian skis and sledges proving a substantial help. The crevices in the ice were very bad, one dog dropped in and had to be abandoned. Another day the dogs got across, but the sledge fell in, and it was necessary to climb down the crevasse, unpack the sledge, and pull up piece by piece, till it was possible to raise the empty sledge. So intense was the cold that the very brandy froze in the bottle, and was served out in lumps. It did not taste much like brandy then, said the man, but it burned our throats as we sucked it. The dogs traveled well, each man was responsible for his own team. He fed them and made them fond of him. Thus all through November the Norwegians traveled south till they reached the vast plateau described by Shackleton. One tremendous peak, fifteen thousand feet high, they named Frijhof Nansen. On fourteenth of December they reached their goal. The weather was beautiful, the ground perfect for sledging. At three p.m. we made horde, says Amundsen. According to our reckoning we had reached our destination. All of us gathered round the colors, a beautiful silken flag. All hands took hold of it, and planting it on the spot, we gave the vast plateau on which the pole is situated, the name of the King Hawkins VII. It was a vast plain, alike in all directions, mile after mile. Here in brilliant sunshine the little party camped, taking observations till seventeenth of December, when fastening to the ground a little tent with the Norwegian flag and the Fran penant, they gave it the name Polheim and started for home. So the north and south poles yielded up their well-ordered secrets after centuries of waiting within two-and-a-half years of one another. They had claimed more lives than any exploration had done before or is ever likely to do again. And so ends the last of these great-earth stories, stories which have made the world what it is today, and we may well say was one of the most successful explorers of our times. The future may give us thrilling stories of the conquest of the air, but the spirit of man has mastered the earth. End of Chapter 73. Chapter 74 of A Book of Discovery. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. A Book of Discovery by M. B. Sing, Chapter 74. Dates of Chief Events. The Oldest Known Ships. 6000-5000 BC. Expedition to Pund. 16 O O. B. C. Phoenician Expeditions. 700 BC. Neco's Fleet Built. 613 BC. Anneximander, the Greek, invents maps. 580 BC. Hikakhtaios writes the first geography. 500 BC. Herodotus describes Egypt. 446 BC. Khan-no sails down west coast of Africa. 450 BC. Xenophon crosses Asia Minor. 401 BC. Alexander the Great finds India. 327 BC. Niharhus navigates the Indian Ocean. 326 BC. The Geography of Herotostinis. 240-196 BC. P.T.S. discovers the British Isles and Tule. 333 BC. Julius Caesar explores France, Britain, Germany. 60-54 BC. Strabo's Geography. 18 Amnodamine. Algricolor discovers the Highlands. 83 Amnodamine. Blyny's Geography. 170. Ptolemy's Geography of Maps. 159. The First Guide for Travelers. 4th Century. St. Patrick explores Ireland. 432-493. St. Colombo reaches the Orkney Isles. 563. St. Brandon crosses the Atlantic. 6th Century. Willibald travels from Britain to Jerusalem. 721. The Christian Topography of Cosmos. 6th Century. Nadod the Viking discovers Iceland. 861. Eric the Red discovers Greenland. 985. Leif discovers Newfoundland and North America. 1000. Osir navigates Baltic Sea. 890. Mohammedan travels to China. 831. Idrisi's Geography. 1154. Benjamin of Tudela visits India and China. 1160. Carpini visits the Great Khan. 1246. William's De Robruquis also visits the Great Khan. 1255. Mofflio and Nicola Polo reach China. 1260-1271. Marco Polo travels. 1271-1295. Ibn Battuta travels through Asia. 1324-1348. Sir John Mandeville travels published. 1372. Hereford Mapa Mundi appeared. 1218.  Prince Henry of Portugal encourages exploration. 1418. Zarco and Vos reach Porto Santo. 1419. Zarco discovers Madeira. 1420. Nuno Tristram discovers Cape Blanco. 1441. Consalves discovers Cape Verde Islands. 1442. Cadamosto reaches the Senegal River and Cape Verde. 1455. Diego Gomez reaches the Gambia River. 1458. Death of Prince Henry. 1460. Fra Amaro's map. 1457. Diego Cam discovers the Congo. 1484. Boasolom Udias rounds the Cape of Good Hope. 1496. Martin Behe makes his globe. 1492. Christopher Columbus discovers West Indies. 1492. Columbus finds Jamaica and other islands. 1493. Columbus finds Trinidad. 1498. Death of Columbus. 1504. Américo Vespucci finds Trinidad and Venezuela. 1499. First map of the New World by Joan de la Corsa. 1500. Vasco de Gama reaches India by the Cape. 1497. Pietro Cabral discovers Brazil. 1500. Francisco Serrano reaches the Spice Islands. 1511. Balboa sees the Pacific Ocean. 1530. The first circumnavigation of the world. 1519 to 1522. Cordova discovers Yucatan. 1517. Juan Rialva discovers Mexico. 1518. Cortez conquers Mexico. 1519. Pizarro conquers Peru. 1531. Orclano discovers the Amazon. 1541. Cabot sails to Newfoundland. 1497. Jacques Cartier discovers the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1534. Sir Hugh Willoughby finds Nova Zembla. 1553. Richard Cancelor reaches Moscow via Archangel. 1554. Anthony Jankinson crosses Russia to Bukhara. 1558. Pinto claims the discovery of Japan. 1542. Martin Frobisher discovers his bay. 1576. Drake sails round the world. 1577. 1580. Davis finds his strait. 1586. Barons discovers Spitzbergen. 1596. Hudson sails into his bay. 1610. Buffon discovers his bay. 1616. Sir Walter Relay explores Guyana. 1595. Champlain discovers Lake Ontario. 1615. Torres sails through his strait. 1605. La Mer rounds Cape Horn. 1617. Tasman finds Tasmania. 1642. Dumpier discovers his strait. 1698. Bering finds his strait. 1741. Cooke discovers New Zealand. 1769. Cooke anchors in Botany Bay, Australia. 1770. Cooke discovers the Sandwich Islands. 1777. La Perouse makes discoveries in China. 1785-1788. Bruce discovers the source of the Blue Nile. 1770. Mungo Park reaches the Niger. 1796. Vancouver explores his island. 1792. Mackenzie discovers his river and British Columbia. 1789-1793. Ross discovers Melville Bay. 1818. Perry discovers Lancaster Sound. 1819. Franklin reaches the Polar Sea by land. 1819-1822. Perry's discoveries on North American coast. 1822. Franklin navies the Mackenzie River. 1825. B. G. Doubles, I.C. Cape. 1826. Perry attempts the North Pole by Spitzbergen. 1827. Denham and Clapperton discover Lake Chud. 1822. Clapperton reaches the Niger. 1826. Rene Kehl enters Timbuktu. 1829. Rich and a John Lander finds the mouth of the Niger. 1830. Ross discovers Boothia Felix. 1829. James Ross finds the North Magnetic Pole. 1830. Bass discovers his Strait. 1797. Flinders and Bass sail round Tasmania. 1798. Flinders surveys South coast of Australia. 1801-1804. Sturt traces the Darling and Moray rivers. 1828-1831. Burg and Wells cross Australia. 1861. Ross discovers Victoria land in the Antarctic. 1840. Franklin discovers the Northwest Vessage. 1847. Livingstone crosses Africa from west to east. 1849-1856. Burton and Speek discover Lake Tangayika. 1857. Speek sees Victoria Nianza. 1858. Livingstone finds lakes Sherba and Niasza. 1858-1864. Speek and Grant enter Uganda. 1861. Baker meets Speek and Grant at Gondokoro. 1861. Baker discovers Albert Nuanza. 1864. Livingstone finds lakes Mauro and Bangviolo. 1868. Stanley finds Livingstone. 1871. Livingstone dies at Illala. 1873. Stanley finds the mouth of the Congo. 1877. Nordic gold solves the northeast passage. 1879. Young husband enters Lhasa. 1904. Nonsense reaches farthest north. 1895. Piri reaches the north pole. 1909. Amundsen reaches the south pole. 1911. End of chapter 74. And this is also the end of A Book of Discovery by M. B. Singh. Thank you for listening.


Hi, Professor Gerald Friedman from the Department of Economics at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. And we're here today to talk about the historiography of the American Civil War, slavery in the American Civil War. And by the historiography, we mean the way historians have interpreted the events of the 1850s and 1860s. The historical interpretation has changed dramatically. Some American historian said that history is past politics. Faulkner said the past is never past. In understanding the American Civil War, Americans have interpreted it in the light of the politics of their own time. What happened then is almost irrelevant. It's kind of interesting that if you go to American high schools these days, as most of you did, I imagine, American history is taught in a two-year sequence. The first year ends with the Civil War, which means classes usually don't get to the Civil War and don't discuss slavery in the Civil War. The second semester usually starts with reconstruction after the Civil War, which is usually glossed over very quickly so that you can move on to the stuff that the course is really about, since reconstruction is by its nature backward-looking, looking towards the Civil War, which is the previous year's material. This is deliberate. Americans nowadays are very conflicted about the Civil War. You have these people driving around in pickup trucks with Confederate flags in parts of these United States that were unanimously pro-union. What does it mean to have a pickup truck with a Confederate flag when your grandparents fought for the Union? Their Civil War re-enactments all the time. Two-thirds of the people show up wearing gray Confederate uniforms. What's this about? I mean, the Union won. How is it that in the history for many people, it's the Confederacy, the good guys? I don't know, but some of that has to do with the teaching of American history and how the writing of history has changed. After the Civil War, the Civil War, keep in mind, it was horrible. More Americans died in the Civil War than in all of America's wars put together. More died in the Civil War than World War I, World War II, Vietnam, Korea, the Persian Gulf Wars, Afghanistan, the Revolution, the Mexican War, all put together. Which meant that for the people writing about the Civil War afterwards, there's always been a matter of justifying what happened. How can we look the widows and orphans in the eyes and say in our history books that this was all a big mistake? The first historians in American Civil War, people like James Rhodes, were Northerners. My professor in college called them the court historians, Republicans, often former Union Army officers who justified the Civil War as good and honorable, and explained that reconstruction after the Civil War failed because, well, the blacks weren't quite ready, but it was an honorable try. It was all good. Civil War historiography written by these people, it was all good, slavery was bad and moral. It had to be ended. The Civil War ended it. That was good. The point of this history was to make the country feel good, or at least less bad, about the Civil War. And when they talked about the country, when I say the country, I mean the north. Not the south. The south was all bad. This changed in the 1890s with progressive history, which for these purposes meant southern revisionism. Only what happened in the 1890s and later was the reunification of the United States. The Civil War generation was dying out. Their children wanted to put together the country. To do this, you had to reinterpret the Civil War, since the Civil War historiography written by the court historians was all about the north, good, the south, bad. That's not a basis for national unity, at least not national unity among the whites. Might be good national unity among the blacks, but not among the whites. The key historian here was a man named Ulrich B. Phillips, student of progressive economist Richard Ely, a progressive himself, close friends with his former graduate student, Paul Woodrow Wilson, president of the United States. Phillips went from Johns Hopkins to Wisconsin on to Yale University. He published the most important work in the first half of the 20th century, American history, American Negro slavery. You can still get it. It's still in print. This book tells the story that slavery was good, it was benign. Slave owners were humanitarians. They ran slavery as a great school, quote, the best school yet devised to train a primitive people in the ways of civilization. Slavery was good. The north made a mistake. The north misunderstood what was going on. The north got all upset about something that seemed not good, but really was good, because the north didn't know about the blacks. They didn't understand how primitive they were, how incompetent. The blacks needed to be kept in slavery to train them in the ways of civilization and to protect them because they were incapable of managing on their own. Left to their own incompetent and thriftless ways, the Africans would not be able to support themselves and would die out. They needed the slave owners. Phillips argued that the north made a mistake, misunderstood, it was a well-meaning mistake. The south fought to protect its way of life because the south, southern whites, understood that this was the right thing to do. Southern blacks often understood that it was the right thing to do. The Sambo image is Phillips' book and the books are written by his graduate students. Reconstruction was a huge blunder because the north handed political power over to these primitive, incompetent people. Of course, we needed the Ku Klux Klan to come in, fix things, put the blacks back in their place, which is better for them, better for the whites. The north, Phillips argues, finally after 1890s, finally started to understand what it's like because the north is being filled with these immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, Jews, Italians, primitive peoples just like the Africans in the south. This is a finally understanding that we can't have this popular democracy. We need white Protestants to be ruling the country. That's what Phillips wrote in American Negro Slavery and his writings about the Civil War. And that's what Woodrow Wilson taught at Princeton and in the White House. When the famous movie Birth of a Nation came out with the hero being the Ku Klux Klan, Wilson screened it in the White House, invited the cabinet, the Supreme Court, the leaders of the House and Senate, and Woodrow Wilson, America's only PhD president, got up and told everyone this is the way it really was. The Ku Klux Klan saved civilization from the mistakes of reconstruction. We're going to pick up and talk more about Phillips, some more in the next class. Thank you very much. Have a good day. Bye-bye.