Hey friends, today I am hanging out at Disney Springs. My mom and sister have officially arrived and since we can't go to the parks until tomorrow, I decided to come on down to Disney Springs, show them all the cool things the Springs has to offer and just enjoy a night. Anywho's, let's go do this. Are you guys excited to be in Florida? Oh yeah. Yeah, right? Sorry that the flight took an extra two days to get down but you made it and that's all that matters and we're gonna have a fun day at Disney Springs. I hope you're ready. I'm very excited for this. I'm very excited just to be with you. Oh. If you've seen in the video I posted the other day, their flights got canceled twice and eventually they ended up actually just coming in at like four o'clock in the morning. So it's been a rough travel time for them but we're gonna try to make the best of it tonight here at Disney Springs and make up for it. I wanna do all the cool things here. The Ampecar at the Boathouse. I wanna maybe do characters and flight. Well that's not what it's called anymore. And also my mom wanted to go to the M&M store and maybe we can get some M&M's with your face on it. Fancy, right? But the M&M store is that way. This way. My mom had a double knee cap replacement so she uses an electric scooter to get around and she also has a cane. So she can't stand for long periods of time so I'm not sure if the helium balloon is gonna be a good experience for her but we'll find out all the details. But I'm very excited to do the Ampecar. The boat car that drives into the water at the Boathouse. I know she's gonna love that and I'm already booked for it. So that's gonna be later on in the video but now we're gonna do some other cool stuff before then. It also depends on the weather. You can see it's very nice out but it's also very windy. So the balloon sometimes doesn't actually run when it's very windy out and it's swaying pretty fiercely right there. It's funny because my mom, she watches my videos so she actually gets ideas of things that she wants to do. Now this is gonna be her second time actually exploring Disney World and I'm very excited to show her all the newer things. I'm excited for Mickey Minis on a railway. We're gonna try to get her on Rise of the Resistance. I don't know how that's gonna go but we're gonna try and yeah. So she takes mental notes and one of the things she wanted to do was go to the M&M store and she wanted to get her face on M&Ms like I did when I first opened. So I said we're going to Disney Springs and that's gonna be the first thing we do. I'll tell you what, she really can take off in that scooter though. It's hard to keep up cause she gets into that tunnel vision and she just goes and she doesn't even know where she's going. Maybe she does. Maybe she sees the gigantic M up there. But look at that.  It is so colorful inside here. In fact, I think this is kind of sad but the last time I was here is when I first opened. I don't think I've really come back and seen any changes that they've done. I think it's only been open for less than a year though. So it's still very, very nice in here. My mom just said, do they have ears in here? Like, you know, mini ears? And I said, no, I don't think so but that would be a good idea. Like to have a set of like M&M mini ears, really, really fancy. Those are swim trunks. Aren't they? No, they're short. Are they? Oh, those are fancy. Oh, they're boxers. The cool thing about the M&M store is you can actually make your own M&Ms with their face or your logo on it or even Disney characters or you can just kind of pick whichever ones you want from the candy wall and it is massive. Look at all those M&Ms. The whole entire wall. The sweetest wall of all. $17 a pound. And they have everything. They have maroon M&Ms, purple, light purple, dark blue, blue, light blue, aqua, dark green, electric green, yellow, orange. It goes on and on and on. Brownie M&Ms, coffee M&Ms, pretzel M&Ms, mint M&Ms, dark chocolate, crispy caramel, skills? What are you doing here? She got super excited now because she found the selection that's Mickey and M&Ms. Look at that. This stuff is only sold here at Disney Springs, I believe, because it has the little Disney Springs logo. And look at, this one has Minnie on it with her bow. Oh, kitty. Yeah, these are fancy. We were gonna get some customized M&Ms with our pictures on it, but it looks like there is a very long process for it. So I think we're gonna have to come back and do it. My mom also said she doesn't wanna get the M&Ms now because then we're gonna carry them around Disney Springs and they're gonna melt. And I said, mom, aren't M&Ms the known candy that melts in your mouth, not in your hand? So I don't know. I guess we'll just wait and get them. My mom is the biggest M&M fan in the world, I think. Look at this. She's got shirts, shorts, pants. And now she wants to get the baby a pair of socks. What baby? Look at these umbrellas. They're so nice and look at how colorful they are. Holy moly. You want, you need an umbrella? Here we go. There you go. Now you got an M&M umbrella, you take it. Now that we got my mom's M&M fix taken care of, I think we're gonna move along and actually get to one of the cool festivities that I talked about earlier today. We're gonna do the Ampicar boat ride. I am so excited. This is gonna be such a fun thing and it's a beautiful day out still. So we're definitely gonna enjoy it a lot more. Before we do that though, my mom's gotta snap a selfie with the M&Ms here. Snap a selfie. The vintage Ampicar rides or Italian taxis is $125 per ride and it can hold up to three to four passengers. Now that is like three maybe adults and one child. Basically you have the back seat and then the driver passenger side seat. So if you have a small one with us maybe four but max three adults. And also if you dine at the boat house you receive a coupon which I think you saved $20. So once you get done eating, if you wanna come out and do the cars, you could save $20 and then it's only like $110. Which is really good. I mean, if you split that up between three people, maybe $35, $40 a person and it really is something very rare and exciting to do. Look at this. It is so much fun and there they go. That's gonna be us soon. And we're going with the classic red car. Look at this bad boy. Isn't it so beautiful? I really am so excited. Mom can transfer over. She's got her cane. I think mom's gonna have to sit in the front. We'll sit in the back. We're about to take off. Hong Kong, are you excited mom? Goodbye. Oh boy, here we go. Whoa. Oh my lord. That is amazing. Look at us. Oh, I love it. You love it or not? I love it. It's so beautiful out too. It really is. Right? The backside of the boat dock with all the different boats back here. So amazing. We're gonna get a good look of all the Disney Springs. How many of these boats are there? So they made about 3,800 of them. They say there's about 400 left total in the world and they've got 150 of those. That's kind of sad. Hi friends. Look at that. What's the top speed for this bad boy? On the water it's about six or seven miles an hour. Wow. Wow. On land it can theoretically go up to about 70. 70? 70 on land and then six or seven on the water. Yeah, I'd be a little afraid to go 70 on here. Gotta say hi to everyone. What was that? It looked like you were giving him the backhand. Open her up. Here we go. Punch it Chewie. Oh, this is too good. What do you think so far? Ma, you like it? I love it. Right? Yeah. So relaxing and peaceful. I don't think it's that firm in the water, right? Yeah. How did you feel when we first dove into the water? Did you get scared? You did, right? Yeah. If we opened this door right now we would flood and sink. That's why we don't touch handles, right? Don't touch handles. Look at the way that balloon is swaying in the air right there. Oh, oh, oh. That's all I think like that. That's all right, guys. Guys, I remember. I think I can. I think I can. I think I can. Yeah. Friends. I've seen it. I watched it all the time. Oh, awesome. That was so much fun. I love doing it. I think I've only done that three times. I did it once by myself, once with Adam Lawoo, and then once with my sister and mom. And it's always amazing. I feel like every time you do it, it's just as thrilling as the first time. And if you have photo pass, they actually take photos of you and you can get them inside the shop with your photo pass from your My Disney experience. Pretty, pretty amazing. Excellent. All right. You weren't good to go? Right on the memory maker. That's awesome.  That is so cool to get some photos outside. Really awesome. It's included if you have the memory maker. It makes me so happy to see my mom enjoying things like that and her smiling. She thought she was sold. It was really awesome. It made me really happy when she was waving to everybody. And she made sure to wave at everybody.  And yeah. Wow. Really, really good experience. I love it there. Definitely worth something to deal with here in Disney Springs. It'll make memories. That's all I gotta say. Before we actually go over to Aerofile and get in the helium balloon, we're gonna come back to Gideons because when I stopped there earlier, they actually had no virtual weight. You actually just had a weight in line. So maybe we can get some cookies without having to wait. That would be fancy. And take a look at this. No virtual queue. This is all the weight is. So we can just walk in right now. And that's really awesome. And they actually started the August cookie menu. And it has the Rocky Road, which is a dark chocolate, candied almond, and toasted marshmallow. Might get one of those along with a nitro cold brew. Still to this day, my favorite cookie at Gideons was the white Christmas cookie. So, so delicious. It's kind of like a white macadamia nut cookie. And I wish to have come back, but I guess I'll have to wait till Christmas. Because they have a wheelchair ramp over on this side. I waited in line while my mom waited on that side. And then we get to go in. You're ready to go in. Here we go. Oh boy. Do you smell how amazing it smells in here? Right? There you go. Make that turn. Back it up. Back it up. Back it up. Back it up. There it is. Here's a look at all the cookies. Pistachio toffee. Here's the Rocky Road one right there. Cookies and cream. Original chocolate chip. And peanut butter crunch. So, so good. And then, don't get me on the cake slices yard. Gotta reach into the fire and grab your cookies. I ended up getting just my peanut butter cold brew. My mom got the peanut butter cookie though, right? Look at that. Holy moly. The peanuts are falling off there. And Bonnie got the original chocolate chip. So good. Also we have peanut butter frosting or icing. And that's what you dip your cookies in. It's in that bag right there. I had to try my mom's peanut butter cookie. It looks really good. And I gotta try the icing. Now this icing you get on the side, it's only a dollar. And it's all the different icings for the cakes.  That icing is a kicker. Holy moly. I highly recommend getting that icing. That's a game-changer for me right there. I mean, I love the cookies in here. But now I can't wait to mix and match all the different cookies with the icings. My favorite thing to get here though is the iced coffee. I love it. You gotta shake it up cause it's got the cocoa powder on top there. Would you wait several hours to get that cookie, Delma? Oh yeah. Really? How about you? Really? I love Gideons. But I think the max I'd wait probably is like an hour. The virtual queue I'll wait however long it is as long as I'm actually here. But I probably would only wait like an hour just standing in a line. And that'll be it. And that's only if I really want to come on and get it. I would wait for an hour for the coffee. Now it's time we move along since we had our cookies and coffee and see Disney Springs from the air. 400 feet up in the air. I am so excited. We just signed our things. Guess what guys? They're stopping it. There's lightning in the area. Yup. Sorry. What a shame, right? Oh well, why? I'd rather be safe. You know what I mean?  So I guess that's a good thing that they stopped it. They refunded me. Like we really got right up there. We signed our waivers and I paid and they refunded me. But wow, we were so close. We literally were this close. So instead we're going to hop into Disney style and do a little shopping. Maybe I'm going to get my mom to buy ears today. She's been wanting a pair of ears and I might be able to talk her into it. Oh, that's a hat for you mom. Oh my lord. That's the one. Oh perfect. The silver tuna. I love it. You got to get it. That's the one. She looked at the price and put it back. How much is it? $34.99. Oh, she's getting it. And we'll get her ears another night. Maybe we'll get her ears when we go to Magic Kingdom. But she's getting this. I already got her an umbrella. And holy moly, I found something else that's really cool that I haven't seen before. Take a look at all this villain's merchandise. I love it. This first one we got here, it says Wicked on the front and then take a look at the back. It's got Ursula. It's got Maleficent and the Evil Queen. And then over here, I'm going to take this hat. My mom's getting this hat. They've got, oh, this villain's one over here. It says villain's on the front and then on the back, it's got Dr. Priscilla. It's got Scar, Jafar, and Hades. I love it. They also have a nice little Haunted Mansion hat right here. This is a lounge ride one. Oh, really cool that they're going all villains.  But like I said, I feel better knowing that we weren't up there during a storm. So we might come back and do it. Now I think we'll get ourselves something to eat because the weather's coming. We know a storm's coming. So if you know the balloon's not running, expect to be rain or lightning in the area within the next hour or so. So now I think it's time we get something to eat, eat. As we were making our way up to get something to eat, we came across the Ever After Drullery Company. I've never been inside this store, I don't think, but my sister is like, like really freaking out. She wants to go in here. Now I see why they wanted to come in here. Dunium Burks, the Alex and Annie's, the Pandora's. You guys are getting all excited here. This place is really fancy. I like how they have all the different sayings on the walls. Let your eyes sparkle and shine. Take you wonder by wonder. And then over on this side, paint with all the colors of the wind. Ooh, and it's actually really pretty because they have the butterflies right there. It really does look like Pocahontas. Trying to catch her creeping on some Mickey hairs here. Look at the daisy on top. Yeah, it's the daisy on top. You like the ones with daisy on top? Yeah. Oh, that's perfect then.  You are, aren't you? See, we didn't even have to wait. Now we got ears, Mom. Huh? Yeah, we got ears. I knew it. The second she was trying them on, I was like, those are the ones. It's the only one she picked up. I'm like, those are the ones. They're silver tuna. Now I think we're going to get ourselves something to eat. And I want to take my mom and sister to one of my favorite restaurants here, the polite pig. I want to get some barbecue, some Brussels sprout, some sweet potato tater tots, all the works. I am so excited. I love it here. I think I come here probably like three out of four times that I ever come to Disney Springs. It is that good. Last time that I ate here, I got this shrimp for the flavors of Florida and it was phenomenal. Some shrimp and grits. Today we're going to do something I'm quite familiar with. I love this place so much and I think we're going to get the butcher board and we're going to add ribs and share it. So that's going to come with polite pork, smoked chicken, prime brisket, cheddar sausage, and ribs. But also I think we might sub out the sausage and get smoked turkey because I had this last time. It was so good. And then also it comes with two sides. So sweet potato tarts and Brussels sprouts all the way. I am so excited for some polite pig. And we actually got additional sides. I didn't know this but you can get additional sides for $6. And one of the best things about polite pig are the sides. They are so good. So I think we got the sweet potato tarts, the crispy Brussels sprouts those are my absolute favorite. Then we got the corn ribs which is like the seasonal side. It's basically like corn on the cob but ripped. It's so, so good. And then I think mac and cheese because Bonnie would like to try the mac and cheese and the baked beans. With the butcher board you get two sides automatically. So then you just pay an extra $18 and you get three more sides. I don't show off the sauce a lot here but they have a nice sauce bar. Usually I eat my barbecue without barbecue and I know that sounds funny but they got barbecue ranch. Thomas's Southern Gold sweet sauce. They got porter sauce and then over here they've got Mary's Hot Sauce Mayonnaise, ketchup and back at barbecue ranch. That's such a strange combination. And just like that the butcher board has arrived. Take a look at this. Huge, right? I mean honestly, so this portion is $42 and then you add on the ribs I think it's an additional $7 but then we got the extra size these are $6 a piece. Look at the corn ribs. Those are so amazing and then baked beans and then mac and cheese. So, so good. Smoke chicken, brisket, ribs brussel sprouts cheddar sausage pulled pork coleslaw cornbread pickles the works. Are you excited? You look hungry. No, yeah. I know, look at you. My go-to favorite thing though has to be the brisket here. The brisket and the brussel sprouts put them together and that's all I need but everything else is just it's beautiful. So, so good. Bonnie does not like brussel sprouts. Please try the brussel sprouts with me. I'm just really I think these brussel sprouts make people a fan of brussel sprouts believe it or not because I didn't like brussel sprouts until I had them and now I'm upset. Yeah, get a nice good one. There we go. Now, the struggle is real here. Here, take one of these ones put this one off my fork right here. You got it. There we go. Boom. Pull it off. There we go. Are you ready? Cheers. Cheers, brussel. Right?  I got to find out. I don't know but it looks so good. These are the newest seasonal items. All right, I'm going to try these and thank God I asked because I would have just probably bit into it but you eat it like corn on the cob so I'm going to give it a go here. The more I actually snap into this the more it is so delicious and it's so hard. I think they fry it. Like this is good good. Wow. I was not expecting that. I was a little hesitant but this is impressive. I do have to wonder though the coffee rub brisket might be my favorite brisket out of anywhere. Does this beat trills end? You know what I mean? So if you would be in trills end brisket and you would be in trills end brisket and you've had polite pig brisket let me know which one is better because honestly it might be a tie. There are two different types. This is coffee rubbed or coffee rubbed. Coffee rubbed and I think the brisket at trills end is a pecan one. I think that's how it is. I'm not too sure but I love it. Now we are heading out. We just got finished and it looks like a storm is brewing. I'm happy we weren't up in the air for this. Yeah, look at this. The storm is really coming down. Like I said, I'm happy we weren't up in the air for this.  Oh! Oh my lord! Right there. Yeah. Where's the thunder? We've seen the lightning. There it is.  I got the trusty hat to protect the camera and yeah, as long as she gets in there, fine. I mean, it's raining pretty heavily. I think I feel like I need to get something that goes like this. I would have brought my umbrella but I didn't think it was going to rain today. You know what I could have done? I could have used the umbrella. I bought my mom from the M&M store. Why did I think of that? It's too late now. We're in it. We're just enjoying Disney Springs soaking wet. I don't mind. Well, I got a little bit of a break from the rain by cutting through here but look how crowded it is in here. Holy moly. It was a light rainstorm kind of when we first walked in and by the time we came out here now it is just a downpour. I should have went back and grabbed the umbrella. It's too late now. Oh boy, here we go. Now I am officially a wet street rat. Thank you. And somehow I need to figure out how to get from the orange garage over to Lime Garage to pick up my mom and sister. You need a ride? Yes. Well, I made it over to Lime Garage. We got them all back in dry and we're going to put the electric scooter in the car and that's going to call it a day. What a fun first day together. We got a lot of things accomplished. We did the amphibian car. We almost went up in the air on the helium balloon but luckily we did it because a gigantic storm appeared and we probably would have been blown all over the place. Anyhoo's, I hope you guys are excited for the videos coming up. We're going to spend time with my mom and my sister in Disney. Also, we're going to do universal studios for the first time. Well, me and my sister will. My mom's probably not going to do it. There's not much she can do there anyway but we're going to do some of that and then some other local things around Orlando. Anyhoo's, I hope you enjoyed the video. I enjoyed making it. We'll see you next time. Bye.


Okay, so this question asks how many moles, well, it says a typical cloud seed is NACL crystal and it gives the molecular weight of NACL condensed from ocean water with a mass of 4.33 times 10 to the negative 13th ring. How many moles of NACL are present in the clouds? So essentially what this question is asking is how many moles of NACL are present in 4.33 times 10 to the negative 13th rings, okay? So it gives the molecular weight also, so molecular weight equals of NACL equals 58.44 AMU. Okay, so the molar mass of NACL is 58.44 grams per one mole. And the mass of NACL is 4.33 times 10 to the negative. So it's asking how many moles are present in this? Number of moles of NACL that's going to equal the mass essentially divided by the molar mass or because you get 3.33.


This video is going to talk about simplifying fractions. Fractions can be written A over B, some number divided by another number, as long as B, the bottom number, is not equal to zero. So here are the different kinds of fractions that we can have. We can have proper fractions, and in a proper fraction the numerator, or the top part of the fraction, is going to be less than the denominator, or the bottom of the fraction. So that would be something like one-half, one is less than two. Improper fractions are going to be where we have just the opposite. The numerator number is going to be bigger, or greater than the denominator number. Oops, I spelled that wrong. And we'll just, you know it's this word here, the denominator. So it would be something like eleven over five. The top number is bigger than the bottom number. Mixed fractions have a whole number, and a fraction, plus a fraction. You've seen these things, like when you look at recipes it'll say two-and-one-half cups of flour, two-and-one-half would be a mixed fraction. A nice thing to know how to do is to be able to go back and forth between an improper fraction and a mixed fraction, because a lot of times in your homework you're going to have a mixed fraction that you have to put into an improper fraction, and sometimes there may be a case where you want to write an improper fraction to a mixed fraction. So I'm going to show you how to do both. We'll start with the improper fraction. I think it'll help us understand mixed, mixed to improper first. So if we go from improper to mixed, we can, we want to know how many times three goes into twenty-six perfectly. So we would take twenty-six and divide it by three, and it so happens that eight times three is twenty-four, so it goes in eight times perfectly, but there's two little pieces left over. So this mixed fraction would be eight whole parts, with two, and we have to write it over that same denominator, because that's the kind of fraction it is, it's the third fraction, so we have eight and two-thirds. Now with an improper fraction, there's a little trick that helps you be able to do it. Remember we were divided twenty-six by three and got eight going into it perfectly. Well if we go back, we can multiply eight times three, and then we would add the two more, and that would tell us how many thirds we have. So we have twenty-four plus two more, or just like we started with above, we have twenty-six-thirds. So a simplified fraction, what is a simplified fraction? Simplified fraction means that the numbers are going to have nothing in common. Okay, a simplified fraction, the numerator, I'm just going to use shorthand here, and denominator have no factors in common, no common factors. So good thing to do here would be just prime factor each of these numbers. So if I take twelve, I can say that that's two times six, and then that would be two times three, or you can look at this as four times three, there's another way of looking at twelve. And then fifteen would be three times five. Now I have everything prime factored, and then all I need to do is find the common prime factors top and bottom. And they both have a three, the top and the bottom have a three. So they are really a factor of one, and one times anything is just what you started with. We have two times two over five, or twelve-fifteen, so it's going to be equal to four-fifths. If we take 144, I'm going to prime factor over here because that's a big one, that would be two times seventy-two, and seventy-two would be two times thirty-six, and thirty-six would be two times eighteen, and eighteen would be two times nine, and nine would be three times three. That's a lot of factors. So two times two times two times two, one, two, three, four, and then two-threes. And then on the bottom, if we take fifty-four over here, that would be two times twenty-seven, and twenty-seven would be three times nine, three is the prime factor, and nine would be three times three. So we have two times three times three times three. So we've done the prime factors. Now we're looking for common factors top and bottom. So those cancel each other out, and this three will cancel out that three, a factor of one so that we can factor it out, and that three will cancel out that three, or factor out that three, and we have two times two times two over three, or eight over three. So 144 over fifty-four is eight over three. One last example that you'll have common in your homework, and this one is actually going to make me need my calculator. So when I do my calculator, the first thing that you can see is that if I take these two numbers, they both have these three zeros at the back. That's kind of like saying if I divide this thing by a hundred thousand, and divide this one by a hundred thousand, then it's really the same thing as just saying, okay, well I can cancel since they're all the same zeros. You normally can't do this with numbers, so I really am hesitant to say this, but if you have zeros, only zeros, then I can cancel out my zeros, and I really, or if I divide by a hundred thousand, if you're afraid you're going to make a mistake, then divide by the hundred thousand because they were both in the hundred thousands. I just have one ten divided by two eighty-six. One ten isn't too bad to prime factor. It's even, so we divide by two, and that gives us fifty-five, and we can see that that one's going to be divisible by five, and that happens to be five times eleven, and those are all prime numbers. We're going to say that that is two times five times eleven. When I look at two eighty-six, it's a little bit harder to see. It's kind of a big number, and actually there ends up being a number where I really don't know what it is. Well, I'll sort it out. Two eighty-six is even, so I'll divide by two, and then that gives me one forty-three, and now I'm stuck. It's not an even number. It doesn't divide by five, and I might divide by three because you see that three, but it really doesn't divide by three, so here's the trick. You take your number, one forty-three, and start dividing it by prime numbers. I know three doesn't work, two doesn't work, five doesn't work, seven is not going to work because if I do seven I'll go into fourteen, but then I'll have this three left over. So nine might work, but nine doesn't work because it gives me a decimal. So try again, one forty-three divided by the next prime would be eleven. And if I divide that by eleven, I get a perfect number of thirteen. So that means that one forty-three is eleven times thirteen, and now two eleven and thirteen are all prime numbers. So I have two times eleven times thirteen, and you can see that they both have eleven. So there's a factor of one, leaves me with two times five over two times thirteen, and two times five is ten, and two times thirte-oh, I have a common factor. Always double-check that. I had another common factor, so it's really going to be five over thirteen.


So, again, while people are sort of getting their coffee metabolized and that, David, it would be interesting to hear a little bit more, if you can, expand a bit on this issue of choice of controls. And I know there was some discussion at the break that we really ought to be thinking seriously about convenience controls and how it goes about that, and so there may be others who want to speak on that. But in terms of the convenience controls that have been done so far, can you talk a little bit more about what the strengths and weaknesses of those might be? So I think the strengths are that, you know, these are large-scale samples, and often we don't have, for a particular phenotype, studies that are as large as 3,000 controls in the Wilkham Trust example. You know, we might have a best case study for a rare disease of just a few hundred. So in that context, probably the best advice would be to genotype the controls you have that meet the best practice epidemiologic methods, but be aware that there may be other populations you can import to essentially increase your number of controls, and that will give you some limited capacity to compare a little prevalence in the best practice design with the in-silico controls. And the other issue that Elizabeth brought up is that as the platforms change, the meaning of these in-silico controls is going to change. So as you move from 100K to 317K to 550K, and as you import these control groups, you're going to have a subset of SNPs that aren't represented on those controls. So again, I think if it's possible, you'd always like to have some of your own controls just so you can compare a little prevalence, recognizing that you're not going to have maximum statistical power by any means. Yeah, I think it's really important too to think about comparing your allele frequencies to the HATMAP and to the other controls that may exist, because they do point out some quality metrics sometimes that maybe you're not aware of. The other thing I would suggest that I found is interesting is that most of the studies have not even genotype sex. And one of the discrepancies that we found in working with individuals is sample mix-ups over time, and you don't really know that they exist, and actually just getting a genetic test for sex among your samples will show you where there may have been a small batch that went in and people were years ago, they reversed tubes. And this has just been carried on in your study over time. So actually getting some aims done on your study and some indication of the sex of your samples will help you to go forward with some of these large-scale studies because you have an idea of quality and integrity of your samples. Those are excellent points, Debbie, and I think David can give examples of breast cancer studies where unexpected men were included and prostate cancer studies where unexpected women were included and outbreaks of twins in duplicate samples. It actually does make a very good point that the platforms are now so good, you know, not for every SNP, but across the board, the completion rates of 99 percent, concordance rates of 99.5 percent, that the biggest source of error may be this repository and other errors. And so having a fingerprint very early in the life of the sample, people used to use the microsatellites. Now people seem very happy with a sequin on my plates, about 30 SNPs, something like that. Having a fingerprint very early in the study allows you to track these errors if somebody turns a plate upside down. There are other ways of catching that, but you can catch it unambiguously if a couple of samples are flipped if you have an expected fingerprint from very early on in the life of the sample. Microphone, please. Thanks very much for a really interesting day so far. And I have a question related to a point that Elizabeth made. I think it's really important that the genotypes are actually phenotypes themselves, and they're actually not categorical. They're actually these two quantitative allele intensities. And I wonder, it's a technical and a statistical question, if people are starting to look at using that as the exposure measure. And if anybody has experience in studies with that. That's a really interesting question. This is one of those questions, you know, that could be pursued in data sets. I don't know that there's a lot of that, and maybe some of the genomic system in the group could comment. There have been some interesting, you know, explorations of samples that fail whole genome amplification, for example, that there are certain characteristics of people that will fail that, and that that may cluster in families, so there might be genes related to that. Debbie, did you want to comment on whether these are being these phenotypes, the variant genotypes that one sees from these are somehow possible to use as outcomes? You can use them, and actually the copy number variation is a great way. That was found by weird clustering. So looking at these outlier genotypes that you get, where you see multiple clusters, and actually people are finding these differences. For example, on some of these platforms, they're typing over unknown SNPs, and that causes actually four clusters or five clusters to occur, and you're getting genotype information on that unknown SNP, and you can go back and mine that information. They may be thrown out, so I think that actually looking at some of these things are really important, but they're not the first thing that you look at, right? Good point. Mike? Thank you for two great talks. So this is a question about measure analysis projects, and the effect of using different platforms in studies in a metro analysis. I'd like to hear more about that, and also the different choice of control groups in studies in a metro analysis, and how that actually might make you have pause in some of these metro analysis projects. So maybe Elizabeth, could you comment on the different platforms? I can comment a little, and I think Laura Scott will probably talk about it a little bit more later. It really depends on how you're going to do your analysis. There are different SNPs on each of these platforms, so if you're combining data where you have different SNPs in the two studies, then you're going to have to either infer the genotypes from the other platform or calculate haplotypes using the SNPs from both and use the haplotypes, not the individual SNPs, or look at linkage to a region and see whether or association to a particular region or haplotype. So it makes your analysis a little bit more complex, but it's certainly possible, and there are a number of groups out there who have done this very successfully. So it's not nearly as critical as people thought it might have been a few years ago to have exactly the same product and exactly the same SNPs, because a number of groups have shown that it's very possible to do the analysis. It's just another technical challenge along the way. And Laura will probably comment as well, but certainly in the diabetes studies, whether it's those three diabetes studies that I showed, when they went to combine their data, they were combining across the aphometrics and lumen of platforms, and they used imputation algorithms to do this. I think one of the take-home lessons from that is that imputation algorithms are really very good, but they're not perfect like nothing is. And once one looks at an imputation and sees that it looks pretty good, you do have to go back and actually genotype the SNP that you're inferring. Just being aware also that there are gaps in the platforms, and so I guess cognitive function is one of the welcome trust disease groups, but oops, there's no good surrogate for ApoE4 on that generation of the aphid chip. And you can get these printouts where there's an informatic attachment to the gene name to the RS numbers, but if you're really after a very specific SNP, you really have to confirm that there's something in good LD with that. And I think your second question, Mike, was one for David. You might want to repeat it if there's to do a variation in the control groups and studies in a metro analysis. So again, I don't think there's much evidence so far that reasonably well-designed case control studies compared with reasonably well-designed nested case control studies compared with hospital-based versus population controls leading to radically different answers or even perceptibly different answers for these stronger SNPs. In a metro analysis, nonetheless, I think you'd always want to run within strata defined by design or some measure of quality just to confirm that. And as we get to the lower relative risks, you'd expect that if we're introducing any methodologic noise, that's going to make it harder to discern those. But I think we do have to be aware that the traditional reasons for concern about certain designs related to information bias and selection bias may not be so pressing in this area if there's no relationship between participation rate and genotype, et cetera. So we have to be careful, and probably in a metro analysis, you'd want to stratify. But so far, I think, the concerns we have with self-reported data and retrospective versus prospective data may not apply in such strength to these studies. Thank you. Certainly, when I was a baby epidemiologist, they told us first be terrified of case control studies, which I don't think was great advice. And also, if you're going to do them, consider using multiple control groups. And one of the big advantages now of data sharing and of databases like CGEMs and others that have their control allele frequencies widely available is that you can look at multiple groups and see, is my control group somewhat comparable to these others? And if not, why not? And also, do your findings hold up? Several of the platform developers are actually developing large control databases that they're making widely available, so Illumina just announced theirs. And that one will be going into DBGAP as soon as some of us do the work as needed to get it in there, myself included. But at any rate, those will be available. There has been, for many years, discussions about trying to get the NHANES genotype frequencies, because that's a nationally representative sample into some kind of an accessible database, and the work is going forward on that as well. Yes? This is a basic question. How do you define a population? And then second. So then in some of the papers that I've come out in the last two years, we know very well different populations, different regions of the genome undergo different selection pressures. So therefore, the population history differs from even very neighboring population, which we know very well. So when we put these things, these things, these things together, that is, mixing populations and then seeing the effect of these mixed populations. And then the question is, what are the chances of finding spurious results in the pool population? Third. Well, I will stop there. Why don't you stop there? We'll come back if we can. So who would like to tackle that one? So very quickly, I mean, clearly this is a major concern. I think the genomic control and other methods give us some confidence that we can approach this statistically. And anyone would advise that you collect self-reported information about ancestry, however that's defined, a country of origin or whatever, to allow yourself to restrict or stratify on the basis of that information. And then the other key thing, obviously, is that a lot of these studies are obviously happening in populations of European ancestry. There's no guarantee that that SNP will also be associated with the same phenotype in other ancestries. And that has to be looked at carefully. And then finally, as the costs come down, as the sample sets increase, there are going to be associations that are private to particular populations that have to. Will only be ever be discovered if we look in those populations. Just a comment along those lines. I prefer that some of the people that are doing GWAS studies give importance to a concept called wall and defect in population genetics. It's an important concept. And maybe you'd take a second to explain what you mean by that. Wall and defect, long time ago, a population geneticist named Wolland suggested that by putting the so-called mixing these populations, it affects the genotypic frequencies spuriously. And when you use those elevated genotypic frequencies, it could affect the association studies. Well, and I think that is widely recognized. And people are considering it. Perhaps they're considering it a little bit too much. And perhaps Laura will comment. But what we've tended to do is to focus on very homogeneous populations and somewhat to the detriment of being able to describe risk in the general US population. Laura? So there are a couple of interesting things. One thing that I've already started to see happen is that if different groups are collecting case samples and they're comparing those to existing control samples, once you go to try to do a meta-analysis, you actually don't have independent samples. And so you're going to have to go back and redo analysis, either in some way allocating controls or taking into account that you've actually used the same samples twice. The other thing that's interesting to think about, sorry, this is having a problem, is that when you have epidemiology studies that have matched particular variables such as if you had a study of type 2 diabetes that had matched on body mass index, what we're finding is that sometimes genes that work to cause diabetes through body mass index actually can't be found in those epidemiological studies that were very tightly matched. And so in those cases, you might actually have advantages to having population-based controls. Very, very good points. And just before Elizabeth, maybe I might ask the AV person if he would kindly come out and put up Laura's slides, because we're just going to finish up here. And then Elizabeth's comment. Just David asked me one question, and I thought I'd just mention it. The question was about what about pooled samples? So one possibility that people did, especially before genotyping costs started coming down, was to pool, take a pool of cases and a pool of controls and compare estimated allele frequencies between them. That's still being done. It's a little bit challenging technically, both in making sure that you take very good care when you're building the DNA pool so that you have equal amounts of DNA from each individual. And then it's a little bit tricky as far as the interpretation. You can't just run a genotype and clustering algorithm and get genotypes. You have to try to estimate the proportion of each of the genotype frequencies. So it's still possible. It's certainly a consideration. And it's obviously a much lower budgetary cost. But you need to work with somebody who really knows what they're doing, both on the lab end and on the analysis end. Yeah, that's an excellent point. And this was one study design that I think was used initially when genotyping costs were so very high. And of course another disadvantage of it is that you don't have individual genotype data than to analyze, to look at your very interesting folks.


The story you're about to hear is true. The names have been changed to protect the innocent.  You're assigned a burglary detail. A dozen churches in your city are victimized by a team of experienced safe burglars. You track the suspects for weeks. You finally apprehend three men. Your job? Convict them. Dragnet, the documented drama of an actual crime. For the next 30 minutes in cooperation with the Los Angeles Police Department, you will travel step-by-step on the side of the law through an actual case transcribed from official police files. From beginning to end, from crime to punishment, Dragnet is the story of your police force in action. This Sunday, March 5th, was cloudy in Los Angeles. We were working a day watch out of burglary detail. My partner's Ben Romero. The boss is Captain Wisdom. My name's Friday. I was on the way back from the record bureau, and it was 11.30 p.m. when I got to room 25A. The interrogation room. Excuse me, Ben? Yeah, Joe? Got a minute? Yeah, sure. Wait here, Bryson. Yeah? Let's go out in the hall. How are you doing with Bryson? Are you telling anyone? No, he wasn't medicine. How about the other two months? No, nothing. They're sitting tight, waiting for their lawyer to show up. Had all three of them checked through R&I. Bryson's a two-time loser. They're a three-GTA. His two partners serve time for robbery. We shouldn't have too much trouble putting them away. We've got a good enough collection of physical evidence. Well, maybe. Heard from the crime lab? No, that's yeah. I'd feel a lot better about it if we'd get Bryson the cop out. Let's call him again. That's all right, Joe. Nothing to lose. Go ahead. Keep it safe, Bryson. Got a few more questions for you. Excuse me. I thought you had it all squared away by now. I thought you were going to sack and leave by now. Well, afraid not, Bryson. You haven't even given us a story yet. I told you I didn't have anything to do with it. It seems pretty obvious I didn't. I thought you'd take my word for it. Do you think of any reason why we shared? You lied to us once already, didn't you? I didn't lie to you. I told you the truth. I didn't break into that church. I didn't have anything to do with it. When we were in here, we asked you if you'd ever been arrested before, and you told us no.  Well, I'm sorry about that, Sergeant. I really am. When you picked me up, I guess I got a little nervous. Yeah, I didn't mean to lie to you. I was just a little mixed up, I guess. You had a little time to settle down. You ought to be able to tell us your story now. Just relax and take your time, huh? Right. Well, what did the other two fellas tell you? Well, what difference did that make to you? Well, it might make a lot of difference, sir. No, you just tell us your story. That's all we ask. What were you doing at the scene of the burglary? What business did you have there? You weren't mixed up, and you got nothing to hide. I haven't got anything to hide. I just don't want to involve a lot of innocent people.  All right, Sergeant. Strictly confidential, huh? Well, one of those other fellas you picked up tonight, the dark-headed fellow, his amazing miller, Tony Miller, he's engaged in marrying my sister. No, thank you. Well, please, give me a chance. I'd like to lay it all out. Go ahead. Well, ever since my sister got engaged, I've been worried about it. I never liked him to begin with. Likely, I've been keeping an eye on Miller, him and that friend to his end of school. I knew they were up to something, and then I read in the paper about that string of church burglaries that guy's breaking into churches, noting it to say. Well, I had an idea of the miller and his friend. How do you mean, boy? I couldn't make you make it with them. I had an idea. That's all. I couldn't prove anything. It was just a hunch. You must have had some reason to expect this. Nothing definite? No. I just knew something was wrong that they were up to something. Well, then, earlier than that, I saw a friend of Tony Miller. They were on the bars in my neighborhood. I talked to him awhile, and finally told me that Miller and Henderson were out working a deal. Said they were going to break into a church over on 8th Street and knock over the city. Well, how come this friend of Miller is like you were on it? Oh, I guess he thought I was a pretty close friend of Tony's. He knew Tony was going to marry my sister. Anyway, when I found out about it, I got over to that church as fast as I could. I wanted to find Miller and Henderson and try and talk him out of it. I didn't want any guy who was going to marry my sister getting in that trouble like that. You know, maybe going to jail for burglaries. No, Miller's been in jail before. I suppose you knew that. Yeah, I knew it, but that was before he was engaged to my sister. You met Miller and Henderson. Not sad to church date? No, I was too late. They'd already broken into a place. I went around the back of the church, and I saw one of the stained glass windows was broken when they'd gotten in. I climbed up on the sill, and I could see him working inside. Some kind of a small back room. They work on the safe both on Miller and Henderson. What'd you do there? Well, I tried to talk him out of it, but they wouldn't listen. I suppose you can prove your story.  Well, I'm not sure, Sergeant. He might lie. He might not want to get involved. How about Miller and Henderson?  Well, if you weren't involved in the deal, there wouldn't be any reason for them to implicate you. Well, Tony Miller thinks it's my fault. He's in jail. He hates me. You can't take his word for anything. You're probably the first thing he'd do is lie about it. And Henderson, too, will he let you get to who I break your story? Well, maybe nobody, but it's the truth. I swear to you, it's the truth. I'll tell the same thing in court if I have to. They've got to believe me. You're asking the Latin, isn't it? But that's the way it happens, so help me. Yeah. I'll tell me the truth, Sergeant. You know I didn't have a hand in it. If it goes to court, they couldn't convict me, could they?  To the working detective, the one logical way to appraise a known criminal is by his record. You estimate him the same way you check a particular make-up automobile, a racehorse, or a radio set by past performance. By refusing to buy his trumped-up story, we didn't figure that we were doing a suspect child, Bryson, and injustice. Bryson was 37 years old. He'd spent 13 of those 37 years in prison. Either the county jail or the state penitentiary. His criminal record dated back to the time he was 20 years old. Besides serving numerous shorter terms for lesser offenses in the county jail, Bryson had spent two terms in the state penitentiary for burglary. Despite the efforts of the probation officers, the adult authority, and the rehabilitation officials to help him, he seemed content to go along in his criminal career. In this particular case, the series of church burglary. We had good reason to believe that Bryson and his two accomplices, Nora and Henderson, were the guilty men. All three of them were booked at the main jail in suspicion of 459 PC. The next morning, Ben and I checked in at the crime lab. Lady Jones, you around? Yeah, I'm here. Come on back. Well, about that. They gave the place a new coat of paint. Yeah, sure needed it. All right, fellas. How you doing, ma'am? Got a ton of burglary tools. Those thieves were using that church last night. Just finished checking them over. Might have two or three things for you. Well, you got this. Have a look over here. You find a ton of tools. I take it the thieves had a lot of practice. All three of them had records. How about some of the other physical evidence you got there? One thing at a time, ma'am. The rest of all these tools here are for you. Small sleds. These three genies. Pinched by them from the school driver. I think we can tie them in with at least six of those church burglars. I think we can do it for certain. Couldn't that for three convicts? I think so. The jury's listening. Oh, you got it worked out, Lee. Tool markings. That's part of it, yeah. I want you to take a look at this pinched by here. They did a lot of their work with this. I guess I don't have to tell you there aren't two identical pinched by's in the world at least.  There are two of them in the world that leave the same markings on anything. Yeah, we know that's me. Sure. The jury probably told me that the thieves used this pinched by here on six of the jobs they pulled. That's the idea. I compared special markings of every one of these tools against the markings made at the point of entry on six of the churches these thieves broke into. In every case, the markings match perfectly. These are the tools that I had no doubt about. The screw driver, the set of windows, and the pinched by. I'm sure you won't hurt our case, any. Anything else, Lee? I assume the end of the pinched by was a microscope. Check the screw driver and Jimmy's tool. The tips of each one of them are contaminated with particles of paint. Different kinds of paint. I've already compared these paint transfers with samples of paint taken from the exterior of those churches that were broken into. Each one of them, they match all the way. The color of the paint, the age, the degree of oxidation, the lead content compares perfectly. Now come over here, something else. Once you get up here. These are the shoes that too many found inside the church were wearing. These are the foot impressions. The boys from Lincoln Prince lifted off the floor in front of the faith inside the church. You know, the knowing on that church floor shot up the dust impressions of the feet pretty good. Did you make the print? The boys from Lincoln Prince did, yeah. Good impressions. See here? The general size of the shoe. The main heel impressions. The wear cover on the sole here. The whole general characteristics of both bare shoes matches up to a T. How much is that going to mean to the jury, Lee? I mean a lot. It's the truth. The same thing I've been telling you. The same thing. I'd like to tell every cop in the department. If you can find an object at the scene of a crime beyond the reasonable doubt, then don't go thrashing around looking for an object that's an exact duplicate. Don't play offshoots. Any microscope will tell you. There are no two things in this world exactly and identically alike. I don't care if it's a bare shoe. They're down the crowbar. You're at two front teeth. Now that's all right. That's for me. This is going to have trouble? I don't know, Lee. We shouldn't know. You've got the three of them at the scene of the crime. Is that all it'd be enough for the court? I hope so. I don't sound sure. Well, Lee, there's only one time I'm sure about things like Bryson. Yeah? When they check him in at San Quentin. Two days later, Charles Bryson and his two accomplices, Henderson and Miller, were arraigned in municipal court on a date set for their preliminary hearing. Four days later, the preliminary hearing was held and the three of them were bound over for arraignment in Superior Court. In the weeks that followed before their arraignment and Superior Court trial, Ben and I worked along with the district attorney's office, preparing the case against the three men, taking statements, running down additional evidence, checking and rechecking, piecing together the facts which we hoped would earn a conviction for each of the criminals. We weren't positive that it happened. The strongest part of our case was going to come out of the crime lab, the testimony of Lee Jones. And we knew as well as Lee did that, generally speaking, juries are not too much in sympathy with scientific facts when it has to do with physical evidence. Generally, they don't follow technical cases too well. We also knew that the three defendants had a good lawyer, a clever one. Getting convictions wasn't going to be easy. The trial opened in Superior Court June 2nd. Ben and I testified when we were called on. On the morning of June 9th, the jury retired to deliberate. Late that afternoon, we got a call from the Hall of Justice. Yes, Mitty. Yeah, both of them, huh? I see, huh? Well, that's life, I guess. Yes, ma'am. Juries back there that came up with the verdict. What's the story? In Henderson and Miller, they found them both killed the 30-grade burglar here. What about Bryson? They let him go. Well, maybe it was no great shock to us, but after the time and effort we put in on the case, it was a disappointment. The worst of the three criminals had been set free. At the trial, Bryson had taken the stand and told the court the same cock-and-bowl story he told Ben and I, that he'd gone to the church to see one of the burglaries, to plead with Henderson and Miller not to commit the crime. Bryson had a good personality and a fast line of thought. It wasn't hard to see how he could convince a jury that he was only an innocent bystander. The biggest obstacle that stood in the way of convicting Bryson was that the prosecution, the district attorney, according to law, could not call to the attention of the jury Bryson's previous criminal record, especially his two prior convictions for burglary. To them, because of the limitations of the law, it was presented as a private citizen with as much integrity and as clean of any previous guilt as you and your neighbor. Henderson and Miller were committed to the state penitentiary to serve sentences as prescribed by law, and Charles Bryson, shortly after the trial, left the city. Two months passed. Saturday, August 8th, I started on my vacation. Two weeks later, on August 22nd, I checked back in for work. Hi, Joe. Good to see you. Hi, Jim. What's been doing? Oh, not too much. How's the vacation, Joe? Well, pretty good, thanks. I'm letting that up north to visit Tereldo in something more than the county. It was a nice trip for her. She had an feeling she was, you know. Oh, it's too bad. Getting a fishin' done? A little, yeah. That's your beautiful country up here. Is it better, Ralph? No, I'm not. I took off today. I've been puttin' in some full days while you've been gone. Yeah, that's so. Really special, though? Oh, nothing too big. String of chain store burglaries, south end of town. I've been workin' along with Ben. Yeah, givin' you much trouble? He's been goin' a couple of weeks. Might gettin' any better. I'll begin to feel the pressure a little. How's it stand? Any leads on the suspect? Just one, yeah. The guy by the name of Charles Bryson. When our suspect, Charles Bryson, left Los Angeles after his trial some three months before, we had reports that he was headed east for the city of Memphis, Tennessee. In subsequent leaks, we had word that he was also seen in St. Louis, Missouri, where police officers had him under surveillance as a possible suspect in a robbery there. On or about August 10th, the St. Louis police lost track of Bryson. A week later, the newest series of burglaries began throughout Los Angeles. The thief's M.O. matched that of Bryson down to the last detail. The places burglarized were chain stores, supermarkets generally. The method of entry was the same, prying open a back window with a pinch bar of similar tool. The manner in which the safes were opened in the various business places that matched, too. So did five sets of foot impressions found at the scene of five different burglaries, each of them made by a man wearing tennis shoes. The operation corresponded exactly to the way Bryson worked. But there was one big hit in the investigation. Nobody could be sure Bryson was back in town. No one had seen him. No one had heard from him. Monday, August 24th, 80 a.m. Glad it was running in circles so far, Joe. I can't figure it. I bet Bryson's running with Bryson, but we can't even start to prove. How about the people in town Bryson runs with? They all been checked out? The one we know about, yeah, his friends, relatives, all his long hangouts. We've been over it every inch of the way. If anybody knows, they're not saying. There's no trace of him. Yeah, that's a possibility. Maybe we're wrong. Go ahead. What do you mean maybe we're wrong? The only lead we've got is the M.R.O. Bryson isn't the only thief who operates that way. It could be another man using the same system. Yeah, we've thought about that. You ran a check through the stats office? Yeah. The only known burglaries in our record who operate like Bryson or even in jail are out of town and are dead. We check it through a couple of times. Keeps coming out the same way. Bryson's the only strong lead we've got. Yeah, but I got it. Burglary Friday? Yes, sir. You know if you're starting the tables out right now, is there any message? Well, I guess about 10 minutes. Yes, sir. Right. I'll tell them. Thank you. You should have been more on all these jobs than just Bryson, huh? All the way. That's what's got me stumped. If the guy is pulling these jobs and he isn't in town, somebody should have spotted him. He's changed stores. He's hitting. We've had to take off on him for 10 days. I've got every informant we know watching for Bryson and not a sign. Hopefully he'll go to jail so they call back. Oh, thanks. I just told that this morning a bit better since it's an acquaintance. It might be a line on Bryson. The answer on that mail watch we asked him for. What angle's this, man? You remember Church Burglary's Miller and Henderson? Oh, yeah. You asked Clayton for a mail watch on both of them, did you? I figured there was a chance Bryson might watch him. Looks like it got us a lead. What have they got there? That's from the warden's office. So it says regarding your request on information concerning Charles Bryson, on August 22nd, Anthony Miller, our number 172156J, received letter from person signing himself George Cameron, contents of letters suspicious. Cameron, does that mean anything to you? Just check Bryson's package again down R and I. Cameron was his mother's maiden name. Bryson used it as an alias before. Quite a few times. How about the return address on the letter, Pam, Los Angeles? Morning Post Office, Gen. 11. Monday, 10 a.m. The Post Office detail in the range for a mail watch on all incoming letters through General Delivery addressed to Charles Bryson, George Cameron, or to another of the suspect's known aliases. A week pass. No sign of Bryson, no trace of any of his correspondence through General Delivery. Another week went by. Two more chains to our burglaries. The M.O. in each case was the same, that matched closely to Bryson's known working habit. But despite our precautions and the close check we maintained on his friends and his known hangouts, the suspect still remained unseen and unheard from. On September 9th, an informant of Ben's called us at the office and told us he thought he'd seen Bryson the night before. Yeah, Marty, where was that? Uh-huh, yeah, right, we'll check it, thanks. Bryson's supposed to have been seen there every month in Beverly Boulevard last night, drinking in a bar up here. So pretty sure it was Bryson? He thinks so, yeah. Got the names of the place. You ever can check with a bartender to see if he can identify Bryson's mug, sir. Right, I'll get my top coat, huh? I get it. Hungry, frightened? Yes, sir. When was that? You know, it's a long time. Uh-huh, I got it. Yes, sir, right away. Post office detail. Bryson called for a meal at the general delivery half an hour ago. Who is he? Are they following? 280 Glenmore, apartment 6, he's there now. You are listening to DRAGNET, authentic stories of your police force in action. I'm sorry. September 9th, Tuesday, 11.30 a.m. The burglary suspect, Charles Bryson, was placed under surveillance at the apartment where he'd gone immediately after calling for his mail at the general delivery window in the main post office. Three teams of men were assigned the job of following Bryson alternately, 24 hours a day. We waited for a chance to get into his apartment and search it while it was empty, but it never occurred. Somebody was always there. Either Bryson or a tall, dark-haired woman, his common law wife. During the week that followed, the suspect was watched everywhere he went. He attempted no burglaries. On the eighth day, the stakeout was removed. Three nights later, two burglaries were committed. Both jobs bore the marks of the suspect's MO, but we could improve a thing against him. We knew the setup we had was going nowhere. If we wanted to get Bryson red-handed, if we wanted a case against him that'd stand up in any court, we had to find a new approach. There's a jar of stuff right here. The technical name for its ampersine. I guess you heard it? I think I've heard you mention it mainly. It's kind of luminous powder, isn't it? It glows in the dark. No, not exactly. Take a look at some. There you see. Colorless, odorless. No smell at all to it. It's a coal-powered product. We call it crystalline hydrocarbon. Now, here's the point of the thing. When you take this ampersine powder and rub it into the surface of an object, it's completely invisible as naked eye. Never know it's there. Here, let me show you. There you go. Just a powder all over it. Some in your hand, too. Rub it in, like so. Now, can you feel any of the powder while I put it on? No, nothing there. Now, let me switch on this lamp here. This is an ultraviolet light. Now, watch when I turn it on your arm while we rub down the powder.  Like it's lighting up. Oh, my coat sleeve feels glowing. How about it? Will this stuff rub off like? Can't.  Everything will test. Anything harm, permanently? No. Now, watch when I turn the lamp off. You see? Gone. Never even know you had it on. Only time it shows up is under ultraviolet light.  No, the maximum is generally about, I won't say, 24 hours. Uh-huh. You guarantee it'll work. Well, all physics, Joe. Under the proper conditions, it's got to. That's what I tell my classes up at the Academy. Crooks and corals feel like one thing in common. They show up better when you put them on in the right kind of light. When we left Lee Jones at the crime lab, we figured we had the potential solution in our hands, but there was still a lot to be done before we could go into any court of law with a case that we were positive. It was strong enough to convict Charles Bryson. Number one, we had to get into his apartment when it was unoccupied. Find the set of burglary tools he was using, and douse them thoroughly with anthracine, the same for the clothes he worked in. Number two, we had to get Bryson into custody within 24 hours after he moved on the burglary job or the anthracine wouldn't work. Number three, we had to find the loot taken in the burglary in his possession. 10 days passed before we got a chance to make good on the first step. I get it, Joe. Right. Burglar and Meryl. Yeah, Jim. It was real good. Fine, we'll be right out. Good break, Joe. And Bryson, what's that? They hold him in on the traffic bar and speed him. Bucking him into main jail right now. Good chance to go through his apartment. What about his wife? She's still up there. She's on her way to put up bail for him here. The apartment's empty. By the time Bryson was bailed out, Ben and I, along with Jim Caber and Lee Jones, had combed through Bryson's apartment and finally uncovered a set of burglary tools and work clothes carefully hidden beneath the floorboards under a kitchen cabinet directly below the sink. Lee Jones contaminated each of the tools with the invisible anthracine powder and also the work clothes. We checked the apartment for any possible loot taken in the burglary, but we found nothing. We put everything back exactly the way we found it, and then we left and went back to the office. We stood by until 4 a.m., waiting for a call that had indicated that Bryson might be out on another burglary job. Nothing happened. The next night, up until 10 o'clock, it was the same routine. At a few minutes past 10, we got a 459 call on a teen drugstore out on Alvarado Street. Lee Jones had his portable ultraviolet light all ready to go. Ben and I picked him up at the crime lab, and the three of us drove to the scene of the burglary. Great back here, Lee. Can I help you with the light? I can handle it, thank you.  Yeah, there's not too much of it left. You all set, Lee? You got the extension cut for the light, will you? Yeah, right here. I'm just plugging it in. Yeah, okay. Okay. All right, switch it on, will you? Right. Well? Yeah. Seems like it. It's way done in the window there, Joe. Look at that. Anthracite tracks all over, foot impressions there, tool marks on the safe, plus prints on the floor, on the wall. No questions, I mean, that's plenty of training. All right, let's get him. Lee Jones put in a call to the crime lab and ordered a photographer out to take pictures at the scene of the burglary. Lee and the photographer had stayed at the scene to gather physical evidence and take pictures of the Anthracite and Princeton markings for presentation in court, 10.52 p.m. Jones packed up the ultraviolet lamp and Ben and I took it along with us. We drove directly to Bryson's apartment. Nobody was there. No. Nobody in the bedroom either. How about that? I don't know. I don't get it. Bryson's had plenty of time to get back here over an hour. Well, the better is what. The only time we know she's left was when she had to go bail him out in that traffic warrant. Doesn't look like they pulled out. There's a closet full of clothes in there, a lot of their personal things around. Yeah. She looks like they were expecting to come back. We might check with the apartment house manager. He could tell us if they gave notice to Moon. Yeah. Oh, let's see here. What do you got? I don't know if you're on the desk. See, he says, Charlie, I'm sorry, but I told you it just hasn't worked out with us. When you read this, I'll be on my way east. I don't want to be mean with you. I just think it'll work better if we forget each other, that's all. Thanks for everything so long. Sign Ruth. She doesn't like him much either. No. Wait a minute. What are you doing? Please stop here for Bryson. I'll talk to you for a minute. Oh, yeah. I remember. What do you want? Man, do you want to plug in that light? Yeah. Put that right over here. What is all this? I said you wanted to talk to me. What's it all about? You all set, Ben? Yes, man. All right, OK. Turn it off. What are you doing? What are you trying to do to me? You've done it all to yourself, Mr. Let it up like a Christmas tree. Joe, it's all over in here. There you go. The clothes and hands. What is it? There's light growing all of them. What are you doing? It's a chemical, Bryson. Harmless, same stuff you left all over the drugstore tonight. Pack up, Ben. Come on. Let's go, Bryson. I don't understand. What's this whole thing all about? Here. What do you understand? Here. What? A note for you. Oh. I'll set, Joe. Let's go, Mr. I guess I didn't know her. That's a tramp. I guess I should have been smart about it. Yeah, I guess so. Come on. How could I know? She said she was in love with me. I believed it. Well, I'm not going to say when they ask me. All our friends are all going to ask me. They'll say, what happened to Ruth? They'll say, what happened this time? What am I going to say after, mister? What are you going to say to the jury this time? Protect the innocent. On December 10th, trial was held in Superior Court, Department 86, City and County of Los Angeles, State of California, in a moment the results of that trial. Trial's Lang Bryson was tried and convicted on three counts of first-degree burglary. This is punishable by imprisonment in the state penitentiary for not less than five years. However, due to his previous convictions on this and other felony counts, Bryson was judged and habitual criminal. He was sentenced to spend the rest of his natural life in the state penitentiary. You have just heard dragnet, a series of authentic cases from official files. Technical advice comes from the Office of Chief of Police W.A. Parker, Los Angeles, State of California, Los Angeles Police Department.


I would like to thank the Brain Foundation and the Board of Directors on behalf of myself and my co-investigators for this award, which I am extremely grateful for. Neurodegenerative diseases are a major public health issue and they are devastating for individuals. We often think of them affecting only people as they get older. That actually affects people a large percentage less than age 65 when they are still working and has drastic effects on their lifestyle and their dependence and their carers. Patients often ask about how modifying their diet may change their prognosis and their survival. So our study aims to use methods that have been used in obesity research and apply these methods to several neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer's disease, frontal temporal dementia and amyotrophic collateral sclerosis and see how eating behaviour may affect metabolic changes, things like cholesterol, body fat and lipid levels. That will enable us to see if these have effects on disease progression and survival. On a more personal note recently my family was affected by a disease affecting the brain and I think as a neurologist I didn't realise until that point how important research is to patients and their families. I spent hours on the internet looking for that study that made the percentage difference. I think that's why the Brain Foundation is so important because it provides early career research as such as myself with money to do research which may make a difference to patients. So thank you.


Say you find this stale piece of bread on your kitchen counter one night and it doesn't really look right this bread because it has all these dark colored green spots everywhere and as more days go by you notice that these spots kind of grow and spread all over this bread and soon your bread turns into a horror show like this. So what are these things, these green black patches all over your bread? Well these are fungi, heterotrophic non-photosynthetic eukaryotes with cell walls made up of chitin and these fungi they got on this bread through something called spores, spores that landed on this bread and grew up to become fungi and then these grown-up fungi will eventually produce more spores and they will go ahead and grow somewhere else but how does all of this really happen? Well that's exactly what we're going to find out in this video. The life cycle of a typical fungus is quite interesting, most fungi start off as asexual or sexual spores. Now we're going to be talking about these types in more details in some time but let's focus on the spores for now. So these spores they are tiny reproductive particles which are super resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions become favorable then these spores will start growing into new fungi. Now these growing fungi they will develop these tube-like filaments called hyphae, the singular form is called a hypha. Now these hyphae will eventually form a network like this, an entire network of hyphae and this network is called a mycelium and for this to happen properly these fungi will need a lot of nutrition. All this nutrition leads to the growth of the fungi and once this fungi is all grown up and mature they begin their reproductive stage which in many fungi usually occurs in two cycles an asexual cycle and a sexual cycle. During the asexual cycle the most common mode of reproduction is through the formation of asexual spores which are produced via mitosis. So let's take a closer look at some of the examples we have over here. A few examples of such asexual spores are conidia, conidia and sporangiospores. Conidia are produced in chains at the tip of the hyphae so this blue part you can see this is the tip of the hyphae and these are the chains of conidia so these dotted structures are the spores or the other conidia. Sporangiospores on the other hand are formed inside an enclosed structure called the sporangium. So this enclosed structure right over here this is called the sporangium. The plural form of this is called the sporangia. So these sporangiospores are formed inside these enclosed structures or these sac-like structures called sporangia and you can actually see this feature in certain fungi only. Now some fungi don't really need spores to reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction in fungi can be accomplished in a variety of different methods too. For example unicellular fungi aka yeast they can reproduce asexually via binary fission as well as budding. In binary fission a yeast cell splits into two by simple cell division. Meanwhile in budding an outgrowth or a bud appears on the yeast cell which eventually detaches and grows into a new yeast cell. So this bud right here will give birth or give rise to a new yeast cell. Now there's another form of asexual reproduction which is seen in some fungi and it is called fragmentation. Now in fragmentation what happens the hyphae this is a real not that of a great picture but this is a hypha and what happens in fragmentation is that the hypha kind of breaks or fragments into separate pieces kind of like this. So this is a separate piece this is a separate piece and each of these fragments or pieces will give rise to new fungal colonies. So this is another form of asexual reproduction. Okay so now that we have covered the whole asexual cycle and the different methods involved in asexual reproduction in fungi let's move on to the sexual cycle now. Sexual reproduction in fungi takes place in three major steps plasmogamy, cariogamy and meiosis. Now other than meiosis these other two terms sound a little fancy so let's break them down. Generally sexual reproduction in an organism is characterized by the fusion of two haploid or n cells to form a diploid or two n cell. It basically means that we go from two cells with one set of chromosomes each to one cell with two sets of chromosomes. That's what n stands for n stands for the number of chromosomes so these cells they have only one set of chromosomes and this diploid cell over here it has two sets of chromosomes. Now in fungi this fusion takes place in the first two steps that is plasmogamy and cariogamy. Plasmogamy translates to union of cytoplasm and that is exactly what it is. During plasmogamy only the cytoplasms of the two cells fuse together while the haploid nuclei remain free so we end up with one cell which has two free haploid nuclei but mind you they are not fused yet. Now in many fungi like mushrooms this cell remains as it is for quite some time just this one cell with two free haploid nuclei inside because these nuclei they don't fuse immediately and since they're not fused we cannot really call this cell a diploid cell or denote it as two n so instead we call this condition as a dicharion and we denote this cell as n plus n so and this intermediate phase where we see this n plus n condition or this dicharion condition this phase or this stage is called the dichario phase and it's an intermediate between the plasmogamy stage and the karyogamy stage. After the fusion of cytoplasms naturally the next step is the fusion of nuclei that is karyogamy. Once this fusion is complete it's going to give us a diploid cell or a two n cell and this diploid or two n cell is called the zygote. Karyogamy is then followed by meiosis so this diploid zygote will now undergo meiosis and give haploid daughter cells. These haploid daughter cells then become the spores or they develop into spores inside spore producing structures like these fruiting bodies of mushrooms.  Now some examples of sexual spores include besidio spores and asco spores by the way besidio spores is the spores that you find in mushrooms. All of these fungal spores both the sexual and the asexual spores they are then dispersed into the air and they remain as it is till they find a suitable place and environment to grow just like our beloved bread over here. Our bread over here posed as the perfect place for the spores to grow so they did and that is what the life cycle of a fungus really looks like.