Who is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics and is one of the people that the Clausius–Mossotti relation was named after?
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Clausius–Mossotti relation The Clausius–Mossotti relation expresses the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) ε of a material in terms of the atomic polarizibility α of the material's constituent atoms and/or molecules, or a homogeneous mixture thereof. It is named after Ottaviano-Fabrizio Mossotti and Rudolf Clausius. It is equivalent to the Lorentz–Lorenz equation. It may be expressed as:
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Rudolf Clausius Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (2 January 1822 – 24 August 1888) was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he gave the theory of heat a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, first stated the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem which applied to heat.
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Roger Joseph Boscovich Roger Joseph Boscovich (Croatian: "Ruđer Josip Bošković" , ] , Italian: "Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich" , Latin: "Rodericus Iosephus Boscovicus" ; 18 May 1711 – 13 February 1787) was a Ragusan physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, diplomat, poet, theologian, Jesuit priest, and a polymath from the city of Dubrovnik (modern-day Croatia), who studied and lived in Italy and France where he also published many of his works. He was nicknamed "the Croatian Leibniz" by Werner Heisenberg.
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Gustav Zeuner Gustav Anton Zeuner (30 November 1828 – 17 October 1907) was a German physicist, engineer and epistemologist, considered the founder of technical thermodynamics and of the Dresden School of Thermodynamics.
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Maxwell's thermodynamic surface Maxwell’s thermodynamic surface is an 1874 sculpture made by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879). This model provides a three-dimensional plot of the various states of a fictitious substance with water-like properties. This plot has coordinates volume (x), entropy (y), and energy (z). It was based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs’ graphical thermodynamics papers of 1873. The model, in Maxwell's words, allowed "the principal features of known substances [to] be represented on a convenient scale."
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Antoine Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution; ] ; 26 August 17438 May 1794;) was a French nobleman and chemist central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular literature as the "father of modern chemistry".
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Charles Proteus Steinmetz Charles Proteus Steinmetz (April 9, 1865 – October 26, 1923; birth-name: Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz) was a German-born American mathematician and electrical engineer and professor at Union College. He fostered the development of alternating current that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the United States, formulating mathematical theories for engineers. He made ground-breaking discoveries in the understanding of hysteresis that enabled engineers to design better electromagnetic apparatus equipment including especially electric motors for use in industry.
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Reinhard Mecke Reinhard Mecke (born 14 July 1895 in Stettin; died 30 December 1969) was a German physicist, who focused on chemical physics. He was one of the pioneers of infrared spectroscopy.
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Martin Wilhelm Kutta Martin Wilhelm Kutta (] ; 3 November 1867 – 25 December 1944) was a German mathematician.
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Raoult's law Raoult's law ( law) is a law of thermodynamics established by French chemist François-Marie Raoult in 1887. It states that the partial vapor pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture.
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Rudolf Grimm Rudolf Grimm (born 10 November 1961) is an experimental physicist from Austria. His work centres on ultracold atoms and quantum gases. He was the first scientist worldwide who, with his team, succeeded in realizing a Bose–Einstein condensation of molecules.
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Sophie Germain Marie-Sophie Germain (] ; 1 April 1776 – 27 June 1831) was a French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. Despite initial opposition from her parents and difficulties presented by society, she gained education from books in her father's library including ones by Leonhard Euler and from correspondence with famous mathematicians such as Lagrange, Legendre, and Gauss. One of the pioneers of elasticity theory, she won the grand prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her essay on the subject. Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem provided a foundation for mathematicians exploring the subject for hundreds of years after. Because of prejudice against her sex, she was unable to make a career out of mathematics, but she worked independently throughout her life. Before her death Gauss had recommended that she be awarded an honorary degree, but that never occurred. At the centenary of her life, a street and a girls school were named after her. The Academy of Sciences established the Sophie Germain Prize in her honor.
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Hans von Euler-Chelpin Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin (15 February 1873 – 6 November 1964) was a German-born Swedish biochemist. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1929 with Arthur Harden for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and enzymes. He was a professor of general and organic chemistry at Stockholm University (1906–1941) and the director of its Institute for organic-chemical research (1938–1948). Euler-Chelpin married Astrid Cleve, the daughter of the Uppsala chemist Per Teodor Cleve and was the great-great-great grandson of Leonhard Euler. In 1970, his son Ulf von Euler, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
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Theory of heat In the history of science, the theory of heat or mechanical theory of heat was a theory, introduced in 1798 by Sir Benjamin Thompson (better known as 'Count Rumford'), and developed more thoroughly in 1824 by the French physicist Sadi Carnot, that heat and mechanical work are equivalent. It is related to the mechanical equivalent of heat. Over the next century, with the introduction of the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by Rudolf Clausius, this theory evolved into the science of thermodynamics. In 1851, in his "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat", William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments by those such as James Joule, that “heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect.”
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Carl Friedrich Gauss Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss ( ; German: "Gauß" , ] ; Latin: "Carolus Fridericus Gauss" ) (30 April 177723 February 1855) was a German mathematician who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, algebra, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, mechanics, electrostatics, magnetic fields, astronomy, matrix theory, and optics.
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Gibbs paradox In statistical mechanics, a semi-classical derivation of the entropy that does not take into account the indistinguishability of particles, yields an expression for the entropy which is not extensive (is not proportional to the amount of substance in question). This leads to a paradox known as the Gibbs paradox, after Josiah Willard Gibbs. The paradox allows for the entropy of closed systems to decrease, violating the second law of thermodynamics. A related paradox is the "mixing paradox". If one takes the perspective that the definition of entropy must be changed so as to ignore particle permutation, the paradox is averted.
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Manne Siegbahn Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn {'1': ", '2': ", '3': 'ForMemRS', '4': "} (3 December 1886 – 26 September 1978) was a Swedish physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1924 "for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy".
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Franz Ernst Neumann Franz Ernst Neumann (11 September 1798 – 23 May 1895) was a German mineralogist, physicist and mathematician.
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Osborne Reynolds Osborne Reynolds FRS ( ; 23 August 1842 – 21 February 1912) was a prominent innovator in the understanding of fluid dynamics. Separately, his studies of heat transfer between solids and fluids brought improvements in boiler and condenser design. He spent his entire career at what is now called University of Manchester.
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Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory There are close parallels between the mathematical expressions for the thermodynamic entropy, usually denoted by "S", of a physical system in the statistical thermodynamics established by Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs in the 1870s, and the information-theoretic entropy, usually expressed as "H", of Claude Shannon and Ralph Hartley developed in the 1940s. Shannon, although not initially aware of this similarity, commented on it upon publicizing information theory in "A Mathematical Theory of Communication".
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Lorentz–Lorenz equation The Lorentz–Lorenz equation, also known as the Clausius–Mossotti relation and Maxwell's formula, relates the refractive index of a substance to its polarizability. Named after Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Ludvig Lorenz.
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Meredith Gwynne Evans Meredith Gwynne Evans, FRS (2 December 1904 – 25 December 1952) was a British physical chemist, who made important theoretical contributions in the study of chemical reaction rates and reaction mechanisms. Together with Henry Eyring and Michael Polanyi, Meredith Gwynne Evans is one of the founders of the transition state theory.