The Council of Forty-four was one of how many central institutions of traditional Cheyenne Indian tribal governance, the other being the military societies such as the Dog Soldiers,  Cheyenne military societies are one of the two central institutions of traditional Cheyenne Indian tribal governance, the other being the Council of Forty-four?
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Council of Forty-four The Council of Forty-four was one of the two central institutions of traditional Cheyenne Indian tribal governance, the other being the military societies such as the Dog Soldiers. The influence of the Council of Forty-four waned in the face of internal conflict among the Cheyenne about Cheyenne policy toward encroaching white settlers on the Great Plains, and was dealt a severe blow by the Sand Creek Massacre.
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Cheyenne military societies Cheyenne military societies are one of the two central institutions of traditional Cheyenne Indian tribal governance, the other being the Council of Forty-four. While council chiefs are responsible for overall governance of individual bands and the tribe as a whole, the headmen of military societies are in charge of maintaining discipline within the tribe, overseeing tribal hunts and ceremonies, and providing military leadership. Historically, council chiefs selected which of the six military societies would assume these duties; after a period of time on-duty, the chiefs would select a different society to take up the duties.
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Oliver Red Cloud Oliver Red Cloud (November 30, 1919 – July 4, 2013) was a chief of the Oglala Sioux. Oliver Red Cloud is a direct descendant of Chief Red Cloud. He was the spiritual leader of the tribe for many years and very active in tribal affairs as well as the annual pow wow. He worked hard to instill spiritual values and rituals. He spoke at length during the annual pow wows every August. This pow wow of dancing and friendship is one of the largest in the USA open to all. He became Chief of the Oglala Lakota, also known as the Oglala Sioux, in 1977 at the death of his father Charles Red Cloud.
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Four Dances Natural Area Four Dances Natural Area is 765 acre of undeveloped open space which were preserved in Billings, Montana, and became public land. The area was named after Chief Four Dances, an important religious and military figure in the history of the Crow Nation. The name in the Crow language is "Annishi Shopash", translated as "Place of Four Dances". This area is traditionally recognized as a fasting site used by Four Dances in the 1830s, during the height of the Rocky Mountain fur trade and the intertribal plains wars. Four Dances took his name from the vision he received while fasting at this place.
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Tribal sovereignty in the United States Tribal sovereignty in the United States is the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States. The U.S. federal government recognizes tribal nations as "domestic dependent nations" and has established a number of laws attempting to clarify the relationship between the federal, state, and tribal governments.
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Fort Belknap Indian Reservation The Fort Belknap Indian Reservation is shared by two Native American tribes, the A'aninin ("Gros Ventre") and the Nakota ("Assiniboine"). The reservation covers 1,014.064 sqmi , and is located in north central Montana. The total area includes the main portion of their homeland, as well as off-reservation trust land. The tribes reported a total of 2,851 enrolled members in 2010. The largest city on the reservation is Fort Belknap Agency, at the reservation's north end. This is just south of the city of Harlem across the Milk River.
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Wayne Ducheneaux Wayne Leo Ducheneaux (September 25, 1936 – December 17, 2012) was a rancher, United States Marine, and leader of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe, being elected to the tribal council in 1966 and as its chairman for eight years beginning in 1974. He served as president of the National Congress of American Indians from 1990 to 1991.
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American Indian Movement of Colorado The American Indian Movement of Colorado (Colorado AIM), also called AIM-International Confederation of Autonomous Chapters, split by 1993-1994 from the Minneapolis-based, national organization of the American Indian Movement, since then known as the AIM Grand Governing Council, which claims the right to the name. The organizations had tried to keep their dissension internal and presented the split as an ideological one. Notable activists associated with AIM of Colorado have been Russell Means and Ward Churchill.
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Four Guns Four Guns was an Oglala Lakota chief. In 1891, he and two fellow chiefs, Pine Tree and Running Wolf were invited to dine with Clark Wissler, an anthropologist. After the dinner, he stated the following:
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North American Indian Women's Association The North American Indian Women's Association is a non-profit educational and service association, which seeks to promote intertribal-communications, betterment of home, family life and community, betterment of health and education, awareness of Indian cultures, and fellowship among North American Indian people. NAIWA was founded in the summer of 1970 and was the first national Native American women's group. Marie Cox (Comanche), from Midwest City, Oklahoma served as founding president at the inaugural meeting, which was held in Fort Collins, Colorado. During the 1970s adoption reform was one of its greatest concerns. Cox's presidency was followed by Agnes Dill of the Isleta Pueblo, in New Mexico in 1973, who was in turn succeeded by Mary Jane Fate (Koyukon Athabaskan) from Fairbanks, Alaska in 1975. Only women from federally recognized Indian tribes can be members.
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Battle of Pease Bottom The Battle of Pease Bottom, also called the Battle of the Bighorn River was a conflict between the United States Army and the Sioux on August 11, 1873 along the Yellowstone River opposite the mouth of the Bighorn River near present-day Custer, Montana. This was former Crow Indian country altered into U.S. territory on May 7, 1868. The main combatants were units of the 7th U.S. Cavalry under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, and Native Americans from the village of the Hunkpapa medicine man, Sitting Bull, many of whom would clash with Custer again approximately three years later at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in the Crow Indian Reservation.
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Treaty of Fort Wise The Treaty of Fort Wise of 1861 was a treaty entered into between the United States and six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Southern Arapaho Indian tribes. A significant proportion of Cheyennes opposed this treaty on the grounds that only a minority of Cheyenne chiefs had signed, and without the consent or approval of the rest of the tribe. Different responses to the treaty became a source of conflict between whites and Indians, leading to the Colorado War of 1864, including the Sand Creek Massacre.
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Helen Peterson Helen Peterson (native name: Wa-Cinn-Ya-Win-Pi-Mi, August 3, 1915-July 10, 2000) was a Cheyenne-Lakota activist and lobbyist. She was the first director of the Denver Commission on Human Relations. She was the second Native American woman to become director of the National Congress of American Indians at a time when the government wanted to discharge their treaty obligations to the tribes by eliminating their tribal governments through the Indian termination policy and forcing the tribe members to assimilate into the mainstream culture. She authored a resolution on Native American education, which was ratified at the second Inter-American Indian Conference, held in Cuzco, Peru. She created a model program for summer school programs on ethnic studies, which was used throughout the United States. In 1986, Peterson was inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame and the following year, her papers were donated to the Smithsonian's National Anthropological Archives.
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Grand Council of the Crees The Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) or the GCC(EI) (ᐄᔨᔨᐤ ᐊᔅᒌ in Cree), is the political body that represents the approximately 18,000 Crees or “Eeyou” ("Eenou", Inland dialect) of the territory called Eeyou Istchee ("The People's Land") in the James Bay and Nunavik regions of Northern Quebec, Canada. The Grand Council has twenty members: a Grand Chief and Deputy-Grand Chief elected at large by the Cree people, the Chiefs elected by each of the ten communities, and one other representative from each community.
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Frank Fools Crow Frank Fools Crow (circa 1890 – 1989) was a deeply–respected Oglala Lakota civic and religious leader. 'Grandfather', or 'Grandpa Frank' as he was often called, was a nephew of Black Elk who worked to preserve Lakota traditions, including the Sun Dance and yuwipi ceremonies. He supported Lakota sovereignty and treaty rights, and was a leader of the traditional faction during the armed standoff at Wounded Knee in 1973. With writer Thomas E. Mails, he produced two books about his life and work, "Fools Crow" in 1979, and "Fools Crow: Wisdom and Power" in 1990.
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American Horse (elder) American Horse (Oglala Lakota: "Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke" in Standard Lakota Orthography) (a/k/a "American Horse the Elder") (1830–September 9, 1876) was an Oglala Lakota warrior chief renowned for Spartan courage and honor. American Horse is notable in American history as one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse during Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) and the Battle of the Little Bighorn during the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. Chief American Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke, an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society. He was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with his brothers Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse. A month or so after the Treaty, American Horse was chosen a ""Ogle Tanka Un"" (Shirt Wearer, or war leader) along with Crazy Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. On September 9, 1876, American Horse was mortally wounded in the Battle of Slim Buttes fighting to protect his family and defending against the white invasion of the "“Paha Sapa“" Black Hills.
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Thomas Wakeman Thomas Wakeman (Sioux: "Wowinape") (1846 – January 13, 1886) was a Native American who organized the first Sioux Indian YMCA. Over the years, 66 Sioux associations have been founded with over 1000 members. As of 2000, the Sioux YMCAs, under the leadership of a Lakota Board of Directors, operate programs serving families and youth on the 4500 sqmi Cheyenne River Indian Reservation.
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Deed of Grant in Trust A Deed of Grant in Trust (or DOGIT) is the name for a system of community-level land trust established in Queensland to administer former reserves and missions. They came about through the enactment by the Queensland Government of the "Community Services (Torres Strait) Act" and "Community Services (Aborigines) Act" in 1984, allowing community councils to be created to own and administer former reserves or missions under a Deed of Grant in Trust (DOGIT). The trusts are governed by local representatives who are elected every three years to councils called Incorporated Aboriginal Councils. These councils have the power to pass by-laws, appoint police for the community, and are responsible for maintaining housing and infrastructure, running the Community Development Employment Program and issuing hunting, fishing and camping permits. As such, they work much like a local government, but are different in character as they own the land they administer on behalf of the community.
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Tribal Council A Tribal Council is either: (1) a First Nations government in Canada or, an association of Native American bands in the United States; or, (2) the governing body for certain tribes within the United States or elsewhere (since ancient times). In both countries they are generally formed along regional, ethnic or linguistic lines.
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Pine Ridge Indian Reservation The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (Lakota: "Wazí Aháŋhaŋ Oyáŋke" ), also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Native American reservation located in the U.S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was established in 1889 in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border. Today it consists of 3,468.85 mi2 of land area and is the eighth-largest reservation in the United States, larger than Delaware and Rhode Island combined.
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Cheyenne River Indian Reservation The Cheyenne River Indian Reservation was created by the United States in 1889 by breaking up the Great Sioux Reservation, following its victory over the Lakota in a series of wars in the 1870s. The reservation covers almost all of Dewey and Ziebach counties in South Dakota. In addition, many small parcels of off-reservation trust land are located in Stanley, Haakon, and Meade counties.
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Pawnee people The Pawnee are a Plains Indian tribe who are headquartered in Pawnee, Oklahoma. Pawnee people are enrolled in the federally recognized Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. Historically, they lived in Nebraska and Kansas. In the Pawnee language, the Pawnee people refer to themselves as Chaticks si Chaticks or "Men of Men."