What colorless gas has historically been used to develop therapeutic drugs?
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Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CO-RMs) are chemical compounds that release controlled amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) to cells and tissues and are being developed as potential therapeutic agents. Although long recognized as a poison, CO also exhibits beneficial effects in small doses. These effects include anti-inflammatory activity, vasodilatation, and cardioprotection. CO is produced in mammals during the degradation of heme by heme oxygenase-1, a redox-sensitive enzyme induced by oxidative stress. It is this enzymatic reaction that inspired the development of synthetic CO-RMs. Therapeutic drugs have historically been developed based on the similar activity of small molecules in biological signaling, examples exist in the case of both HS and NO-releasing drugs.
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Nitric oxide Nitric oxide (nitrogen oxide, nitrogen monoxide) is a molecular, chemical compound with chemical formula of ·NO. One of several oxides of nitrogen, it is a colorless gas under standard conditions. Nitric oxide is a free radical—i.e., its bonding structure includes an unpaired electron, represented by the dot (·) on the nitrogen atom—and it is in the class of heteronuclear diatomic molecules that are of historic theoretical interest (for the insights they gave in formulating early modern theories of bonding). It is a particularly important intermediate in the chemical industry. In addition, nitric oxide is formed in nitrogen-oxygen mixtures at high-temperature conditions, such as those found in combustion systems including internal combustion piston engines, gas turbines, industrial furnaces, and boilers. It is also produced naturally by the extremely high air temperatures produced along the path of lightning in thunderstorms.
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History of chromatography The history of chromatography spans from the mid-19th century to the 21st. Chromatography, literally "color writing", was used—and named— in the first decade of the 20th century, primarily for the separation of plant pigments such as chlorophyll (which is green) and carotenoids (which are orange and yellow). New forms of chromatography developed in the 1930s and 1940s made the technique useful for a wide range of separation processes and chemical analysis tasks, especially in biochemistry.
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Phenothiazine Phenothiazine, abbreviated PTZ, is an organic compound that has the formula S(CH)NH and is related to the thiazine-class of heterocyclic compounds. Although the parent compound has no uses, derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history. The derivative chlorpromazine revolutionized the field of psychiatry and allergy treatment. An earlier derivative, methylene blue, was one of the first antimalarial drugs, and as of 2015 derivatives are under investigation as possible anti-infective drugs. Phenothiazine is a prototypical pharmaceutical lead structure in medicinal chemistry.
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Diphenylcyanoarsine Diphenylcyanoarsine, also called Clark 2 (Chlor-Arsen-Kampfstoff 2, being the successor of Clark 1) by the Germans, was discovered in 1918 by Sturniolo and Bellinzoni and shortly thereafter used like the related Clark 1 gas by the Germans for chemical warfare in the First World War. The substance causes nausea, vomiting and headaches. It can subsequently lead to e.g. pulmonary oedema (fluid on the lungs).
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Dimethylbutadiene Dimethylbutadiene, formally referred to as 2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene, is an organic compound with the formula (CH)CH. It is colorless liquid which served an important role in the early history of synthetic rubber. It is now a specialty reagent.
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Anthracene Anthracene is a solid polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) of formula CH, consisting of three fused benzene rings. It is a component of coal tar. Anthracene is used in the production of the red dye alizarin and other dyes. Anthracene is colorless but exhibits a blue (400-500 nm peak) fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation.
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Hydrazine Hydrazine is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula N2H4 (also written H2NNH2 ), archaically called diamidogen. A simple pnictogen hydride, it is a colorless flammable liquid with an ammonia-like odour. Hydrazine is highly toxic and dangerously unstable unless handled in solution. , approximately 120,000 tons of hydrazine hydrate (corresponding to a 64% solution of hydrazine in water by weight) were manufactured worldwide per year. Hydrazine is mainly used as a foaming agent in preparing polymer foams, but significant applications also include its uses as a precursor to polymerization catalysts and pharmaceuticals. Additionally, hydrazine is used in various rocket fuels and to prepare the gas precursors used in air bags. Hydrazine is used within both nuclear and conventional electrical power plant steam cycles as an oxygen scavenger to control concentrations of dissolved oxygen in an effort to reduce corrosion. Anhydrous hydrazine is corrosive towards glass, in a manner similar to hydrofluoric acid.
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Phloxine Phloxine B (commonly known simply as phloxine) is a water-soluble red dye used for coloring drugs and cosmetics in the United States and coloring food in Japan. It is derived from fluorescein, but differs by the presence of four bromine atoms at positions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of the xanthene ring and four chlorine atoms in the carboxyphenyl ring. It has an absorption maximum around 540 nm and an emission maximum around 564 nm. Apart from industrial use, phloxine B has functions as an antimicrobial substance, viability dye and biological stain. For example, it is used in hematoxylin-phloxine-saffron (HPS) staining to color the cytoplasm and connective tissue in shades of red.
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Mestilbol Mestilbol (brand name Monomestro or Monomestrol), also known as diethylstilbestrol monomethyl ether, is a synthetic, nonsteroidal estrogen of the stilbestrol group related to diethylstilbestrol. It was developed by Wallace & Tiernan Company, patented in 1940, and introduced for medical use in the 1940s, but is now no longer marketed. Mestilbol was available both as oral tablets and in oil for intramuscular injection. The drug is gradually demethylated in the body into diethylstilbestrol and hence is a prodrug of diethylstilbestrol. Mestilbol is a highly active estrogen, although somewhat less so than diethylstilbestrol, but is longer-lasting in comparison.
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Halostachine Halostachine (also known as "N"-methylphenylethanolamine) is a natural product, an alkaloid first isolated from the Asian shrub "Halostachys caspica" (synonym "Halostachys belangeriana"), and structurally a β-hydroxy-phenethylamine (a phenylethanolamine) related to its better-known "parent" biogenic amine, phenylethanolamine, to the adrenergic drug synephrine, and to the alkaloid ephedrine. The pharmacological properties of halostachine have some similarity to those of these structurally-related compounds, and "Halostachys caspica" extracts have been included as a constituent of certain OTC dietary supplements, but halostachine has never been developed as a prescription drug. Although it is found in nature as a single stereoisomer, halostachine is more commonly available as a synthetic product in the form of its racemate (see below). In appearance it is a colorless solid.
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4-Aminophenol 4-Aminophenol (or para"-aminophenol or p"-aminophenol) is the organic compound with the formula HNCHOH. Typically available as a white powder, it was commonly used as a developer for black-and-white film, marketed under the name Rodinal.
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Lavoltidine Lavoltidine (INN, USAN, BAN; previously known as loxtidine, code name AH-23,844) is a highly potent and selective H receptor antagonist which was under development by Glaxo Wellcome (now GlaxoSmithKline) as a treatment for gastroesophageal reflux disease but was discontinued due to the discovery that it produced gastric carcinoid tumors in rodents.
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Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline organochlorine known for its insecticidal properties and environmental impacts. First synthesized in 1874, DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in the second half of World War II to control malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods" in 1948.
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Chlorodifluoromethane Chlorodifluoromethane or difluoromonochloromethane is a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC). This colorless gas is better known as HCFC-22, or R-22. It is commonly used as a propellant and refrigerant. These applications are being phased out in developed countries due to the compound's ozone depletion potential (ODP) and high global warming potential (GWP), although global use of R-22 continues to increase because of high demand in developing countries. R-22 is a versatile intermediate in industrial organofluorine chemistry, e.g. as a precursor to tetrafluoroethylene. R-22 cylinders are colored light green.
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Cyanogen Cyanogen is the chemical compound with the formula (CN). It is a colorless, toxic gas with a pungent odor. The molecule is a pseudohalogen. Cyanogen molecules consist of two CN groups – analogous to diatomic halogen molecules, such as Cl, but far less oxidizing. The two cyano groups are bonded together at their carbon atoms: N≡C−C≡N, although other isomers have been detected. Certain derivatives of cyanogen are also called "cyanogen" even though they contain only one CN group. For example, cyanogen bromide has the formula NCBr.
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Diphenoxylate Diphenoxylate (INN, BAN) (brand name Diocalm), or diphenoxylate hydrochloride (USAN), is a centrally active opioid drug of the phenylpiperidine series that is used for the treatment of diarrhea. It acts by slowing intestinal contractions and peristalsis allowing the body to consolidate intestinal contents and prolong transit time, thus allowing the intestines to draw moisture out of them at a normal or higher rate and therefore stop the formation of loose and liquid stools. It is the main active ingredient in the anti-peristaltic medication Lomotil, which also contains atropine.
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HN1 (nitrogen mustard) Bis(2-chloroethyl)ethylamine is the organic compound with the formula CHN(CHCHCl). Often abbreviated HN1, it is a powerful vesicant and a nitrogen mustard gas used for chemical warfare. HN1 was developed in the 1920s and 1930s to remove warts and later as a military agent. Because of the latter use, it is a Schedule 1 chemical within the Chemical Weapons Convention and therefore use and production is strongly restricted. It has never been used in warfare.
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Crystal violet Crystal violet or gentian violet (also known as methyl violet 10B or hexamethyl pararosaniline chloride) is a triarylmethane dye used as a histological stain and in Gram's method of classifying bacteria. Crystal violet has antibacterial, antifungal, and anthelmintic properties and was formerly important as a topical antiseptic. The medical use of the dye has been largely superseded by more modern drugs, although it is still listed by the World Health Organization.
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Noble gas The noble gases (historically also the inert gases) make up a group of chemical elements with similar properties; under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). Oganesson (Og) is variously predicted to be a noble gas as well or to break the trend due to relativistic effects; its chemistry has not yet been investigated.
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Boric acid Boric acid, also called hydrogen borate, boracic acid, orthoboric acid and acidum boricum , is a weak, monobasic Lewis acid of boron, which is often used as an antiseptic, insecticide, flame retardant, neutron absorber, or precursor to other chemical compounds. It has the chemical formula HBO (sometimes written B(OH)), and exists in the form of colorless crystals or a white powder that dissolves in water. When occurring as a mineral, it is called sassolite.
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Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air. It is toxic to hemoglobic animals (both invertebrate and vertebrate, including humans) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm, although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities, and is thought to have some normal biological functions. In the atmosphere, it is spatially variable and short lived, having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone.