Mutual aid is an intrinsic part of small, communal societies and contrasts with what body of thought?
ef4463af0f3828f3cee168b778449ae1
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution is a 1902 essay collection by Russian anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin. The essays, initially published in the English periodical "The Nineteenth Century" between 1890 and 1896, explore the role of mutually-beneficial cooperation and reciprocity (or "mutual aid") in the animal kingdom and human societies both past and present. It is an argument against the competition-centred theories of so-called social Darwinism, as well as the romantic depictions of cooperation presented by writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued it was motivated by universal love rather than self-interest. "Mutual Aid" is considered a fundamental text in anarchist communism, presenting a scientific basis for communism alternative to the historical materialism of the Marxists. Many biologists also consider it an important catalyst in the scientific study of cooperation.
d6a4ba6cf6d6d31193692bc2d0c40347
Mutual aid (organization theory) Mutual aid is arguably as ancient as human culture; an intrinsic part of the small, communal societies universal to humanity's ancient past. From the dawn of humanity, until far beyond the invention of agriculture, humans were foragers, exchanging labor and resources for the benefit of groups and individuals alike.
883b16ecf0e117f94fd3863bd84b12d8
Mormon studies Mormon studies is the interdisciplinary academic study of the beliefs, practices, history and culture of those known by the term "Mormon" and denominations belonging to the Latter Day Saint movement whose members do not generally go by the term "Mormon". The Latter Day Saint movement includes not only The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) but also the Community of Christ (CoC) and other groups, as well as those falling under the umbrella of Fundamentalist Mormonism.
5ecfe6033535ff9308e8df7eee9113de
Knowledge community A knowledge community is community construct, stemming from the convergence of knowledge management as a field of study and social exchange theory. Formerly known as a discourse community and having evolved from forums and web forums, knowledge communities are now often referred to as a community of practice or virtual community of practice. As with any field of study, there are various points of view on the motivations, organizing principles and subsequent structure of knowledge communities.
08d08190c2a226b021fc9ddca4f8deec
Anti-nationalism Anti-nationalism denotes the sentiments associated with an opposition to nationalism. Some anti-nationalists are humanitarians or humanists who pursue an idealist view of world community, and self-identify as world citizens. They often oppose chauvinism, jingoism and militarism, and desire peace rather than perpetual conflict, which they claim can be rooted in nationalism. The imposition of nationalism as a belief or identity system, particularly when in conflict with more established and self-sustaining identity choices, often based on freely chosen religious or cultural beliefs and practices can be understood to undermine the legitimacy of territory-based nationalism. Various forms of internationalism propose alternatives. They do not all necessarily oppose the concepts of countries, nation states, national boundaries, cultural preservation, and identity politics; for example, present-day multilateralism does not, whereas proletarian internationalism and various kinds of cosmopolitanism explicitly do so.
23d2b6730f4e9d7f960eb5c61f1a9d0d
Secularity Secularity (adjective form secular, from Latin "saeculum" meaning "worldly", "of a generation", "temporal", or a span of about 100 years) is the state of being separate from religion, or of not being exclusively allied with or against any particular religion. Historically, the word "secular" was not related or linked to religion, but was a freestanding term in Latin which would relate to any mundane endeavor. The idea of a dichotomy between religion and the secular originated in the 18th century European Enlightenment. Furthermore, since "religion" and "secular" are both Western concepts that were formed under the influence of Christian theology, other cultures do not necessarily have words or concepts that resemble or are equivalent to them. In many cultures, little conceptual or practical distinction is made between "natural" and "supernatural" phenomena and the very notions of "religious" and "nonreligious" dissolve into unimportance or nonexistence, especially since people have beliefs in other supernatural or spiritual things irrespective of belief in gods.
eef78f464ed785983908e6e74e49b320
Gremialismo Gremialismo, or guildism, is a social, political and economic ideology, inspired in the Catholic social teachings, which claims that every correct social order should base itself in intermediary societies between the persons and the state, which are created and managed in freedom and the order should serve the purposes for which they were created and no other.
b8efd23178ae185a51d698f0b04d4451
Common good In philosophy, economics, and political science, the common good (also commonwealth, common weal or general welfare) is a term of art, referring to either what is shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what is achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and public service. The concept of the common good differs significantly among philosophical doctrines. Early conceptions of the common good were set out by Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato. One understanding of the common good rooted in Aristotle's philosophy remains in common usage today, referring to what one contemporary scholar calls the "good proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually shared by its members." The concept of common good developed through the work of political theorists, moral philosophers, and public economists, including Thomas Aquinas, Niccolò Machiavelli, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Madison, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, John Rawls, and many other thinkers. In contemporary economic theory, "a" common good is any good which is rivalrous yet non-excludable, while "the" common good, by contrast, arises in the subfield of welfare economics and refers to the outcome of a social welfare function. Such a social welfare function, in turn, would be rooted in a moral theory of the good (such as utilitarianism). Social choice theory aims to understand processes by which the common good may or may not be realized in societies through the study of collective decision rules. And public choice theory applies microeconomic methodology to the study of political science in order to explain how private interests affect political activities and outcomes.
9f5fa377b3566e425073c5ff755a4c59
Welfarism Welfarism is a form of consequentialism. Like all forms of consequentialism, welfarism is based on the premise that actions, policies, and/or rules should be evaluated on the basis of their consequences. Welfarism is the view that the morally significant consequences are impacts on human (or animal) welfare. There are many different understandings of human welfare, but the term "welfarism" is usually associated with the economic conception of welfare. Economists usually think of individual welfare in terms of utility functions, a perspective in which social welfare can be conceived as an aggregation of individual utilities or utility functions.
52a0a951caec5dd4fdf3d961d42a853f
Anarchism without adjectives Anarchism without adjectives (from the Spanish ""anarquismo sin adjetivos ""), in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, ... [it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools." In the 1920s synthesis anarchism emerged as a form of anarchist organizations based on anarchism-without-adjectives principles.
6453958a89793420ec59dc40064bdc10
Atomism (social) Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion "atomic theory", coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius. In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or atoms. When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the individual as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life. This theory refers to "the tendecy for society to be made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals, operating as separate atoms". Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society. The individual is the ‘atom’ of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis.
5783daeb4e724ce421b63d0344681adb
Transactionalism Transactionalism is a philosophical approach that addresses the fundamental nature of social exchange or human transaction; that all human exchange is best understood as a set of transactions within a reciprocal and co-constitutive whole. A transactionalist demands that all human exchange, including learning, is best understood as a transactional whole shaped and defined by a set of experiences in an ecology that are all-at-once biological, socio-linguistic, and intellectual; "man is an information-processing, organizing, open-energy system." Attention must be paid to organizing acts within, and as-if always, a reciprocal and co-constitutive, exchange whether it be in buying and selling, teaching and learning, in a marital contract, or a social situation in-person or online.
61d652aafab81780d4bd61953d90d412
Collective capitalism The theory of Collective Capitalism was advanced by the American economist G. Means in the 1960’s. It was intended to overcome the failings of traditional capitalism, which failed so spectacularly in the 1930s. It rejects the principles put forward by Adam Smith, the notion of the "invisible hand" of market forces being self-correcting is not accepted. Therefore, the theory reflects the process of the capitalist socialization of production, but only in a distorted way. Japan's Collective Capitalism relies on cooperation, but ignores the determining fact that the ownership of the means of production is still private. It cannot be considered Socialist because the means of production does not belong to the individual, but rather, it belongs to the corporation, which ultimately aligns more strongly with traditional Capitalism.
2b23e281776c99a8a4a770b6b26b74dc
Constructivism (psychological school) In psychology, constructivism refers to many schools of thought that, though extraordinarily different in their techniques (applied in fields such as education and psychotherapy), are all connected by a common critique of previous standard approaches, and by shared assumptions about the active constructive nature of human knowledge. In particular, the critique is aimed at the "associationist" postulate of empiricism, "by which the mind is conceived as a passive system that gathers its contents from its environment and, through the act of knowing, produces a copy of the order of reality".
5796cd286c78e76cca38aec5dbfbcdd3
Amour de soi Amour de soi (French, "love of self") is a concept in the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau that refers to the kind of self-love that humans share with brute animals and predates the appearance of society. Acts committed out of "amour de soi" tend to be for individual well-being. They are naturally good and not malicious because "amour de soi" as self-love does not involve pursuing one's self-interest at the expense of others. The sentiment does not compare oneself with others, but is concerned solely with regarding oneself as an absolute and valuable existence. It is related to an awareness of one's future and can restrain present impulse. Rousseau contrasts it with "amour-propre", that kind of self-love, found in Thomas Hobbes' philosophy, in which one's opinion of oneself is dependent on what other people think and which arises only with society.
40f542fee5d62f903ff1e97ab05e5673
Co-operative studies The purpose of co-operative education and co-operative studies, according to the ICA's Statement on the Co-operative Identity, is that Co-operative societies "provide education and training for their members, elected representatives, managers, and employees so they can contribute effectively to the development of their co-operatives. They inform the general public – particularly young people and opinion leaders – about the nature and benefits of co-operation." As such, it forms the fifth Rochdale Principle. Subfields of this include Co-operative economics, and the History of the cooperative movement.
218a93f1ee27310a623d73a87e4251d8
Primitive communism Primitive communism is a concept originating from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels who argued that hunter-gatherer societies were traditionally based on egalitarian social relations and common ownership. A primary inspiration for both Marx and Engels were Lewis Henry Morgan's descriptions of "communism in living" as practised by the Iroquois Nation of North America. In Marx's model of socioeconomic structures, societies with primitive communism had no hierarchical social class structures or capital accumulation.
8775c2c45c7c6c7b0222c0462acc8654
Boasian anthropology Boasian anthropology was a school within American anthropology founded by Franz Boas in the late 19th century. It was based on the four-field model of anthropology uniting the fields of cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, physical anthropology, and archeology under the umbrella of anthropology. It was based on an understanding of human cultures as malleable and perpetuated through social learning, and understood behavioral differences between peoples as largely separate from and unaffected by innate predispositions stemming from human biology - in this way it rejected the view that cultural differences were essentially biologically based. It also rejected ideas of cultural evolution which ranked societies and cultures according to their degree of "evolution", assuming a single evolutionary path along which cultures can be ranked hierarchically, rather Boas considered societies varying complexities to be the outcome of particular historical processes and circumstances - a perspective described as Historical particularism.
165648938a6cbda64321c68b2f117bdd
Anarchy Anarchy is the condition of a society, entity, group of people, or a single person that rejects hierarchy. The word originally meant leaderlessness, but in 1840 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted the term in his treatise "What Is Property?" to refer to a new political philosophy: anarchism, which advocates stateless societies based on voluntary associations. In practical terms, anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government. It can also designate a nation (or anywhere on earth that is inhabited) that has no system of government or central rule.
87e4ae7383fe583faf93fb3afd6e3df7
Manchester school (anthropology) The Department of Social Anthropology at the University of Manchester, founded by Max Gluckman in 1947 became known among anthropologists and other social scientists as the Manchester School. Notable features of the Manchester School included an emphasis on "case studies", deriving from Gluckman's early training in law and similar to methods used in law schools. The case method involved detailed analysis of particular instances of social interaction to infer rules and assumptions. The Manchester School also read the works of Marx and other economists and sociologists and looked at issues of social justice such as apartheid and class conflict. Recurring themes included issues of conflict and reconciliation in small-scale societies and organizations, and the tension between individual agency and social structure.
75917ab485f648b46906251cd67257ef
Interactionism In sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction. It is the study of how individuals shape society and are shaped by society through meaning that arises in interactions. Interactionist theory has grown in the latter half of the twentieth century and has become one of the dominant sociological perspectives in the world today. George Herbert Mead, as an advocate of pragmatism and the subjectivity of social reality, is considered a leader in the development of interactionism. Herbert Blumer expanded on Mead's work and coined the term "symbolic interactionism".
c8d74f81e41e580b9c55ba8386295d85
Mutual liberty Mutual liberty is an idea first coined by Alexis de Tocqueville in his 1835 work "Democracy in America". In effect, Tocqueville was referring to the general nature of American society during the 19th century. It appeared to him, at least on the surface, that every citizen in the United States had the opportunity to participate in the civic activities of the country. Another way to look at mutual liberty is by accounting for the collective free wills of every rational being in a community. Even though the notion of mutual liberty was introduced by Tocqueville, it was John Stuart Mill who greatly expanded it. Mill believed that the most proper occasion for mutual liberty was in a community governed by the consent of the governed, i.e., a republic. And according to Mill, it is only in a republic where members of all political factions can participate. It has been said that a republic is the form of government that divides people least. This statement pertains greatly to mutual liberty. Unlike positive and negative liberty, mutual liberty encompasses all citizens. It makes no distinction between political preference and social status. Mutual liberty pervades all sectors of society, from the homeless man on the street to the premier of the state. It is the process through which a general sense of morality gets exerted on the widest range of people in any given communal setting.