a)  take-up ratio  Most OECD countries now have a standard retirement age of 65. Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom are in the process of legislating increases. Retirement ages for men and women are being equalized.
In most countries efforts tend to close the gap between the legal retirement age and the effective retirement age in order to re-establish normal careers from the contributive side; expenses not directly related to old-age pensions such as disability benefits ought not to distort the actuarial balance. Fictive contribution periods or credits for missing contributions are being curtailed or financed through social policies.