At a basic level, the twin forces of technological change and globalisation have affected the member countries in a differentiated manner. For instance, the increasing share of emerging Asia (especially China) in output and international trade was associated with a reconfiguration of comparative advantage, with asymmetric effects across individual European economies (Chen et al 2013).
Some member countries (including Germany) gained from the rising international demand for capital goods; other countries (Portugal, Greece, Italy) faced increasing competition in industries such as textiles and footwear. The integration of Central and Eastern Europe into European supply chains was a further source of structural change, again with asymmetric effects across member countries.