A large number of reasons can motivate cyber attacks, which range from simple attacks by amateurs to meticulously planned attacks with an economic or political background. At the same time, new hacking methods are spreading through the net at lightning speed and are constantly evolving. A global study conducted in 2015 revealed that 61% of CEOs believe that cyber risks present a key threat.
The literature on this subject has employed increasingly complex DSGE models (see, for example, Gnocchi and Lambertini 2016). Despite those complexities, such models remain far more simple than the sort of elaborate model a policy-maker generally relies on, such as ToTEM. Thus, one can learn only so much from the conclusions that have been reached to date.