At high levels of reserves, the responsiveness of rates to changes in reserve levels is fairly low, and the demand curve is said to be “flat.” As excess reserve levels decline, the responsiveness of rates increases. At low levels of excess reserves, the overnight rate responds sharply to small adjustments in the level of reserves, and the demand curve is considered “steep.” 20 Despite some of the recent upward moves in overnight rates, I don’t believe we’ve reached the “steep” portion of the demand curve, where aggregate reserves are scarce. Let’s run through some places where evidence of aggregate reserve scarcity might be found. To begin with, if we were closing in on the “steep” part, I might expect to see substantial above-IOR lending in the unsecured overnight markets, as at least some banks each day found themselves short of reserves and had to borrow them from other banks. In fact, the current amount of such 18  Assuming that all banks place an equal value on the next dollar of reserves, aggregate reserve scarcity is when that value is above the rate at which reserves are remunerated, and aggregate excess reserves is when that value is at or below the remuneration rate. 19 The classic paper on this topic is Poole (1968). A number of recent efforts have been undertaken to modernize the Poole model by adding interest on reserves and other features of modern money markets. Two notable examples of this are Schulhofer-Wohl and Clouse (2018) and Afonso, Armenter, Lester (2018).
We will also provide a detailed picture of access to digital banking services in Spain and recent developments in this area. Lastly, we will conduct a review of the action taken to combat financial exclusion nationally and internationally, which may prove a good platform for future actions in our country. To conclude, I would simply like to thank again the Deputy Prime Minister and the Ministry for their efforts to address this problem. And the banking associations for their agile and swift response in drafting and signing this protocol. And, of course, I would like to thank the individuals who have made us more aware of the problem and whose actions have prompted this rapid response. I believe that we should all aim to ensure that Spain continues to take the lead on financial inclusion in the digital era, as it has always done. And I would like to add that the Banco de España is firmly committed to this goal and that we will do everything within our power to attain it. Thank you very much. 2/2  BIS central bankers' speeches