The Governing Council’s wide-ranging decisions of last week are geared towards this aim. They were based on the assessment that, in the current fragile market environment, the PEPP remains the best, and most effective, instrument to respond to the dual risks of a shortfall of inflation from our medium-term aim and of fragmentation in the euro area, which threatens the singleness of our monetary policy. The PEPP’s anatomy provides the flexibility – across time, jurisdictions and market segments – that is needed to effectively counter the specific challenges that COVID-19 poses. This flexibility is a key element of PEPP and will be maintained throughout its lifetime. Thank you. 1 See, for example, Autor, D. et al. (2017), “The Fall of the Labor Share and the Rise of Superstar Firms”, NBER  Working Paper Series, National Bureau of Economic Research, No 23396, May; and Gutiérrez, G. and Philippon, T. (2017), “Declining Competition and Investment in the U.S.”, NBER Working Paper Series, No 23583, National Bureau of Economic Research, July. 2 See Ari, A., Chen, S. and Ratnovski, L. (2020), “The dynamics of non-performing loans during banking crises: a  new database”, Working Paper Series, No. 2395, ECB. 3 See, for example, Vayanos, D. and J.-Luc Vila (2009), “A Preferred-Habitat Model of the Term Structure of Interest  Rates”, NBER Working Paper No. 15487. See also Krishnamurthy and Vissing-Jorgensen (2011, 2013) and D’Amico and King (2013). 4 Announcement effects are event-specific and may change over time.
Second, declines in the market value of government bonds led to liquidity strains, insofar as these bonds are widely used as collateral in interbank markets. And third, in some instances, governments had to step in to recapitalise vulnerable domestic banks, thereby increasing their own debt in turn. This “tale of two debt overhangs”, as some have called this twin crisis of banks and sovereigns, had uneven effects across euro area countries.4 Some countries were markedly more affected than others, which contributed to increased financial fragmentation in the euro area. This also laid bare further fragilities that had been accumulated in the past, including the fact that some euro area countries had neglected structural reforms and as a result faced competitiveness losses and the built-up of external deficits. While these fragilities had not gone completely unnoticed, and had been pointed out early on by the ECB, they had not received the attention they deserved until the crisis struck. This bears similarities with the Asian financial crisis, which is well remembered in this part of the world. Some experts saw it coming and warned at an early stage against the causes that led to it, such as short-term  1  See e.g. Berkmen, P., G. Gelos, R. Rennhack and J. Walsh (2009), “The global financial crisis: Explaining cross-country differences in the output impact”, IMF Working Paper, No. 280; Berglöf, E., Y. Korniyenko, A. Plekhanov and J. Zettelmeyer (2009), “Understanding the crisis in emerging Europe”, EBRD Working Paper, No. 108; Lane, P.R. and G.M.