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                               THE OLIVE

                                  BY

                         K. G. BITTING, M.S.,

                            BACTERIOLOGIST,

                GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

                       THE RESEARCH LABORATORY,

                      GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION
                              OF AMERICA,

                       3344 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE,
                             CHICAGO, ILL.

                            COPYRIGHT, 1920

                GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA




                                OLIVES

                          _Olea europaea_ L.


There is no tree nor fruit which offers more in interest than the olive
tree and its fruit. To obtain anything approaching an idea of its
many-sidedness, it is necessary to become acquainted with the life and
legends of ancient peoples, in which it entered as sustenance and as
symbol; to know something of art, as the olive has furnished the motif
for much decoration, both symbolic and purely esthetic; to know
something of botany and horticulture, to appreciate its parts and to
understand their structure and development; something of chemistry and
physics, to understand its various constituents and their intelligent
treatment; something of the culinary art, to understand its value and
its varied uses as a food and condiment; of medicine, to appreciate the
many virtues ascribed to it as a healing agent; and of cosmetics, to
believe all that is claimed for it as a cleanser and beautifier. Each
phase offers many fascinating possibilities, revealed through the most
ancient as well as the most recent literature, for with time the olive
has gained both in interest and value.


Origin

The olive according to De Candolle has been cultivated for more than
4,000 years, probably the longest period for any tree. Its early history
is known only through ancient literature, and ancient remains in which
it served either as decoration or as a constituent. Through these its
original home has been traced to Asia Minor, a region originally
extending from Syria to Greece. That it grew on Mt. Ararat and was the
harbinger to Noah of the recession of the flood is told in Genesis--“and
the dove came in to him in the evening, and, lo, in her mouth was an
olive leaf pluckt off.”

The ancient Egyptians as a part of the fruit of their conquests obtained
the olive during the 19th dynasty. Mummies, dating from the 20th to the
26th dynasty, have been found surrounded by garlands of olive leaves.
From Egypt it spread into northern Africa. It is said to have been taken
to Greece by Cecrops, the founder of Athens. The legend states that in
the reign of Cecrops both Poseidon and Athena contended for the
possession of Athens. The gods resolved that whichever of them produced
a gift most useful to mortals should have possession. Poseidon struck
the ground with his trident and straightway a horse appeared. Athena
then planted the olive. The gods gave the city to the goddess from whom
it was called Athenae.

Pindar says that all the slopes of Olympus were soon covered with it,
and that the Athenians used to crown the victors in the Olympian games
with its branches. Later it was used to crown their warriors and wise
citizens. The method of oil extraction was also obtained from outside.
The Greeks are supposed to have had the wild olive, Oleaster,
previously, but the fruit of this is valueless. They are the first
European people to have cultivated the olive. Its cultivation spread to
the surrounding countries, where the Greeks founded colonies, Sicily,
the coast of Italy, and Gaul, these forming nuclei for its spread into
the adjacent lands. Pliny states, however, that the olive was not
introduced into Italy until 627 B.C., and that it reappeared in Gaul in
600 B.C., being carried to the latter country by the Phenician colony
that founded Marseilles.

The olive was carried later by the Romans into the countries in which
they settled, Spain being the most notable, but it was also carried into
the Iberian peninsula by the Arabs.

The Greeks and the Romans cultivated it on the northern side of the
Mediterranean, the Tyrians on the southern side, the Arabs finding it
there and carrying it with them into Spain when they settled in that
country. The double origin of the olive, Greco-Roman and Semitic, in
this latter country is borne out by the names bestowed on the olive. In
southern Spain the tree is called _aceituno_, the olive fruit
_aceituna_, and the oil _aceite_, the name evidently derived from the
Arabic name _zeitoun_, this in turn being derived from the Hebrew
_zeit_. In northern Spain both Arabic and Latin names are used, the tree
is called _olivo_ or _oliveira_, whereas the fruit and oil have the
Arabic derivative names _aceituna_ and _aceite_ respectively, but the
oil used in the church and in painting is called _oleo_. In Portugal
similar conditions prevail, the cultivated olive is called by the
Greco-Latin name _oliveira_, whereas the wild olive is called by the
Arabic name _zambugeiro_, the fruit _azeitona_, and the oil _azeite_.

Though some botanists claim that the olive is native to the Canary
Islands, no word for it is found in the remains of the language of the
Guanches, an ancient, but extinct, race of people who inhabited the
islands. The available records show the tree to have been introduced
there since 1403, and probably by the Phenicians.

The olive was introduced by the Spaniards into Chili, Peru, Mexico, and
the United States. From Mexico it was brought by Jesuit missionaries
into Lower California, the first settlement being at Loreto, in 1697.
The Jesuits founded fifteen missions, but were superseded by Franciscans
in 1768. These latter proceeded northward to extend their work, the
first of their missions being founded in 1769, at San Diego. The secular
head of the mission, representing the King of Spain, had the foresight
to carry the seeds of flowers, fruits, grains, and vegetables, so that
flourishing gardens were soon brought into existence. When the missions
went into secular hands in 1843, the gardens in many cases were
neglected and many of the fruit trees died. The olive was one of the
trees that withstood the neglect and was afterwards used for cuttings by
the emigrants from the eastern states who came in 1849. From this time
on the olive has received considerable attention, many experiments being
made in its culture, and in recent years the plantings have increased to
an enormous extent, due to the favor accorded to both the oil and the
fruit. It has spread around San Diego and Los Angeles east into the San
Joaquin Valley and north into the Sacramento Valley in California, and
also into Arizona. In the latter state its cultivation is comparatively
recent, so that only about 5 per cent of American olives are produced
there.

At the present time the olive is cultivated more or less extensively in
the countries surrounding the Mediterranean--Asia Minor, Turkey, Greece,
Italy, Austria, France, Spain, Portugal, Tunis, and Algeria. In the
Western Hemisphere the main source is California, though the olive is
cultivated in some of the countries of S. America.


Duration

The olive tree is of slow growth, but if allowed to grow naturally, it
persists for centuries and attains a great size. De Candolle describes
one tree 23 feet in circumference, its age supposed to be over 700
years. Tournefort found fruitful old olive trees between Ephesus and
Smyrna which must have been planted before the Mussulman invasion, as
Turks had not planted olives, not esteeming them. The Mount of Olives on
the east side of Jerusalem was among the places best cultivated. Near
its foot was the grove called Gethsemane (Gath-Semen, oil press) because
of the olives with which it was covered and those of the slopes above
where an abundance of oil was pressed out. In the Garden of Gethsemane
there remain only eight of these olive trees that are supposed to have
existed at the beginning of the Christian era. Chateaubriand, writing
in the early part of the nineteenth century of these olive trees, said,
“one sees there eight olive trees in extreme decrepitude.” An article
written recently by J. D. Whiting, American Vice-Consul at Jerusalem,
had an interesting statement relative to one of these trees. “El Butini,
the most famous of the Garden of Gethsemane’s eight olive trees, under
which the Savior is supposed to have walked during the night of agony,
has recently collapsed. The great tree was weakened by the locust plague
during the spring and summer of 1915. When El Butini falls, then falls
the Turk, runs the legend.”

Throughout Europe and Asia are many old olive trees, some of them
producing abundantly, their origin, however, lost in remote centuries.
The olive is very tenacious of life, but the methods of cultivation,
which tend to increase production, reduce resistance and diminish its
duration of life.


Etymology

The generic name _Olea_ is from the Greek _elaia_, derived from the
Celtic or Gothic _olew_, oil, on account of the abundance of oil in the
fruit. The specific name _europaea_ is given to the species cultivated
throughout Europe.

The olive has been given fanciful names by the early peoples. It was
known as the “tree of wisdom,” “Minerva’s tree,” the “Gift of Heaven,”
etc. The Greeks consecrated the tree to Minerva, and made it the symbol
of wisdom, abundance, and peace.


Description

The olive is an evergreen tree about 20 to 30 feet high, much branched
and spreading. It forms a symmetrical head, having angular branches and
opposite leaves. The leaves are dry and leathery in texture, lanceolate,
entire, deep green above, and light hoary beneath. The flowers are
small, star-shaped, creamy white with yellow centers, have a faint
pleasing odor, and are axillary in compact racemes. The fruit, a fleshy
pendulous drupe, is very abundant. It is oval, obovate, or globular in
shape, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, dull greenish yellow even when
full size but unripe, then gradually becomes yellow, red, and finally
turns a glossy purplish black or black when ripe. In ripening, the side
exposed to the sun reddens, then gradually the whole fruit changes from
red to purple, then black. As fruit of all degrees of ripeness are
developed at the same time, the tree furnishes an extremely beautiful
combination of colors, the various greens of the leaf and fruits forming
a background for the splotches of red, purple, and black formed by the
ripening fruit. The fruit is peculiar in two respects, first, in that it
contains in addition to the ordinary constituents of fruits an abundance
of edible oil, consequently making it a valuable food; second in that it
contains a bitter substance which does not disappear on maturity, so
that the fruit cannot be eaten at any stage in its development without
preliminary treatment for the elimination of this substance. The stone
is two-celled, many times only one seed developing.


Climatic Requirements

The olive requires rather warm temperature, light humidity, and absence
of heavy frosts. It can withstand temperatures of -7 to -8 degrees C. or
even lower if not too prolonged, and if the change to higher temperature
be gradual. Moist cold is more unfavorable than dry. The altitude at
which it will grow depends on the local climate. The climate of the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean and that of California are
particularly favorable.


Varieties

The wild olive Oleaster is said to have been the original form, called
by Linnaeus _Olea europaea sylvestris_, later by De Candolle _Olea
europaea oleaster_ and the cultivated form _Olea europaea sativa_. The
reason for this belief is said to be the _oleaster_ seeds reproduce
trees true to type, whereas the seeds of _sativa_ produce trees having
the characteristics of _oleaster_ but, though _oleaster_ under
cultivation becomes modified in various ways, it does not produce fruit
like _sativa_. Whichever form was the original, the subjection to
cultivation for over 4,000 years, under the varying conditions of soil,
climate, and methods of cultivation, has produced many varieties. Many
of these doubtless are the result of accidental modifications, more or
less fixed by successive cultivations. At the present time there are
certain well-defined varieties which are cultivated, and of which the
characteristics are well known, so that varieties may be selected
according to the purpose desired, whether for the preservation of the
fruit green, half ripe, or ripe, or for extraction of oil.

Of the large number of varieties introduced into California, Wickson
reports analyses made by the State university on 57 varieties. Of these
only a comparatively few were retained as worthy of cultivation, chief
among these being the Mission olive, the one planted originally in
California in the old mission gardens. Wickson states there are several
sub-varieties of this form.


Propagation

The olive is propagated by means of seeds, cuttings, grafting, and
budding. Propagation by seeds is seldom done in this country, as it is
so much slower and more troublesome than by cuttings, aside from the
fact that the desired variety may not result. The pulp has to be
removed, which is done usually by allowing the fruit to rot or by
softening with an alkali. Unless removed from the stone, the seed may
not develop for two years, otherwise the seed usually sprouts the first
year.

Propagation by cuttings is the commonest and easiest method, as the
cuttings root readily, and either old or new wood may be used so that
the cuttings may be large or small. Cuttings sent from Europe are
usually in the form of truncheons, and these may be cut into pieces like
firewood and will root.

The story is told of a grove in Morocco in which the trees exhibited a
peculiar arrangement. The reason given for this was that a king and his
army on the way to the Sudan had encamped for the night, and stakes or
pickets to tie the horses had been cut from a grove near by. The pickets
were left and had developed into trees. This seems probable enough when
it is considered that pieces of branches are taken, one end whittled to
a sharp point and driven into the ground, and that these pieces will
take root and develop. An olive company in California has recently
transferred 3000 trees, 26 years old, from San Joaquin County to
Oroville and Marysville. The trunks were sawed off about 18 inches above
the ground, and the roots 12 inches from the stump. In a planting made 6
years previously the same method was used and resulted successfully.

Where trees are found undesirable for some reason, resort is had to
budding or grafting. By these means the undesirable trees are not a
complete loss, and results are obtained sooner. Many times varieties are
obtained from Europe which on developing are not found suited to the
conditions in this country; these plants may be used as stock for
desirable varieties or some desirable variety is obtained which may be
propagated rapidly by these means.

The pruning must be done by persons of understanding, as the fruit is
borne only on the two-year portion of the branches, and provision must
be made

[Illustration: Gathering Olives]

to cut excessive growth in the season of too heavy development and
stimulate in the season of poor development. The pruning thus regulates
the growth of the branches which two years later will control the
production of the fruit.

Pruning of very large branches is sometimes done to admit more light and
heat to the darker, cooler parts of the tree. The small branches thus
provided in turn furnish nursery stock. Pruning is done in late winter
and early spring. From March to October no pruning is done, but the
trees are carefully tended through cultivation, irrigation, and
fertilization.

In California the young stock is set out in the groves in April, and
about 35 feet apart. During the non-bearing period, the land between,
which like all California groves, is kept in good cultivation and free
from weeds, is utilized frequently for other crops.

Though numerous stories are written of the remarkable ability of the
olive tree to grow and bear in exposed situations, and with only small
amounts of soil and water, the olive, like all other fruit trees,
requires both cultivation and an adequate amount of water if a constant
and abundant harvest be desired. As the groves are irrigated, the proper
amount of water may be supplied at all times. The water is conducted
through a system of underground pipes, which are provided with outlets
at the end of each row of trees. From these outlets the water is
directed into furrows to water the trees. As the irrigation is
conducted by underground pipes, the groves are easily cultivated.


Products

It would seem that the olive is rightly and appropriately called the
“Tree of Abundance,” for all parts of it have been used, and to the
ancients, even with their limited cuisine as compared with that of
today, it was a symbol of plenty, witness the apostrophe of King
Sennacherib, made centuries before the Christian era, who called Assyria
“A land of corn and wine; a land of bread and vineyards; a land of oil,
olives, and honey.”


FLOWERS

In ancient medicine the blossoms of the olive were highly esteemed, but
are not mentioned in the medicine of today. They were used as poultices
to alleviate pain, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed with other
substances.


LEAVES

The leaves were also used in medicine, a decoction made from them being
said to stop bleeding, and on account of their astringency to reduce
inflammation. The leaves and bark have an acrid and bitter taste, and
have been prescribed as substitutes for cinchona. In France an extract
of the leaves is used as a febrifuge, and has also been found valuable
in preventing hectic paroxysms.

From time immemorial the leaf and branch have been employed as a symbol
of peace, and have appeared in sculpture and painting. No more
beautiful emblem than the olive branch can be selected or devised to
symbolize both peace and victory, and as such has been known through all
the ages. Egyptian mummies, dating from the 20th to the 26th dynasty,
have been found surrounded by garlands of olive leaves, and the tomb of
the hero of today will oftentimes have its sculptured olive branch,
telling its story and making its appeal stronger than could be made by
words.

Besides serving for esthetic purposes, the leaves, in spite of their
astringency, are eaten by animals as forage, so that the trees have to
be protected from them. It is curious that with all the ravages made by
animals on the olive trees in the neglected mission gardens in
California, after the missionaries had gone, some of these same trees
furnished scions for many of the olive groves of today.


WOOD

The wood of the olive tree is much prized for certain purposes. It is
very close, fine-grained, yellow to yellowish brown with irregular wavy
brown to black lines and mottlings, especially near the root. It has no
distinguishable annual rings or pith rays, and has evenly distributed
vessels. It takes a beautiful polish. At present it is employed chiefly
in lathe-work and carving for small fancy articles, and for cabinet
work.

In ancient times it seems to have had a much wider application, due no
doubt to the size of the trees, which were larger as a result of not
being subjected to the rigorous cultivation and pruning which they
receive today. The Bible states that olive wood was used in the Temple.
In the time of Pliny it furnished material for construction of ships,
for wagon spokes, wedges, columns, pedestals, statues, and furniture.
The Romans used both the wild and cultivated trees. The wood industry
was developed in the vicinity of Nice in both France and Italy, and
still flourishes. A considerable amount has been exported to England in
recent years for the manufacture of walking sticks. The poorer quality
is used for firewood, is inflammable, and produces great heat.


BARK

The bark contains a large amount of tannin. For medicinal purposes it is
reduced to powder and acts as an astringent, a tonic, and a febrifuge.
In warm climates a resin is exuded from it which solidifies in the air.
It is called Lecca gum, as it was first found near Lecca. It contains
some benzoic acid among other constituents and in ancient times was
prescribed in medicine, but is not at present, and the gum is considered
valueless.


FRUIT

The fruit has been considered a choice food at all times. It has
appeared at the feasts of epicures, both ancient and modern, as a
relish, and to be eaten at the end of the repast as part of the dessert,
and at all times it has also furnished a staple food for the poor in the
Orient and in Greek and Latin countries. Those who were well provided
were admonished to have care for those less fortunate: “When thou
beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again; it
shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow.”
(Deuteronomy XXIV., 20.) The people obliged to live frugally have found
it a great resource, particularly in Lent and for those at a distance
from the sea unable to obtain fresh fish. It is said that Plato
preferred olives to all other foods, and often made a meal on them
alone.

Though olives are known and consumed throughout the civilized world,
comparatively few persons, aside from those living in the regions of
their cultivation, know that olives have to undergo certain treatment
before they can be eaten. It is a common practise in olive regions to
encourage the visitor to taste the fruit directly from the tree. The
fruit, both green and black, looks so fine and tempting, that the
disgust on tasting is correspondingly great. It is claimed that some of
the older varieties could be eaten without preparation, that they dried
naturally, and were sweet like raisins.

The olive contains a bitter and acrid substance or substances which must
be removed before the olives are edible. It is referred to in most of
the literature as a “bitter principle”, and has been called an acid, a
tannin, and more recently a glucoside. Cruess has repeated the work of
the various investigators, who claimed these different substances, and
as a result has come to the conclusion that it is a glucoside, that is,
a combination of glucose with another compound.

In immature fleshy fruits there is usually an accumulation of acids,
tannins, and sometimes starch. As ripening proceeds, carbohydrates and
aromatic substances are formed, and the bitter, acrid, or astringent
taste disappears. In the olive there is no starch found at any stage of
maturity. Glucose has been found in all stages, and is supposed to be
the substance from which the oil is formed. The oil is in very minute
quantities in the fruit up to the time when the pit is formed, from then
on it increases gradually up to its maximum when the fruit is not quite
mature. In the plant economy the fat or oil is one of the most important
food reserves of plants. All parts of the fruit--rind, flesh, stone, and
seed--contain oil, the fleshy part, forming about 80% of the fruit,
containing the largest amount.

Contrary to the condition existing in most fruits, the bitterness
remains through all stages of development in the olive. A substance of
glucosidic nature, given the name “oleuropeine”, has been isolated, and
found to be of extreme bitterness. This may be the substance or one of
the substances which cause the inedibility of the untreated olive.

The oil is the most important constituent of the fruit on account of its
high food value and its use in the industries. It is used to a large
extent in cold countries and also in dry countries where there are few
cattle, the oil taking in the various culinary operations, the place of
butter and other fats.

Among the ancient Jews the oil was considered indispensable and as
necessary as bread. An abundance of oil was looked upon as a blessing
from God. Vast public storehouses were constructed to hold it for the
scarce years. To the Greeks the three indispensable foods were oil,
grains, and wine, the oil entering into most of their dishes. The Romans
had a large trade in the oil, and it was also used, to a large extent,
in their domestic cooking. In Italy and Spain street vendors fry
fritters in the oil and sell them while hot. It has considerable use in
conserving fish, particularly sardines. The higher grades of French,
Spanish, Norwegian, and American sardines are packed in olive oil. This
use has been extended in recent years to the packing of tuna fish.

Olive oil occupies a high position as a vegetable fat. Many others have
been prepared and offered as substitutes, and if judged by chemical
composition alone, give practically equal food value, but are lacking in
the delicious flavor which makes olive oil distinctive and gives it a
superiority over all other oils.

The oil is a large factor in the industries; it serves as an extractive
of perfumes, as a constituent of fine, smooth soaps, and as a lubricant
in watch factories. Formerly the lower grades were used commonly for
lubricating purposes, but with improved methods of clarifying and the
greater expense attendant on its use, it has been superseded by cheaper
lubricants.

An enormous quantity has been and is still used in religious ceremonies,
in the ordinations of the clergy and rulers, and anointing in the
sacraments, besides by old world peoples generally in the lamps in the
churches and temples, many of which are kept burning continually. An
idea of the vast amount consumed for this purpose can be obtained from
the fact that in one mosque alone there are 1,200 lamps burning
constantly, and requiring about 25,000 kilos of oil annually.

In medicine it has been and is still used extensively. The ancients
rubbed it on their bodies to make the muscles supple and to cleanse and
protect the skin, particularly after bathing, and it still functions for
these purposes. It was used to heal wounds, in liniments, and as a mild
laxative. At present it is a constituent of liniments, ointments,
cerates, and plasters. The people who are habitual patrons of the olive
and its oil are noted for their smooth, beautiful complexions. It is
said “the warm rosy complexion of the Italian and Sicilian women is due
to the free use of olive oil as much as to the air and climate of their
country.”

The residue or marc which remains after the oil is extracted is used as
a food for sheep and hogs, for fertilizer, and for fuel, and there is
obtained from it a clear, illuminating gas.




PREPARATION OF FRUIT


Foreign

In the early preparation of olives in order to remove the bitterness,
they were soaked in water, which was renewed from time to time,
sometimes hot water being used. The olives, after draining, were then
held in brine. The green olives as well as the mature and black were
used.

The Romans exercised the greatest care in their preparation, and
introduced refinements, by not only removing the bitterness, but by
causing them to acquire various flavors through infusion in solutions
containing aromatic substances.

One of their methods for the preparation of green olives consisted in
adding roasted salt to the olives after a preliminary soaking in hot
water, then covering them with grape must, boiled wine, or honey water,
and to this solution were added fennel, mint, and lentiscus seed. Fennel
was used as a tampon to keep the olives immersed. A simpler method was
to use vinegar with the brine. Sometimes the olives were beaten to
facilitate the action, but this caused discoloration, which was avoided
by making cuts in them. The brine was replaced by oil as a preserving
liquid. Another method was to put the olives with the aromatics in the
brine at the start, then they were removed, crushed lightly, and put in
a mixture of oil, vinegar, and honey, to which were added leek, celery,
mint, and sometimes rue. The rue was supposed to be most efficacious in
bringing out the natural flavor, and was most prized. The mature olives
were first put in brine for 30 to 40 days, then put in the preserving
liquid with the aromatics. Olives prepared in the ways indicated were
known as “Colymbades”.

A form of conserve made by the ancients, and to which the name
“Epityrum” was given, consisted in taking green, mature, or black fruit,
though, as in the former, the green were preferred, and drying them in
the shade, after which they were put in baskets, and crushed in a press.
The crushed fruit was then put in vessels, sprinkled with salt, and had
mixed with it lentiscus seed and minced leaves of fennel and rue, and
was finally covered with oil.

Many recipes have been left by the ancients, the preparations varying as
to time, strength of solutions, mixtures of spices, etc. To the recipes
of Palladius (1518-1580) is owed the knowledge that the Romans were
cognizant of and used lye solutions, though this is supposed to be a
modern practise. In this particular recipe sifted ashes are indicated as
one of the ingredients, and it is supposed that this recipe, changed in
detail, furnished the basis for present day methods. The use of wood
ashes was introduced into France by an Italian refugee named Picholini,
who settled in Provence, devoting himself to the preparation and sale of
preserved olives. The olives preserved according to his process are
called “olives a la Picholine”. Previous to his time the preparation in
southern France consisted of crushing the olives lightly, immersing in
clear water, which was renewed each day for about nine days, then
preserving in brine. This latter process is still employed for the
olives in which appearance is not an asset. For the more carefully
prepared ones, the method was to pick by hand when the olives had
attained full development, then they were carefully sorted, and immersed
in lye, the duration in the lye depending on the size of the fruit, and
the concentration of the lye. They were removed from the lye when the
flesh was penetrated to, and readily detached from, the stone.

There are many variations of the lye treatment. In the olive countries
the preparation is done in the homes as well as in factories, and it is
in the homes, naturally, that the greatest variations occur. Lime is
often used with the ashes, one formula consisting of the olives mixed
with a paste of wood ashes and freshly slaked lime. In the ordinary
methods, however, a solution is made of the sifted ashes and lime,
sometimes sodium carbonate taking the place of the ashes. In the
ordinary factory preparations both ashes and lime are omitted, and
either caustic soda or potash used. When removed from the lye, the
olives are put in clear water, changed night and morning for three or
four days, then put in brine.

The early accounts of olive preparation show quite conclusively that
great variation in strength of the caustic solution was inevitable, but
fortunately the tendency to err was on the weaker side. It was not until
the modern introduction of caustic preparations of soda and potash that
standardization of the process was possible. Even with this possibility
the practise remains largely empirical and is based upon the experience
of the operator. Some still adhere to the use of weak solutions, taking
considerable time to act upon the olive, whereas others use relatively
strong solutions so as to hasten the process.

The brine used has been subject to quite as marked variation as the lye.
A weak brine has been used in order to encourage the natural
fermentation of the fruit, which corresponds to the fermentation in our
cucumber pickles. The other extreme is represented by the use of a very
strong brine which practically inhibited all fermentative change and
this same brine was filtered and used a succeeding season. Every
gradation between these extremes has been in common use. As might be
expected, more or less of the fruit softened and underwent changes which
at present would be regarded as decomposition or rotting rather than as
clean, normal fermentation. The esthetic side of olive preparation has
not always been of the highest order, though, as in the case of many
other foods, very great improvement has been wrought in recent years.

Even with the later methods the use of aromatic substances has not been
abandoned, and many of these are used, such as bay leaves, cloves,
coriander, cumin, mint, orange skin, fennel, etc., the amounts and
combinations varying greatly. Sometimes the aromatics are first
extracted, the solution concentrated, and a quantity of this solution
added to the brine, or they are boiled in the brine at the start, then
removed, and when the brine is cooled, it is ready for use.

In Spain the ripe olives are not treated ordinarily with lye, but by the
slower process of soaking in water. The black olives, gathered late in
the year, are cured in a salt brine to which black pepper is added.
After the bitterness is removed, they are preserved in oil.

A process used at present for ripe olives which is very simple but
effective, is to mix fine salt with them after they have been cleaned
and sorted. They are stirred twice a day, and through the osmotic action
of the salt, a dark-colored juice is exuded which contains, among other
constituents, the substance causing the bitterness. To hasten the action
the olives are pierced with a needle. The Spaniards vary this method by
adding aromatics, as wild marjoram, thyme, fennel seed, anise seed,
garlic, laurel leaves, etc., at the same time as the salt. The special
spice mixtures are held as trade secrets by the manufacturers.

When the bitterness has been removed, the olives are washed, dried
lightly, and placed in casks or jars until required. Before being served
the olives are soaked in oil.

One style of Greek packing of ripe olives is of special excellence. Sour
wine is added to the pickle to accentuate the flavor and the product is
packed in oil. The olives are plump, tender, and brilliant, and possess
a very rich flavor.

In parts of Southern Europe certain kinds of olives are left on the
trees to become very ripe, and are then dried in the sun without any
preparation. These are only used locally as they are lacking in the fine
flavor of the prepared olive.

In the preparation of the olive, both green and ripe, during all these
centuries, there had been no attempt at sterilization. The olive was
preserved by partial drying, by the action of salt, and by its
spontaneous fermentation in pickle in which certain desirable forms of
organisms had the ascendency. With the good fruit thus prepared, there
must have been considerable which was spoiled, and yet no illness is
known to have resulted.

Though olives have figured so largely in the alimentation of southern
Europe, the oil particularly being so important and general a food, the
people of northern Europe have not esteemed either to an important
extent. With the crude methods in vogue for transporting the oil, and
the lack of understanding as to its nature, it is supposed that their
apathetic attitude was due to its being received in poor condition.

In England also, though so close to the olive growing districts, the
olive has not been used to any considerable extent, judging from its
absence from menus and from their cookery. In examining old cookery
books it was surprising to find no mention of olives. In Russel’s “Boke
of Nurture” and Mrs. Napier’s “Noble Boke off Cookry” the manuscripts
dating from the 15th century, there is no mention of olives, though
there are condiments and spices from foreign countries used in sauces
and other preparations. Neither is there any mention of olives in “The
Closet of Sir Kenelm Digby Opened” written in the 17th century, though
Digby had traveled much and lived on the continent. The earliest mention
in 17 cookery books, published in the 17th and 18th centuries is the
following, published in 1745, and which is really a translation of a
French work by L. Lemery, physician to the King, and member of the Royal
Academy. It is interesting in showing the many virtues attributed to
olives.


     =“OF OLIVES”=

     “You ought to chuse such as are large, pulpy, well preserv’d and
     tasted, and those that have been cultivated in hot Countries.

     They create an Appetite, fortify the Stomach, dissolve and expell
     the viscous and gross Humours fix’d there, repress Reachings, and
     are a little nourishing.

     They produce no ill Effects, unless they are us’d to excess.

     They contain much Oil, Phlegm, and essential Salt.

     They agree in cold Weather with any Sort of Age and Constitution,
     provided they are good, and well preserv’d.”


=Remarks=

“_Olives_ are oblong or oval and juicy Fruits, larger or smaller,
according to the Country they grow in: Care must be taken to gather
them before they are ripe, and then they have a harsh bitter Taste not
to be endured, because their salts are clogg’d and swallow’d up by the
earthy and gross Parts.

_Olives_ are preserv’d with Water and Salt, and then they become
pleasing to the Taste; the Reason is, because the Liquor of Brine causes
a little Fermentation in the _Olives_, by the Help thereof the Salts
free themselves by degrees of the earthy Parts that do retain them; and
afterwards with more Lightness and Delicacy prick the nervous Fibres of
the Tongue.

“The Brine produces another good Effect in the _Olives_; for by its
saline Parts it stops up the Pores of this Fruit, and prevents the Air
from ent’ring too much into it, and thereby cause a considerable
Fermentation therein, which destroys the Fruit, and soon rots them.

_Olives_ well preserv’d create an Appetite, by gently pricking the Sides
of the Stomach, not only by their acid Salts, but also by those
communicated to them by the Pickle. They also bind up and fortify the
Stomach by their earthy Parts, which swallow up the over-abounding
Moistures that relax the Fibres of that Part.

The _Picholines_ are _Olives_ cut in several Places, and then steep’d in
Pickle; they are sooner in a Condition to be eaten than others, because
that by the Help of the Incision made in them, the Brine or Pickle is
sooner and more effectually communicated to their whole Substance.

Oil of _Olives_ is much us’d in Ailments; it’s of a qualifying,
mollifying, anodine, dissolving and detersive Nature, good for the
Cholic and Bloody-flux, and is prepar’d in this Manner.

They get together in _November_ or _December_, a great Quantity of full
ripe _Olives_, and lay them by for a Time in some Corner of the House,
where they are heated, and thereby become purified of their watry
Moisture; then they grind them in a Mill, and put them into Rush or Palm
Frails, plac’d on the Top of one another Pressways, and the first Oil
that comes from them, is called _Virgin’s Oil_.

They sprinkle the _Olives_ with warm water, and by pressing them a-new,
and still the more, there comes a good Oil from them.

This done, they stir the _Olives_ again, and sprinkle them with hot
Water, from which, thus order’d, there proceeds another Oil full of
Dregs, and not so good as the rest.

These Oils are easily separated from the Water, because they swim a top,
but they find a Kind of Lees to the Bottom, which the Ancients called
_Amurca_.

Those _Olives_ of which you design to make Oil, must ripen ’till they
are even rotten; and the Reason is, because the sulphurous Parts in them
have had Time to disengage themselves from those gross Principles, which
before fix’d them, which we know by the sweetish and oily Taste that
then they had. They also let them ferment for some time before they
press them, that so those sulphurous Parts may free themselves, and be
more fully separated from the watry and saline Parts, with which they
were united in the Fruits. Here it is to be observ’d that you cannot
extract a Drop of Oil from green olives, but only a viscous Juice,
because their oily Principles are very strictly united with their other
Principles.

The Leaves of the _Olive-Tree_ are astringent, and fit for to stop the
Bleeding of the Nose, and Looseness.

There are certain wild _Olive-Trees_ that grow near the Red-Sea, from
which there sweats out a Gum that stops Blood, and cures Wounds.

The _Olive-Tree_ in Latin called _Olea_, comes from the _Greek_ Word
_elaia_ which also signifies the same Thing.”

       *       *       *       *       *

A later work, “The Lady’s Assistant” published in 1778, gives a much
better idea of how little they were used at that time in England.

                   OLIVES

     “OLIVES are the fruits of trees, which grow wild in the warmer
     parts of Europe; we have them in some of our gardens; but with us
     they will not ripen to any perfection.

     There are three kinds, the Italian, Spanish, and French; we have
     them therefore of various sizes and flavors; some prefer one, and
     some the other.

     The fine sallad oil, as has been before mentioned, is made from
     this fruit, for which purpose they are gathered ripe; but for
     pickling they are gathered when half-ripe, at the latter end of
     June: they are put into fresh water to soak for two days; after
     this they throw them into lime-water in which some pearl-ashes have
     been dissolved: they lie in this liquor six-and-thirty hours; then
     they are thrown into water which has had bay-salt dissolved in it:
     this is the last preparation, and they are sent over to us in this
     liquor: they are naturally as they grow on the tree very bitter,
     and therefore require all these preparations to bring them to their
     fine flavor. To some olives they add a small quantity of essence of
     spices, which is an oil drawn from cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon,
     coriander and sweet-fennel seed distilled together for that
     purpose: twelve drops are enough for a bushel of olives: some
     prefer them flavored with this essence, but others like them best
     plain.”

At present the use of aromatic substances commercially is not large. It
is contended that consumers cannot use flavored olives in sauces or
other preparations so freely, as extraneous flavors are introduced which
in some cases are undesirable, the unflavored olive permitting greater
freedom in use.

For the preparation of the green olives “a la Sevillane,” the fruit is
first treated with alkali, then washed in clear water, after which it is
put into 2 or 3 per cent boiled brine, where after a time fermentation
starts, which imparts a slight lactic acid taste to the fruit. It is
then washed in water, graded for size, and put in barrels with a 5 or 6%
salt, when they are ready for consumption.

The half ripe olives are put in a boiled brine of 12 to 15% for six
days, after which they are washed in running water and then put in jars
in a 6 to 8% brine with a bay leaf and a sprig of thyme and fennel.
Olives prepared in this way are called “a la Provencale.” A variation on
this method, called “a la Madrilene” is to put the olives in barrels,
after the preliminary salting and washing, in 10% brine with red
pimiento, pepper corns, laurel, thyme, and tomato purée.

The black olives are gathered at the time of the change in color, and
put in water, renewed every 12 hours, until the bitterness has
disappeared, which requires 40 to 50 days, sometimes even longer. They
are then put into brine.

The large olive “La Tanche” after sorting and cleaning is put directly
into a 10 to 15% brine in wooden casks or cement tanks which hold from
4,000 to 6,000 kilos. When the bitterness has been abstracted, they are
ready for sale. The brine is decanted and held until the following year.

To prepare them so that they may be ready for sale sooner, the fruit is
run over a roller provided with fine points which perforate the skin,
after which the olives are put in layers and sprinkled generously with
salt. They are stirred frequently, and when they “sweat,” they are put
in barrels with pepper corns and bay leaves, or in jars with olive oil
and condiments, or they may be put in jars without any addition as they
are preserved by their own oil and the absorbed salt.

The methods of preparation cited are those used for olives consumed in
foreign countries, very few thus prepared being imported, as they are
known only to olive connoisseurs.


Imported Green Olives

Nearly all the green olives used in this country come from Spain and are
generally known as “Queen olives.” In years of shortage a few come from
Italy, Greece, and France. They are hand picked, cleaned, treated in the
usual way with lye, and washed, but during this process care is
exercised to prevent them being exposed to the air as it is desired to
retain the green color. They are then graded for size and quality and
placed in huge casks or “pipes” with sufficient brine to cover them.
The “pipes” are exposed to the sun to favor the fermentation which
requires six weeks or more, depending upon the temperature. During the
fermentation, the olives change slowly from deep green to golden. The
pipes hold from 160 to 180 gallons and are used for shipping the olives
to this country. Ten per cent brine is used for filling the casks, but
the brine weakens during the curing and is usually 7 or 7-1/2% at the
finish.

The Queen olives are hand graded for size on the basis of the number per
kilo. The following grades are made:


                             QUEEN OLIVES

                                 60-70
                                 70-80
                                 80-90
                                90-100
                               100-110
                               110-120
                               120-130
                               130-140
                               140-150
                               150-160
                               160-180
                               180-200
                               200-220

They are also graded for quality, as: “prime” or “first quality,”
“seconds,” and “Queen culls.” Only the first and second grade are sent
to this country though all sizes are, but there is no designation by
which the consumer may obtain a desired size. The term Queen olive may
mean those having only 60 to the kilo or those with 220 to the kilo.

Some green olives are packed in tins and shipped to this country and a
comparatively few are brought in bottles. The importers prefer to
purchase the olives in bulk and pack according to their trade
requirements, under the sanitary conditions imposed in this country
rather than those found abroad. The olives are transferred from the
pipes to bottles and either supplied with fresh brine or the brine from
the pipe is carefully filtered and only such addition made as needed to
make up the difference. The use of the original liquor gives a decidedly
better flavor, though it is often sacrificed in order to get one which
is perfectly clear.

The green olive is retailed almost wholly in glass, either in fancy hand
packed packages or in pint and quart jars. Many attempts have been made
to create a sale in tin containers, but without success as there are
decided advantages in being able to see the size and quality. Seeing the
fruit no doubt frequently suggests its use and purchase. A few olives
are still retailed in bulk but they soon become covered with yeast and
other organisms, and have an unattractive appearance.

The origin of the stuffed olive is of very recent date, but by whom
originated is not quite clear. According to an authority[1] on Spanish
olives, stuffed olives were unknown before 1893-4. It was in 1895 that
Señor Picasa, the general manager of the Sevilla Packing Company, had
seen olives stuffed with pimientos in Spain, and in the following year
introduced them into the United States, the company packing them under
the copyrighted name of “Pimola.” In 1897, a Spanish house packed
pepper-stuffed olives, and later on other firms also, among the latter
many American firms. As the pimiento is grown and prepared in Spain, and
labor cheaper there than here, the industry has been practically
transferred to that country.

 [1.] H. C. Newcomb, former vice-consul to Spain.

The operation of stuffing consists in removing the pit and filling the
cavity with some other substance, particularly pimiento, these forming
the bulk of the stuffed olive trade. The bright red of the latter gives
a pleasing contrast with the green, and the mild pungency is very
agreeable to many persons. Pickled celery, capers, etc., have been used,
but were not so favorably received, and at present, the substances used
to any extent, aside from the pimiento, are Manzanillos stuffed with
pieces of Queens, and some stuffed with anchovies for the South American
trade. Pitting machines have been devised, and also machines for
stuffing the olives, but the work done by the stuffing machines is crude
as compared with hand work. The olives used for stuffing are the
Manzanillo which are smaller than the Queen. The sizes are as follows:

                         MANZANILLO (Stuffed)

                                180-200
                                200-220
                                220-240
                                240-260
                                260-280
                                280-300
                                300-320
                                320-340
                                340-360

They are packed in barrels of about 45 gallons capacity, and like the
Queen, are repacked into individual containers in this country.

A few olives are packed with a mince of capers, anchovies, truffles,
etc., and the olives preserved in oil. A few are also packed for
garnishing, in which cubes are cut out and the spaces filled with bright
peppers.


Domestic

In California the commercially prepared olives are practically all ripe,
only a very limited quantity of green ones being prepared. Since the
olives, even on the same tree, ripen at various periods, three pickings
are made during the season, when olives well colored and of an equal
degree of ripeness are taken. In excessively ripe olives, the skin
toughens, and the fruit is difficult to pickle. The trees are pruned so
as to keep them low enough to be reached by the harvesters on step
ladders, in order that all picking may be done by hand. The picked fruit
is taken to a central point to be filled into boxes or barrels, for
transportation to the factory. For the best grades of olives, particular
care is taken during this part of the work to avoid bruising the fruit,
which is picked into canvas bags, pails, etc., then poured into barrels
partly filled with water, so that the water will furnish a cushion for
the fruit. The olives are transported to the factory in these barrels.
These precautions are taken as bruised spots soften and become black,
and the resulting processed fruit will not be of first quality. Many

[Illustration: Sorting Olives for Size by Machine]

growers deliver fruit dry in lug boxes, but bruising and crushing are
liable to occur during transportation. The fruit is delivered into a
hopper filled with water, then from the hopper into boxes where the
fruit is drained. The fruit is delivered in the factory to be first
sorted which is done on a moving belt, and here all stems and defective
fruit are removed as the fruit is carried slowly past the workers who
sit or stand on either side. In some factories the sorting is done after
the fruit is pickled, but is much more difficult due to the change in
color

[Illustration: Sorting Olives for Quality by Hand]

through the action of the lye and of oxidation. The fruit is next passed
to the grader, which separates the various sizes. From the grader the
three largest sizes are each delivered to a moving belt to be sorted for
color, degree of ripeness, and culls, as the curing must be modified to
suit the particular degree of ripeness, a crisp firm olive requiring a
heavier treatment than does a riper, softer-textured one. The olives as
sorted, are passed to small side belts, which thus deliver fruit uniform
in size and color to the receiving boxes. Great care is taken in the
sorting of olives, different varieties are not mixed, nor even fruit of
the same variety but from different localities. In grading for size by
machine, 1/16 of an inch is the variation between each size and the
next; those less than 10/16 are removed to be used for other purposes.
When the minimum is due to the variety and not to stunting, the fruit
may be pickled, because aside from the larger proportion of pit, the
flavor is equal to that of the large fruit. Usually the smaller olives
were used for oil, but more recently are used for relishes and sauces.
The sizes upon which the different grades are made are based upon the
short diameter of the fruit, and have been adopted by the California
Olive Association:

                  Number      Diam. in
      Grade       per lb.      inches
  Standard       120-135      10/16-11/16
  Medium         105-120      11/16
  Large           90-105      12/16
  Extra Large      75-90      13/16
  Mammoth          65-75      13.5/16
  Giant            55-65      14/16
  Jumbo            45-55      15/16
  Colossal         35-45      16/16

The olives are placed in an alkaline solution, usually sodium hydrate as
it is stronger in action than potassium hydrate. The strength varies
with the different packers but is generally in the neighborhood of
1-1/2%. After 6 to 8 hours, the lye is drawn off and the olives exposed
to the air in order that they may oxidize and darken, since the lye
removes some of the natural color. The operation is repeated with the
same strength or less of lye solution and the fruit exposed to the air
until examination of the pulp shows that the lye has penetrated to the
pit. The lye solution is then replaced with clear water which is changed
twice a day, until the lye and bitterness are removed, which requires
from 4 to 8 days. The olives are then treated with brine solutions,
starting with 1%, and increasing the strength at intervals of about 2
days until about 4% is used, when they are ready to be put in glass jars
or cans and sealed.

The brine is used very weak at the start and gradually increased so that
the osmotic action may be so controlled as not to cause the fruit to
shrivel as it would if placed in a strong solution at the start. Some
packers permit the olives to stay in the weak brine long enough for
fermentation to take place as done with the imported green olives so as
to develop an acid flavor. The more recent tendency, however, is toward
packing them with the least possible change, and to depend upon the
distinctive natural flavor of the fruit itself. A similar tendency
toward retaining the natural color, rather than that induced by
oxidation, might be advantageous.

If it be the intent to hold the olives in bulk, they are treated with
increasingly strong brines until 10

[Illustration: Curing Vats]

to 12-1/2% is used, the latter amount being required to carry them
safely through the summer.

The process is modified in practise to suit the conditions, as
variations in varieties of fruit, in temperature, and in the lye have to
be considered. There are also variations in practise due to individual
experience. During the time the olives are in the various solutions they
are stirred frequently, so as to change their position in the vats, and
also to change the solution in contact with them. The stirring was, and
is done yet in some cases, by hand, with wooden paddles, which is
laborious besides causing more or less damage to the fruit. Recently
compressed air has been piped to the vats and directed into the
solutions with sufficient force to keep the olives agitated. This method
is said to hasten the action of the lye solutions with consequent
improvement in the fruit. It also obviates the drawing off the solutions
and the exposure of the fruit to the air, as a certain amount of
oxidation takes place in the solution.

As the operators place the olives in the bottles or cans, the soft and
defective ones are discarded. The containers are then filled with a 3%
brine at a temperature of 175 or 180 degrees F. The air is exhausted,
during which the temperature is raised to 185 degrees, and the
containers sealed, after which they are processed. The large olives in a
26 ounce glass jar are cooked for 50 minutes; extra large, 55 minutes;
mammoth, 58 minutes; and colossal 60 minutes; at 240 degree F. in some
factories, or for a longer period if processed at a lower temperature.

The time required for heat to penetrate to the center of an olive is
longer than has been generally supposed. This was determined by
carefully drilling into the pit, first with a fine drill and then with
increasingly larger ones, until an eighth inch hole was made. The bulb
of a small thermometer was inserted, and to prevent heat being carried
to the bulb by means of the glass stem, sections of olives were placed
around the stem immediately above the olive being tested, and tied
securely. Jumbo olives at room temperature placed directly in a boiling
bath required on an average fourteen and one-half minutes for the
temperature to reach 209 degrees F., which is practically the maximum
which can be attained under the conditions. When the olive was placed in
cold water and the bath heated rapidly under conditions similar to home
canning, the average time required to reach 209 degrees F. was 29
minutes. The former experiment represents a more favorable condition for
heat penetration than prevails in factory operations, and the latter
probably the least favorable, but both show that in the ordinary process
all parts of the olive do not reach the high temperature supposed to be
produced by that of the bath for more than a few minutes.

At the University of California ripe olives have been canned without
brine. After pickling, the olives have been placed in 3% brine for
several days, then heated in the brine to about 180 degrees F. after
which they are taken from the brine, put in the bottles or cans, sealed,
and processed. No shrinking, wrinkling, softening, nor change in color
is said to take place. By the elimination of the brine in the container,
there results a saving in freight of 31.5% with cans and 16.6% with
bottles.

The history of the olive and its method of preparation show that no
organisms pathogenic to man are normally present and that if such
organisms be associated with it in any way, it must be from the outside
and through local infection.

More care is required in processing at high temperatures, than at
boiling. A high internal pressure is developed inside the cans or jars,
due to the expansion of the contents and of the enclosed gases, which
has a tendency to loosen or blow off the covers. This tendency may be
overcome by applying air or water pressure on the outside of the cans or
jars to counteract that generated within. This is done while they are
inside the retort and by means of automatic pressure controllers. There
is no essential difference in the sterilizing and cooling of tin cans
and glass jars, both forms of containers are responsive to treatment
with high temperatures and both require proper care and handling. As
with pickled olives, however, glass jars permit the purchaser to see the
size and the condition of the fruit.

The canning of ripe olives in California was originated by F. T.
Bioletti, zymologist in the University of California, and came about
through an

[Illustration: Packing Olives in Jars]

investigation in 1889 on the spoiling of olives. When pickled olives
were held, the quality deteriorated in some of them, they softened
during the summer, and seldom remained in an edible condition for a
year. As a result of his experiments on methods of keeping, he found
that the olives could be sterilized in sealed containers and be kept in
edible condition indefinitely. The commercial application of the method
and the popularizing of the ripe olive is due to Mrs. Freda Ehmann, a
pioneer olive grower, who applied scientific methods, with marked
success, to both the development and canning of the olive.

The sustained scientific work along developmental and preserving lines
in this country, has been done mainly by Wickson, Bioletti, and Cruess
of the state university staff to whom great credit is due for the
advancement made. Many improvements have naturally been made by
manufacturers in the preparation of the ripe olive but are held by the
factories for their own use solely.

Recently Cruess has developed methods for treating the ripe olive with
aerated hot solutions which have permitted the preliminary treatments to
be done in 3 to 6 days, instead of as formerly in 3 to 6 weeks. The
methods promise to be of great economic value, and have been patented
for the benefit of the public.

The olives which are too small or misshapen to be used in the regular
pack are sometimes used for other purposes besides oil extraction in
which size and appearance are not factors. The flesh is ground and
seasoned and thus furnishes a mixture for relishes and sandwich filling,
or the flesh is mixed with pickled cucumbers, capers, pimiento, tomato,
etc., in various combinations for the same purposes or to flavor sauces.
The appetizing ways in which olives may be used alone or in combination,
and the attractive dishes which can be prepared from them are endless.

A preparation which has considerable vogue with lovers of ripe olives is
to take the olives from the brine some hours before using and cover
them with olive oil. This preparation may be further enhanced by rubbing
the dish before using, with a cut clove of garlic. The use of aromatics
in the preliminary preparation, then packing in oil, as done by the
Greeks, Italians, and Spaniards, with some of their best olives, produce
very fine products that are far ahead, in both flavor and food value, of
the ordinary preparations.

The olive, though used almost exclusively as a relish or appetizer in
this country, is a valuable food. This is true for both the green and
the ripe, the difference in the two not being so great as is frequently
claimed. The pickled green olive has supplanted the cucumber pickle to a
very considerable extent in the trade. The canned ripe olive is
distinctive and depends upon an entirely different quality for its
favor. As long as the present prices prevail, they can not be considered
on the basis of staples or in competition with many other foods in
furnishing nutritive elements.

The flesh of the American olive consists of about 80 per cent of the
fruit, and of this the solids average 38 per cent, oil 25 per cent, and
protein 1.2 per cent.

In spite of the fact that olives have been used as a food from time
immemorial, very little systematic analytic work seems to have been done
on the whole fruit in the various stages of maturity and in determining
the effect of the various treatments for the removal of the bitterness.
Much of the analytic work has been devoted to analyses of the oil and
to methods for determining adulteration. The methods followed in this
country and abroad are not the same and the results are therefore not
comparable. It seems strange that so old and so commercially important a
fruit has not been investigated to the minutest detail.

It is stated that the olive on reaching full size increases in weight
and oil content as it matures, the various stages being approximately
determined by the change in color from green to yellow, red, and finally
black. When, however, one finds analyses of typical fruit of one variety
and from the same place which show the flesh of the green olive to
contain 23.55 per cent; yellowish green, 20.37 per cent; red, 27.35 per
cent; and purple to black, 24.89 per cent oil, it discounts the color
value. Other available analyses show similar discrepancies between the
chemical composition and the color test as indicative of maturity.
Variation in composition occurs in the same variety of fruit grown in
different places as well as in the different varieties and, as with
other fruits, one is dependent upon the skill of the packer in selecting
raw stock and in handling it in the process of manufacture, for the
quality of the article received. It is only natural to expect that a
product containing so much oil and subjected to the action of lye, might
be greatly changed during its preparation. The data available, however,
does not sustain this premise, but shows that very little change
actually takes place.




LITERATURE


Andran, H. M.==>Les conserves des petits menages.

Armstrong, E. F.==>The simple carbohydrates and the glucosides, 1912.

D’Aygalliers, P. D.==>L’olivier et l’huile d’olive, 1900.

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