held  high  rank  in  Teutonic  society ;  and  it  was  natural
that  a  portion  of  this  credit  should  fall  upon  the  player
and  buffoon.  With  the  advance  of  time,  we  find
several  species  of  their  craft  established  as  indispens-
able members  of  medieval  society.  It  must,  moreover,
be  remembered  that  all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  in
spite  of  prevalent  orthodoxy  and  the  commanding
power  of  the  Church,  a  spirit  survived  from  the  old
heathen  past,  antagonistic  to  the  principles  of  Christian
morality,  which  we  may  describe  as  naturalism  or  as
paganism  according  to  our  liking.  This  spirit  was  at
home  in  the  castles  of  the  nobles  and  in  the  companies
of  wandering  students.  It  invaded  the  monasteries,
and,  in  the  person  of  Golias,  took  up  its  place  beside
the  Abbot's  chair.  The  '  Carmina  Vagorum '  and  some
of  the  satires  ascribed  to  Walter  Mapes  sufficiently
illustrate  the  genius  of  these  pagans  in  the  Middle
Ages.  The.  j'oculaiores,  whom  the  Church  had  banned,
became  in  course  of  time  jongleurs  and  jugglers.  To
them  we  owe  t]\e.fabliaux.  Meanwhile  the  ministeriales,
or  house-servants  of  the  aristocracy,  took  the  fairer
name  of  minstrels.  Lyric  poetry  rose,  in  the  new
dialects  of  the  Romance  nations,  to  a  place  of  honour
through  the  genius  of  troubadours  and  trouveres,  who
were  recognised  as  lineal  descendants  from  mimi  and
histriones.  Taillefer  himself,  who  led  the  van  on  Senlac
field,  tossing  his  sword  into  the  air  and  singing  Roland,
is  thus  described  by  Guy  of  Amiens  in  verses  which
retain  the  old  prejudice  against  the  class  of  players  :

Histrio,  cor  audax  nimium  quem  nobilitabat  .  ..
Incisor-ferri  mimus  cognomine  dictus.
